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Cwpclopaetna 3Srttanntca
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
3IUujitrate!j toRb nearlg sir bunbteb (JBngratitnga.
/
VOL. XII.
INDOCTI discant; ament meminisse periti.
EDINBURGH:
Printed at the Encyclopedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
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Encyclopedia Britannica.
L I E
Liege. T formerly a bifliopric of Germany, in the
■■ ’v' "'J JLi circle of Weftphalia ; bounded to the north by
Brabant, to the fouth by Champagne and Luxemburg,
to the eaft by Limburg and Juliers, and to the weft by
Brabant, Namur, and Hainault. It is very unequal
both in length and breadth j the former being in fome
places above 90 miles, in others not half fo much j and
the latter in fome places 45, in others hardly 25. The
air here is very temperate j and the foil fruitful in
corn, wine, wood, and pafture. Here alfo are mines
of lead and iron, pits of coal, quarries of marble and
ftone, and fome celebrated mineral waters, as thofe
of Spa and Chau-fontanie. The principal rivers are,
the Maes and Sambre. 1 he manufactures and com¬
modities of the country are chiefly beer, arms, nails,
ferge, leather, with the produ&s we have juft men¬
tioned. The ftates of the bifliopric are compofed of
three bodies : the firft is the chapter of Liege ; the
fecond, the nobility of the country j and the third, the
deputies of the capital and the other towns. The
_ three eftates are feldom called together, except to
yaife taxes for the fervice of the province, or upon
forae particular emergency j but there is a committee
of the ftates, who meet thrice a-week, and in time of
war daily. They are always about the prince-bilhop,
to. make remonftrances, and demand the redrefs of
grievances. The bilhop is fpiritual and temporal lord
of the whole country ; but, as hilhop, is fuffragan to
the archbi(hop of Cologne. He ftyles himfelf, fa/ the
grace of God, bijhop and prince of Liege, duke of Bouil-
hn, marquis of Franchimont, count of Loons, Hoorn, &c.
His arms for Liege are, a pillar argent, on a pedeftai
of the fame, with a crown or, in a field ruby. In the
matricula he was formerly rated at 50 horfe and 170
loot •, or 1 280 florins monthly, in lieu of them, but
now only at 826 An abatement of one-third has alfo
been granted of the ancient affeffment to the chamber-
court, which was 360 rix dollars 6z\ kruitzers for each
term. Here are feveral colleges which fit at Liege, for
the government of the country, and the decifion of
cauies, civil, criminal, fpiritual, and feudal, and of
filch alfo as relate to the finances. Th® chapter con-
fifts of 60 perfons, who muft either prove their nobility
ior four generations, both by father and mother, be¬
fore they can be admitted $ or, if they cannot do that,
muft at lead have been doftors or licentiates of divi¬
nity for feven years, or, of law, for five years, in fome
lamous univerfity. The bifliopric is very populous
L I E
and extenfive, containing 1500 parilhes, in which ara £•
24 walled towns, befides others, 52 baronies, befides
counties and feignories, 17 abbeys for men, who
muft be all gentlemen^ and 11 for ladies, exelufive
of others.
Liege, the capital of the bifliopric of the fame
name, (lands upon the Maes, in a fine valley fur-
rounded with woods and hills, being a free imperial
city, and one of the largeft and moft eminent in Europe,
fhough it is 100 miles from the fea by water, the
Maes is navigable up to it. The city has 16 gates;
17 bridges, fome of them very handfome ; 154 ftretts,
many of them ftraight and broad ; a fine epifeopai
palace ; a very large (lately cathedral, in which, be¬
fides five great filver coffers full of relics, are feveral
filver (latues of faints, and a St George on horfeback
of maffy gold, prefented to the cathedral by Charles
the Bold, by way of atonement for ufing the inhabit¬
ants c uellv in the year 1468. Of the other churches,
thofc of St ^aul is the moil remarkable, both for its
ftru£lure and fine ornaments in painting and marble.
The city is well fortified, and there are alfo two
caftles on the mountain of the Holy Walburg for its
defence. Befides a great number of other convents of
both fexes, here is a college of Englifli Jefuits, found¬
ed in the year 1616, and a fine nunnery of Englilh
ladies. Indeed, churches, convents, and other reli¬
gious foundations, take up the greater part of it.
The reader, therefore, no doubt, will take it for
granted, that it is a moft bleffed, holy, and happy
city. But however it may fare with the profane, un¬
hallowed laity, it is certainly the paradife of priefts,
as it is exprefsly called, by way of eminence. It is
divided into the old and new, or the upper and lower ;
and the latter again into the ifland, and the quarter
beyond the Maes. The houfes are high, and built
of bluilh marble. In the town and fuburbs are 12
public places or fquares, 10 hofpitals, a beguin-houfe,
and two fine quays, planted with feveral rows of trees,
for the burghers to take the air ; but a great part of
that within the walls is taken up with orchards and
vineyards. The manufa<ftures of this city are arms,
nails, leather, lerge, and beer. In St William’s
convent, without the city, is the tomb of the famous
Englifli traveller Sir John Mandeville, with an inferip.
tion in barbarous French, requefting thofe who read it
to pray for his foul. Near it are kept the faddle,
fpurs, and knife, that he made ufe of in his travels.
A After
LIE [2
After having feen mod of the cities of any note in the
world, he made choice of this to fpend the eve of his
life in. A little way from the city, on the other fide
of the Maes, Hands the epifcopal palace ot Seraing, in
which the biihops generally refide during the fummer.
The population is edimated at 80,000. N. Lat. 50.
36. Longitude 5. 40. E. Q
Some difturbances took place here in the year 1739,
in confequence of certain difputes that had arifen be¬
tween the prince-bilhop and the. inhabitants.. The lat¬
ter having demanded certain privileges, which he did
not think proper to grant, they took up arms, and com¬
pelled him and his chapter to comply with their re-
queft. The prince, together with many of the. clergy,
nobility, and citizens, alarmed by this commotion, and
dreading the confequences of popular fury, which when
once roufed feldom knows any bounds, fought fafety by
a voluntary exile. They then appealed to the imperial
chamber ; and this tribunal, inftead of a&ing the part
of arbiter, decided as a fovereign, and ordered the cir¬
cles of the Lower Rhine and Weftphalia to execute the
fentence.
The king of Pruffia, at whofe court one of the chiets
of the infurre£tion had refided, and who w'lfiied to gain
a party at Liege, became mediator > and feemed to
favour the Liegeois, many of whofe claims were juft,
though they attempted to enforce them by violence
and the moft illegal fteps. Intoxicated w ith this pro-
teftion, the people of Liege treated the remonftrances
of their biihop, the decrees of the imperial chamber,
and the refolutions of the directory of the two circles,
with the utmoft contempt ; and proceeded fo far as
even to dethrone their prince, by appointing a regent
in the perfon of a French prelate.. The electoral col¬
lege having deliberated on the belt means of putting
an end to thefe difturbances, its propofitions, though
modified by M. Dohm the Pruflian plenipotentiary,
made the infurgents break out into open fedition. De¬
luded by their leaders, they gave themfelve.s up every
day to new exceffes j the effects of the citizens
expofed to pillage, and their perfons to infult- ihe
king of Pruffia, who was defirous to bring matters to
an accommodation, and not to inftigate the Liegeois to
become independent, finding that the efforts of his
minifter were not attended with the defired fuccefs,
feemed unwilling to-interfere any farther in an affair
which might have led him into a quarrel with the em¬
pire. The executive troops, at the fame time, re¬
mained almoft in a ftate of inaaivity •, and feemed ra¬
ther to guard the frontiers of this petty ftate, than to
make any attempt to reduce it to obedience. Neither
this condua, however, nor the exhortations of Pruffia,
added to the moral certainty of their being foon. com¬
pelled to lay dow n their arms, made any change in the
condua of the malecontents. They declared openly,
in the face of all Europe, that they would either con¬
quer or die ; and they perfifted in this refolution, while
commerce, manufaaures, and the public revenues,
Avere going daily to decay.
Having at length openly attacked the executive
forces without the territories of their city, the emperor
could no longer remain an indifferent fpeaator. It
was now full time to put a period to that madnefs to
which the people had abandoned themfelves 5 and to
accomplifh this in an effe&ual manner, the imperial
1
J LIE
chamber at Wetzlar requefted the emperor, as a mem- He
ber of the ancient circle of Burgundy, to execute its ^ieii
orders refpedling this object. In confequence of this
meafure, Baron Alvinzi, who commanded a body ot
Auftrians cantoned in Limburg and the confines of
Brabant, notified, by order ot Marfhal Bender, to
the ftates and municipality of Liege, that the em¬
peror intended to fend troops into their city and ter¬
ritories, for the purpofe of reftoring tranquillity and
g@od order. The ftates had already been informed of
this refolution by their agent at Wetzlar. They there¬
fore wrote to Marlhal Bender, to affure him of the
refpeftful confidence which they placed in the juftice
and magnanimity of the emperor, and to requert that
the Auitrian troops might enter alone, without thofe of
the ele£tors j and that they might be confined to occu¬
py the gates and the fuburbs only. To this letter,
which was carried to Bruffels by a deputation of the
ftates, Marlhal Be?nder returned a very fatisfaftory an-
fw'er, relating to the difpofition of the eleftoral troops :
but Baron Alvinzi, in a note which he Avrote to the
ftates, infilled among other articles, that all the citi¬
zens Ihould throw down their arms 5 that proper accom¬
modations Paould be prepared for the officers and men ;
that the Avarlike ftores, collefted for making refillance,
Ihould be removed ; and that cockades, and every other
diftinftive mark of the like kind, Ihould be laid afide
before the arrival of the imperial troops. However
humiliating thefe preliminaries might be, efpecialljr
that of a general difarming, the ftates and municipali¬
ties acquiefced without the leal! relerve $ and their fub-
miffion, as fudden as complete, was communicated to
the people,. Avith an exhortation to follow their ex¬
ample.
Notwithftanding this pacific appearance, two days'1
before the entrance of the imperial troops, the muni¬
cipal council of Liege, flattering themfelves, perhaps,
with the hopes of affiftance from Pruffia, affured the
inhabitants that they Avould remain unlhaken in their
poll, and that they Lad fworn never to defert the eaufe
in which they were engaged. This, howrever, did not
prevent the Aultriari troops, to the number of 6coc,
from penetrating, without oppofition, into the heart
of the city ; Avhere they occupied every poll ; made
the citizens lay afide their arms, uniforms, and cock¬
ades 5 and in a fingle hour, dethroned fo many fove-
reigns of a year. The greater part of the municipal
officers, who two days before had folemnly promifed
fuch great things, betook themfeives to flight, and re-,
tired either to France or Wefel 5 while the ancient
magiftracy, which had been expelled in the month oE
Auguft 1789, Avas provifionally reinftated by the di¬
rectorial commiffioners.—'Ihe decrees of the imperial,
chamber at Wetzlar have fince been executed in their
utmoft extent. The ancient magiftracy and the privy-
council of the prince-bilhop have been reltored j and
the prince himfelf having returned, peace and good
order have been re-eltablilhed. The French took this
city in 179-2, and effeCted another revolution *, but be¬
ing driven from it in 1793, the citizens were once more
obliged to fubmit.
LIENTERY, a flux of the belly, in Avhich the
aliments are difcharged as they are fwallowed, or very
little altered either in colour or fubftance. See Medi¬
cine Index.
LIEVENS,
L 1 E [
LIEVENS, John or Jan, a celebrated paiater, was
born at Leyden in 1607. He difcovered an early in¬
clination for the arts, and was the difciple firft of Jon's
van Schooten, and afterwards of Peter Laftman. He
excelled principally in painting portraits 5 but he alfo
executed feveral hiftorical fubjedts with great fuccefs.
He came over to England, where he refided three
years, and painted the portraits of Charles I. the queen,
the prince of Wales, and feveral of the nobility ; after
■which he returned to Antwerp, where he met with
full employment for his pencil. We have feveral
etchings by this mailer, which are performed in a
flight but maiterly manner. The chiaro fcuro is very
fkilfully managed in them, fo as to produce a moll
powerful efFeft. His ftyle of etching bears fome re-
femblance to that of Rembrandt j but it is coarfer in
general, and lefs finiihed.
LIEOU-KIEOU, the name of certain iflands of
Aha, fubjeft to China j but hitherto little known to
geographers, who have been fatisfied with marking
their exiflence and latitude in their charts. They,
however, form a powerful and extenfive empire, the
inhabitants of which are civilized, and ought not to
be confounded with other favage nations difperfed
throughout the iflands of Alia. Father Gabil, a Je-
fuit, has furniflied us with fome interefting details re-
fpe&ing thefe iflanders, which he extrafled from a
Chinefe relation publilhed in 1721, at the end of a
voyage that was undertaken on the following account.
The emperor Kang-hi having refolved, in 1719, to
fend an ambaflador to the king of Lieou-kieou, chofe
for this purpofe one of the great doftors of the em¬
pire, named Supao Koang. This learned man depart¬
ed from China in 1719, and returned to Peking in
1720, where, in the year following, he caufed a rela¬
tion of his voyage to be publilhed in two volumes. It
is in the flrtl of thefe that he gives an accurate and
particular defcription of the ifles of Lieou-Kieou ; and
what he relates appears to be worthy of the greater
credit, becaufe, being on the fpot, he examined, as he
himfelf fays, according to the orders of the emperor,
whatever lie found curious or interefting, refpefling
the number, fitualion, and produdlions of thefe ifles;
as alio the hiftory, religion, manners, and cuftoms, of
the people who inhabit them.
Ibefe ifles, fttuated between Corea, Formofa, and
Japan, are in number 36. The principal and largeft
is called Lieou-Kieou ; the reft have each a particular
denomination. The largeft ifland extends from north
to fouth about 440 lys, and 120 or 130 from eaft to
weft ; but ©n the fouth fide, the extent from eaft to
weft is not 100 lys. The fouth-eaft part of the ifland,
where the court refides, is called Cheou-li; and it is
there that Kin-tching, the capital city, is fituated. The
king’s palace, which is reckoned to be four leagues in
circumference, is built on a neighbouring mountain.
It has four gates, which correfpond to the four cardinal
points $ and that which fronts the weft forms the grand
entry. The view which this palace commands is moft;
extenfive and delightful •, it reaches as far .as the port
of Napa-kiang at the diftance of ten lys, to the city of
Kin-tching, and to a great number of other cities,
towns, villages, palaces, temples, monafteries, gardens,
and pleafure-houfes. It ftands in longitude 146. .26.
eaft, and in latitude 26. 2. north.
] !• 1 e
If vve believe thefe iflanders, the origin of their em¬
pire is loft in the remoteft antiquity. They reckon up
25 fuccefliive dynafties, the duration of which forms a
period of more than 18,000 years. It would be. ufelefs
to employ a Angle moment in pointing out the ab-
furdity of thefe pretenfionS, It is, however, certain,
that the exigence of the country called Lieou-kieou
wras not known in China before the year 605 of the.
Chriftian era. Jt was in the courfe of that year that
one of the emperors of the dynafty of Soui, having
heard of thefe ifles, was defirous of knowing their fitua-
tion. This prince at firft; fent fome Chinefe thither j
but their expedition proved fruitlefs, as the, want of in¬
terpreters prevented them from acquiring that know¬
ledge which was the object of their voyage. They on¬
ly brought fome of the iflanders with them to Sigan-
fou, the capital of the province of Chen-fi, which was
the ufual refidence of the emperors of the dynafty of
Soui. It fortunately happened, that an ambalTador of
the king of Japan was then at court. This ambaflador
and his attendants immediately knew the flrangers to
be natives of Lieou-kieou : but they fpoke of thefe
ifles as of a miferable and wretched country, the in¬
habitants of which had never been civilized. The
emperor of China afterwards learned, that the principal
ifland lay to the eaft of a city called at prefent Fou-
tcheou-fou, which is the capital of the province of
Fokien 5 and that, in a paflage of five days, one
might reach the large ifland where the king kept
his court. ’
On this information, the emperor Yang-ti fent Ikil-
ful men, accompanied by interpreters, to fummon the
prince to do homage to the emperor of China, and to
pay him tribute. This propofal was very ill received.
The king of Lieou-kieou fent back the Chinefe, tell¬
ing them fternly, that he acknowledged no prince to
be his fuperior. This anfwer irritated the emperor,
who, to obtain revenge, caufed a fleet to be immediate¬
ly equipped in Fokien, in which lie embarked 10,000
men. This fleet fet fail, and arrived in fafety at the
port of Napa-kiang. The army, in fpite of every ef¬
fort made by the natives, landed on the ifland j and the
king, who had put himfelf at the head of his troops to
oppofe the enemy, having fallen in battle, the Chinefe
pillaged, facked, and burnt the royal city, made more
than 5000 (laves, and returned to China.
The emperors of the dynafty of Tang, thofe of the
fliort dynafties that followed, and thofe of the dynafty-
of Song, although they were fully informed of every
thing refpe&ing the Lieou-kieou ifles, made no attempts
to render them tributary. In 1291, Chi-tfou, an empe¬
ror of the dynafty of Yven, was defirous of reviving
the pretenfions of his predeceflbrs. He fitted out a
fleet to fubdue thefe iflands ; but fchemes of conquell
had become difagreeable to the Chinefe, fince the dii-
after that befel their army in an expedition againft
Japan. The fleet of Chi-tfou w ent no farther than the
ifles of Pong-hou, and the weftern coaft of Formofa,
from whence, under divers pretences, they returned to
the ports of Fokien.
It was only in 1372, under the reign of Hong-vou,
founder of the dynafty of Ming, that thefe iflands fub-
mitted voluntarily to the Chinefe government. Hong-
vou had fent one of the grandees of his court to Tfay-
tou, who was then reigning at Lieou-kieou, to inform
A 2 * him
L I E
L’eeu- him of his acce;Tion to the throne. The Chinefe noble-
Kieou. man ]iac} received particular inllruftions refpedling this
* commiflion, and he acquitted himlelf of it with all the
prudence and addrefs of an able rninifter. In a private
audience which he had with Ifay-tou, he exhoited
this prince to declare himfelf a tributary of the empire,
and laid before him the advantages he would derive
from this ftep. His reafoning, 1'upported by the power
of his natural eloquence, made fo much impreffion on
the mind of Tfay-tou, that he embraced the propofal
made him, and fent immediately to the emperor to de¬
mand the inveftiture of his ftates.
Hong-vou received his envoys in a magnificent man¬
ner, and loaded them with prefents. He folemnly de¬
clared Tfay-tou a vaffal of the empire 5 and, after hav¬
ing received his firft tribute (which confifted in valuable
horfes, aromatic wood, fulphur, copper, tin, &c. he
fent to this prince a golden feal, and confirmed the
choice he had made of one of his fons for fucceffor.
The emperor afterwards fent 36 families, almoft all
from the province of Fokien, to Lieou-kieou. Tfay-
tou received them, affigned them lands near the port
of Napa-kiang, and appointed certain revenues for their
ufe, at the fame time that Hong-vou made them con-
liderable remittances. Thefe families firft introduced
into Lieou-kieou the learned language of the Chinefe,
the ufe of their chara&ers, and the ceremonies praftifed
in China in honour of Confucius. On the other hand,
the fons of fevej-al of the grandees of the court of Tfay-
tou were fent to Nan-king, to ftudy Chinefe in the im¬
perial college, where they were treated with diftinftion,
and maintained at the emperor’s expence.
The ifles of Lieou-kieou had neither iron nor porce¬
lain. Hong-vou fupplied this want *, he caufed a great
number of utenfils of iron and inftruments to be made,
which he fent thither, together with a quantity of por¬
celain veffels. Commerce, navigation, and the arts
foon began to flouriflu Thefe iflanders learned to call
bells for their temples, to manufacture paper and the
fineft fluffs, and to make porcelain, with which they
had been fupplied before from Japan.
The celebrated revolution which placed the Tartars
on the imperial throne of China, produced no change
in the conduCt of the kings of Lieou-kieou. Chang-
tche, who was then reigning, fent ambaffadors to ac¬
knowledge Chun-tchi, and received a feal from him, on
which were engraven fome Tartar characters. It was
then fettled, that the king of Lieou-kieou ftiould pay
his tribute only every two years, and that the number
of perfons in the train of his envoys fhould not exceed
X50.
The emperor Kang-hi feemed to pay more atten¬
tion to thefe ifles than any of his predeceffors. He
caufed a fuperb palace to be ereCted in honour of Con¬
fucius, and a college where he maintained matters to
teach the fciences and the Chinefe charafters. He alfo
inftituted examinations for the different degrees of the
literati. He ordained, that the king of Lieou-kieou
fliould never fend in tribute rofe-wood, cloves, or any
other production which was not really of the growth of
the country $ but that he fhould fend a fixed quantity of
fulphur, copper, tin, (hells, and mother of pearl, which
Is remarkably pretty in thefe iflands* He permitted,
that, befides the ufual tribute, he might prefent him
iorfe-furniture, piftol-cafes, and other things of the
L I E
fame kind, which thefe iflanders are faid to manufacture Lieou*
with great tafte and neatnefs. Kieou.
It is more than 900 years fince the bonzes of China » “L
introduced at Lieou-kieou the worfhip of Fo, and the
principal books belonging to their fed. This worftiip
is at prefent the eftablilhed religion both of the gran¬
dees and of the people. There is ftill to be feen in the
royal city a magnificent temple, ereCted in honour of
another idol borrowed from the Chinefe,named Tcin-feyt
which fignifies celejlial queen or lady.
Thefe iflanders do not make promifes or fwear be¬
fore their idols. When they have occafion to do this,
they burn purfumes, prefent fruits, and ftand refpeCl-
fully before fome ftone, which they call to witnels the
folemnity of their engagements. Numbers of ftones
are to be feen in the courts of their temples, in moll
public places, and upon their mountains, which are en¬
tirely appropriated to this purpofe. They have alfo
among them women confecrated for the worlhip of
fpirits, who are fuppofed to have great influence over
thefe beings. They vifit the fick, diftribute medicines,
and recite prayers for their recovery.
They refpeCt the dead as much as the Chinefe, and
they are no lefs ceremonious in wearing mourning 5
but their funerals are neither fo pompous, nor attended
w ith fo much expence. Their coffins, which are of an
hexagonal or o&agonal figure, are three or four feet
high. They burn the flefh of the bodies of their dead,
and preferve only the bones. They never offer pro-
vifions to them j they are contented with placing lamps
round them, and burning perfumes.
Different families are diftinguifhed in Lieou-kieou by
furnames, as in China •, but a man and a woman of the
fame furname cannot be united in marriage. The king
is not permitted to marry but in the three grand fami¬
lies, which always enjoy the higheft offices. There is
a fourth, of equal diftin£tion to the three former ; but
neither the king nor the princes contraft any alliances
with this family; for it is doubtful whether it be not
fprung from the fame ftem as the royal line.
A plurality of wives is allow ed in thefe ifles. Young
men and young women enjoy the liberty of feeing one
another, and of converfing together *, and their union
is always in confequence of their own choice. The wo¬
men are very referved j they never ufe paint, and wear
no pendants in their ears \ they colleft their hair on the
top of their heads in the form of a curl, and fix it in
that manner by means of long pins made of gold or
filver.
Befides the vaft domains which the king poffeffes, he
receives the produce of all the fulphur, copper, and tin
mines, and of the fait pits, together with what arifes
from taxes. From thefe revenues he pays the falaries
of the mandarins and officers of his court. Thefe fala¬
ries are eftimated at a certain number of facks of rice j
but under this name is comprehended whatever the
king gives in grain, rice, filk, cloth, &c. The
whole is valued according to the price of the facks of
rice.
There are here, as in China, nine orders of manda¬
rins, who are diftinguiflied by the colour of their caps,
or by their girdles and cufhions. The greater part of
the titles of thefe mandarins are hereditary in their
families j but there are fome w hich are only beftowed
upon merit. In the royal city there are tribunals efta-
r blifhed
[ 4 1
L 1 E t
Lteou* bliflied for managing the revenue and affairs of the prln-
Kieou cipal ifland, and of all the others which are dependent
N on it. The latter have agents, who refide at Court.
ieu enan . rj>jjere are ajp0 partjcu]Rr tribunals for civil and criminal
matters j for whatever concerns the families of the
grandees and princes j for the affairs of religion j for
infpe&ing the public granaries, king’s revenues, duties j
for commerce, manufactures, civil ceremonies, and for
navigation, public edifices, literature, and war.
The veffels that are built in this country are greatly
valued by the people of China and Japan. In thefe
the natives go not only from one ifland to another, but
alfo to China, Tong-king, Cochin-china, Corea, Nanga-
za-ki, Satfuma, the neighbouring ifles, and to Formofa,
where they difpofe of their different commodities. Be-
fides thofe articles of commerce which their manufac¬
tures of filk, cotton, paper, arms, copper utenfils, &c.
furnilh them, they alfo export mother-of-pearl, tortoife
and other {hells, coral and whetftones, which are in
great requeft both in China and Japan.
LIEUT AUD, Dr Joseph, counfellor of date and
firft phyfician at the court of France, was born at Aix
in Provence, and refided principally there till he took
the degree of dodtor of medicine. After this he profe-
cuted his ftudies for fome years at Montpelier. He
returned to Aix, where he foon acquired extenfive
practice, and became eminent for literary abilities. He
refided there till the year 1750, when he was invited
to aft as phyfician to the royal infirmary at Ver-
failles. There he praftifed with fuch reputation and
fuccefs, that he foon arrived at the head of his pro-
feflion j and in the year 1774, upon the death of M.
Senac, he was appointed archiater. His extenfive en¬
gagements in praftice did not prevent him from culti¬
vating the fcience of medicine in all its branches, and
from freely communicating to others the refult of his
own (tudies. He publiihed many valuable works ; n-
mongft which the following may be accounted the moll
remarkable. 1. E/ementa Phijsiologice. 2. Precis de la
Medicine. 3. Pratique Precis de la Matiere Medic ale.
4. Effais Anatomiques. 3. Synopjis Univerfa Praxeos
Medicines. 6. Hijloria Anatomico- Medico. He died at
Verfailles in 1780, aged 78 years.
LIEUTENANT, an officer who fupplies the place
and difcharges the office of a fuperior in his abfence.
Of thefe, fome are civil, as the lords-lieutenants of
kingdoms, and the lords-lieutenants of counties ; and
others are military,as the lieutenant-general, lieutenant-
colonel, &c.
Lcrd-LlEUTENANT of Ireland, is properly a viceroy $
and has all the Hate and grandeur of a king of Eng¬
land, except being ferved upon the knee. He has the
power of making war and peace, of bellowing all the
offices under the government, of dubbing knights, and
of pardoning all crimes except high treafon ; he alfo
calls and prorogues the parliament, but no bill can pafs
without the royal affent. He is affifted in his govern¬
ment by a privy council $ and, on his leaving the king¬
dom, he appoints the lords of the regency, who govern
in his abfence.
Lords-LlEUTENANTS of Counties, are officers, who
upon any invafion or rebellion, have power to raife
the militia, and to give commiffions to colonels and
other officers, to arm and form them into regiments,
troops, and companies. Under the lords-lieutenants,
3
] LIE
afe deputy-lieutenants, who have the fame power j Lieutenant,
thefe are chofen by the lords-lieutenants, out of the V ' '
principal gentlemen of each county, and prefented to
the king for his approbation.
LlEUTENANT-Colonel. See CoLONEL.
Lieutenant- General. See General.
Lieutenant, in the land fervice, is the fecond
commiffioned officer in every company of both foot
and horfe, and next to the captain, and who takes the
command upon the death or abfenoe of the captain.
LIEUTENANT of Artilleryi Each company of ar¬
tillery hath four j 1 firlt and 3 fecond lieutenants.
The firft lieutenant hath the fame detail of duty with
the captain, becaufe in his abfence he commands the
company: he is to fee that the foldiers are clean and
neat j that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements, are
in good and ferviceable order j and to watch over every¬
thing elfe which may contribute to their health. He
muft give attention to their being taught the exercife,
fee them punftually paid, their meffes regularly kept,
and to vifit them in the hofpitals when fick. He muft
affift at all parades, &c. He ought to underftand the
doftrine of projeftiles and the fcience of artillery, with
the various effefts of gunpowder, however managed
or direfted ; to enable him to conflruft and difpofe
his batteries to the beft advantage ; to plant his can¬
non, mortars, and howitzers, fo as to produce the
greateft annoyance to an enemy. He is to .be well
{killed in the attack and defence of fortified places j
and to be converfant in arithmetic, mathematics, me¬
chanics, &c.
Second LIEUTENANT in the Artillery, is the fame as
an enfign in an infantry regiment, being the youngeft
commiffioned officer in the company, and muft aflift
the firft lieutenant in the detail of the company’s duty.
His other qualifications Ihould be equal with thofe of
the firft lieutenant.
LIEUTENANT of a Ship of War, the officer next in
rank and power to the captain, in whofe abfence he is
accordingly charged with the command of the {hip, as
alfo the execution of whatever orders he may have re*
ceived from the commander relating to the king’s fer¬
vice.
The lieutenant who commands the watch at fea,
keeps a lift of all the officers and men thereto belong¬
ing, in order to mufter them when he judges it expe¬
dient, and report to the captain the names of thofe
who are abfent from their duty. During the night
watch, he occafionally vifits the lower decks, or fends
thither a careful officer, to fee that the proper centinels
are at their duty, and that there is no diforder amongft
the men $ no tobacco fmoked betw-een decks, nor any
fire or candles burning there, except the lights which
are in lanthorns, under the care of a proper watch, on
particular occafions. He is expefted to be always up¬
on deck, in his watch, as well to give the neceffary or¬
ders with regard to trimming the fails and fuperintend-
ing the navigation, as to prevent any noife or con-
fuffon j but he is never to change the fhip’s courfe with¬
out the captain’s direftions, unlefs to avoid an im¬
mediate danger.
The lieutenant, in time of battle, is particularly to
fee that all the men are prefent at their quarters-
where they have been previoufty ftationed according
to the regulations made by the captain,. He orders
and;
L I F [ 6 ] L I F
Lieutenant,and exhorts them everywhere to perform their duty, in proper exercifes and frications, and fome iin&ions ^ Life,
Life. and aCqUaints the captain at all other times of the mif- and baths : By the preparation of the food itfelf, fo Life-boat,
behaviour of any perfon in the. (hip, and of whatever as it may more eafily infmuate itfelf, and in fame mea- v
elfe concerns the fervice or difcipline. fare anticipate the digeftion; as in various ways of
The youngeft lieutenant in the (hip, who is alfo drefling meats, mixing drinks, fermenting breads, and
ftyled lieutenant at arms, befides his common duty, is reducing the virtues of thefe three into one : By pro-
particularly ordered, by his inftru&ions, to train the moling the aft of aflimilation itfelf, as in feafonable
feamen to the ufe of fmall arms, and frequently to ex- deep, fome external application, &c.
ercife and difcipline them therein. Accordingly his The renovation of what begins to grow old, is per-
office, in time of battle, is chiefly to direft and attend formed two ways : By the inteneration of the habit of
them,: and at all other times to'have a due regard to the body ; as in the ufe of emollients, emplafters, unc-
the prefervation of the fmall arms, that they be not loft tions, &c. of fuch a nature, as do not extraft but im-
or embezzled, and that they are kept clean and in good prefs : Or by purging off the old juices, and fubftitut-
condition for fervice. jng frefh ones j as in feafonable evacuations, attenuat-
LlEUTF,NANT-Reformed, he whofe company or troop ing diets, &c.
is broke or dilbanded, but continued in whole or half The fame author adds thefe three axioms : That the
pay, and (till preferves his right of feniority and rank prolongation of lifers to be expefted, rather from fome
in the army. ftated diets, than either from any ordinary regimen or
LIFE, is peculiarly ufed to denote the animated any extraordinary medicines ; more from operating on
ftate of living creatures, or the time that the union of the fpirits, and mollifying the parts, than from the
the foul and body lafts. , manner of feeding ; and this mollifying of the parts
The Prolongation ofllFE is made by Lord Bacon one without is to be performed by fubftantials, impriments,
of the three branches of medicine -, the other two re- and occludents. See Longevity.
lating to the prefervation of health, and the cure of LlFF-Boat, a moft important invention, confiftingin
difeafes. See Medicine. an improvement of the ordinary conftruftion of a boat,
The theory of prolonging life he numbers among the by which it cannot be funk in the rougheft fea * fo that
defiderata. Some means or indications that feem to it is peculiarly fitted for bringing off mariners from
lead to jt, he lays down as follow : wrecks during a ftorm, and thus faving many valuable
Things are preferved in two manners; either in their lives. Thelife-boat was firft conceived at South Shields,
identity, or by reparation. In their identity $ as a fly or in the county of Durham. A committee of the inha-
ant in amber ; a flower, or fruit, or wood, in a con- bitants of that town, who had often been the fad wit-
fervatory of fnow ; a dead carcafe in balfams. By neffes of many melancholy (hipwrecks in which by the
reparation; as a flame, or a mechanical engine, &c. To ordinary means no relief could be given, in a public ad-
attain to the prolongation of life, both thefe methods vertifement requefted information on this fubjeft, with
muft be ufed. And hence, according to him, arile models of boats which w-ould be moft proper for the
three intentions for the prolongation of life ; Retarda- purpofe of faving perfons from (hipwreck. The com-
iion of confumption, proper reparation, and renovation mittee it would appear, employed Mr Greathead, a
of what begins to grow old. boat-builder in South Shields, who had with others
Consumption is occafioned by two kinds of deprcda- prefented the model of a boat for this purpofe, to build
tion ; a depredation of the innate fpirit, and a depre- the firft boat, which upon trial was found fully to an-
dation of the ambient air. Thefe may be each pre- fwer the purpofe. I wo claimants have fince appeared
.vented two ways; either by rendering thofe agents lefs for the honour of the invention, which according to
predatory, or by rendering the paflive parts (viz. the Mr Earles, the chairman of the committee, in his letter
juices of the body), lefs liable to be preyed on. The to Mr Hails the fupporter of one claim, belongs to two
fpirit will be rendered lefs predatory, if either its fub- of the members themfelves, namely Mr Earles himfelf
ftance be condenfed, as by the ufe of opiates, grief, and Mr Rockwood. The claimants above alluded to
See.; or its quantity diminiflied, as in fpare and mo- are Mr Greathead, and a Mr Wouldhave a painter in
naftic diets ; or its motion calmed, as in idlenefs and South Shields, and a very mgenious man, who alfo pre¬
tranquillity. The ambient air becomes lefs predatory, fented a model to the committee. The claim of the latter
if it be either lefs heated by the rays of the fun, as in is keenly fupported by Mr Hails, in a pamphlet publifhed
cold climates, in caves, mountains, and anchorets cells; in i 806, two years after Mr Greathead’s pamphlet Con¬
or be kept off from the body, as by a denfe (kin, the taining the hiftory and progrefs of the invention, and of
feathers of birds, and the ufe'of oils and unguents with- the boats which he had built for the purpofe, his applica¬
nt aromatics. The juices of the body are rendered tion to parliament, and the premium of 1200I. which he
lefs liable to be preyed on, either by making them received for the invention, &c. and four years after this
harder or more moift and oily ; harder, as by a coarfe application to parliament. It is true that in 18^2,,
(harp diet, living in the cold, robuft exercifes,' and fome Mr Wouldhave and his friends afferted his claim in the
mineral baths : moifter, as by the ufe of fweet foods, Monthly Magazine and in fome provincial newspapers;
&c. abftaining from falls and acids; and especially by but ftill this was one year after Mr Greathead’s appli-
fuch a mixture of drink as confifts wholly of fine fub- cation for reward was made to parliament. But, with-
tile particles, without any acrimony or acidity. out being at all underftood to decide to whom, the
Reparation is performed by means of aliment; and merit of the invention is due, we (hall leave it to
alimentation is promoted four ways: By the concoftion our readers*to examine the evidence for themfelves, and
of thevifeera, fo as to extrude the aliment: By exciting (hall now proceed -to give an account of the conllruc-
ihe exterior parts to the attraftion of the aliment; as tion of the life-boat, of which 31 have been built by
1 TV!-
L I F [
Life-Scat. Mr Greatlierid, and fent to different parts of Britain,
and the north of Europe. The following conftruction
is according to Mr Greathead’s plan :
“ The length thirty feet j the breadth ten feet; tlie
depth, from the top of the gunwale to the lower part
of the keel in midihips, three feet four inches; from the
gunwale to the platform (within) two feet four inches ;
from the top of the ftems (both ends being limilar) to
the bottom of the keel, five feet nine inches. The keel
is a plank of three inches thick, of a proportionate
breadth in midihip?, narrowing gradually toward the
ends, to the breadth of the ftems at the bottom, and
forming a great convexity downward 5 the flems are
fegments of a circle with confiderable rakes ; the bot¬
tom feftion, to the floor heads, is a curve fore and aft
with the fweep of the keel) the floor timber has a fmall
rife curving from the keel to the floor heads j a bilge
plank is wrought in on each fide next the floor heads,
with a double rabbit or groove of a fimilar thicknefs
with the keel, and on the outfide of this are fixed two
bilge-trees correfponding nearly with the level of the
keel ; the ends of the bottom fedlion form that fine
kind of entrance obfervable in the lower part of the
bow of the fiihing boat called a cob/e, much ufed in the
north ; from this part to the top of the ftem, it is more
' elliptical, forming a confiderable projection : the fides,
from the floor heads to the top of the gunwale, flaunch
off on each fide, in proportion to about half the breadth
of the floor j the breadth is continued far forward to¬
ward the ends, leaving a fufficient length of ftraight
fide at the top ; the fheer is regular along the ftraight
fide, and more elevated toward the ends j the gunwale
fixed on the outfide is three inches thick ; the fides,
from the under part of the gunwale along the whole
length of the regular fheer, extending twenty-one feet
fix inches, are cafed with layers of cork, to the depth
of 16 inches downward ; and the thicknefs of this cafing
of cork being four inches, it projects at the top a little
without the gunwale ; the cork on the outfide is fecured
with thin plates or flips of copper, and the boat is faf-
tened with copper nails ; the thwarts (or feats) are five
in number, double banked, confequently the boat may
be rowed with ten oars ; the thwarts are firmly ftan-
chioned ; the fide oars are fliort (a), with iron tholes,
and rope grommets, fo that the rower can pull either
way. The boat is fleered with an oar at each end j and
the fleering oar is one-third longer than the rowing
oar; the platform placed at the bottom within the boat,
is horizontal the length of the midfhips, and elevated at
the ends, for the convenience of the fteerman, to give
him a greater power with the oar. The internal part
of the boat next the fides, from the under part of the
th warts down to the platform, is cafed with cork 3 the
whole quantity of which, affixed to the life-boat, is
nearly feven hundred weight 3 the cork indifputably
contributes much to the buoyancy of the boat when
full of water, is a good defence when going alongfide a
veffel, and is of principal ufe in keeping the boat in an
erecl pofilion in the fea, or rather of giving her a very
7 1 L I F
lively and quick difpofition to recover from any fudden Life-Boat.
cant or lurch which fhe may receive from the ftroke of'"“"Y*—
a heavy wave : but, exclufive of the cork, the admi¬
rable conftruflion of this boat gives it a decided pre¬
eminence. The ends being fimilar, the boat can be
rowed either way, and this peculiarity of form allevi¬
ates her in rifing over the waves ; the curvature of the
keel and bottom facilitates her movement in turning,
and contributes to the eafe of the fteerage, as a fingle
ftroke of the fleering oar has an immediate effe<ft, the
boat moving as it were upon a centre 3 the fine en¬
trance below is of ufe in dividing the w-aves, when
rowing againft them 3 and combined with the convexi¬
ty of the bottom and 'the elliptical form of the ftem,
admits her to rife with wonderful buoyancy in a high
fea, and to launch forward with rapidity, without (hip¬
ping any water, when a common boat would be in dan¬
ger of being filled. The (launching or fpreading form
of the boat, from the floor heads to the gunwale, gives
her a confiderable bearing 3 and the continuation of the
breadth well forward, is a great fupport to her in the
fea j and it has been found by experience that boats of
this conftruftion are the beft (ea boats for rowing
againft the turbulent waves. The internal (hallownefs
of the boat from the gunwale down to the platform, the
convexity of the form, and the bulk of cork within,
leave a very diminiffied fpace for the water to occupy 3
fo that the life-boat, when filled with water, contains a
confiderably lefs quantity than the common boat, and
is in no danger either of finking or overturning.
> It may be prefumed by fame, that in cafes of high
wind, agitated fea, and broken waves, a boat of fuch
a bulk could not prevail againft them by the force of
the oars 3 but the life-boat, from her peculiar form,
may be rowed a-head, when the attempt in other boats
would fail (b). Boats of the common form, adapted
for fpeed, are of courfe put in motion with a fmall
power 3 but for want of buoyancy and bearing, are
overrun by the waves and funk, when impelled againft
them : and boats conftru&ed for burthen, meet with
too much refiftance from the wind and fea, when oppo-
fed to them, and cannot in fuch cafes be rowed from
the (hore to a (hip in diftrefs. An idea has been enter¬
tained that the fuperior advantages of the life-boat are
to be afcribed folely to the quantity of cork affixed 3
but this is a very erroneous opinion, and I truft has
been amply refuted by the preceding obfervations on
the conflrudion of this boat. It muft be admitted that
the application of cork to common boats would add to
their buoyancy and fecurity 3 and it might be a ufeful
expedient, if there was a quantity of cork on board of
(hips, to prepare the boats with, in cafes of (hipwreck,
as it might be expeditioufly done in a temporary way,
by means of clamps, or fome other contrivance. The
application of cork to fome of the boats of his majefty’s
(hips (the launches) might be worthy of confideration,
more particularly, as an experiment might be made at
a little expence, and without injury to the boats.
“ The life-boat is kept in a boat-houfe, and placed
upon
(a) The (liort oar is more manageable, in a high fea, than the long oar, and its ftroke is more certain.
(b) An extraordinary cafe might certainly happen, when a forcible combination of the wind, the wave®, and.
the tide, might render it impracticable to row the life-boat from the (bore.
L I F [8
Ifiie-Boat. ypon four low wheels, ready to be moved at a moment’s
notice. Thefe wheels are convenient in conveying
the boat along the Ihore to the fea •, but if ftie had to
travel upon them, on a rough road, her frame would
be exceedingly ftiaken ; befides, it has been found dif¬
ficult and troublefome to replace her upon thefe wheels,
on her return from fea.
“ Another plan has therefore been adopted : two
wheels of I j feet diameter, with a moveable arched
axis, and a pole fixed thereto, for a lever, have been
conftrufted. The boat is fufpended, near her centre,
between the wheels, under the axis j toward each ex¬
tremity of which is an iron pin. When the pole is ele¬
vated perpendicularly, the upper part of the axis be¬
comes depreffed, and a pair of rope flings, which go
round the boat, being fixed to the iron pins, Are is
raifed with the greateft facility, by means of the pole,
which is then fattened down to the ftem of the boat.”
Temporary LlTE-Boat,^-AX\ invention by the reverend
Mr Bremner, minifter of Walls and Flota in Orkney,
by which any ordinary {hips boat may be converted
into a life-boqt, fo that in cafes of fliipwreck, the crew
may be faved by means of their own boats. Mr Brem¬
ner ftates, in defcribing his plan to the Highland So¬
ciety of Scotland, that it had received the approbation
of the Trinity houfes of London and Leith, of the
Royal Humane Society of London, and of many cap¬
tains of merchantmen. An experiment was made in
the port of Leith under the fuperintendance of Mr
Bremner himfelf, and in prefence of a committee of the
direftors of the fociety. This experiment proved fatis-
fa&ory to the committee, whofe favourable report to
the directors induced them to prefent Mr Bremner
with a piece of plate in teftimony of their approbation
of his fcheme. The following is a general defcription
of the method of preparing a boat for this purpofe.
“ The diraenfions of the {loop’s boat, with which
the experiment was tried, were 14 feet in length, 5
feet 4 inches in width, and 2 feet 2 inches in depth.
The only addition or previous preparation of the boat,
was four ring bolts in the infide, and two auger bores or
holes in the outfide of the keel, as points of fecurity
for fixing the neceffary feizing ropes (c). The ring
bolts, within fide the keel, were placed, the one for¬
ward. one-third from the ftem, the other aft, one-third
from the ftern ; the other two, the one dire&ly at
the ftem, the other at the ftern. The auger bores,
outfide the keel, being half way betwixt the rings, viz,
the one betwixt the two rings forward, the other be-
x twixt the two rings aft.
“ Two empty hogftreads were then placed in the
fore part of the boat, parallel and clofe to each other,
and laid lengthways, fore and aft. Thefe were fecured
in their places by patting the feizing ropes round all,
that is, over the gunwales and through the auger bore
in the keel, as alfo from the ring bolt in the ftem to
that next it in the keel, taking care in doing this, to
pafs the rope alfo through eyes on the flings of the
calks, which have been previoufly prepared. The fame
procefs was obferved in the after part of the boat. And
1
L 1 F
laftly, a bar of iron about three hundred weight, was Life-Boj*.
fixed to the keel, on the infide. A fmall quantity of^
cork was alfo placed in the ftern, intended chiefly to
raife to a proper height the calks placed above it, but
without which the refult of the experiment would have
been the fame.
“ The quantity of cork neceflary, which will depend
on the fize of the boat, is to be made up into feveral
parcels, but none larger than one perlon can eafily
manage. Bach parcel to be properly fecured and num¬
bered, fo as that the whole may fit and fill up the boat
completely, in the fpaces betwixt the ring bolts, fore
and aft, as above detcribed ; and to anfwer the end, it
is material that there ftiould be cork enough to rife
nearly three feet above the gunwales, fo as to form an
arch from gunwale to gunwale. The cork being
thus laid in the boat, it is to be properly fecured, firft
by pafling a ftrong rope round all, over the gunwales,
and through the auger bore, outfide the keel; as alfo
by pafling feizing ropes from the ring bolt in the ftera,
to that next it in the keel, taking care to make as
many turns and feizings betwixt thefe ring bolts, as
completely to fecure the cork from flipping out. The
very fame thing to be done as to the rope round the
gunwales, and through the hole outfide the keel, with
feizing ropes from the ring bolts, to be made aft, or in
the ftern of the boat.
“ Where cork cannot be had, or may not be kept
in readinefs on account of its expence, which, however,
is not very great, calks will anfwer the purpofe, though
it may be doubtful whether there would not be a great¬
er chance that the fury of the waves might unloofe
them, unlefs particular care was taken to have them
properly fixed. In the cafe of calks, two empty ones
are to be placed in the fore part of the boat, parallel
to one another, clofe together, and to be laid length-
wife fore and aft. Two other empty calks to be placed
in the fame way in the ftern, or aft part of the boat,
and the whole to be feeured as firmly and compactly as
poffible, by flrong ropes round the boat and calks, and
alfo by feizing ropes in the fame way as deferibed in
the cafe of cork j then two other empty calks, of the
fame dimenfions, one fore, and another aft, to be
placed over and in the middle between the two aL
ready fixed, and to be firmly feeured, as above men¬
tioned.
. . “ As the boat is to be thus prepared on the deck of
the Chip, when danger appears, a piece of fail Ihould
be thrown in below, betwixt, and about the calks, for
the more effeflually fecuring them, and to prevent the
feizing ropes from fo readily Hipping j it would be
proper alfo to have flings on the calks, with eyes in
them, through which to pafs the feizing ropes.
“ Laftly* both in the cafe of cork and calks, an iron
bar, of about three hundred weight, for fuch a boat as
above deferibed, ftiould be fecured to the keel on the
infide, in the middle or empty fpace. This middle, or
empty fpace of the boat, is for the failors, and in a
fliip’s boat of the common fize may hold eight people,
with room to work a pair of oars. Every thing being
previoufly
(c) It is probable, that ring bolts fixed in the gunwales, might anfwer as well as palflng the ropes round the
bottom of the boat and through the auger bores in the keek
*
L I G [
life-Boat previoufly ready, it is certain that the neceffary fixing
H of the calks will not take up above ten or twelve mi-
iga me. ^ nuteg^ an(j jj. jg obvious the cork can be fixed in a much
{hotter period. It is alfo completely afeertained, that
a boat fo prepared, though full of water, will not fink,
but on the contrary be extremely buoyant, and will
eafily go a-head : That it would be next to impoffible
the boat Ihould overfet j but, in cafe of this at any time
happening, Ihe would inftantly return to her proper
polition on her keel. Though the experiment was
tried only with calks, with but a fmall quantity of
cork, as before Hated, yet it is generally believed, and
Mr Bremner himfelf is of the fame opinion, that it
might anfwer equally well, and perhaps better, to have
the cork or calks flowed in midlhips, leaving an empty
fpace in each end, by which means the management of
the boat by the helm or rudder would be preferved,
though the other plan feems better, in the view of ufing
oars.
Vegetable LIFE. See Plants.
LlFE-Rent, in Scots Law. When the ufe and enjoy¬
ment of a fubjeft is given to a perfon during his life,
it is faid to belong to him in life-rent.
LIGAMENT, in its general fenfe, denotes any
thing that ties or binds one part to another.
Ligament, in Anatomy, z. ftrong compadt fubftance,
ferving to join two bones together. See Anatomy,
N° 7.
LIGARIUS, Quintus, a Roman proconful in
Africa, 49 B. C. Taking part with Pompey, he was
forbid by Julius Caefar to return to Rome : to obtain
his pardon, Cicero made that admired oration in his
defence, which has immortalized the memory of the
client with that of his celebrated advocate.
LIGATURE, in Surgery, is a cord, band, or
ftring •, or the binding any part of the body with a
cord, band, fillet, &c. whether of leather, linen, or any
other matter.
Ligatures are ufed to extend or replace bones that
ate broken or dillocated $ to tie the patients down in
lithotomy and amputations $ to tie upon the veins in
phlebotomy, on the arteries in amputations, or in large
wounds; to fecure the fplints that are applied to frac¬
tures ; to tie up the proceffes of the peritonaeum with
the fpermatic veffels in caftration j and, laftly, in taking
off warts or other excrefcences by ligature.
Ligature, is alfo ufed to fignify a kind of bandage
or fillet, tied round the neck, arm, leg, or other part
of the bodies of men or beafts, to divert or drive off
fome difeafe, accident, &c.
Ligature, is alfo ufed for a ftate of impotency, in
refpeft to venery, pretended to be caufed by fome
charm or witchcraft.
Kaempfer tells of an uncommon kind of ligature or
knotting, in ufe among the people of Macaffar, Java,
Malacca, Siam, &c. By this charm or fpell, a man
binds up a woman, and a woman a man, fo as to put it
out of their power to have to do with any other per-
Ibn ; the man being thereby rendered impotent to any
other woman, and all other men impotent with refpedt
to the woman.
Some of their philofophers pretend, that this liga¬
ture may be effedled by the (hutting of a lock, the
drawing of a knot, or the flicking of a knife in the
Vol. XII. Part I.
, ] L 1 G
wall, at the point of time wherein the prieft is joining Ligature,
a couple together j and that a ligature, thus effedled, L^ht' ,
may be diifolved, by the fpoufe’s urining through a
ring. This piece of fuperftition is faid to obtain alfo
among the Chriftians of the Eaft.
The fame author tells us, that during the ceremony
of marriage in Ruflia, he obferved an old fellow lurk¬
ing behind the church-door, and mumbling over a
ftring of words •, and, at the fame time, cutting a long
rod, which he held under his arm into pieces 5 which,
it feems, is a common pra£tice at the marriages of great
perfons, and done with deiign to elude and counter¬
work any other perfon that might poflibly be inducing
the ligature.
The fecret of inducing a ligature is delivered by the
fame author, as he was taught it on the fpot by one of
their adepts: but it is too abfurd and obfeene to de-
ferve being tranferibed here.
M. Marftial mentions a ridiculous form of ligature,
which he received from a bramin of Indoflan : “ If
(fays he) the little worm in the wood lukerara kara
be cut into two, and the one part ftirs and the other
not, if the ftirring part be bruifed, and given with half
a beetle to a man, and the other half to a woman, the
charm will keep each from ever having to do with any
other perfon.. Phil. Tranf. N° 268.
Ligature, in the Italian mufic, fignifies a tying
or binding together of notes. Hence fyncopes are
often called ligatures, becaufe they are made by the
ligature of many notes. There is another fort of
ligatures for breves, when there are many of thefe on
different lines, or on different fpaces, to be fung to one
fyllable.
Ligatures, among printers, are types confiding of
two letters or chara&ers joined together; as £1,
Jl,Ji. The old editions of Greek authors are extreme¬
ly full of ligatures j the ligatures of Stephens are by
much the meft beautiful.*—Some editions have be^n
lately printed without any ligatures at all j and there
was a defign to explode them quite out of printing.
Had this fucceeded, the fineft ancient editions would
in time have grown ufelefs : and the reading of old
manuferipts wrould have been rendered almoft imprac¬
ticable to the learned themfelves.
LIGHT, in the molt common acceptation of the
word, fignifies that invifible etherial matter which makes
obje6ts perceptible to our fenfe of feeing. Figurative¬
ly, it is alfo ufed for whatever conveys inftruftion to
our minds, and likewife for that inftruftion itfelf.
For an account of the chemical properties of light,
fee Chemistry Index ; and for its phyfical properties,
fee Optics.
Light independent of Heat. In general, a very con-
fiderable degree of heat is requifite to the emiflion of
light from any body j but there are feveral excep¬
tions to this, efpecially in light proceeding from pu-
trefeent fubftances and phofphorus, together with that
of luminous animals, and other fimilar appearances.
Light proceeding from putrefeent animal and vege¬
table fubftances, as well as from glow'-worms, is men¬
tioned by Ariftotle. Thomas Bartholin mentions four ^ iuc6
kinds of luminous infetls, two with wings, and tw o animal.
without j but in hot climates travellers fay they are P* i83*
found in much greater numbers, and of different fpe-
B cies.
L I G [ io ] L I G
P-4S-
Light, cies. Columna, an induftrious naturalift, obferves, that
their light is not extinguiihed immediately upon the
death of the animal.
Light from The firit diflinfi; account that we meet with of light
jmtr'.d flefir. proceeding from putrefcent animal flelh is that which
Be Vijione, is given by Fabricius ab Aquapendente 5 who fays,
that when three Roman youths, reliding at Padua,
had bought a lamb, and had eaten part of it on Ea-
fter day 1562, feveral pieces of the remainder, which
they kept till the day following, flione like- fo many
candle^ when they were cafually viewed in the dark.
Part of this luminous flefh was immediately fent to
Aquapendente, who was profeiTor of anatomy in that
city. He obferved, that br>th the lean and the fat of
this meat ihone with a whitilh kind of light } and alfo
took notice, that fome pieces of kid’s flelh, which had
happened to have tain in contaft with it, were luminous,
as well as the fingers and other parts of the bodies of
thofe perfons who touched it. Thofe parts, he ob¬
ferved, (hone the moft which were foft to the touch,
and feemed to be tranfparent in candle light j but
w.here the flelh was thick and folid, or where a bone
was near the outfide, it did not fhine.
After this appearance, we find no account of any
other fimilar to it, before that which was obferved by
Bartholin, and of which he gives a very pompous de-
fcription in his ingenious treatife already quoted.
This happened at Montpelier in 1641, when a poor
old woman had bought a piece of flefh in the market,
intending to make ufe of it the day following. But
happening not to be able to fleep well that night, and
her bed and pantry being in the fame room, fhe obferv¬
ed fo much light come from the flefh, as to illuminate
all the place where it hung. A part of this luminous
flefli w'as carried as a curiofity to Henry Bourbon,
duke of Conde, the governor of the place, who viewed
it for feveral hours with the greateft aftonifhment.
This light was obferved to be whitifh ; and not to
cover the whole furface of the flefh, but certain parts
only, as if gems of unequal fplendour had been fcattered
over it. This flefli was kept till it began to putrefy,
when the light vanifhed *, which, as fome religious
people fancied, it did in the form of a crofs.-
It is natural to expert, that the almoft univerfal ex¬
perimental philofopher Mr Boyle fhould try the effect
of his air-pump upon thefe luminous fubftances. Ac¬
cordingly, we find that he did not fail to do it 5 when
he prefently found that the light of rotten wood was
extinguifhed in vacuo, and revived again on the ad-
mifiion of the air, even after a long continuance in
vacuo ; but the extinguifhing of this light was not fo
complete immediately upon exhaufting the receiver, as
fome little time afterwards. He could not perceive,
however, that the light of rotten wood was increafed
in condenfed air ; but this, he imagined, might arife
from his, not being able to judge very well of the de¬
gree of light, through fo thick and cloudy a glafs
Birch's hiji. veffe.l as he then made ufe of 5 but we find that the
u’light of a fliining fifh, which was put into a condenf-
ing engine before the Royal Society, in 1668, was
rendered more vivid by that means. The principal
of Mr Boyle’s experiments were made in Ortober
This philofopher attended to a great variety of cir-
cutuftances relating to this curious phenomenon. A_
Works,
vol. iii.
p. 156.
mong other things he obferved, that change of air was Light,
not receffary to the maintenance of this light j for it11 * " ■J‘
continued a long time when a piece of the wood was
put into a very (mail glafs hermetically fealed, and it
made no difference when this tube which contained
the wood was put into an exhaufted receiver. This
he alfo obferved with refpert to a luminous fifti, which
he put into water, and placed in the lame circum-
ftances. He alfo found, that the light of fliining
fifties had other properties in common with that of
ftiining wood ; but the latter, he fays, was prefently
quenched with water, fpirit of wine, a greater variety
of faline mixtures, and other fluids. Water, however,
did not quench all the light of fome fliining veal on
which he tried it, though ipirit of wine deftroyed its
virtue piefently.
Mr Boyle’s obfervation of light proceeding from
-flefli meat was quite calual. On the 15th of February
1662, one of his lervants w as greatly alarmed with the
fliining of fome veal, which had been kept a few days,
,but had no bad fmell, and was in a ftate very proper
for ufe. The fervant immediately made his mafter ac¬
quainted with this extraordinary appearance j and though
he was then in bed, he ordered it to be immediately .BzVrib ii,
brought to him, and he examined it w ith the greateft: 70,
attention. Suiperting that the ftate of the atmofphere
had fome lhare in the produrtion of this phenome¬
non, he takes notice, after deferibing the appearance,
that the wind was fonth-weft and bluftering, the air
hot for the- feafon, the moon was paft its laft quarter,
and the mercury in the barometer was at 2()^5th
inches. .
Mr Boyle was often difappointed in his experiments Light from
on fliining fillies ; finding that they did not alw-aysfilhes-
fliine in the very fame circumftances, as far as he could
judge, with others which had ftiined before. At one
time that they failed to fliine, according to his expec¬
tations, he obferved that the weather was variable,
and not without fonie days of froft and fnow. In
general he made ufe of whitings, finding them the
fitteft for his purpofe. In a difeourfe, however, up¬
on this fubjert at the Royal Society in 1681, it was
afferted, that, of all fiftiy Jubilances, the eggs of lob-
fters, after they had been boiled, ftione the brighteft.
Olig. Jacobceus obferves, that, upon opening a tea-Aft. Hafa,
polypus, it was fo luminous as to ftartle feveral per-yol-v-
fons who faw it j and he fays, that the more putrid theP‘ 2S2’
fifli w’as, the more luminous it grew. The nails alfo,
and the fingers of the perfons who touched it, became
luminous j and the black liquor which iffued from the
animal, and which is its bile, flione alfo, but with a
very faint light.
Mr Boyle draws a minute comparifon between the
light of burning coals and that ol ftiining wood or filh,
{bowing in what particulars they agree, and in what
they differ. Among other things he obferves, that ex¬
treme cold extinguilhes the light of Ihining wood, as
appeared when a piece of it was put into a glals tube,
and held in a frigorific mixture. He alfo found that
rotten wood did not wafte itfelf by ftiining, and that
the application of a thermometer to it did not difeo-
ver the leaft degree of heat.
There is a remarkable fliell-fifti called pholas, which jar
forms for itfelf holes in various kinds of Hone, &c.markab]y
That this fifli is luminous, was noticed by Pliny *, who luminous
obferves,
L I G [i
Light, obferves, that it fliines in the mouth of the perfon who
1 » eats it, and, if it touch his hands or clothes, makes
them luminous. He alfo fays that the light depends
upon its moifture. The light of this fi(h has furnifhed
matter for various obfervations and experiments to
M. Reaumur, and the Bolognian academicians, efpe-
cially Beccarius, who took fo much pains with the
fubje£l of pbofphoreal light.
M. Reaumur obferves, that, whereas other fifties
give light wrhen they tend to putrefcence, this is more
luminous in proportion to its being frefti j that when
they are dried, their light will revive if they be moiften-
ed either with frefh or fait water, but that brandy im¬
mediately extinguilhes it. He endeavoured to make
this light permanent, but none of his fchemes fuc-
ceeded.
The attention of the Bolognian academicians was
engaged to this fubje£t by M. F. Marfilius, in 1724,
who brought a number of thefe fifties, and the ftones
in which they were enclofed, to Bologna, on purpofe
for their examination.
Cem.Bonon- Beccarius obferved, that though this fifh ceafed to
vol. ii. iyi. (bine when it became putrid *, yet that in its moft pu¬
trid Rate, it would ftiine, and make the water in which
it was immerfed luminous, when it was agitated.
Galeatius and Montius found, that wine or vinegar ex-
tinguifhed this light j that in common oil it continued
fome days j but in re&ified fpirit of wune or urine,
hardly a minute.
Ih order to obfferve in what manner this light was af¬
fected by different degrees of heat, they made ufe of a
Reaumur’s thermometer, and found that water render¬
ed luminous by thefe fifties increafed in light till the
heat arrived to 45 degrees *, but that it then became
fuddenly extinCl, and could not be revived.
In the experiments of Beccarius, a folution of fea
fait increafed the light of the luminous water ; a folu¬
tion of nitre did not increafe it quite fo much. Sal
ammoniac diminiftied it a little, oil of tartar per deli-
(]uium nearly extinguiftied it, and the acids entirely.
This water poured upon frelh calcined gypfum, rock
cryftal, cerufe, or fugar, became more luminous. He
alfo tried the effefls of it when poured upon various
other fubftances, but there was nothing very remark¬
able in them. Afterwards, ufing luminous milk, he
found that oil of vitriol extinguiftied the light, but
that oil of tartar increafed it.
This gentleman had the curiofity to try how dif¬
ferently coloured fubftances were affeCted by this kind
of light ; and having, for this purpofe, dipped leveral
ribbons in it, the white came out the brighteft, next
to this was the yellow, and then the green ; the other
colours could hardly be perceived. It was not, how¬
ever, any particular colour, but only light that was
perceived in this cafe. He then dipped boards painted
with the different colours, and alfo glafs tubes, filled
with fubftances of different colours, in water rendered
luminous by the fifties. In both thefe cafes the red
was hardly vifible, the yellow was the brighteft, and
the violet the dulleft. But on the boards the blue was
nearly equal to the yellow, and the green more lan¬
guid ; whereas in the glafles, the blue was inferior to
the green.
Of all the liquors into which he put the pholades,
milk was rendered the moft luminous. A fingle pho«
1 ] LI G
las made feven ounces of milk fo luminous, that the
faces of perfons might be diftinguiihed by it, and it
looked as if it was tranfparcnt.
Air appeared to be neceffary to this light •, for
when Beccarius put the luminous milk into glafs tubes,
no agitation would make it ffiine, unlefs bubbles of
air were mixed with it. Alfo Montius and Galeatius
found, that, in an exhaufted receiver, the pholas loft
its light, but the water was fometimes made more lu¬
minous ; which they aferibed to the rifing of bubbles
of air through it.
Beccarius, as well as Reaumur, had many fchemes
to render the light of thefe pholades permanent. For
this purpofe he kneaded the juice into a kind of pafte,
with flour, and found that it would give light when
it was immerfed in warm water ; but it anfwered beft
to preferve the fifh in honey. In any other method of
prefervation, the property of becoming luminous would
not continue longer than fix months, but in honey it
had lafted above a year \ and then it would, when
plunged in warm water, give as much light as ever it
had done.
Similar, in fome refpefts, to thofe obfervations on ABa Ccefa-
the light of the pholas, was that which was obferved rienMt
to proceed from wood which was moift, but not in aVol'Jl
putrid ftate, which was very confpicuous in the dark. ^ 4
That the fea is fometimes luminous, efpecially when Light from
it is put in motion by the dafhing of oars or thefeawater*
beating of it againft a fhip, has been obferved with
admiration by a great number of perfons. Mr Boyle,
after reciting all the circumftances of this appearance,
as far as he could colleft them from the accounts of
navigators ; as its being extended as far as the eye
could reach, and at other times being vifible only when
the water was dafhed againft fome other body 5 that,
in fome feas, this phenomenon is accompanied by fome
particular winds, but not in others } and that fome¬
times one part of the fea will be luminous, when an¬
other part, not far from it, will not be fo ; concludes
with faying, that he could not help fufpedling that
thefe odd phenomena, belonging to great mafl'es of wa¬
ter, were in fome meafure owing to fome cofmical law ,
or cuftom of the terreftrial^globe, or at leaft of the
planetary vortex.
Some curious obfervations on the ihining of fome Dr Beale’s
fifties, and the pickle in which they w^ere immerfed, exPeri-
were made by Dr Beale, in May 1665 5 and had they ™ntson
been properly attended to and purfued, might have eS*
led to the difeovery of the caufe of this appearance.
Having put fome boiled mackerel into water, together Phil.Tranf.
with fait and fvveet herbs j when the cook was, fomevo' ft*-
time after, ftirring it, in order to take out fome of theP*45°*
fifties, ftie obferved, that, at the firft motion, the water
was very luminous; and that the fifli ftiining through
the water added much to the light which the water
yielded. The water was of itfelf thick arid blackifti,
rather than of any other colour ; and yet it ftiined on
being ftirred, and at the fame time the fifties appeared
more luminous than the water. Wherever the drops
of this water, after it had been ftirred, fell to the
ground, they ftiined ; and the children in the family
diverted themfelves with taking the drops, which were
as broad as a penny, and running with them about the
houfe. The cook obferved, that, when ftie turned up
that fide of the fifli that was loweft; no light came from
L 1 G
[ i
Father
Eourzf s’s
account of
luminous
£ea water.
Light, and that, when the water had fettled for fome time,
—v it did not Ihine at all. The day following, the water
gave but little light, and only after a brilk agitation,
though the fifties continued to fhine as well from the
infide as the outfide, and efpecially about the throat,
and fuch places as feemed to have been a little broken
in the boiling.
When in the light of the fun, he examined, with a
microfcope, a fmall piece of a fifti which had (hined very
much the night before, he found nothing remarkable
on its furface, except that he thought he perceived
what he calls a Jleatn, rather dark than luminous,
arifing like a very fmall dull from the fifti, and here
| and there a very fmall and almoft imperceptible fparkle.
Of the fparkles he had no doubt j but he thought it
•; poflible that the fleam might be a deception of the
fight, or fome dull in the air.
Finding the fifti to be quite dry, he moiftened it
with his fpittle} and then obferved that it gave a little
light, though but for a ftiort time. The fifti at that
time was not fetid, nor yet infipid to the beft difcern-
ing palate. Two of the fifties he kept two or three
days longer for farther trial : but, the weather being
very hot, they became fetid : and, contrary to his ex¬
pectations, there was no more light produced either by
the agitation of the water or in the fifti.
Father Bourzes, in his voyage to the Indies in
1704, took particular notice of the luminous appear¬
ance of the fea. The light was fometimes fo great,
that he could eafily read the title of a book by it,
though he was nine or ten feet from the furface of the
water. Sometimes he could eafily diftinguifti, in the
wake of a (hip, the particles that were luminous from
thofe that were not } and they appeared not to be all
of the fame figure. Some of. them were like points of
light, and others fuch as ftars appear to the naked eye.
Some of them were like globes, of a line or two in
diameter } and others as big as one’s head. Sometimes
they formed themfelves into fquares of three or four
inches long, and one or twro broad. Sometimes all
thefe different figures were vifible at the fame time }
and fometimes they were what he calls vortices of light,
which at one particular time appeared and difappeared
immediately like flafties of lightning.
Nor did only the wake of the ftiip produce this
light, but fifties alfo, in fwimming, left fo luminous a
track behind them, that both their fize and fpecies
might be diftinguiftied by it. When he took fome of
the water out of the fea, and ftirred it ever fo little
with his hand, in the dark, he always faw in it an in¬
finite number of bright particles} and he had the fame
appearance whenever he dipped a piece of linen in the
fea, and wrung it in a dark place, even though it was
half dry ; and he obferved, that when the fparkles fell
upon any thing that was folid, it would continue (hining
for fome hours together.
After mentioning feveral circumflances which did
tures con- not contribute to this appearance, this father obferves,
cerning the t}iat it depends very much upon the quality of the water;
and he was pretty fure that this light is the greateft
when the water is fatteft, and fulleft of foam. For in
the main fea, he fays, the water is not everyvvhere
equally pure-, and that,fometimes, if linen be dipped
in the fea, it is clammy when it is drawn up again :
and he often obferved, that when the wake of the ftiip
' 4
His cenjec-
caufc.
2 ] L I G
was the brighteft, the water was the mofl fat and glu- Light,
tlnous, and that linen moiftened with it produced a V ~ *
great deal of light, if it were ftirred or moved brifldy.
Befides, in fome parts of the fea, he faw a fubftance
like faw duft, fometimes red and fometimes yellow j
and when he drew up the water in thofe places, it
was always vifcous and glutinous. The failors told
him that it wTas the fpawn of whales } that there are
great quantities of it in the north } and that fometimes,
in the night, they appeared all over of a bright light,
without being put in motion by any veffel or fifti paf-
fing by them.
As a confirmation of this conjefture, that the more
glutinous the fea water is, the more it is difpofed to
become luminous, he obferves, that one day they took a
fith which was called a bonite, the infide of the mouth of
which was fo luminous, that without any other light,
he could read the fame charafters which he had before
read by the light in the wake of the (hip •, and the
mouth of this fifti was full of a vifcous matter, which,
when it was rubbed upon a piece of wood, made it im¬
mediately all over luminous } though, when the moif-
ture was dried up, the light was extinguiflied.
The abbe Nollet was much ftruck with the lumi-Abb(s
noufnefs of the fea when he was at Venice in 1749 jlet’s theory,
and, after taking a great deal of pains to afcertain the
circumftances of it, concluded that it was occafioned
by a ftiining~infe£t } and having examined the water
very often, he at length did find a fmall infed, which
he particularly defcribes, and to which he attributes
the light. The fame hypothefis had alfo occurred to
M. Vianelli, profeffor of medicine in Chioggia near
Venice •, and both he and M. Grizellini, a phyfician in
Venice, have given drawings of the infe&s from which
they imagined this light to proceed.
The abbe was the more confirmed in his hypothefis,
by obferving, fome time after, the motion of fome lumi¬
nous particles in the fea. For, going into the water,
and keeping his head juft above the furface, he faw
them dart from the bottom, which was covered with
weeds, to the top, in a manner which he thought
very much refembled the motions of infeds} though,
when he endeavoured to catch them, he only found
fome luminous fpots upon his handkerchief, which were
enlarged when he preffed them with his finger.
M. le Roi, making a voyage on the Mediterranean,
prefently after the abbe Nollet made his obfervationstjons of M.
at Venice, took notice, that in the day time, the prowle R.oi.
of the Ihip in motion threw up many fmall particles,
which, falling upon the water, rolled upon the furface jy[emoires
of the fea for a few feconds before they mixed with prefentes,
it} and in the night the fame particles, as he con-vol.iii. 144.
eluded, had the appearance of fire. Taking a quan¬
tity of the water, the fame fmall fparks appeared
whenever it was agitated } but, as was obferved with
refped to Dr Beale’s experiments, every fucceflive agi¬
tation produced a lefs effed than the preceding, except
after being fuffered to reft a while } for then a frefty
agitation would make it almoft as luminous as the firft.
This water, he obferved, would retain its property of
fliining by agitation a day or two} but it dilappeared
immediately on being fet on the fire, though it was
not made to boil.
This gentleman, after giving much attention to this
phenomenon, concludes, that it is not occafioned by
any
J
L I G
[
t-ight.
Experi¬
ments by
M. Ant.
Martin.
Saved.
Abhand.
vol. xxiii.
p. *25.
By Mr
Canton.
any (liming infers, as the abbe Nollet imagined j efpe-
■* cially as, after carefully examining fome of the lumi¬
nous points, which he caught upon an handkerchief,
he found them to be round like large pins heads, but
with nothing of the appearance of any animal, though
he viewed them with a microfcope. He alfo found,
that the mixture of a little fpirit of wine with water
iuft drawn from the fea, would give the appearance of
a great number of little fparks, which would continue
viiible longer than thofe in the ocean. All the acids,
and various other liquors, produced the fame effeft,
though not quite fo confpicuoufly \ but no frelh agi¬
tation would make them luminous again. M. le Roi
is far from afferting that there are no luminous infeds
in the fea. He even fuppofes that the abbe Nollet
and M. Vianelli had found them. But he wras fatisfied
that the fea is luminous chiefly on fome other account,
though he does not fo much as advance a conjedure
about what it is.'
M. Ant. Martin made many experiments on the
light of fifties, with a view to difcover the caufe of the
light of the fea. He thought that he had reafon to
conclude, from a great variety of experiments, that all
fea fifties have this property j but that it is not to be
found in any that are produced in frefh water. No¬
thing depended upon the colour oi the fifties, except
that he thought that the white ones, and efpecially
thofe that had white fcales, were a little more lumi¬
nous than others. This light, he found, was increafed
by a fmall quantity of fait 3 and alfo by a fmall degree
of warmth, though a greater.degree extinguiftied it.
This agrees with another obfervation of his, that it
depends entirely upon a kind of moifture which they
had about them, and which a fmall degree of heat
would expel, when an oilinefs remained which did not
give this light, but would burn in the fire. Light from
the flefti of birds or beafts is not fo bright, he fays, as
that which proceeds from fifti. Human bodie^ he fays,
have fometimes emitted light about the time that they
began to putrefy, and the walls and roof of a place
in which dead bodies had often been expofed, had a
kind of dew or clamminefs upon it, which was fome¬
times luminous j and he imagined that the lights w hich
are faid to be feen in burying-grounds may be owing
to this caufe.
From fome experiments made by Mr Canton, he
concludes, that the luminoufnefs of fea water is owing
to the {limy and other putrefcent fubftances it con¬
tains. On the evening of the 14th of June 1768, he
put a fmall frefti whiting into a gallon of fea water, in
a pan which wras about 14 inches in diameter, and
took notice that neither the whiting nor the water,
when agitated, gave any light. A Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer, in the cellar where the pan was placed, flood
at 540. The 15th, at night, that part of the fifti
which was even with the furface of the water was lu¬
minous, but the water itfelf was dark. He drew the
end of a flick through it, from one fide of the pan to
the other ; and the water appeared luminous behind
the flick all the way, but gave light only where it
was diflurbed. When all the water was flirted, the
whole became luminous, and appeared like milk, giv¬
ing a confiderable degree of light to the fides of the
pan 3 and it continued to do fo for fome time after it
was at reft. The water was moft luminous when the.
3 1 . , li G
fifti had been in it about 28 hours 3 but would not give
any light by being ftirred, after it had been in it three v~*"
days.
He then put a gallon of frefh water into one pan,
and an equal quantity of fea water into another 3 and
into each pan he put a freth herring of about three
ounces. The next night the whole furface of the fea
water was luminous without being ftirred 3 but it was
much more fo when it was put in motion 3 and the
upper part of the herring, which was confiderably be¬
low the furface of the water, was alfo very bright j
while at the fame time the frefti water, and the fifti
that was in it, were quite dark. There were feveral
very bright luminous fpots on different parts of the
furface of the fea w^ater 3 and the whole, when viewed
by the light of a candle, feemed covered with a greafy
fcum. The third night, the light of the fea water
while at reft, was very little, if at all lefs than before 3
but when ftirred, its light was fo great as to difcover
the time by a w'atch, and the fifti in it appeared as a
dark fubftance. After this, its light was evidently de-
creafing, but was not quite gone before the 7th night.
The frefh water and the fifli in it were perfe&iy darfc
during the whole time. The thermometer was gene¬
rally above 6o°.
The preceding experiments were made with fea
water : but he now made ufe of other water, into which
he put common or fea fait, till he found, by an hydro¬
meter, that it was of the fame fpecific gravity with the
fea w'ater 3 and, at the fame time, in another gallon of
water, he diffolved two pounds of fait 3 and into each
of thefe waters he put a fmall freth herring. The next-
evening the whole furface of the artificial fea water
was luminous without being ftirred 3 but gave much
more light when it was difturbed. It appeared exaftly
like the real fea water in the preceding experiment 3
its light lafted about the fame time, and went off in
the fame manner : while the other water, which was
almoft as fait as it could be made, never gave any
light. The herring which was taken out of it the
feventh night, and u-aftied from its fait, was found firm
and fweet ; but the other herring was very fcft and
putrid, much more fo than that which had been kept
as long in frefti water. If a herring, in warm weather,
be put into 10 gallons of artificial fea water, inftead
of one, the water, he fays, will ftill become luminous,
but its light will not be fo ftrong.
It appeared by fome of the firft obfervations on
this fubjeft, that heat extinguifties the light of putref¬
cent fubftances. Mr Canton alfo attended to this cir-
cumftance 3 and obferves, that though the greateft
fummer heat is well known to promote putrefadlion,
yet 20 degrees more than that of the human blood
feems to hinder it. For putting a fmall piece of a
luminous fifti into a thin glafs ball, he found, that
water of the heat of 118 degrees would extinguifti its-
light in lefs than half a minute 3 but that, on taking
it out of the water, it would begin to recover its light
in about 10 feconds 3 but it was never afterwards fo
bright as before.
Mr Canton made the fame obfervation that Mr Ant.
Martin had done, viz. that feveral kinds of river fifti
could not be made to give light, in the fame, circum-
ftances in which any fea fifti became luminous. He
fays, howsver, that a piece cf.carp made the water very.
luminous,.
> L I G [ i
"Light, luminous, though the outlide, or fcaly part of it, did
w-y i no(. j^jne at a]{_
For the fake of thofe perfons who may choofe to re¬
peat his experiments, heobferves, that artificial fea wa¬
ter may be made without the ufe of an hydrometer, by
the proportion of four ounces avoirdupois of fait to feven
pints of water, wine meafure.
A very elaborate paper on the fubject by Dr Hulme
appeared in the Philofophical Tranfa6tions for 1800, to
which we refer our readers, and to Chemistry, p. 451.
The ocean From undoubted obfervations, however, it appears,
luminous that in many places of the ocean it is covered with lumi-
ff-dls ln" nous *n^e(^s t0 a very confiderable extent. M. Dagelet,
a French aftronomer who returned from the Terra Au-
ftralisin the year 1774, brought with him feveral kinds
of worms which fhine in water when it is fet in motion j
and M. Rigaud, in a paper inferted (if we are not mif-
taken) in the Journal des S^avans for the month of
March 1770, affirms, that the luminous furface of the
fea, from the port of Breft to the Antilles, contains an
immenfe quantity of little, round, fhining polypufes of
about a quarter of a line in diameter. Other learned
men, who acknowledge the exiftence of thefe luminous
animals, cannot, however, be perfuaded to confider
them as the caufe of all that light and fcintillation that
appear on the furface of the ocean : they think that
fome fubftance of the phofphorus kind, arifing from pu-
trefa£lion, mull be admitted as one of the caufes of this
phenomenon. M. Godehoue has publilhed curious ob¬
fervations on a kind of filh called in French bonite, al¬
ready mentioned ; and though he hasobferved, and ac¬
curately defcribed, feveral of the luminous infe£ls that
are found in fea-water, he is, neverthelefs, of opinion,
that the fcintillation and flaming light of the fea pro¬
ceed from the oily and greafy fubltances with which it
is impregnated.
The abbe No'llet was long of opinion, that the light
of the fea proceeded from ele£lricity (a) j though he
afterwards feemed inclined to think, that this pheno¬
menon wras caufed by fmall animals, either by their lu¬
minous afpeft, or at leafl by fome liquor or effluvia
which they emitted. He did not, however, exclude
other caufes j among thefe, the fpawn or fry of filh de-
ferves to be noticed. M. Dagelet, failing into the bay
of Antongil, in the illand of Madagafcar, obferved a
prodigious quantity of fry which covered the furface
of the fea above a mile in length, and which he at firll
took for banks of fand on account of their colour •, they
exhaled a difagreeable odour, and the fea had appear¬
ed with uncommon fplendour fome days before. The
fame accurate obferver, perceiving the fea remarkably
luminous in the road of the Cape of Good Hope during
a perfedl calm, remarked, that the oars of the canoes
produced a whitiffl and pearly kind of lullre ; when he
took in his hand the water which contained this phof¬
phorus, he difcerned in it, for fome minutes, globule,'*
of light as large as the heads of pins. When he preffed
thefe globules, they appeared1 to his touch like a foft
and thin pulp j and fome days after the fea w as covered
4 ] L 1 G
near the coalls with whole banks of thefe little filh in Light-
innumerable multitudes. y-^.
To putrefaclion, alfo, fome are willing to attribute
that luminous appearance which goes by the name of
ignis fatuus, to which the credulous vulgar afcribe very Ignis
extraordinary and efpecially mifehievous powers. It tuns.
is moll frequently obferved in boggy places and near
rivers, though fometimes alfo in dry places. By its
appearance benighted travellers are laid to have been
fometimes milled into marlhy places, taking the light
which they faw before them for a candle at a dillancej
from which feemingly mifehievous property it has been
thought by the vulgar to be a fpirit of a malignant na¬
ture, and been named accordingly f'pz// with a wi/p, or
Jack with a lanthorn ; for the fame reafon alfo it pro¬
bably had its Latin name ignis fatuus.
Tiiis kind of light is faid to be frequent about bury¬
ing places and dunghills. Some countries are alfo
remarkable for it, as about Bologna in Italy, and fome
parts of Spain and Ethiopia. Its forms are fo un¬
certain and variable that they can fcarce be defcribed,
efpecially as few philofophical obfeivers ever had the
good fortune to meet with it. Dr Derham, however,
happened one night to perceive one of them, and got
fo near that he could have a very advantageous view
of it. This is by no means eafy to be obtained } for,
among other Angularities of the ignis fatuus, it is
obferved to avoid the approach of any perfon, and
fly from place to place as if it was animated. That
which Dr Derham obferved was in fome boggy ground
betwixt two rocky hillsand the night w as dark and
calm; by which means, probably, he was enabled to
advance within two or three yards of it. It appeared
like a complete body ©f light without any divifion, fo
that he was fure it could not be occafioned by infers
as fome have fuppofed; the feparate lights of which
he could not have failed to diftinguilh, had it been
occafloned by them. The light kept dancing about
a dead thiftle, till a very flight motion of the air, oc¬
cafioned, as he fuppofed, by his near approach to it,
made it jump to another place; after which it kept
flying before him as he advanced. M. Beccaria endea¬
voured to procure all the intelligence he could concern¬
ing this phenomenon, by inquiring of all his acquaint¬
ance who might have had an opportunity of obferving
it. Thus he obtained information that two of thefe
lights appeared in the plains about Bologna, the one to
the north, and the other to the fouth, of that city, and
w ere to be feen almoft every dark night, efpecially that
to the call ward, giving a light equal to an ordinary
faggot. The latter appeared to a gentleman of his ac¬
quaintance as he w as travelling ; moved conllantly be¬
fore him for about a mile ; and gave a better light
than a torch w hich was carried before him. Both thefe
appearances gave a very ftrong light, and were con¬
llantly in motion, though this- various and uncertain.
Sometimes they would rife, fometimes fink ; but com¬
monly they would hover about fix feet from the
ground ; they would alfo frequently difappear on a fud-
den,
(a) This hypothefis was alfo maintained in a treatife publilhed at Venice in 1746, by an officer in the
Aullrian fervice, under the title, De/P Eletrecifmo,
L I G [i
Lt'gbt. den, and appear again in fome other place. They dif-
fered alfo in fize and figure, fometimes fpreading pret¬
ty wide, and then contra£hng themfelvesj fometimes
breaking into two, and then joining again. Sometimes
they would appear like w-aves, at others they would
feem to drop fparks of fire : they were but little affect¬
ed by the wind •, and in wet and rainy weather were
frequently obferved to caft a ftronger light than in dry
weather : they were alfo obferved more frequently
when fnow lay upon the ground, than in the hotted;
fummer •, but he was affured that there was not a dark
night throughout the whole year in which they were
not to be feen. The ground to the eaftward of Bolog¬
na, where the largeft of thefe appearances was obferved,
is a hard chalky foil mixed with clay, which will re¬
tain the moifture for a long time, but breaks and cracks
in hot weather. On the mountains, where the foil is of
a loofer texture, and lefs capable of retaining moifture,
the ignes fatui were lefs.
From the belt information which M. Beccaria was
able to procure, he found that thefe lights were very
frequent about rivers and brooks. He concludes
his narrative with the following lingular account:
“ An intelligent gentleman travelling in the evening,
between eight and nine, in a mountainous road about
ten miles fouth of Bologna, perceived a light which
Ihone very ftrangely upon fome ftones which lay on the
banks of the river Rioverde. It feemed to be about
two feet above the ftones, and not far from the water.
In fize and figure it had the appearance of a parallele¬
piped, fomewhat more than a foot in length, and half
a foot high, the longeft fide being parallel to the ho¬
rizon. Its light was fo ftrong, that he could plainly
difcern by it part of a neighbouring hedge and the
water of the river •, only in the eaft corner of it the
light was rather faint, and the fquare figure lefs per-
feCl, as if it w as cut off or darkened by the fegment of
a circle. On examining it a little nearer, he was fur-
prifed to find that it changed gradually from a bright
red, firft to a yellowilh, and then to a pale colour, in
proportion as he drew nearer ; and when he came to
the place itfelf, it quite vanilhed. Upon this he ftep-
ped back, and not only faw it again, but found that
the farther he w^ent from it, the ftronger and brighter
it grew. When he examined the place of this lumi¬
nous appearance, he could perceive no fmell nor any
other mark of fire.” This account was confirmed by
another gentleman, w'ho informed M. Beccaria, that he
had feen the fame light five or fix different times in
fpring and in autumn 5 and that it always appeared of
the lame ftiape, and in the very fame placed One night
in particular, he obferved it come out of a neighbouring
field to fettle in the ufual place.
A very remarkable account of an ignis fatuus is
given by Dr Shaw in his Travels to the Holy Land.
It appeared in the valleys of Mount Ephraim, and at¬
tended him and his company for more than an hour.
Sometimes it would appear globular, or in the fhape of
the fiame of a candle j at others it would fpread to fuch
a degree as to involve the whole company in a pale in-
offenfive light, then contraft itfelf, and fuddenly dis¬
appear*, but in lefs than a minute would appear again;
fometimes running fwiftly along, it would expand itfelf
at certain intervals over more than two or three acres
of the adjacent mountains. The atmofphere from the
5 J L I G
beginning of the evening had been remarkably thick Light,
and hazy ; and the dew, as they felt it on the bridles'-“‘v'-
of their horfes, was very clammy and un&uous.
Lights refembling the ignis fatuus are fometimes
obferved at fea, fkipping about the mafts and rigging
of (hips ; and Dr Shaw informs us, that he has feen
thefe in fuch weather as that juft mentioned when he
faw the ignis fatuus in Paleftine. Similar appearances
have been obferved in various other fituations; and we
are told of one which appeared about the bed of a
woman in Milan, furrounding it as u'ell as her body
entirely. This light fled from the hand which ap¬
proached it; but was at length entirely difperfed by the
motion of the air. Of the fame kind allb, moft pro¬
bably, are thofe fmall luminous appearances which fome¬
times appear in houfes or near them, called in Scot¬
land Eif candles^ and which are fuppofed to portend
the death of fome perfon about the houfe. In general
thefe lights are harmlefs, though not alw ays; for we
have accounts of fome luminous vapours which would
encompafs ftacks of hay and corn, and fet them on
fire ; fo that they became obje£ls of great terror and
concern to the country people. Of thefe it was
obferved, that they would avoid a drawn fword, or
ftiarp-pointed iron inftrument, and that they w-ould
be driven away by a great noife ; both which methods
were made ufe of to diflipate them : and it was like-
wife obferved, that they came from fome diftance, as it
were on purpofe to do mifchief.
Several philofophers have endeavoured to account
for thefe appearances, but hitherto with no great
iuccefs ; ^ror indeed does there feem to be fufficient
data for folving all their phenomena. Willoughby*,
Ray, and others, have imagined that the light was
occafioned by a number of fhining infers; but this
opinion was never fupported in fuch a manner as
to gain much ground. The ignis fatuus feen by Dr
Derham above mentioned, as w-ell as all the other in-
ftances we have related, feem to demonftrate the
contrary. Sir Ifaac Newton calls it a vapour (hin-
ing without heat ; and fuppofes that there is the fame
difference between the vapour of ignis fatuus and
flame, that there is between the ftiining of rotten
wood and burning coals. But though this feems gene¬
rally to be the cafe, there are ftill fome exceptions,
as has been inftanced in the vapours which fet fire to
the ftacks of corn. Dr Prieftley fuppofes that the light
is of the fame nature with that produced by putref-
cent fubftances; and others are of opinion, that thd
ele&rica] fluid is principally concerned ; but none
have attempted to give any particular folution of the
phenomena.
From the frequent appearance of the ignis fatuus
in marfties, moift ground, burying places, and dung¬
hills, w'e are naturally led to conclude, that putrefa&ion
is concerned in the produftion of it. This procefs,
we know, is attended with the emiflion of an aqueous
fteam, together with a quantity of fixed, inflammable,,
and azotic airS, all blended together in the form
of vapour. It is likewife attended with fome de¬
gree of heat; and we know that there are fome va¬
pours, that of fulphur particularly, which become lu¬
minous, with a degre of heat much lefs than that fuffi¬
cient to fet fire to combuftible bodies. There is no
inctmfiftency, therefore, in fuppofing that the putrid
vapour
L I G . t 16
vapour may be capable of ftuning with a ftill fmaller
degree of heat than that of fulphur, and confequently
become luminous by that which putrefaction alone af¬
fords. This would account for the ignis fatuus, were
it only a fteady luminous vapour arifing from places
where putrid matters are contained; but its extreme
mobility, and flying from one place to another on the
approach of any perfon, cannot be accounted for on this
principle. If one quantity of the putrid vapour be¬
comes luminous by means of heat, all the reft ought
to do fo likewife j fo that, though wre may allow heat
and putrefaction to be concerned, yet of neceflity we
mu ft have recourfe to fome other agent, which cannot
be any other but eleftricity. Without this, it is im-
poftible to conceive how any body of moveable vapour
iliould not be carried away by the wind } but fo far is
this from being the cafe, that the ignes fatui, defcribed
by M. Beccaria, were but little affeaed by the wind.
It is befides proved by undoubted experiment, that
elearicity always is attended with fome degree of heat j
and this, however fmall, may be fufficient to give a lu¬
minous property to any vapour on which it aas ftrong-
ly ; not to mention, that the eleadc fluid itfelf is no
other than that of light, and may therefore by its aaion
eafily produce a luminous appearance independent of
any vapour.
We have a ftrong proof that elearicity is con¬
cerned, or indeed the principal agent, in producing
the ignis fatuus, from an experiment related by Dr
Prieftley of a flame of this kind being artificially pro¬
duced. A gentleman, who had been making many
eiearical experiments for a whole afternoon in a fmall
room, on going out of it, obferved a flame following
him at fome little diftance. This, we have no reafon
to doubt, was a true ignis fatuus, and the circumftances
neceffary to produce it were then prefent, viz. an at-
mofphere impregnated with animal vapour, and like¬
wife ftrongly electrified. Both thefe circumftances un¬
doubtedly muft have taken place in the prefent cafe ;
for the quantity of peripiration emitted by a human
body is by no means ineonfiderable •, and it, as well as
the eleClricity, would be collected by reafon of the
fmallnefs of the room. In this cafe, however, there
feems to have been a confiderable difterence between
the artificial ignis fatuus and thofe commonly met with j
for this flame followed the gentleman as he went out
of the room •, but the natural ones commonly fly
from thofe who approach them. This may be ac¬
counted for, from a difference between the eleftricity
of the atmofphere in the one room and the other *, in
which cafe the flame would naturally be attrafted to¬
wards that place where the eleftricity w’as either dif¬
ferent in quality or in quantity •, but in the natural
way, where all bodies may be fuppofed equally elec¬
trified for a great way round, a repulfion will as natu¬
rally take place. Still, however, this does not feem to
be always the cafe. In thofe inftances where travellers
have been attended by an ignis fatuus, we cannot fup-
pofe it to have been influenced by any other power than
what we call altraBion, and which ele&ricity is very
capable of producing. Its keeping at fome diftance is
likewife eafily accounted for ; as we know that bodies
poffeffed of different quantities of eledricity may be
made to attrad one another for a certain fpace, and
then repel without having ever come into contad.
]
L I G
On this principle we may account for the light which
furrounded the woman at Milan, but fled from the
hand of any other perfon. On the fame principle may
we account for thefe mifehievous vapours which fet
fire to the hay and corn Hacks, but were driven away
by prefenting to them a pointed iron inftrument, or by
making a noife. Both thefe are known to have a great
effed upon the eledric matter \ and by means of either,
even lightning may oecafionally be made to fall upon
or to avoid particular places, according to the circum¬
ftances by w hich the general mafs happens to be affed-
ed at that time.
On the w hole, therefore, it feems moft probable, that
the ignis fatuus is a colledion of vapour of the pu-
trefeent kind, very much affeded by eledricity •, ac¬
cording to the degree of which, it will either give a
weak or ftrong light, or even fet fire to certain fub-
ftances difpofed to receive its operation. This opinion
feems greatly to be confirmed from fome luminous ap¬
pearances obferved in privies, where the putrid vapours
have even colleded themlelves into balls, and exploded
violently on the approach of a candle. This laft effed,
however, we cannot fo well aferibe to the eledricity, as
to the accenfion of the inflammable air which frequent¬
ly abounds in fuch places.
In the appendix to Dr Prieftley’s third volume of
Experiments and Obfervations on Air, Mr Warltire
gives an account of fome very remarkable ignes fatui,
which he obferved on the road to Bromfgrove, about
five miles from Birmingham. The time of obfervation
was the 12th of December 1776, before day-hght. A
great many of thefe lights were playing in an adjacent
fields in different diredions j from fome of which there
fuddenly fprung up bright branches of light, fomething
refembling the explofion of a rocket that contained
many brilliant ftars, if the discharge w'as upwards, in-
ftead of the ufual diredxon j and the hedge and trees
on each fide of the hedge were illuminated. This ap¬
pearance continued but a few feconds, and then the
jack-a-lanterns played as before. Mr Warltire was not
near enough to obferve if the apparent explofions were
attended with any report.
Cronftedt gives it as his opinion, that ignis fatuus,
as well as the meteors called falling Jlars, are owing to
collodions of inflammable air raifed to a great height
in the atmofphere. But, with regard to the latter,
the vaft height at which they move evidently (how's
that they cannot be the effed of any gravitating vapour
whatever 5 for the lighteft inflammable air is one-twelfth
of that of the common atmofphere : and we have no
reafon to believe, that at the diftance of 40 or 50 miles
from the earth, the latter has near one-twelfth of its
weight at the furface. From the account given by
Mr Warltire, we ftiould be apt to conclude, that there
is a ftrong affinity betwixt (ha ignes fatui and fire balls,
infomuch that the one might be very eafily converted
into the other. From this then we muft aferibe an
eledrical origin to the one as well as the other. Elec¬
tricity, w'e know, can afl'ume both thefe appearances,
as is evident in the cafe of points j or even when the
atmofphere is violently eledrified, as around the ftring
of an 'eledrical kite, which always will appear to be
furrounded with a blue flame in the night, if the elec¬
tricity be very ftrong.
On the whole, it appears, that eledricity ading up¬
on
Light.
L I G [i
Phofphoric
light.
on a fmall quantity of atmofpherical air, with a certain
degree of vigour, will produce an appearance refem-
bling an ignis fatuus; with a fuperior force it will pro¬
duce a fire ball; and a fudden increafe of eleftrical
power might produce thofe fparks and apparent ex-
plofions, obferved by Mr Warltire. The only diffi¬
culty therefore is, Why does eleftricity exert its power
upon one portion of the atmofphere rather than an¬
other, feeing it has an opportunity of diffufing itfelf
equally through the whole ? To this it feems im-
poffible to give any other reafon than that we fee the
fa<ft is fo ; and that in all cafes where there is a quan¬
tity of eleftrified air or vapour, there will be an accu¬
mulation in one part rather than another. Thus, in
the experiment already related, where the gentleman
perceived a blue flame following him, the whole air
of the room was eleftrifled, but the greateft power of
the fluid was exerted on that which gave the luminous
appearance.
With regard to the ufes of the ignes fatui in the
fyflem of nature, we can only fay, that they feem to
be accidental appearances refulting from the motion of
the eledtric fluid, and, no doubt, like other meteors
fubfervient to the prefervation of its equilibrium, and
thus are ufeful in preventing thofe dreadful commo¬
tions which enfue when a proper medium for fo doing
is deficient.
A light in fome refpedfs fimilar to thofe above men¬
tioned has been found to proceed from that celebrated
chemical production called phofphorus, which always
tends to decompofe itfelf, fo as to take fire by the accefs
of air only. Phofphorus, therefore, when it emits
light, is properly a body ignited ; though when a very
fmall quantity of it is ufed, as what is left after draw¬
ing it over paper, or what may be diffolved in effential
oil, the heat is not fenfible. But perhaps the matter
which emits the light in what we call putrefcent fub-
Jfances may be fimilar to it, though it be generated by
a different procefs, and burn with a lefs degree of heat.
Putrefcence does not feem to be neceffary to the light
of glow-worms or of the pholades ; and yet their light
is fufficiently fimilar to that of thining wood or fleffi.
Electric light is unqueftionably fimilar to that of phof¬
phorus, though the fource of it is apparently very dif¬
ferent.
Kunckel formed his phofphorus into a kind of pills
about the fize of peas, which being moiftened a little,
and feraped in the dark, yielded a very confiderable
light, but not without fmoke. The light w'as much
more pleafing when eight or ten of thefe pills were put
into a glafs of water ; for being ffiaken in the dark,
the whole glafs feemed to be filled with light. Kunc¬
kel alfo reduced his phofphorus into the form of larger
flones; which being warmed by a perfon’s hand, and
rubbed upon paper, would defcribe letters that were
very legible in the dark.
The greatert variety of experiments with the light
of phofphorus was made by Dr Slare, who fays, that
the liquid phofphorus (which is nothing more than the
folid phofphorus diffolved in any of the effential oils)
would not hurt even a lady’s hand ; or that, when the
hands or face were vraffied with it, it would not only
make them vifible to other perfons in the dark, but that
the light was fo confiderable as to make ether neigh¬
bouring objects vifible.
Vol. XII. Part I.
7 ] L I G
When the folid phofphorus is quite immerfed in wa- higlit-
ter, he obferves that it ceafes to Ityine ; but that if any l——v--—'
part of it chance to emerge, or get into the air, it will
Ihine though the glafs be hermetically fealed. In a
large glafs he kept it without water for feveral days;
and yet it continued ffiining, with very little diminu¬
tion of its light or weight. If the letters that were w rit-
ten with this phofphorus were warmed by the fire, they
prefently became dark lines, which continued upon the
paper, like ink. To try how much light was given by
a fmall quantity of this phofphorus, he obferved that
it continued to flame in the open air for feven or
eight days; the light being vifible whenever he fhut
his window.
As air was generally thought to contain the pabu¬
lum of flame, Dr Slare was determined to try this with
rtfpe£l to phofphorus ; and for this purpofe he placed
a large piece of it in a receiver ; but upon exhaufting
it, he perceived that it became more luminous, and
that, upon admitting the air, it returned to its former
ftate. This property of the light of phofphorus, which
is the very reverfe of that of ffiining wood and fiflies,
was alfo afcertained by feveral very accurate experi¬
ments of Mr Hauklbee’s.
Endeavouring to blow the phofphorus into a flame
with a pair of bellows, Dr Slare found that it was pre¬
fently blown out, and that it was a confiderable time
before the light revived again. All liquors would ex-
tinguilh this light when the phofphorus was put into
them; nor would it fliine or burn, though it was even
boiled in the mofl: inflammable liquors, as oil of olives,
fpirit of turpentine, or even fpirit of wine.
In order to keep his phofphorus from confuming,
he ufed to put it in a glafs of water ; and fometimes he
has feen it, when thus immerfed in water, make fuch
bright and vigorous corufcations in the air, as, he fays,
would furprife and frighten thofe who are not ufed to
the phenomenon. This fiery meteor, he fays, is con-
tradted in its paffage through the water, but expands
as foon as it gets above it. If any perfon would make
this experiment to advantage, he informs them that the
glafs muft be deep and cylindrical, and not above three
quarters filled with water. This effedt he perceived in
warm weather only, and never in cold.
The phofphorus of which we have been treating is
prepared from urine; but in fome cafes the fweat,
which is fimiliar to urine, has been obferved to be
phofphoraceous, without any preparation. This once CaUi-
happened to-a perfon who ufed to eat great quantities rienfa,
of fait, and who was a little fubjedt to the gout, after v°l v-
fweating with violent exercife. Stripping himfelf in P’334*
the dark, his ffiirt feemed to be all on fire, which fur-
prifejl him very much. Upon examination, red fpots
were found upon his ffiirt; and the phyfician who was
prefent perceived an urinous fmell, though it had no¬
thing in it of volatile alkali, but of the muriatic acid .
the fame, he fays, that iffues from cabbage much fail¬
ed, and ftrongly fermented.
The eafieft method of accounting for all thefe kinds All thefe
of lights, perhaps, is from eledlrieity. If light confifts ac"
in a certain vibration of the eledtric fluid *, then it fol-
lows, that in whatever fubflances fuch a vibration takes r;clty
place, their light mufl: appear, whether in putrefcent * See Elec*
animal fubftances, fea water, phofphorus, or any thing tricity.
elfe. We know that the eledlric matter pervades all
C terreftrial
L I G [ 18
terreftrial fubflancesr and is very liable to be fet in mo¬
tion from caufes of which we are ignorant. The ac¬
tion of the air by which putrefaftion is produced may
be one of thefe caufes j and it can by no means appear
furprifing that the eleflric matter fhould aft in the bo¬
dies of living animals in fuch a manner as to produce
a permanent light, when we certainly know it afts in
fbme of them fo powerfully as to produce a fhock fimi-
lar to that of a charged phial. On this, fubjeft we
{hall only obferve farther, that when this vibration be¬
comes fo powerful as to penetrate the folid fubtlance of
the body itfelf, the luminous body then becomes tranl-
parent, as in the milk mentioned in the former part of
this article ; but when it is only fuperficial, the body,
though it emits light, is itfelf opaque.
LlGHT from Diamonds. Among luminous bodies the
diamond is to be reckoned •, as feme diamonds are known
to (bine in the dark. But on account of the feeblenefs
of their fplendour, it is neCelfary for the perfon who is
to obferve them, previoufly to ftay in the dark at leafi:
a quarter of an hour } that the pupil of the eye may
be dilated and enlarged, and fo rendered capable of
receiving a large quantity of the rays of light. M. ou
Fay has alfo obferved, that the eyes ought to be (hut
for this time, or at leaft one of them } ana that, in that
cafe, the light of the diamond is afterwards only feen by
that eye which has been {hut. Before the diamond is
brought into the dark room, it muft be expofed.to the
funflrine, or at lean to the open daylight, to imbibe
a fufficient quantity of rays •, and this is done in one
minute, or even lefs ; eight or ten feconds having
been found to furnifh as much light as a done is ca¬
pable of receiving : and when brought into the dark,
its light continues about twelve or thirteen minutes,
weakening all the while by infenfible degrees. . It is
very remarkable, that in bodies fo extremely fimilar to
each other as diamonds are, fotne (hould have this pro¬
perty of imbibing the fun’s rays, and (hining in the
dark, and that others fhould not ; yet fo it is found
to be by experiment, and the mod nearly refembling
dones (hall be found one to have this property, and
another to be deditute of it $ while many of the mod
didimilar have the property in common. There feems
to be no rule, nor even the lead traces of any imper-
feft rule of judging, which diamonds have, and which
have not this property ; their natural brightnefs, their
purity, their fize, or their {hape,. contribute nothing
to it : and all that has been yet difeovered of the lead
regularity among them, is, that all yellow diamonds
have this property. This is fuppofed to arife from
their having more fulphur in their compofition, and
therefore illuminating more readily, or emitting a more
vifible dame.
The burning of diamonds is a term ufed among the
jewellers, for putting them into a fierce fire, as they
frequently do, when they are fouled with brown, or
yellow, or tbe like 5 this always diveds them of their
colour, without doing then! the lead fe'ndble injury.
M. du Fay, having been informed of this common prac¬
tice, formed a eonjeftitre, thdt the difference of dia¬
monds in their (hining or not fhintng in the dark, w&s
©wing to it ; and that either all thofe which had been
burnt, or all tbofe which had not, were thofe Hrhich
alone {bone in the dark. But this was found an erro¬
neous conjefture ; for two diamonds, one lueid in tbe
“ 3.
1 L I G
dark, the other not, were both burnt, and afterwards Light
both were found to retain the fame properties they
had before. It is not only the open fundiine, or open
daylight, which gives to thefe diamonds the power of
{hining in the dark •, they receive it in the fame man¬
ner even if laid under a glafs, or plunged in water or
in milk.
M. du Fay tried whether it was poffible to make the
diamond retain, for any longer time, the light it na¬
turally parts with fo foon } and found, that if the dia¬
mond, after being expofed to the light, be covered with
black wax, it will (bine in the dark, as well fix hours
afterwards as at the time it was firft impregnated with
the light.
The imbibing light, in this manner, being fo nice
a property as not to be found in feveral diamonds, it
was not to be fuppofed that it would be found in any
other {{ones : accordingly, on trial, the ruby, the fap-
phire, and the topaz, were found wholly deftitute of
it} and among a large number of rough emeralds, one
only was found to poflefs, it. Such is the ftrange un¬
certainty of thefe accidents.
Ail the other lefs precious Hones were tried, and
found not to poffefs this property of imbibing ligh^
from the daylight or funfhine, but they all became
luminous by the different means of heating or friftion :
with this difference, that lome acquired it by one. of
tbefe methods, and others by the other •, each being
unaffefted by that which gave the property to the
other. The diamond becomes luminous by ad thefe
ways.
Beccarius alfo difeovered, that diamonds have the
property of the Bolognian phofphorus, about the fame
time that it occurred to 1VI. du Fay. Com. Lonon..
vol. ii. p. 276. M. du Fay likewife obferved, that the
common topaz, when calcined, had all the propertie s’ of
this phofphorus ; and purfuing the difeoyery, he found
the fame property in a great degree, in the beltn'r-
nites, gypfum, limeftone, and marble: though he was
obliged to diffolve fotfie very hard fubffances of this
kind in acids, before calcination could produce this
change in them j and with fome fubftances. he eonld
not fucceed even thus 5 efpecially with flint ftbnes,
river fand, jafpers, agates, and rock cryftal.
Light from Plants. In Sweden a.very curious phe¬
nomenon has been obferved on certain flowers by Mb
Haggern, lefturer fh natural hiftory. One evening
he perceived a faint fialh of light repeatedly dart from
a marigold. Surprifed at fuch an uncommon appear¬
ance, he refolved to examine it with attention; and,,
to be affured it was no deception of the eye, he placed
a man near him, with orders to make a fignal at the
moment when he obferved the light. They both faw
it conffantly at the fame moment.
The light was moft brilliant on marigolds of an
orange or flame colour; but fcarcely viable on pale
ones.
The flafh was frequently feen on the fame flower two
or three times in quick fucceflion ; but more common¬
ly at intervals of feveral minutes: and when fevcral
flowers in the fame place emitted their light together,,
it could be obferved at a confiderable diffance.
This phenomenon was remarked in the months of
July and Auguft at funfet, and for half an hour, when
the atmofphere was clear; but after a rainy day, or
* when
L I G [i
Light
11
L'ght-
Houfe.
when the air was loaded with vapours, nothing of it
was feen.
The following flowers emitted flaflies, more or lefs
t vivid, in this order :
1. The marigold, calendula officinalis.
2. Monk’s hood, tropceolum majus.
3. The orange lily, lilium bulbiferum.
4. The Indian pink, tagetes patula et erella.
To difcover whether fome little infedls or phofpho-
ric worms might not be the caufe of it, the flowers were
carefully examined, even with a microfcope, without
any fuch thing being found.
From the rapidity of the flalh, and other circumftan-
ces, it may be conje&ured that there is fomething of
eleftricity in this phenomenon. It is well known, that
when the piflil of a flow'er is impregnated, the pollen
feurfts away by its elafticity, with v/hich eleftricity may
be combined. But M. Haggern, after having obferved
the flafli from the orange lily, the antherse of which are
a conflderable fpace diftant from the petals, found that
the light proceeded from the petals only ; whence he
concludes, that this eleftric light is caufed by the pol¬
len, which, in flying off, is fcattered on the petals.
Whatever be the caufe, the eflecl is Angular and high¬
ly curious.
Lights, in Painting, are thofe parts of a piece
which are illuminated, or that lie open to the, luminary
by which the piece is fuppofed to be enlightened •, and
which, for this reafon, are painted in bright vivid co¬
lours.
In this fenfe, light is oppofed to fliadow.
Different lights have very different effe&s on a pic¬
ture, and occaflon a difference in the management of
every part. A great deal therefore depends on the
painter’s chooflng a proper light for his piece to be
illuminated by j and a great deal more, in the condud
of the lights and Ihadows, when the luminary is pitch¬
ed upon.
The rtrength and relievo of a figure, as well as its
gracefulnefs, depend entirely on the management of
the lights, and the joining of thofe to the ihadows.
The light-a figure receives is either dired or refled-
ed ; to each of which fpecial regard mull be had. The
dodrine of lights and ihadows makes that part of paint¬
ing called clair-obfcure.
LlGHT-Horfe, an ancient term in our Englilh cuf-
toms, fignifying an ordinary cavalier or horfeman light¬
ly armed, and fo as to enter a corps or regiment 5 in
oppofition to the men at arms, who were heavily ac¬
coutred, and armed at all points. See Light-HORSE.
LlGHT-Houfe, a building ereded upon a cape or pro¬
montory on the fea coaft, or upon fome rock in the
fea, and having on its top in the night-time a great
fire, or light formed by candles, which is conftantly
attended by fome careful perfon, fo as to be feen at a
great diftance from the land. It is ufed to dired the
ihipping on the coaft, that might otherwife run aftiore,
or fleer an improper courfe, when the darknefs of the
night and the uncertainty of currents, &c. might ren¬
der their fituation with regard to the fliore extremely
doubtful. Lamp-lights are, on many accounts, pre¬
ferable to coal fires or candles; and the effed of thefe
may be increafed by placing them either behind glafs
hemifpheres, or before properly difpofed glafs or me-
9 ] L I G
tal refledors, which laft method is now very generally
adopted. See Beacons.
LlGHT-Roorn, a fmall apartment, enclofed with glafs
windows, near the magazine of a fhip of war. It is
ufed to contain the lights by which the gunner and his
afliftants are enabled to fill cartridges with powder to
be ready for adion.
LIGHTER, a large, open, flat-bottomed veffel, ge¬
nerally managed with oars, and employed to carry
goods to or from a (hip when (lie is to be laden or de¬
livered.—There are alfo fome lighters furniihed with
a deck throughout their whole length, in order to con¬
tain thofe merchandifes which would be damaged by
rainy weather : thefe are ufually called clofe lighters.
LIGHTFOOT, John, a mod learned Englifli di¬
vine, was the fon of a divine, and born in March
1602, at Stoke upon Trent in Staffordfliire. After
having finifhed his (Indies at a fchool on Morton-green
near Congleton in Chethire, he was removed in 1617
to Cambridge, where he applied himfelf to eloquence,
and fucceeded fo well in it as to be thought the bed
orator of the under graduates in the univerfity. He
alfo made an extraordinary proficiency in the Latin
and Greek $ but neglefted the Hebrew, and even loft
that knowledge he brought of it from fchool. His
tafte for the oriental languages was not yet excited $
and as for logic, the ftudy of it as managed at that
time among the academics, was too quarrelfome and
fierce for his quiet and meek difpofition. As foon as
he had taken the degree of B. A. he left the univer¬
fity, and became afliftant to a fchool at Repton in
Derbyftiire. After he had fupplied this place a year
or two, he entered into orders, and became curate of
Norton under Hales in Shropftiire. This curacy gave
an occafion of awakening his genius for the Hebrew
tongue. Norton lies near Bellaport, then the feat of
Sir Rowland Cotton 5 who was his conftant hearer,
made him his chaplain, and took him into his houfe.
This gentleman being a perfeft mafter of the Hebrew
language, engaged Lightfoot in that ftudy ; who, by
converfing with his patron, foon became fenfible that
without that knowledge it was impoflxble to attain an
accurate underftanding of the fcriptures. He there¬
fore applied himfelf to it with extraordinary vigour,
and in a little time made a great progrefs in it: and
his patron removing with his family to refide in Lon¬
don, at the requeft of Sir Alland Cotton his uncle,
who was lord-mayor of that city, he followed his pre¬
ceptor thither. But he did not ftay long there : for,
having a mind to improve himfelf by travelling abroad,
he w'ent down into Staffordfhire to take leave of his
father and mother. Palling through Stone in that
county, he found the place deftitute of a minifler : and
the prefling inftances of the parifhioners prevailed up¬
on him to undertake that cure. Hereupon, laying
afide his defign of travelling abroad, he began to turn
his thoughts upon fettling at home. During his refi-
dence at Bellaport, he had fallen into the acquaintance
of a gentlewoman who was daughter of William
Crompton of Stonepark, Efq. and now, being in pof-
feflion of that living, he married her in 1628. But
notwithftanding this fettlement, bis unquenchable third
after rabbinical learning would not fuffer him to con¬
tinue there. Sion-college library at London, he knew,
C 2 was
Hcufe
Lightfoot.
*
L I G, r 20
IJglitfoot. vas well flocked with books of that kind.-. He there-
' fore quitted his charge at Stone, and removed with his
family to Hornfey, near the city ; where he gave the
public a notable fpecimen of his advancement in thofe
liudies, by his “ Erubhim, or Mifcellanies Chriftian
and Judaical,” in 1629. He was at this time only
27 years of age j and appears to have been well ac-
quainted with the Latin and the Greek fathers, as well
as the ancient heathen writers. Thefe firft fruits of
his itudies were dedicated to Sir Rowland Gotton j
who, in 1631, pvefented him to the redlory of Alhley
in Staft’ordlhire. '
He feemed now to be fixed for life: Accordingly,
he built a itudy in the garden, to be out of the node
of the houfe $ and applied himfelf with indefatigable
diligence in fearching the fcriptures. Thus employ¬
ed, the days paffed very agreeably, and he continued
quiet and unmolefted, till the great change which
happened in the public affairs brought him into a ihare
of the adminiftration relating to the church j for he
was nominated a member of the memorable aflembly
of divines for fettling a new form of ecclefiaftical po¬
lity. This appointment was purely the effeft of his
diftinguifhed merit j and he accepted it purely with a
view to ferve his country, as far as lay in his power.
The non-refidence, which this would neceffarily occa-
fion, apparently induced him to refign his reftory :
and having obtained the prefentation for a younger
brother, he fet out for London in 1642. He had now
fatisfied himfelf in clearing up many of the abftrufeft
paflages in the Bible, and therein had provided the chief
materials, as well as formed the plan, of his “ Harmo¬
ny j” and an opportunity of infpe&ing it at the prefs
was, no doubt, an additional motive for his going to
the capital : where he had not been long before he
was chofen minifter of St Bartholomew’s, behind the
Royal Exchange. The affembly of divines meeting in
1643, our author gave his attendance diligently there,
and made a diftinguifhed figure in their debates 5 where
he ufed great freedom, and gave fignal proofs of his
courage as well as learning, in oppofing many of thofe
tenets which the divines were endeavouring to eftablifh.
His learning recommended him to the parliament,
whofe vifitors, having eje&ed Dr William Spurftow
from the mafterfhip of Catharine-hall in Cambridge,
put Lightfoot in his room, this year 1653 ; and he
was alfo prefented to the living of Much-Munden in
Hertfordfhire, void by the death of Dr Samuel Ward,
Margaret-profeffor of divinity in that univerfity, before
the expiration of this year. Meanwhile he had his-turn
with other favourites in preaching before the houfe of
commons, moft of which fermons were printed ; and in
them we fee him warmly preffing the fpeedy fettlement
of the church in the Prefbyterian form, which he cor¬
dially believed to be according to the pattern in the
Mount. He was all the while employed in preparing
and publifhing the feveral branches of his Harmony ; all
which were fo many excellent fpecimens of the ufeful-
nefs of human learning to true religion ; and he met
with great difficulties and difcouragements in that work,
chiefly from that antiernditional fpirit which prevailed,
and even threatened the deftru&ion of the univerfities.
In 1655 he entered upon the office of vice-chancellor
of Cambridge, to which he was chofen that year, hav-
i»g taken the degree of doftor of divinity in 16,52.
3
1 . . L 1 G . .
He performed all the regular exercifes for his degree Lightfoot,
with great applaufe, and executed the vice-chancellor’s LlghtinSy
office with exemplary diligence and fidelity j and, par-
tieularly at the commencement, fupplied the place of
profeffor of divinity, then undifpofed of, as an aft which
was kept for a doftor’s degree in that profeffion. At
the fame time he was engaged with others in perfefttng
the Polyglott Bible, then in the prefs. At the Refto-
ration he offered to refign the mafterlhip of Catharine-
hall : But, as what he had done had been rather in
compliance with the neceflity of the times than from
any zeal or fpirit of oppofition to the king and govern¬
ment, a confirmation was granted him from the crown,
both of the place and of his living. Soon after this he
was appointed one of the affiftants at the conference
upon the liturgy, which was held in the beginning of
1661, but attended only once or twice*, probably dif-
gufted at the heat with which that conference was ma¬
naged. However, he ftuck clofe to his defign of per-
fefting his Harmony : and being of a ftrong and heal¬
thy conftitution, which was affilted by an exaft tem¬
perance, he profecuted his ftudies with unabated vi¬
gour to the laft, and continued to publifh, notwith-
ftanding the many difficulties he met with from the ex¬
pence of it. However, not long before he died, fome
bookfellers got a promife from him to colleft and me-
thodife his works, in order to print them *, but the exe¬
cution was prevented by his death, which happened
Dec. 6. 1675. The doftor was twice married : his
firft wife, already mentioned, brought him four fons
and two daughters. His fecond wife was likewifa
a widow*, and relift of Mr Auftin Brograve, uncle of
Sir Thomas Brograve, Bart, of Hertfordfhire, a gen¬
tleman Well verfed in rabbinical learning, and a parti-
culat1 acquaintance of our author. He had no iffue by
her. She alfo died before him, and was buried in
Munden church ; where the doftor was himfelf like-
wife interred near both his wives. Dr Lightfoot’s
works were collefted and publifhed firft in 1684) in
two volumes folio. The fecond edition was printed at
Amfterdam, 1686, in two volumes folio, containing all
his Latin writings, with a Latin tranflation of thofe
which he wrote in Englifh. At the end of both thefe
editions there is a lift of fuch pieces as he left unfinifh-
ed. It is the chief of thefe, in Latin, which make
up the third volume, added to the former two, in a
third edition of his works, by John Leufden, at Utrecht,
in 1699, folio. They were communicated by Mr
Strype, who, in 1700, publifhed another colleft ion of
thefe papers, under the title of “ Some genuine re¬
mains of the late pious and learned Dr John Light-
foot.”  
LIGHTING of Streets. This invention, which
is generally confidered as of modern date, contributes
greatly to the convenience and fafety of the inhabitants
of large cities, as well as to the ornament of their
ftreets. It is not probable that the ftreets of ancient
Rome were lighted, fince the Romans confidered the
ufe of flambeaux and lanterns to be fo neceffary in re¬
turning home from their nofturnal vifits. It appears
that fuch as walked the ftreets without thefe went home
in darknefs j and the return of Gito in the night-time,
of which Petronius makes mention, dearly proves that
the ftreets of Naples were not lighted. Such as have
afcribed a remote antiquity to the lighting of ftreets,
feem
L I G [ 21 ] L I G
Lighting- feem to have miftaken it for what are called illumina-
tions, which indeed are of great antiquity. Egyptians,
Jews, Greeks, and Romans, during the celebration of
memorable feftivals, were in the habit of illuminating
their houfes •, but this is entirely different from the prac¬
tice which we are now confidering.
Paris was probably the firft city in modern times,
the ftreets of which were lighted, about the beginning
of the 16th century, as they were very much infefted
by robbers and incendiaries. This occafioned an edi£t,
iffued in 1524, commanding the inhabitants, whofe
windows fronted the ftreet, to keep lights burning af¬
ter nine o’clock at night. In 15 falots were placed
at the corners of the ftreets *, but when thefe were too
long to receive benefit from the light of one, three
were eredted in different parts of it. The city of Paris
had then 912 ftreets, and the number of lights rather
under 2736 ; but in the fame year thefe were changed
for lanterns, of a fimilar conftruction with thofe ufed at
prefent.
In 1671, the lanterns were ordered to be lighted
every year from the 20th Oftober to the end of March
the enfuing year. Some time after this a premium was
offered for a differtation on the belt means of improving
the lighting of the ftreets, when a journeyman glazier
obtained a premium of 200 livres, and Mefffs Bailly,
ie Roy, and Bourgeois de Chateaublanc, 2000 livres.
The lamps of Paris amounted to 5772 in the year
1721, and, in 1771, 106232. The city of Nantz
was lighted in 1777, and had no fewer than joo lamps
in the year 1780-.
The inhabitants of the city of London were ordered,
in 1688, to hang out lanterns duly at the accuftonn-d
time, which was renewed in ibpo’, and in 1716 it was
enadted, that all thofe whofe houfes fronted any ftreet,
lane, ©r public paffage, Ihould hang out one or more
lights, which were to burn from 6 o’clock to 11. But
as the time of lighting them was reftridted to 117
nights in the year, on which account many depreda¬
tions were eafily committed by thieves and robbers, the
lord mayor and council applied for, and obtained an
adt of parliament, empowering them to light the lireets
in a better manner. In confequence of this adt, the
lamps were increafed from 1000 to 4769, and after¬
wards to 5000. But as thefe were confined to the city
and liberties, about one-fifth of the whole of London,
the number of lamps could not be lefs than 15,000.
The continuance of their burning was alfo increafed
from 750 to 5000 hours. In 1744, another adt w as ob¬
tained to regulate ftill farther the lighting of the city,
and it wras placed on the footing on which it ftands at
prefent. Thefe are now fo numerous, that Oxford ftreet
alone is faid to contain more lamps than the whole city
of Paris. Birmingham was lighted for the firft time in.
1733, with 700 lamps.
In 1669, Amflercfam wras lighted by lanterns ; the
Hague in 1553 was lighted in a particular manner, but
lamps were not fixed up in all the ftreets till the year
1678. The ftreets of Copenhagen were lighted in
1681, the plan of which was much improved in 1683.
Berlin at prefent has 2354 lamps, kept lighted from
September to May, at the expence of the fovereign.
Vienna began to be lighted in 1687, and lamps were
introduced in I 704. In 1776 their number amounted
to 2000, which was increafed to 3000, to be lighted at
Lignum
Rhodium.
the annual expence of 30,000 florins. Leipzig was Lighting
lighted in 1702, Drefden in 1705, Caffel in 1721, and
Gottingen in 1735. A pradtice fo beneficial to the
fafety and convenience of mankind, has been very lau¬
dably imitated by almoft every city and t9\vn in Eu¬
rope. Beckman. Hijl. of Invent.
LIGHTNING, a bright and vivid flafti of fire,
fuddenly appearing in the atmofphere, and commonly
dilappearing in an inftant, fometimes attended with
clouds and thunder, and fometimes not. For an ac¬
count of the phenomena of lightning, and of the opi¬
nions concerning it, fee ELECTRICITY Index.
Artificial LIGHTNING. Before the difeoveries of
Dr Franklin concerning the identity of eledlricity
and lightning, many contrivances were invented in
order to reprefent this terrifying phenomenon in mi¬
niature : the corufcations of phofphorus in warm wea¬
ther, the accenfion of the vapour of fpirit of wine
evaporated in a clofe place, &c. were ufed in order to
fupport the hyphothefis which at that time prevailed j
namely, that lightning was formed of fome lulphu-
reous, nitrous, or other combuftible vapours, floating
in long trains in the atmofphere, which by lome un¬
accountable means took fire, and produced all the
deftruttive effects of that phenomenon. Thefe repre-
fentations, however, are now' no more exhibited j
and the only true artificial lightning is univerfally ac¬
knowledged to be the difeharge of eleftric matter from
bodies in which it is artificially fet in motion by ma¬
chines.
Lightning was looked upon as faered both by the
Greeks and Romans, and was fuppofed to be fent to
execute vengeance on the earth : Hence perfons kill¬
ed with lightning, being thought hateful to the gods,
were buried apart by themfelves, left the allies of other
men Ihould receive pollution from them. Some fay
they were interred upon the very fpot where they died j
others will have it that they had n» interment, but
were fuffered to rot where they fell, beeauie it was
unlawful for any man to approach the place. For
this reafon the ground was hedged in, left any perfon
unawares fliould contradt pollution from it. All
places ftruck with lightning w ere carefully avoided and
fenced round, out of am opinion that Jupiter had ei¬
ther taken offence at them, and fixed upon them the
marks of his difplealure, or that he had, by this means,
pitched upon them as facred to himfelf. The ground
thus fenced about was called by the Romans bidentul.
Lightning was much obferved in augury, and was a
good or bad omen, according to the circumftances at¬
tending it.
LIGNICENCIS TERRA, in the Materia Medicay
the name of a fine yellow bole found in many parts of
Germany, particularly about Emeric in the circle of
Weftphalia, and ufed as an aftringent.
LIGNUM vit^:. See Guaiacum, Botany and;
Materia Medica Index.
Lignum Aloes. See Excoegaria, Botany Index.
Lignum Nephriticum. See Guilandjna, Botany
Index.
LlGNUM Rhodium^ or Rofewoody in the Materia
Medica ; a wood, or root, chiefly brought from the Ca¬
nary iflands.
The tafte of this wood is lightly bitteriih, and fome-
what pungent j its fmell is very fragrant, refembliag
that
L I L C 2
Lignum that of rofes : long kept, it feeras to lofe its ftnell j
Rhodium j:)Ut on cutting, or rubbing one piece againft the other,
“ it fmells as well as at firft. Diftilled with water, it
i ~'1 ”rne yields an odoriferous effential 6il, in very fmall quan¬
tity. Rhodium is at prefent in efteem only upon ac¬
count of its oil, which is employed as a high and agree¬
able perfume.
Lignum Campechenfe. See Hematoxylum, Bo¬
tany Index.
Lignum Colubrinum. See Ophiorhiza.
LIGULATED, among botanifts,_ an appellation
given to fuch flofcules as have a ftraight end turned
downwards, with three indentures, but not feparated
into fegments.
LIGURIA, in Ancient Geography, a country m
Italy, bounded on the fouth by the Mediterranean fea,
on the north by the A pennine mountains, on the weft
by part of Tranfalpine Gaul, and on the eaft by Etru¬
ria. There is a great difagreement among authors con¬
cerning the origin of the Ligurians, though moft pro¬
bably they were defcended from the Gauls. Some
carry up their origin as far as the fabulous heroes of
antiquity 5 while others trace them from the Ligyes,
a people mentioned by Herodotus as attending Xerxes
in his expeditions againft Greece. Thefe Ligyes are
by fome ancient geographers placed in Colchis \ by
others in Albania.—According to Diodorus Siculus,
the Ligurians led a very wretched life j their country
being entirely overgrown with woods, which they were
obliged to pull up by the root, in order to ^cultivate
their land, which was alfo encumbered with great
ftones, and, being naturally barren, made but very
poor returns for all their labour. They were much
addicted to hunting *, and, by a life of continual exer-
cife and labour, became fo ftrong, that the wreakeft
Ligurian was generally an overmatch for the ftrongeft
and moft robuft among the Gauls. The women are
faid to have been almoft as ftrong as the men, and to
have borne an equal (hare in all laborious enterprifes.
With all their bravery, however, they were not able
to refill the Roman power 5 but were fubdued by that
warlike nation about 211 B. C.
LIGUSTICUM, Lovage ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs; and in the natural
method ranking under the 45th order, Vmbellatce.
See Botany Index.
LIGUSTRUM, Privet*, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the diandria clafs 5 and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 44th order, Sepiarice. See
Botany Index.
LILBURNE, John, an enthufiaftic demagogue,
who was tyrannically punilhed by the ftar-chamber
court, being put in the pillory, whipped, fined, and
imprifoned, for importing and publilhing feditious
pamphlets, which he had got printed in Holland j
they chiefly reflected on the church of England and
its bilhops. He fuffered in 1637, and in prifon was
doubly loaded with irons. In 1641, he was releafed
by the long parliament; and from this time he had
the addrels to make himfelf formidable to all parties,
by his bold, afpiring genius. He fignalized himfelf
in the parliament army *, and was at one time the
fecret friend and confidant of Cromwell, and at ano¬
ther his avowed enemy and acculer 5 fo that, in 1650,
Cromwell found it to be his intereft to fxlence him, by
! ] - L 1 L
a grant of fome forfeited eftates. But after this, he Luburne
grew outrageous againft the prote&cr’s government *,
became chief of the levellers j and was twice tried lor
high treafon, but acquitted by the juries. The laft
was for returning from exile (having been baniflied
by the parliament) without a pafs. He died in 1657,
aged 88.
LILIACEOUS, in Botany, an appellation given
to fuch flowers as refemble thole of the lily.
LILIUM, the Lily 5 a genus of plants belonging
to the hexandria clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 10th order Coronaries. See Bo¬
tany Index. _ '
LILLO, George, an excellent dramatic writer,
was born at London in 1693. He was a jeweller by
prpfeflion, and followed his bufinefs for many years in
that neighbourhood with the faireft reputation. He
was at the fame time ftrongly attached to the rouies,
yet feemed to have laid it down as a maxim, that the
devotion paid to them ought always to tend to the
promotion of virtue, morality, and religion. In pur-
fuance of this aim, Lilly was happy in the choice oi
his fubjefts, and ftiowed great power of affe£ling the
heart, by working up the paflions to fuch a.height as
to render the diftrelfes of common and domeftic life
equally interefting to the audiences as that of kings
and heroes, and the ruin brought on private families
by an indulgence of avarice, lull, &c. as the havock
made in ftates and empires by ambition, cruelty, or.
tyranny. His “ George Barnwell,” “ Eatal Curiofi-
ty,” and “ Arden of Feverftiam,” are all planned on
common and well known ftones j yet they have, per¬
haps more frequently drawn tears from an audience
than the more pompous tragedies of Alexander the
Great, All for Love, &c. In the prologue to “ El-
meric,” which was not a£ted till after the author’s
death’ it is faid, that when he wrote that play, he
“ was depreffed by want,” and affli£ed by difeafe.j
but in the former particular there appears to be evi¬
dently a miftake, as he died pofleffed of an eftate of
60I. a-year, befides other effe&s to a confiderable va¬
lue. His death happened in 1739, in the 47th year
of his age. His works have been collefled, and pub-
lilhed, with an account of his life, in 2 vols i2mo.
LILLY, John, a dramatic poet, was born in the
Wealds of Kent, about the year 1553, and educated
in Magdalen-college, Oxford, where he took the de¬
gree of bachelor of arts in 1573, and that of matter in
157 5. From Oxford he removed to Cambridge ; but
how long he continued there, is uncertain. On his
arrival in London, he became acquainted with fome of
Queen Elizabeth’s courtiers, by whom he was careffed,
and admired as a poet and a wit; and her.majefty,
on particular feftivals, honoured his dramatic pieces
with her prefence. His plays are nine in number.
His firft publication, however, printed in 1580, was a
romance called Euphues, which was univerfally read and
admired. This romance, which Blountj the editor of
fix of his plays, fays introduced a new language, efpe-
cially among the ladies, is, according to Berkenhout,
in fa£l a moft: contemptible piece of affe&ation and
nonfenfe : neverthelefs it feetns very certain, that it
was in high eftimation by the women of fafhion of
thofe times, who, we are told by Whalley, the editor
of Ben Johnfon’s works, had all the phrafes by heart;
l i l r 2
and tliofe wlao did not fpeak EupTiui/m were as little
““ regarded at court as if they could not fpeak French.
“ He was (fays Oldys) a man of great reading, good
memory, ready faculty of application, and uncommon
eloquence ; but he ran into a vaft excefs of allufion.”
When or where he died is not known. Anthony Wood
fays he was living in 1597, when his laft comedy was
publilhed. After attending the court of Queen Eliza¬
beth 13 years, notwithftanding his reputation as an au¬
thor, he was under the neceflity of petitioning the queen
for fome fmall ftipend to fupport him in his old age.
His two letters or petitions to her majefty on this fub-
jeft are preferved in manufcript.
Lilly, William, a noted Englifh aflrologer, born
in Leiceflerdiire in 1602 \ where his father not be¬
ing able to give him more learning than common
writing and arithmetic, he refolved to feek his for¬
tune in London. He arrived in 1620, and lived four
years as a fervant to a mantua-maker in the parilh of
St Clements Danes *, but then moved a ftep higher to
the fervice of Mr Wright, mailer of the Salters com¬
pany in the Strand, who not being able to write, Lilly
among other offices kept his books. In 1627, when
his mailer died, he paid his addreffes to the widow,
whom he married with a fortune of 1000I. Being now
his own mailer, he followed the puritanical preachers j
and, turning his mind to judicial aftrology, became pu¬
pil to one Evans, a profligate Welffi parfon, in that
pretended art. Getting a MS. of the Ars Notitia of
Corn. Agrippa, with alterations, he drank in the doc¬
trine of the magic circle, and the invocation of fpi-
rits, with great eagernefs. * He was the author of tne
Merlinus Anglicas junior; The Supernatural Sight; and
The White King’s Prophecy. In him we have an in-
ftance of the general fuperllition and ignorance that
prevailed in the time of the civil war between Charles I.
and His parliament; for the king confulted this aflro¬
loger to know in what quarter he Ihould conceal him-
lelf, if he could efcape from Hampton court; and Ge¬
neral Fairfax, on the other fide, fent for him to his
army, to alk him if he could tell by his art, whether
God was with them and their caufe ? Lilly, who made
his fortune by favourable predictions to both parties,
aflured the general that God would be with him and
his army. In 1648, he publifhed his Treatife of the
Three Suns feCn the preceding winter; and alfo an
aftrological judgment upon a conjunftion of Saturn
and Mars. This year the council of Hate gave him in
money 5c!. and a penfion of icol. per annum, which
he received for two years, and then rdigned on fome
difgufl. In June 1660, he was taken into cultody by
order of the parliament, by whom he was examined
concerning the perfon who cut off the head of King
Charles I. The fame year he fued out his pardon un¬
der the great feal of England,. The plague raging in
London, he removed with his family to his eftate at
Herffiam ; and in Ofibber 1666 was examined before
a committee of the houfe of commons concerning the
fire of London, which happened in September that
year. After his retirement to Herfliam, he applied
himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic, and, by mearis of his
friend Mr Afhmole, obtainecHfrom Archbiffiop Shel¬
don a licet!(e for the praflice of it. A little before his
death he adopted for his fon, by the name of Merlin
junior, one Henry Coley, a taylor by trade; and at
5 } L 1 M
the fame time gave him the impreffion of his almanack,
after it had been printed for 36 years. He died in
1681 of a dead palfy. Mr Alhmole fet a monument,
over his grave in the church of Walton upon Thames.
His “ Obfervations on the Life and Death of Charles,
late king of England,” if we overlook the aftrological
nonfenfe, may be read with as much fatisfaftion as
more celebrated hiftories ; Lilly being not only very
well informed, but Itriftly impartial. This work, with
the Lives of Lilly and Aflnnole, written by them-
felves, were publilhed in one vol. 8vo, in 1774, by Mr
Burman.
LILY. See Lilium, Botany Index.
Lilt of the Valley. See CoNVALLARIA, BOTANY
Index.
> LILYBiEUM, in Ancient Geography, a city of Si¬
cily, fituated on the moll wellerly promontory of the
ifland of Sicily, and faid to have been founded by the
Carthaginians on their expulfion from Mutya by Diony-
fius, tyrant of Syracufe. It is remarkable for three
fieges it fuflained ; one againlt Dionyfius the tyrant,
another again ft Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and the third
againft the Romans. The two firft failed in their at¬
tempts, but the Romans with great difficulty made
themfelves mailers of it. No remains of this once ftate-
ly city are now to be feen, except fome aquedudls and
temples; though it was Handing in Strabo’s time.
LILYE, William, the grammarian, was born in
the year 1466 at Oldham in Hampffiire ; and in i486
was admitted a femi-commoner of Magdalen college
in Oxford. Having taken the degree of bachelor of
arts, he left the univeility, and travelled to JerufaleiiL
Returning from thence, he continued five years in the
ifland of Rhodes, where he Iludied the Greek language,
feveral learned men having retired thither after the ta¬
king of Conftantinople. From Rhodes he travelled to
Rome ; where he improved himfelf in the Greek and
Latin languages, under Sulpitius and P. Sabinus. He
then returned to London, where for fome time he
taught a private grammar-fchool, being the firft per¬
fon who taught Greek in the metropolis. In 1510,
when Dr Colet founded St Paul’s fchool, Lilye was ap¬
pointed the firft mailer; at which time, it feems, he was-
married and had many children. In this employment
he had laboured 12 years, when, being feized by the
plague, which then raged in London, he died in Fe¬
bruary 1523, and was buried in the north yard of St
Paul’s. He had the chara£ler of an excellent gram¬
marian, and a fuccefsful teacher of the learned lan¬
guages. His principal work is BrcviJJitna inflitutio,
feu ratio grammatices cognofcendce ; Lond. 1513. Re¬
printed times without number, and commonly called
Li/ye's grammar. The Englilh rudiments were writ¬
ten by Dr Colet, dean of St Paul’s ; and the. preface
to the firft edition, by Cardinal Wolfey. The Englifti
fyntax was written by Lilye ; alfo the rules for the
genders of nouns, beginning wdth propria quce mart,
bus : and thofe for the preterperfeft tenfes and fupines,
beginning with As in prefenti. The Latin fyntax w as
chiefly the w-ork of Erafmus. See Ward’s preface to
his edition of Lilye’s Grammar, 1732.
LIMA, the metropolis of Peru, contains 209 fquares
of buildings, which comprife 8222 doors of dwelling
houfes and (hops, and thefe are branched out into 3 55
facets.. In order to maintain peace and tranquillity
among-
Lilly
H
Luna.
L I M
[ 24 ]
L I M
Lima, among the inhabitants, and for the accommodation of
■—  the police, the city is divided into four quarters, con-
taining 35 diflrifts, over each of which there prefides an
alcaid, who is always elefted from among the people of
the moft diftinguilhed rank. The population, accord¬
ing to eftimate made at different periods, is as follows.
In 1600, - 14,262
1614, - 25,455
1700, - 37>259
1746, - 60,000
i755> " 54>000
1781, - 6o,oco
1790, - 52>627
By this table it appears, that from 1746 to 1755, the
population fuffered a diminution of 6000, which was
owing to an earthquake that happened at the former
period ;—a calamity with which that city is often vi-
fited. Were it not for this circumftance, Lima would
be a perfeft paradife, as the adjacent country abounds
with corn, wdne, oil, fugar, fruits, and flax. Such
abundance of wealth do the inhabitants enjoy, that
when the duke of Palata was lent from Spain as vice¬
roy to Peru, they paved the ttreets through which he
was to pafs with ingots of fxlver. Libertmifm and de¬
bauchery are the diftinguifhing charafteriflics of the
people of Lima, for which even the nuns are as notori¬
ous as the reft of the females, feldom being fiee from
venereal complaints.
In the month of March 1543, the emperor Charles V.
eftablifhed an audience at Lima, in confequence of which
the inhabitants were freed from the painful neceffity of
feeking a redrefs of their grievances at fo great a_di-
ftance as Panama. Among the excellent inftitutions
by which the Peruvian capital is diftinguifhed, we may
rank the provincial councils, which fhew the conftant
zeal of the fovereigns of Spain for the defence of reli¬
gion and prefervation of difcipline. The prelates, by
their paftoral vigilanee, (pare neither pains nor labour
to premote their views, to accomplifh their lacred and
interefting purpofes.
By a decree of the Spanifh emperor, which reached
Lima in 1553, a univerfity was begun in a central fpot
of the capital, called the univerfity of St Mark, which
is now in a moft flourilhing condition. Don Francifco
Toledo affigned 20,312 piaftres as a fund for the main¬
tenance of the profeffors, arifihg from the tributes paid
by the Indians. Two le&ures are given daily on
grammar, one on the Indian language, three on philo-
fophy, three on theology, three on law, two on canons,
and two on medicine. In the year 1790 an amphi¬
theatre was eredted for the ufe of the anatomical ftu-
dents.
The college for female orphans was founded by
Mateo Paftor de Velafco, not at the hour of death,
which often gives to charitable endowments an air of
fufpicion, but when he was in the full poffeffion of per-
fedt health. In 1597 a pious philofopher founded a
charitable inftitution for the fupport of fuch helplefs
children as were laid down in the ftreets by their un¬
feeling parents. This building was deftroyed by the
earthquake of 1687, which laid in ruins, the greater
part of the city. It was afterwards rebuilt, and is at
prefent in a flourilhing condition. In 1559 an hofpital
was eredted for the relief of the unfortunate fick, who
might otherwife have perifhed for w ant of medical aid, Lima,
and obtained the name of the Fellowjhip of Charity and
Companion. A general hofpital for the poor was be¬
gun about 1758, but not completed till 177°> 'which
1790 afforded a comfortable afylum to 29 poor
111 * / — —  * _ •" » _
people. The afylum for penitent females was founded
in 1669. It has been faid that there is not a city in
the world in which fo many alms are diftributed as in
Lima. . .
In the centre of the great fquare there is a fountain
of bronze, the ornaments of which are conformable, to
the rules of the compofite order. It has an elevation
of 154 yards to the helmet of Fame, from which de¬
ducting l |; yards for the height of that figure, the re¬
mainder gives the part to which the water riles ill
order to diffufe itfelf. This produaion of art, combin¬
ing magnificence in every part of it with fine architec¬
tural tafte, is furrounded by 24 pieces of artillery, and
16 iron chains, a narrow fpace being left for accefs to
the inhabitants. # . •
Coffee-houfes were not known in Lima till the year
X771 when one was opened in the itreet of Santo Do¬
mingo, and another the year following. A third was
eftabtiflied in 1775, a fourth in 1782, and a filth in
1788, in each of which there is a billiard table tor the
amufement of the inhabitants. We are forry to fay
that the barbarous pra&ice of cock-fighting obtains m
Lima, for which purpofe a building was erected m v
the year 1762. The tennis court is open to the public,
and affords the fpedator an agreeable hour of relaxa¬
tion from more ferious purluits. Lima is fituated m v .
Long. 76. 44. S. Lat. 12. 1. . .. .
LIMASSOL, or Limisso, a town of Cyprus, in
the fouth of the ifland. Of the ancient city nothing
but ruins now remains *, though it was a celebrated Cypruu
place, even under the government of the dukes. King
Richard, the conqueror of the laft of thefe vaffals of the
empire, razed it in 1191, and it was never afterwards
rebuilt. This city originally was the fame as Ama-
THUS, or Amathonte j fo famous, as Paufanias tells us,
for its temple ere&ed in honour of Venus and Adonis.
Amathus was the refidence of the firft nine kings of
the ifland ; and, amongft others of. Oneliftus, who w^as
fubie&ed afterwards by the arms of Artabanes, the
Perfian general. This city, efeaed into an archbilhop-
ric in the time of the Chriftians, has produced a number
of perfonages celebrated for their knowledge and the
fan<!ftiLy-of their lives. In the neighbourhood there are
feveral copper mines, which the lurks have been foiced
to abandon. The following lines, in' the- tenth book
of Ovid’s Metamorphofes, prove that they were known
in the time of that poet :
Capta viri forma, non jam Cytherea curat
Lit tor a, non alto repetit Pap/ion cequore ctnElam,
Pifcofatnque Gnidon, gravidamque Amathunta metallise
The place where the new Limaffol now ftands, former¬
ly had the name of Nemofta, from the multitude of
woods by which it was furrounded. Richard, king of
England having deftroyed Aroathonte, Guy de Lu-
fignan, in the 12th century, laid the foundation of that
new city which the Greeks called Neopo/eos The fa¬
mily of Lufignan, who continued to embellifh and for¬
tify it, built there palaces, and Greek and Latin
churches ; and made it the feat of a biftiop. When
L I M [2
Limaflbl the Ifland was taken by the Turks in 1570, the Otto-
II man army entered this city on the 2d of July, and ra-
-lurnb.m vagefj without mercy. It was theri deftroyed by the
flames: and at prefent it is only a wretched place, in
which one can fcarcely ditlinguifla any remains of its
ancient edifices. It is governed by a commiffary and
a cadi : the latter judges cafes only provifionally, before
they are carried to the fuperior tribunal of Nicofia.
The harbour is very commodious; and being flseltered
from impetuous winds, it affords a fafe and calm afy-
lam to veffels when overtaken by a ftorm. The carob
tree is here more abundant than anywhere elfe ; and
it is from the port of Limalfol that the greatefl quan¬
tity of its fruit is exported. The inhabitants export
alfo fait, procured from a lake near Salines. Cotton,
wheat, barley, and mulberry trees, are both plentiful
and well cultivated in this part of the ifland : the
ground alfo produces all kinds of garden fluffs. The
befl Cyprus wine is made from the vines that grow on
the hills of Limaffol. All the wines of the country
are colledled in this city to be tranfported to Larnic,
w here there are the largeft cellars, and which on that
account becomes the natural centre of commerce.
LIMAX, the Slug, or Naked Snai/; a genus of
animals belonging to the clafs vermes. See Helmin¬
thology Index.
LIMB, in general, denotes the border or edge of a
thing } thus we fay, the limb of a quadrant, of the fun,
of a leaf, &c.
Limb, in Anatomy, an appellation given to the ex¬
tremities of the body, as to the arms and legs,
LlMB, Limbus, in the church of Rome, is ufed in
two different fenfes. 1. The limb of the patriarchs is
faid to be the place where the patriarchs waited the
redemption of mankind : in this place they fuppofe
our Saviour’s foul continued from the time of his death
to his refurre&ion. 2. The limb of infants dying
without baptifm, is a place fuppofed to be diftindt
bath from heaven and hell ; fince, fay they, children
dying innocent of any adlual fin, do not deferve hell ;
and, byreafon of their original fin, cannot be admitted
into heaven.
LIMB AT, the name of a periodical wind common
in the ifland of Cyprus, and of great fervice in mode¬
rating the heats of the climate, which would otherwife
be intolerable.
According to the abbe Mariti, it begins to blow
at eight in the morning the firft day ; inereafes as the
fun advances till noon ; then gradually weakens, and
at three falls entirely. On the fecond day it arifes at
the fame hour j but it does not attain its greateft
ilrength till about one in the afternoon, and ceafes at
four precifely. On the third day it begins as before j
but it falls an hour later. On the five fucceeding
days, it follows the fame progreffion as on the third ;
but it is remarked, that a little before it ceafes, it be¬
comes extremely violent. At the expiration of five
days it commences a new period like the former. By
narrowly obferving the fea on that fide from which
it is about to blow, a little before it arifes, one may
determine what degree of {Length it will have during
the day. If the horizon is clear, and entirely free
irom clouds, the wind will be w'eak, and even almoft
infenfible 5 but if it is dark and cloudy, the wind will
be. firong and violent. This limbat wind, notwith-
Vol. XII. Part I,
5 ] L I M
{landing its utility in moderating the exceffive heat, of- Cub at
ten becomes the caufe of fevers, eipecially to Europeans, . II
from their being lefs habituated to the climate, and LuTlhursil'’.
more apt than the natives to fuffer themfelves to be fur-
prifed by the cool air when in a ftate of perfpiration.
This wind, the falling of which happens an hour foon-
er or later, is fucceeded by a calm, accompanied by a
certain moifture that renders the air fomewhat heavy.
This moifture difappears in the evening, being diflipa-
ted by a wind which arifes eVery day at that period. '
This wind is confidered as a land breeze by the inha¬
bitants of the fouthern and eaftern parts'of the ifland •,
but it is called a fea breeze by thofe in the northern
and weftern, who indeed receive it immediately from
the fea. In fummer it blows till four o’clock in the
morning, and when it ceafes, it leaves a profound calm,
which continues till the hour when the limbat com¬
mences. In autumn and winter it never falls till day¬
break, when it is fucceeded by other winds, which
proceed from the irregularity of the feafon. In fpring
it does not continue longer than midnight; and is then
fucceeded by that happy calm, during which thofe re-
freftiing dews are formed that moiften the earth at fun-
rifing. The limbat winds, which arife in the beginning
of fummer, ceafe about the middle of September ; and
this is the period when the moft infupportabie heals
commence, becaufe their violence is not moderated by
the fmalleft breeze. They are, however, luckily not of
long duration ; and about the latter end of Oflober
they decreafe fenfibly, as the atmofphere begins to be
loaded with watery clouds.
LIMBORCH, Philip, a learned writer among the
remonftrants, born at Amfterdam in 1633. After ha¬
ving made great proficiency in his ftudies, he was, in
1655, admitted to preach in public, which he did firft
at Haerlem. His fermons had in them no affected elo¬
quence j but were folid, methodical, and edifying. He
was chofen minifter of Goudja ; from whence he was
called to Amfterdam, where he had the profeffcrflnp
of divinity, in which he acquitted himfelf with great
reputation till his death, which happened in 1712.
He had an admirable genius, and a tenacious memory.
He had many friends of diftinflion in foreign parts as
well as in his own country. Some of his letters to Mr
Locke are printed with thofe of that celebrated author.
He had all the qualifications fuitable to the chara6ler
of a fincere divine, lived an example of every virtue,
and preferved the vigour of his body and mind to a
confiderable age. He wrote many works, which are
efteemed j the principal of which are, 1. Arnica col-
/alio de veritate re/igionis Chrij/iarice cum erudito Jhdceo,
in 1 2mo. 2. A Complete Body of Divinity, accord¬
ing to the opinions and dofaines of the Remonftrants..
3. A Hi dory of the Inquifition ; which has been tranf-
lated into Englifli by Dr Samuel Chandler. Lim-
borch affo pUbliihed the works of the famous Epifcopi- '
us, who was his great-uncle by the mother’s fide.
LIMBURGH DUCHY, a province of the Auftrian
Netherlands, bounded by the duchy of Juliers on the -
north and eaft, by Luxemburg!] on the fouth, and by
the biftiopric of Liege on the weft. It is about 30
miles in length, and 25 in breadth and confifts of good
arable and pafture land, with plenty of wood, and.feme
iron mines.
_Limburgh, the capital city of the duchy of Lim-
X) burg-h. •
L I M
r 26 ]
L I M
Limerick.
Limburgh burgh, in the Auftrian Netherlands, is feated on a fteep
rock near the river Veffe. This town is fmall, but plea-
fantly feated on a hill, with (hady woods 5 and confifts
chiefly of one broad ftreet, not very well built. It is
ftrong by fituation, and almoft inacceflible j however^
it was taken by the French in 1675, and by the con¬
federates under the duke of Marlborough in 1703, for
the houfe of Auftria, to whom it remains by the trea¬
ties of Raftadt and Baden, after having been difmant-
led. It is famous for its cheefe, which is exceeding
good. E. Long. 6. 8. N. Lat. $0. 4®’
LIME, a peculiar earth. See Chemistry Index.
LlME-Tree. See Citrus, Botany Index.
Lime or LlNIiEN-Tree. See Filia, Botany Index.
LlME-Water. See Pharmacy Index.
Lime, or Lyme. See Lyme.
LIMERICK, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Munfter, is bounded on the eaft by Tipperary, on
the weft by Kerry, on the north by the river Shan¬
non, and on the fouth by Cork. It is a fruitful and
populous tradl, the foil requiring little or no manure
in moft places : befides rich pafture for Iheep and cows,
it produces rich crops of all kinds of corn and rape,
with fome hemp. It gave title of earl to the family of
Donegal. It contains 375,320 Irifti plantation acres,
about 56 church livings, though a much greater num¬
ber of parifties, 10 baronies, three boroughs 5 and
formerly fent eight members to parliament. It has
feme clays, furze, fern, and mountain lands, and is fa¬
mous for good cyder ; it has been much benefited by
the Palatines, who fettled there and inereafed tillage •,
they are a laborious independent people, moftly em¬
ployed in their own farms. This county is well water¬
ed by large and fmall rivers 5 the Shannon runs at the
north fide of the county, and fertilizes its banks. The
firing of the inhabitants is chiefly turf, and the bogs
are conveniently fituated. At Loghill in the weft of
the county, there is a mine of coal or culm, but it is
more ufed in kilns than in houfes. There are few lakes
except Lough Gur j and the principal hills are Knock-
greny, Knockany, Knockfiring, and Toryhill. The
mountains lie weft ward, the higheft being Knockpa-
trick or St Patrick’s hill. This county is about 45
miles long and 42 broad.
Limerick, or Lough-Meath. a market town, a bo¬
rough, and a bifhop’s fee, now the metropolis of the
province of Munfter. It is fituated on the river Shan¬
non, 94 miles from Dublin •, and was the ftrongeft
fortrefs in the kingdom. Its ancient name was Lun-
neach j and during the firft ages it was much frequent¬
ed by foreign merchants, and after the arrival of the
Danes was a place of confiderable commerce until the
12th century. It was plundered by Mahon, brother
of Brien Boromh, after the battle of Sulchoid, in 970 j
and Brien, in a future period, exafted from the Danes
of this city 365 tons of wine as a tribute, which ftiows
the extenfive traffic carried on by thofe people in that
article. About the middle of the 6th century, St
Munchin erefled a church and founded a bilhopric
here j which, however, was deftroyed by the Danes on
their taking poffeffion of this port in 853, and.remain¬
ed in ruins until their converfion to the Chriftian faith
in the 10th century j at which period the church of St
Munchin was rebuilt, and the biffiopric eftablifhed.
• '4
Donald O’Brien, about the time of the arrival of the Limerick. ^
Engliffi, founded and endowed the cathedral *, and Do- v
nat O’Brien, bilhop of Limerick, in the 13th century,
contributed much to the opulence of the fee. About
the clofe of the 12th century, the biffiopric of Innis-
Cathay was united to that of Limerick. It was befieged
by King William III. in the year 1690, and though
there was no army to affift it, the king was obliged to
raife the fiege. In the year 1691, it was again befieged
by the Engliflr and Dutch on the 2ilt of September ;
and it was obliged to furrender on the 13th of October
following, not without the lofs of abundance of men j
however, the garrifon had very honourable and advan¬
tageous conditions, being permitted to retire where
they thought fit, and the Roman Catholics by thefe ar¬
ticles were to be tolerated in the free exercile of their
religion. Within a century this place was reckoned
the fecond city in Ireland j at prefent it has loft its
rank *, not becaufe it thrives lei's, but becaufe Cork
thrives more. It is compofed of the Iriffi and Englifli
town ; the latter (lands on the King’s ifland, formed
by the river Shannon. Ihe town is three miles in
circumference, having weekly markets on Wednefday
and Saturday, and fairs on Eafter Tuefday, ift July,
4th Auguft, and I2th December. There is a privi¬
lege annexed to the fair held on 4th Auguft, that, du¬
ring 15 days, no perfon can be arrefted in the city or
liberties, on any procefs iffuing out of the tholfel
court of Limerick. Ardfert and Achadoe, in the
county of Kerry, are united to the biffiopric of Li¬
merick. This city formerly returned tw-o members to
parliament} and gives title of vifcount to the family of
Hamilton. It is governed by a mayor, ffieriffs, record¬
er, aldermen, and burgeffes ; there is alfo. a barrack
and a military governor and town major : it had fome
time the privilege of coinage 5 and different parlia¬
ments have been held there. The town was formerly
entirely walled in ; and in 1760, there were 17 of the
city gates (landing ; but to the great improvement of
the place they are now all demoliffied, except the wa¬
ter-gate of King John’s caftle. I he linen, woollen,
and paper manufadlures, are carried on here to great
extent, and the export of provifions is very confiderable.
Here are many charitable hofpitals, and handfome pub¬
lic buildings, befides the cathedral and other churches.
A charter was granted to this city by King John, and
confirmed in fucceeding reigns. Dr Campbell ob-
ferves, that as you approach Limerick, the grounds
grow rich and exquifitively beautiful j the only dif-
agreeable matter is, that the fituation renders the air
moift, and confequently rather unwholefome to ftran-
gers. About fix miles from this is the famous Caftle-
connel fpa. Limerick is 50 miles from Cork, 50
from Galway, and 73 from Waterford. It appears
that Limerick obtained the privilege of having mayors
10 years before that right was allowed to the citizens
of London. It was before governed by provofts, of
which the firft was John Spafford in 1195 and 1197 •,
during the provoftffiip of Henry Troy a charter was
granted, 9 Richard I. whereby the citizens were allow¬
ed to choofe mayors and bailiffs, Adam Servant, in
1198, being the firft mayor. It continued to be go¬
verned by mayors and bailiffs, until the office of naiiiff
was changed into that of ffieriff in i6o9«
Ljmerj^I
L I M [ 27 ] LIN
Limerick LIMERICK is alfo the name of a fair-town in the
, . il. county of Wexford and province of Leinfter ; the fairs
Limnine:* r 7
. b . are tour m the year.
LIMINGTON, a town of Hampfhire in England.
See Lymington.
LIMIT, in a reftrained fenfe, is ufed by mathema¬
ticians for a determined quantity to which a variable
one continually approaches ; in which fenfe, the circle
may be faid to be the limit of its circumfcribed and
infcribed polygons. In Algebra, the term limit is ap¬
plied to two quantities, one of which is greater and
the other lefs than another quantity j and in this fenfe
it is ufed in fpeaking of the limits of equations, whereby
:their folution is much facilitated.
LIMITED problem, denotes a problem that has
but one folution, or fome determinate number of folu-
tions j as to defcribe a circle through three given points
that do not lie in a right line, which is limited to one
folution only ; to divide a parallelogram into two equal
parts by a line parallel to one fide, which admits of
two folutions, according as the line is parallel to the
length or breadth of the parallelogram $ or to divide a
triangle in any ratio by a line parallel to one fide,
which is limited to three folutions, as the line may be
parallel to any of the three fides.
LIMME, a town of Kent, in England, near Hithe,
and four miles from Romney, was formerly a port,
till choked up by the fands •, and though it is thereby
become a poor town, yet it has the horn and mace
and other tokens left of its ancient grandeur, and ufed
to be the place where the lord warden of the cinque
ports was fworn at his entrance upon his office. The
Roman road from Canterbury, called Stane-flreet, end¬
ed here *, and'from the brow of its hill may be feen
the ruinous Roman walls almoft at the bottom of the
marfhes. Here formerly was a cattle, now converted
into a farm-houfe. When or by whom this edifice
was ere&ed is not known. It has, however, great
marks of antiquity j as has alfo the adjoining church,
on which are feveral old tombftones with crofles on
them.
LIMNING, the art of painting in water colours,
in contradiftinftion to painting which is done in oil-
colours.
Limning is much the more ancient kind of paint¬
ing. Till a Flemiflr painter, one John van Eyck, bet¬
ter known by the name of John of Bruges, found out
the art of painting in oil, the painters all painted in
water and in frefco, both on their walls, on wooden
boards, and elfewhere. When they made ufe of
boards, they ufually glued a fine linen cloth over them,
to prevent their opening j then laid on a ground of
white j laftly, they mixed up their colours with water
and fize, or with water and yolks of eggs, well beaten
with the branches of a fig tree, the juice whereof thus
mixed with the eggs; and with this mixture they paint¬
ed their pieces.
In limning, all colours are proper enough, except
the white made of lime, which is only ufed in frefco.
, The azure and ultramarine mutt always be mixed with
fize or gum ; but there are always applied two layers
of hot fize before the fize colours are laid on : the co¬
lours are all ground in water each by itfelf; and, as
they are required in working, are diluted with fize wa¬
ter. When the piece is finilhed, they go over it with
the white of an egg well beaten; and then with varnilh, Limning
if required. ^
To limn, or draw a face in colours: Having all the .
materials in readinefs, lay the prepared colour on the
card even and thin, free from hairs and fpots, over the
place where the pifture is to be. The ground being
laid, and the party placed in a due pofition, begin the
work, which is to be done at three fittings. At the
firft you are only to dead-colour the face, which will
require about two hours. At the fecond fitting, go
over the work more curioufly, adding its particular
graces or deformities. At the third fitting, finifh the
whole; carefully remarking whatever may conduce to
render the piece perfect, as the caft of the eyes, moles,
fears, geftures, and the like.
LIMOGES, an ancient town of France, in the late
province of Guienne, and capital of the department of
Upper Vienne, with a bifhop’s fee. It is a trading
place, and its horfes are in great efteem. It is feat-
ed on the river Vienne, in E. Long. I. 20. N. Lat.
45- 5°*
LIMOSIN, a late province of France, now the de¬
partment of Upper Vienne, bounded on the north by
La Marche, on the eaft by Auvergne, on the fouth
by Ouercy, and on the well by Pe.rigord and Angou-
mois. One part is very cold, but the other more tem¬
perate. It is covered with foretts of chefnut trees ; and
contains mines of lead, copper, tin, and iron ; but the
principal trade confifts in cattle and horfes.
LIMPET, a genus of ttiell-filh. See Patella,
Covchology Index.
LIMPURG, a barony of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, included almoft entirely within Suabia,
and feated to the fouth of Hall in Suabia. It is a-
bout 15 miles long, and eight broad. Gaildorf and
Shonburg, near which is the cattle of Limpurg, are
the principal places.
Limpurg, a town of Germany, in the deflorate
of Triers or Treves, and in Wetteravia, formerly free
and imperial, but now fubject to the deflorate of
Treves. It is feated on the river Lhon. E. Long. 8,
13. N. Lat. 50. 18.
LINACRE, Thomas, phyfician, was born at Can¬
terbury about the year 1460, and there educated under
the learned William Selling: thence he removed to
Oxford, and in 1484 was chofen fellow of All-Souls
college. Tilly, alias Selling, his former inftruflor,
being at this time appointed ambaffador from King
Henry VII. to the court of Rome, Mr Linacre accom¬
panied him to Italy, where he attained the higheft de¬
gree of perfeftion in the Greek and Latin languages.
At Rome, he applied himfelf particularly to the ftudy
of Ariftotle and Galen, in the original. On his return
to Oxford, he was incorporated doffor of phyfic, and
chofen public profefibr in that faculty. But he had not
been long in England, before he was commanded to
court by King Henry VII. to attend the young prince
Arthur as his tutor and phyfician. He was afterwards
appointed phyfician to the king, and after his death, to
his fucceffor Henry VIII. Dr Linacre founded two
medical leflures at Oxford, and one at Cambridge; but
that which moft effeffually immortalized his name a-
mong the faculty, is his being the firft founder of the
college of phyficiansin London. He beheld with vexa¬
tion the wretched ftate of phyfic in thofe tines j and,
Da by
LIN [ 28 ] LIN
by an application to Cardinal Wolfey, obtained a pa- in which are the entrails of Queen Eleanor, wife to Lincoln,
tent in 1518, by which the phyficians of Lyndon were Edward I. It is faid there were anciently 5 2 churches, *
incorporated. The intention of this corporation was to which are now reduced to 14 Such is the magmfi.
prevent illiterate and ignorant medicafters from prao cence and elevation of the catneaial, that the monks
fifing the art of healing. Dr Linacre was the firft pre- thought the fight of it mutt be very mortifying to the
fident and held the office as long as he lived. I heir devil; whence it came to be laid ot one who was dd-
meetings were in his own houfe in Knight-rider ftreet, pieafed, that he looked like the devil over Lincoln. The
which houfe he bequeathed to the college. But our declivity on which the city is built being iteep, the
doftor, when he was about the age of 50, took it into communication betwixt the upper ana lower town is
his head to ftudy divinity ; entered into orders ; and very troublefome, and coaches and horles are obliged
was collated, in 1509, to the reftory of Merffiam. In to make a compafs. . n , ,
the'fameyear he wasinftalled prebendary of Wells, in King Edward III. made this city a naple for wool,
1 ci8 prebendary of York, and in the following year leather, lead, &c. It was once burnt; once befieged
was admitted precentor of that cathedral. This, we are by King Stephen, who was here defeated and taken
told he refigned for other preferments. He died of prifoner j and once taken by Henry III. from his re-
the ilone in°the bladder in Oaober 1524, aged 64; bellious barons. It abounded heretofore with mona-
and was buried in St Paul’s. Thirty-three years after fteries and other religious houfes. There is a great
his death, Doctor John Caius caufed a monument to pool here, formed by the river on the weft fide of it,
be erected to his memory, with a Latin infcription, called Swan Pooiy becaufe of the multitude of fwaiu>
which contains the outlines of his life and charafter. on it. Ibe Roman north gate Hill remains entile, by
He was a man of great natural fagacity, a Ikilful phy- the name of Nexvport Gate. It is f'ne. of the nobiei.
fician, a profound' grammarian, and one of the bell of this fort in Britain. It is a vail femicircle of Hones
Greek and Latin fcholars of his time. Eraimus in of very large dimenfions laid without mortar, connect-
his epiftlcs- fpeaks highly of the Doaor’s tranfiations ed only by their uniform ffiape. This magnificent arch
from Galen, preferring them even to the original is 16 feet in diameter, the Hones are four feet thmk at
Greek. His works are, 1. De emendata JlruBura La- the bottom. It feems to have a joint in the middle,
tini fermonis, libri fex ; London, printed by Pynfon, not a key Hone ; and on both Hides, towards the upper
1 r24, 8vo, and by Stephens, 1527, 1532. 2. The part, are laid horizontal Hones of great dimenfions,
Rudiments of Grammar, for the ufe of the princefs fome 10 or 1 2 feet long. Phis arch anles from an im*
Mary printed by Pynfon. Buchanan tranflated it pofl of large mouldings, which are not perceivable
into Latin ; Paris, 1536. He likewife tranflated in- now ; there are alfo divers fragments of the old Roman
to very elegant Latin teveral of Galen’s works, which w'all. Over againfl the caflle is an entrenchment call
were printed chiefly abroad at different times. Alfo up by King Stephen; and here are carved the arms of
Procd D'adtchi fphxra. tranflated from the Greek; John of Gaunt duke of Lancafter, who lived here like
Venet. 1499, 1500. a king, and had a mint. The city has a communica-
LINARIA. See Fringilla, Ornithology Index. tion with the Irent, by a canal called the hois-dyke.
LINCOLN, a city of England, and capital of a In the centre of the old ruined caflle there is a hand-
county of the fame name, is diflant 132 miles from Home* modern flruffure for holding the affizes. Its
London. It Hands on the fide of a hill; at the bot- walls are almofi entire, and very fubflantial : the keep
tom of which runs the river Witham in three fmall or principal tower is fituated on a high and very fleep
channels, over which are feveral bridges. The old mount, which yet continues in its original Hate but the
Lindum of the Britons, which Hood on the top of the remains of the tower on it are only five or fix yards
hill, as appears from the vefliges of a rampart, and high. The outer walls of the cattle are of very con-
deep ditches Hill remaining, was taken and demoliffied fiderable height, which appear Hill higher than they
by the Saxons ; who built a town upon the fouth fide really are from their lofty iituation and the moat below
of the hill down to the river fide, which was feveral them. Ihe great gateway is Hill entire.. I is city
times taken by the Danes, and as often retaken by the is a county of itfelf, and has a vncountial junfdiction,-.
Saxons. In Edward the Confeffor’s time, it appears, for 2Q miles round, which is a privilege that no other
from Doomfday-book, to have been a very confider- city in England can equal. It now eonliHs principal-
able place; and in the time of the Normans, Malmfbury ly of one Hreet above two miles long, well paved, be¬
lays, it-was one of the molt populous cities in Eng- fides feveral crofs and parallel Hreets well peopled,
land. William I. built a cafile upon the fummit of Here are fome very handfome modern buildings,, but
the hill above the town. The diocefe, though the bi- more antique ones; upon the whole, it has an air of
fhopric of Ely was taken out of it by Henry II. and ancient greatnefs, arifing in a great meafure from the
thofe of Peterborough and Oxford by Henry VIII. is number of monaflic remains moft of which are now
Hill vafily large, containing the counties of Leieefler, converted into Hables, out-houfes, &c. Upon the hill,
Huntingdon, Bedford, and part of Bucks, making 1255 in the caftle, are the ruins of the bifliop s palace, and
pariffies. Though the other churches are mean, the other ruins of ancient, grandeur and magnificence,
cathedral or minfter is a mofl magnificent piece of Go- The city is fupplied with water by feveral conduits,
thic architefture. Here is a prodigious large bell, among which is a. modern one, iomewhat m the pyra-
called Tom of Lincoln, which is near five ton in weight, midical flyle, enriched with feulpture. It is governed
and 2 3 feet in compafs. The hill on which the church by a mayor, twelve aldermen, two ffienfts, a recorder
Hands is fo high, and the church itfelf fo lofty, that four chamberlains, a fwordbearer, four coroners, and
it may be feen to miles to the north and 30 to the above forty common-council men Here are four cha-
fouth Befides other tombs, it contains one of brafs,. rity fchools, where 120 poor children are taught by*
LIN [ 29 } LIN
Lincoln the widows of clergymen. The neighbouring' courfe
il. is noted for its frequent horfe-races. On the down of
finclUy* Lincoln, towards Bolton, that rare fowl the buftard is
fometimes feen, as well as on Saliibury plain. Lincoln-
Heath extends above 50 miles, viz. from Sleaford and
Ancafter fouth to the Humber north, though it is
but three or four miles over where broadeft. Five miles
from Bollon on this extenfive heath, Lord le Hefpenfer
built a tower for the direction of Grangers It is a lofty
fquare building with a ftaircafe, terminating in a flat
roof, and round the bale is a fquare court-yard. Great
part of this extenfive heath has been enclofed. We
read that David king of Scots met King John here, on
the 27d of November, in the third year of his reign,
and performed homage to him on a hill without the
city, for his Englilh territories, in prefence of the
archbifhops of Canterbury, York, and Ragufa, 13 bi-
fhops, and a vaft number of temporal lords and knights.
King Henry VII. kept his court here at Eafter in
i486. The Jews were once its chief inhabitants, till
they were forced to remove, after having impioufly
crucified the child of one Grantham, and thrown it in¬
to a well, to this day called Grantham's Well. Lincoln
has given the title of earl to the family of Clinton ever
fince the reign of Queen Elizabeth. W. Long. 27. 1.
N. Lat. 53. 16.
LINCOLN Shire, a maritime county of England, 77
miles in length and 48 in breadth, is bounded on the
eaft by the German ocean, on the weft by Notting-
hamfhire, on the north by Yorkfhire, on the fouth by
Rutlandfnire, Northamptonfhire, and Cambridgefhire,
It contains 631 parifties, and 31 market towns, and re¬
turns 12 members to parliament. The principal rivers
are the Humber, the Trent, the Witham, the Nenn,
the Welland, the Ankham, and the Dun. It is di¬
vided into three parts, Lindfey, Keftoven, and Hol¬
land } the air of which laft is unwholefome and foggy,
on account of the fens and large marfties. The foil of
the north and weft parts is very fertile, and abounds in
corn and paftures. The eaft and fouth parts are not fo
proper for corn •, but then they fupply them with filb
and fowl in great plenty, particularly ducks and geefe.
Lincoln is the principal town. By inland navigation,
this county has communication with the rivers Mer-
fey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Darwent, Severn, Thames,
Avon, &c. •, which navigation, including its windings,
extends above 500 miles through different counties.
This county, in 1801, contained 41,395 houfes, in¬
habited by 42,629 families j and the total number of
inhabitants amounted to 208,557.
LINDESFARN, or Landisfarn. See Hqlt-
IJland.
LINDSAY, Sir David, a celebrated Scots poet,,
was defcended of an ancient family, and born in the
reign of King James IV. at his father’s feat, called the
Mount, near Cupar, in Fifefhire. He was educated
at the univerfity of St Andrew’s •, and, after making
the tour of Europe, returned to Scotland in the year
1514. Soon after his arrival, he was appointed gen¬
tleman of the bedchamber to the king, and tutor to
the young prince, afterwards James V. From the
verfes prefixed to his dream, we learn that he enjoyed
leveral other honourable employments at court: but,
in he w as deprived of all his places, except that
of Lyon king at arms, which he held to the time of
his death. His difgrace was moft probably owing to LindiVy
his invedf ives againft the clergy, which are frequent in ^. jj^
all his writings. After the deceafe of King James V.. ' "
Sir David became a favourite of the earl of Arran, re¬
gent of Scotland ; but the abbot of Paifley did not
iuffer him to continue long in favour with the earl.
He then retired to his paternal eftate, and Ipent the
remainder of his days in rural tranquillity. He died in
the year 1553. His poetical talents, confidering the
age in which he wrote, were not contemptible ; but
he treats the Romish clergy with great feverity, ;;id
writes with fome humour : but, whatever merit might
be formerly attributed to him, he takes fueh licentious
liberties with words, ftretching or carving them for
meafure or rhime, that the Scots have a proverb, when
they hear an unufual expreffion, that, There is nae
fa a word in «’ Davie Lindfay. Mackenzie tells us,
that his comedies were fo facetious, that they afford¬
ed abundance of mirth. Some fragments of thefe co¬
medies are ftill preferved in manufcript. He is faid
to have alfo written feveral tragedies, and to have firft
introduced dramatic poetry into Scotland. One of his
comedies was played in 1515. Mackenzie fays, he
underftood nothing of the rules of the theatre. He
was cotemporary with John Heywood, the firft Eng-
lifh dramatic poet. His poems are printed in one
fmall volume 5 and fragments of his plays, in manu¬
fcript, are in Mr William Carmichael’s colleflion.
LINDSEY, the third and largeft divifion of the
county of Lincolnfhire in England. On the eaft and
north it is waflied by the fea, into which it runs out
with a large front ; on the weft it has Yorkfhire and
Nottinghamftiire, from which it is parted by the ri¬
vers Trent and Dun j on the fouth it has Keftoven,
from which it is feparated by the river Witham and
the Fofs-dyke, which is feven miles long, and was cut
by Henry I. between the Witham and the Trent, for
the convenience of carriage in thofe parts. It had its
name from Lincoln, the capital of the county, which
ftands in it, and by the Romans called Lindum, by
the Britons Lindcoite, by the Saxons Lindo-col/yne, pro¬
bably from its fituation on a hill, and the lakes or
woods that were anciently thereabouts j but the Nor¬
mans called it Nichol. It gives title of earl and mar-*
quis to the duke of Ancafter.
LINDUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Rhodes,
fituated on a hill on the weft fide of the ifland. It was
built by Tlepolemus the fun of Hercules, according
to Diodorus Siculus j by one of the Htliades, grand-
fons of the Sun, named Lindus, according to Strabo.
It was the native place of Cleobulus, one of the wife
men. Here we fee the famous temple of the Lindian
Minerva, which was built by the daughters of Danaus.
Cadmus enriched this temple with many fplendid of¬
ferings. The citizens dedicated and Lung up here
the leventh of Pindar’s Olympic odes, written in let¬
ters of gold. The ruins of that fuperb edifice are ftill
to be feen on the top of a high hill which overlooks
the fea. Some remains of the walls, confifting of
ftones of an enormous fize, ftill ftrow it to have been
built in the Egyptian ftyle. The pillars and other
ornaments have been carried off. On the moft ele¬
vated peak of the rook are the ruins of a caftle, which
may have ferved as a fortrefs to the cily. Its circum¬
ference is very extenfive, and is filled with ruhbifti.
Lindor
L I N
[ 3° 1
L I N
Linea.
Lincms Undo, the modern city, ftands at the foot of the
hill, A bay of confiderable widenefs and depth ferves
, as a harbour to the city. Ships find good anchorage
there in twenty fathoms water. T hey are fafely Ihel-
tered from the fouth-weft wdnds, which conftantly pre¬
vail through the fevereft feafon of the year. In the
beginning of winter, they caft anchor off a fmall vil¬
lage named Maffary. Before the building of Rhodes
Lindus was the harbour which received the fleets of
Egypt and Tyre. It was enriched by commerce. Mr
Savary obferves, that a judicious government, _ by
taking advantage of its harbour and happy fituation,
might yet reftore it to a flourilhing Rate.
LINE, in Geometry, a quantity extended in length
only, without any breacuh or thicknefs. It is formed
by the flux or motion of a point. See Fluxions, and
Geometry. . , n , ,.r
Line, in the art of war, is underftood ot the dit-
pofition of an army ranged in order of battle, with
the front extended as far as may be, that it may not
be flanked. . .
Line of Battle, is alfo underftood of the diipohtion
of a fleet in the day of engagement j on which oc-
cafion the veflels are ufually drawn up as much as pof-
fible in a ftraight line, as well to gain and keep the ad¬
vantage of the wind as to run the fame board. See
Naval Tactics.
Horizontal LINE, in Geography and AJlronomy, a
line drawn parallel to the horizon of any part of the
earth. . .
EquinoBial LINE, in Geography, is a great circle
en the earth’s furface, exaftly at the diftance of 90
from each of the poles, and of confequence bifeaing
the earth in that part. From this imaginary line, the
degrees ©f longitude and latitude are counted.—In
aftronomy, the equinoftial line is that circle which the
fun feems to defcribe round the earth on the days of
the equinox in March and September. See ASTRO¬
NOMY and Geography. _ .
Meridian LINE, is an imaginary circle drawn
through the two poles of the earth and any part of its
furface. See Geography Index.
Ship of the LINE, a veffel large enough to be
drawn up in the line, and to have a place in a fea-
fight. r if r 1
Line, in Genealogy, a feries or jucceflion ot rela¬
tions in various degrees, all defcending from the fame
common father. See Descent. _ #
Line, alfo denotes a French meafure containing
the 12th part of an inch, or the 144th part of a foot.
Geometricians conceive the line fubdivided into fix
points. The French line anfwers to the Englifli bar¬
ley-corn. .
Fijhing Line. See Fishing Line.
Lines, in Heraldry, the figures ufed in armories to
divide the ftiield into different parts, and to compofe
different figures. Thefe lines, according to their dif¬
ferent forms and names, give denomination to the
pieces or figures which they form, except the ftraight
or plain lines. See Heraldry.
LINEA ALBA, in Anatomy, the concourfe of the
tendons of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles of the
abdomen ; dividing the abdomen in two, in the middle.
It is called linea, line, as being ftraight; and alba, from
its colour, which is white.—The linea alba receives a
twig of a nerve from the intercoftals in each of its di-
gitations or indentings, which are vifible to the eye,
in lean perfons efpecially.
LINEAMENT, among painters, is ufed for the
outlines of a face.
LINEAR numbers, in Mathematics, fuch as have
relation to length only } fuch is a number which repre-
fents one fide of a plain figure. If the plain figure be
a fquare, the linear figure is called a root.
LINEAR Problem ; that which may be folved geo¬
metrically by the interfeftion of two right lines.
This is called a f triple problem, and is capable but of
one folution.
LINEN, in commerce, a well known kind of
cloth, chiefly made of flax.— Linen w as not w orn by
the Jews, Greeks, or Romans, as any part of their
ordinary drefs. Under-tunics of a finer texture fup-
plied the place of flrirts : Hence the occafion for fre¬
quent bathing. Alexander Severus was the firft em¬
peror who wore a fhirt : but the ufe of fo necef-
fary a garment did not become common till long after
him.
The linen manufaflure was probably introduced into
Britain with the firft fettlement of the Romans. The
flax was certainly firft planted by that nation in the
Britilh foil. The plant itfelf indeed appears to have
been originally a native of the eaft. The woollen-
drapery w'ould naturally be prior in its origin to the
linen ; and the fibrous plants from which the threads of
the latter are produced, feem to have been firft noticed
and worked by the inhabitants of Egypt. In Egypt,
indeed, the linen manufacture appears to have been
very early : for even in Jofeph’s time it had rben to a
confiderable height. From the Egyptians the know'-
ledge of it proceeded probably to the Greeks, and
from them to the Romans. Even at this day the
flax is imported among us from the eaftern nations
the weftern kind being merely a degenerate fpecies
of it.
In order to fucceed in the linen manufacture, one
fet of people fliould be confined to the ploughing and
preparing the foil, fowing and covering the feed, to
the weeding, pulling, rippling, and taking care of
the new feed, and watering and dreffing the flax till
it is lodged at home : others thould be concerned in
the drying, breaking, fcutching, and heckling the flax,
to fit it for the fpinners •, and others in fpinning and
reeling it, to fit it for the weaver : others fhould be
concerned in taking due care of the weaving, bleach¬
ing, beetling, and finifhing the cloth for the market.
It is reafonable to believe, that if thefe feveral branches
of the manufa&ure were carried on by diftinfl dealers
in Scotland and Ireland, where our home-made linens
are manufaftured, the feveral parts would be better
executed, and the whole would be afforded cheaper, and
with greater profit.
Staining of LlNEN. Linen receives a black colour
with much more difficulty than woollen or cotton. The
black ftruck on linen with common vitriol and galls, or
logwood, is very periihable, and foon walhes out.—In-
ftead of the vitriol, a folution of iron in four ftrong beer
is to be made ufe of. This is well-known to all the calico-
printers •, and by the ufe of this, which they call their
iron-liquor, and madder root, are the blacks and pur-
ples made which we fee on the common printed linens.
The
Linesi
!i
Linen.
r
LIN f
Liiwn The method of making this iron liquor is as follows j
ji A quantity of iron is put into the four ftrong beerj
Loi gou. ancj^ tQ prornote diffolution of the metal, the whole
is occafionally wellftirred, the liquor occafionally drawn
off, and the ruft beat from the iron, after which the li¬
quor is poured on again. A length of time is required
to make the impregnation perfect $ the folution being
, ' reckoned unfit for ufe till it has Hood at leaft a twelve-
month. This folution flains the linen of a yellow, and
different {hades of buff-colour j and is the only known
fubltanee by which thefe colours can be fixed in linen.
The cloth ffained deep with the iron-liquor, and after¬
wards boiled with madder, without any other addition,
becomes of the dark colour which we fee on printed
linens and cottons; which, if not a perfect black, has
a very near refemblance to it. Others are ftained paler
with the fame liquor diluted with water, and come out
purple.
Linen may alfo be ftained of a durable purple by
means of folution of gold in aqua regia. The folution
for this purpofe ftiould be as fully faturated as poffible ;
it ftiould be diluted with three times its quantity of
water ; and if the colour is required deep, the piece,
when dry, muft be repeatedly moiftened with it. The
colour does not take place till a confiderable time,
fometimes feveral days, after the liquor has been ap¬
plied : to haften its appearance, the fubjefl ftiould be
expofed to the fun and free air, and occaffonally re¬
moved to a moift place, or moiftened with w’ater.—
When folution of gold in aqua regia is foaked up in
linen cloths, the metal may be recovered by drying and
burning them.
LlNEN flowered with Gold-leaf. Dr Lewds mentions
a manufacture eftabliftied in London for embelliftiing
linen with flowers and ornaments of gold-leaf. The
linen, he fays, looks whiter than moft of the printed
linens; the gold is extremely beautiful, and bears w'afti-
ing well. The do£tc)r informs us, that he had feen a
piece which he was credibly informed had been waffled
three or four times, with only the fame precautions
which are ufed for the finer printed linens; and on
■which the gold continued entire, and of great beauty.
Concerning the procefs ufed in this manufacture, he
gives us no particulars.
Tojfile LlNEN, is a kind of amianthus, which confifts
of flexible, parallel, foft fibres, and which has been ce¬
lebrated for the ufe to which it has been applied, of be¬
ing woven, and forming an incctnhuflible cloth. Paper
alfo, and wicks for lamps, have been made of it. See
Amianthus. Asbestos, and Mineralogy Index.
LING, a fpecies of fifh belonging to the genus Ga-
dus, which fee in Ichthyology Index.
LINGEN, a ftrong town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Weftphalia, and capital of a county of the fame
name. It belongs to the king of Pruflia ; and is fitu-
ated on the river Embs, in E. Long. 7. 30. N. Lat.
52. 32.
LINIMENT, in Pharmacy, acompofition of a con-
fiftence fomewhat thinner than an unguent, and thicker
than an oil. See Materia Medica Index.
LINLITHGOW, the chief town of Weft Lothian
in Scotland. It is fuppofed to be the Lindum of Ptole¬
my ; and to take its name from its fituation on a lake,
which the word Lin or Lyn fignifies.—It is diftant 16
miles from Edinburgh, and is a royal borough and feat
31 1 L ? N
of a prefbytery. Here is carried on a confiderable trade Linlithgow,
in dreffing of whiteffeather, which is fent abroad to be *'‘n*‘t.ksow"
manufactured; and many hands are employed in drefling , fl^re‘ ■
of flax ; alfo in wool-combing, the wool for which is
brought from the borders. Its port was formerly Black-
nefs; but fince the decline of that \>\a.ce,BorrowJ1ounnefs,
about tw'o miles diftant from Linlithgow. The town
confifts of one open ftreet, from whence lanes are de¬
tached on both fides ; the houfes are built of (tone,
tolerably neat and commodious; and the place is a-
dorned with fome {lately public edifices. The palace,
built, as Sibbald fuppofed, on the feat of a Roman fta-
tion, forms a fquare with towers at the corners, and
{lands on a gentle eminence, with the beautiful loch be¬
hind it to the weft. It was one of the nobleft of the roy¬
al refidences ; and w'as greatly ornamented by James V.
and VI. Within the palace is a handfome fquare ; one
fide of which is more modern than the others, having
been built by James VI. and kept in good repair till
1746, when it was accidentally damaged by the king’s
forces making fires on the hearths, by w'hich means
the joills w'ere burnt. A ftone ornamented fountain in
the middle of the court was deftroyed at the fame
time. The other fides of the fquare are more ancient.
In one is a room ninety-five feet long, thirty feet fix
inches wide, and thirty-three high. At one end is a
gallery with three arches, perhaps for mufic. Narrow
galleries run quite round the old part, to preferve com¬
munication with the rooms ; in one of which the un¬
fortunate Mary Stuart firft faw light. On the north
fide of the high ftxeet, on an eminence eaft of the pa¬
lace, {lands St Michael’s church ; a handfome ftru6ttire,
where James V. intended to have erefled a throne and
twelve ftalls for the fovereign and knights of the order
of St Andrew. In the market-place is another foun¬
tain of two {lories with eight {pouts, and furmounted
like the former with an imperial crown. In one of the
ftreets is ftiown the gallery where the regent Murray
was {hot. Here was a houfe of Carmelites, founded
by the townfpeople in 1290, deftroyed by the Reformers
1559. The family of Livingfton, who took the title
of earl from this place, w-ere hereditary keepers of the
palace, as alfo bailiffs of the king’s bailifry, and con-
ftables of Blacknefs caftle ; but by their concern in the
rebellion of 1715 all thefe honours with their eftate
were forfeited to the crown. Sir James Livingfton, fon
of the firft earl by marriage with a daughter of Callen-
dar, was created earl of Callendar by Charles I. 1641,
which title funk into the other.
LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or West Lothian,
nearly approaches in form to a parallelogram, about
20 miles long from eaft to weft, and from 10 to 13
broad, from north to fouth. It is bounded by the river
Forth on the north ; by the river Amond on the fouth-
eaft ; by Lanarkftnre on the fouth-weft , and by the
river Avon on the w eft. It is allowed to be one of the
richeft counties in Scotland, the foil in general being a
rich loam, in a high Hate of cultivation and improve¬
ment. Its furface is diverfified by gentle fwells and
fertile plains; and the number of elegant feats almoft
everywhere to be met with, gives it both a rich and de¬
lightful appearance. The whole is a compofition of
all that is great and beautiful; towns, villages, feats,
and ancient towers, decorate each bank of that fine
expanfe of water, the frith of Forth, The lofty moun¬
tains-
«
L I N
Linlithgow- tains of the Highlands form a
diftant, but
[ 32
auguft
llii'e, boundary towards the north-weft ; andtheeaftern view
Lmnseu.-. .
is enlivened with {hips perpetually appearing or vamfti-
ing, amidft the numerous iilands. Hopetoun-houfe,
Barnbougle-caftle, Calder-houfe, Craigie-hall, and the
feat of General Dundas, are fome of the principal orna¬
ments of this county. It contains two royal boroughs,
Linlithgow and Queensferry, befides the towns of
Borrowftounnefs, Bathgate, and Kirkliftoun. It is
poorly fupplied with running water, the Avon ana
Amend being the only ftreams which are deferving of
notice. There are many valuable minerals found in it
in abundance, fuch as coal, limeftone, and fome le^d
ore. In the reign of James VI. a vein of lead was dil-
covered, fo rich in filver, that it was thought worthy
of being wrought for the fake of that metal alone.
Almoft every parifti abounds with ironftone, which is
extenfively wrought in the parifti of Bathgate. In many
places there are appearances of whinftone or bafalt, par¬
ticularly at Dundas-hill, in the parifti of Dalmeny,
where there is a folid front of bafaltic rock, exhibiting
in fome places regular columns. T-he population of
this county in 1801 amounted to 17,844. The fol¬
lowing is the population of the parifties according to the
Statiftical Hiftory.
iO
Parijhes.
Abercorn
Bathgate
Borrowftounnefs
Carridden
Dalmeny
Ecclefmachan
Kirkliftoun
Linlithgow
Livingftone
Queensferry
Torphichen
Uphall
Whitburn
Population
in 1755-
I037
1594
2668
1164
1103
351
1461
3296
598
451
1295
690
1121
16,829
Population in
179c—1798.
870
2309
31?8
>450
907
2>5
1504
3221
420
505
1069
600
1322
>7*570
16,829
Increafe, 741
LINNiEUS, Sir Charles, a celebrated botanift
and natural hiftorian, was born on May 24. 1707, in
a village called Roefhult in Smaland, where his father,
Nicholas Linnceus, was then vicar, but afterwards pre¬
ferred to the curacy of Stenbrohult. We are told, that
on the farm where Linnaeus was born, there yet ftands
a large lime tree, from which his anceftors took the
iurnames of 'FilKinder^ Lindehus^ and Linnceus,* and that
this origin of furnames, taken from natural obje£ts, is
not uncommon in Sweden.
This eminent man, whofe talents enabled him to re¬
form the whole fcience of natural hiftory, accumulated,
very early in life, fome of the higkeft honours that a-
wait the moft fuccefsful proficients in medical fcience
fince we find that he was made profeffor of phyfic and
botany, in the univerfity of Upfal, at the age of 34 *,
and fix years afterwards, phyfieian to Adolphus king
of Sweden ; who in the year 1753 honoured him ftill
farther, by creating him knight of the order of the
] LIN
Polar Star. His honours did not terminate here : for tiri aeus.^
in 1737 he was ennobled j and in 1776 the king Frcr}. Dr
Sweden accepted the refignation of his office, and re- puitjieyt
warded his declining years by doubling his penfion, and General
by a liberal donation of landed property fettled on him View of the
and his family.
It feems probable, that Linnaeus’s tafte for the ftu- J
dv of nature was caught from the example of his fa¬
ther ; who, as he has himfelf informed us, cultivated,
as his firft amufement, a garden plentifully ftored with
plants. Young Linnaeus foon became acquainted with
thefe, as well as with the indigenous ones of his neigh¬
bourhood. Yet, from the ftraitnefs of his father’s in¬
come, our young naturalift was on the point of being
deftined to a mechanical employment j fortunately,
however, this defign was overruled. In 1717 he was
lent to fchool at Wexfio; where, as his opportunities
were enlarged, his progrefs in all his favourite purfuits
was proportionably extended. At this early period he
paid attention to other branches of natural hiftory, par¬
ticularly to the knowledge of infefls.
The firft part of his academical education Linnaeus
received under Profeflor Stobaeus, at Lund, in Scania,
who favoured his inclinations to the ftudy of natural
hiftory. After a refidence of about a year, he remov¬
ed in 1728 to Upfal. Here he foon contra&ed a
clofe friendffiip with Artedi, a native of the province
of Angermania, who had already been four years a ftu-
dent in that univerfity, and, like himfelf, had a ftrong
bent to the ftudy of natural hiftory in general, but par¬
ticularly to ichthyology. Soon after his refidence at
Upfal, our author was alfo happy enough to obtain
the favour of ftveral gentlemen of eftablifhed charafier
in literature. He was in a particular manner encou¬
raged in the purfuit of his ftudies by the patronage of
Dr Olaus Celfius, at that time profeffor of divinity,
and the reftorer of natural hiftory in Sweden •, who,
being ftruek with the diligence of Linnaeu-sin deferib-
ing the plants of the Upfal garden, and his extenfive
knowledge of their names, not only patronized him in
a general way, but admitted him to his houfe, his ta¬
ble, and his library. Under fuch encouragement it is
not ftrange that our author made a rapid progrefs,
both in his ftudies and the efteem of the profeffors :
in fa&, we have a very {hiking proof of his merit and
attainments •, fince we find, that, after only two years
refidence, he was thought fufficiently qualified to give
ledlures occafionally from the botanic chair, in the
room of Profeffor Rudbeck.
In the year 1731, the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Upfal having for fome time meditated the defign of
improving the natural hiftory of Sweden, at the in-
ftance particularly of Proftffors Cellius and Rudbeck,
deputed Linnaeus to make the tour of Lapland, with
the foie view of exploring the natural hiftory of that
arftic region j to which undertaking, his reputation,
already high as a naturalift, and the ftrength of his
conftitution, equally recommended him. He left Up¬
fal the 13th of May, and took his route to Gevalia or
Gevels, the principal town of Geftricia, 45 miles di-
ftant from Upfal. Hence he travelled through Hel-
fingland into Medalpadia, where he made an excur-
fion, and afeended a remarkable mountain before he
reached Hudwickfwald, the chief town of Helfingland.
From hence he went through Angermanland to Her-
L I N
rinnaras. nofand, a fea-port on the Bothnic gulf, 70 miles diftant
from Hudwickfwald. When he had proceeded thus
far, he found it proper to retard his journey, as the
fpring Was not fufficiently advanced ; and took this
opportunity of -vifiting thofe remarkable caverns on
the fummit of Mount Skula, though at the hazard of
his life.
When Linnceus arrived at Uma, in Weft Both¬
nia, about 96 miles from Hernofand, he quitted the
public road, and took his courfe througli the woods
weft ward, in order firft to traverfe the moft fouthern
parts of Lapland. Being now come to the country
that was more particularly the objeft of his inquiries,
equally a ftranger to the language and to the manners
of the people, and without any affociate, he committed
himfelf to the hofpitality of the inhabitants, and ne¬
ver failed to experience it fully. He fpeaks in feveral
places, with peculiar fatisfaflion, of the innocence and
limplicity of their lives, and their freedom from difeafes.
In this excurfion he reached the mountains towards
Norway j and after encountering great hardthips,
returned into Weft Bothnia, quite exhaufted with
fatigue. Our traveller next vifited Pitha and Lula,
upon the gulf of Bothnia j from which latter place he
took again a weftern route, by proceeding up the ri¬
ver of that name, and vilited the ruins of the temple of
Jockmock in Lula Lapland or Lap Mark : thence he
traverfed what is called the Lapland Defert, deftitute of
all villages, cultivation, roads, or any conveniences j
inhabited only by a few ftraggling people, originally
defcended from the Finlanders, and who fettled in this
country in remote ages, being entirely a diftinft people
from the Laplanders. In this diftridl he afcended a
noted mountain called Wallevari ;\n fpeaking of which
he has given us a pleafant relation of his finding a lin¬
gular and beautiful new plant {Andromeda tetragona)
when travelling within the arftic circle, with the fun
in his view at midnight, in fearch of a Lapland hut.
From hence he crofted the Lapland Alps into Fin-
mark, and traverfed the Ihores of the North fea as far
as Sallero.
Thefe journeys from Lula and Pitha on the Both-
nian gulf, to the north Ihore, were made on foot; and
our traveller was attended by two Laplanders, one his
interpreter, and the other his guide. He tells us that
the vigour and ftrength of thefe two men, both old,
and fufficiently loaded with his baggage, excited his
admiration ; fince they appeared quite unhurt by their
labour, while he himfelf, although young and robuft,
was frequently quite exhaufted. In this journey he
was wont to fleep under the boat with which they ford¬
ed the rivers, as a defence againft rain, and the gnats,
which in the Lapland fummer are not lefs teafing than
in the torrid zones. In defeending one of thefe ri¬
vers, he narrowly pfeaped perifhing by the overfettjng
of the boat, and loft many of the natural productions
which he had collected.
Linnaeus thus fpent the greater part of the fummer
in examining this arftic region, and thofe mountains
on which, four years afterwards, the French philofo-
phers fecured immortal fame to Sir Ifaac Newton. At
length, after having fuffered incredible fatigues and
hardlhips, in climbing precipices, palling rivers in mi-
ferable boats, fuffering repeated viciffitudes of extreme
heat and cold, and not unfrequently hunger and thirft,
VOL. XII. Part I.
( 33 1
L I N
he returned to Tornea in September. He did not Linnneus
take the fame route from Tornea as when he came " ’
into Lapland, having determined to vifit and examine
the country on the eaftern fide of the Bothnian gulf:
his firft; ft&ge, therefore, was to Ula in Fall Bothnia ;
from thence to Old and New Carlebay, 84 miles fouth
from Ula. He continued his route through Wafa,
Chriftianftadt, and Biorneburgh, to Abo, a fmall uni-
verfity in Finland. Winter was now fetting in apace j
he therefore crofted the gulf by the illand of Aland,
and arrived at Upfal in November, after having per¬
formed, and that moftly on foot, a journey of ten de¬
grees of latitude in extent, exclufively of thofe devia¬
tions which fuch a defign rendered neceflary.
In 1733 he vifited and examined the feveral mines in
Sweden j and made himfelf fo well acquainted with
mineralogy and the docimaftic art, that we find he was
fufficiently qualified to give le&ures on thofe fubjedts
upon his return to the univerfity. The outlines of his
fyftem on mineralogy appeared in the early editions of
the Systema Naturce ; but he did not exemplify the whole
until the year 1768.
In the year 1734 Linnaeus was fent by Baron Reu-
terholm, governor of Dalecarlia, with feveral other na-
turalifts in that province, to inveftigate the natural pro¬
ductions of that part of the Swedilh dominions j and it
was in this journey that our author firft laid the plan
of an excellent inftitution, which was afterwards exe¬
cuted, in a certain degree at leaft, by himfelf, with the
affiftance of many of his pupils, and the refult publifti-
ed under the title of Pan Suecicus, in the fecond volume
of the Amcenitates Academic<z.
After the completion of this expedition, it appears
that Linneeus refided for a time at Fahlun, the princi¬
pal town in Dalecarlia ; where he tells us, that he
taught mineralogy and the docimaftic art, and prac-
tifed phyficj and where he was very hofpitably treated
by Dr More, the phyfician of the place. It alfo ap¬
pears, that he contracted at this time an intimacy with
one of that gentleman’s daughters, whom he married
about five years afterwards upon his fettling as a phyfi¬
cian at Stockholm —In this journey he extended his
travels quite acrofs the Dalecarlian Alps into Norway j
but we have no particular account of his difeoveries in
that kingdom. In 1735 Linnaeus travelled over many-
other parts of Sweden, fome parts of Denmark and
Germany, and fixed in Holland, where he chiefiy re¬
fided until his return to Stockholm, about the year
1739. In 1735, the year in which he took the degre®
of M. D. he publiftied the firft Iketch of his Systema
Naturee, in a very compendious way, and in the form
of tables only, in 12 pages in folio. By this it appears
that he had at a very early period of his life (certain¬
ly before he was 24 years old), laid the bafis of that
great ftruCture which he afterwards raifed, not only
to the increafe of his own fame, but to that of natural
fcience.
In 1736, Linnteus came into F.ngland, and vL
fited Dr Dillenius, the learned profeflbr at Oxford,
whom he juftly confidered as one of the firft botanifts
in Europe. He mentions with particular refpeCt the
civilities he received from him, and the privileges
he gave him of infpefting his own and the Sherardian
colleClions of plants. It is needlefs to fay, that he
vifited Dr Martyn, Mr Rand; and Mr Miller, and
E that
L I N
[ 34 3
LIN
iianfciw* that be was in a more fingular manner indebted to
     the friendship of Dr Ifaac Lawfon. He alfo con¬
tracted an intimate friendQnp with Mr Peter Collm-
fon which was reciprocally increafed by a multitude
q{ good offices, and continued to the laft without any
diminution. Dr Boerhaave had furniffied him with
letters to our great naturalift Sir Hans Sloane j but, it
is with regret that we muff obferve, they did not pro-
* cure him the reception which the warmth of his re¬
commendation feemed to claim.
One of the moft agreeable circuroftances that hap¬
pened to Linnaeus during his refidence in Holland,
arofe from the patronage of Mr Clifford, in whofe
houfe he lived a considerable part of his time, being
now as it were the child of fortune -.—Exivi patna
Iris into fex nummis auras dives—are his own words.
With Mr Clifford, however, he enjoyed plealures and
privileges fcarcely at that time to be met "ith elie-
wbere in the world ; that of a garden excellently ftored
with the fineil exotics, and a library furnimed with
almoft every botanic author of note. How happy he
found himfelf in this fituation, thofe only who have
felt the fame kind of ardour can conceive. \\ hillt in
Holland, our author was recommended by Boerhaave
to fill the place then vacant, of phyfician to the
Dutch fettlement at Surinam j but he declined it on
account of his having been educated in fo oppofite a
climate. . , , • ,
Befides being favoured with the particular patron¬
age and friendflrip of Boerhaave and Mr Clifford,
as is above mentioned, our author had alio the pma-
fure of being contemporary with, and of reoconing
among the number of his friends, many other learne
perfons who have fince proved ornaments to their pro-
feffion, and whofe merit has moft defervedly raned
them to fame and honour. Among thefe_ we may pro¬
perly mention Dr John Burman, pjrofeffor of botany
at Amfterdam, whofe name and family are well known
iji the republic of letters, and to whom our author dedi¬
cated his Bibliotheca Botanica, having been greatly ai-
. lifted in compiling that work by the free accefs he
had to that gentleman’s excellent library ; John bre-
derick Gronovius of Leyden, editor of Clayton’s Flo¬
ra Virginiea, and who very early adopted Lmnseus s
fyftem; Baron Van Suieten, phyfician to the em-
meft queen ; Ifaac Lawfon, before mentioned, after¬
wards one of the phyficians to the Britifti army, who
died much regretted at Oofterhout in the year I747»
and from whom Linnaeus received fingular and very
important civilities; Kramer, fince well known tor
an excellent treatife on the docimaftic art; Van Hoyen,
botanic profeffor at Leyden ; Lieberkun of Berlin,
famous for his tkill in microfcopical inftruments and
experiment?. To thefe may be added alio the names
of Albinus and Gaybius, and of others, were it re-
quifite to (how that our author’s talents bad very early
rendered him confpicuous, and gained him the regard
of all thofe who cultivated and patronifed any branch
of medical faience ; and to which, doubtlefs, the fin¬
gular notice with which Boeihaave honoured him did
pot a little contribute. . , .
Early in the year 1738, after Linnseus had left
Mr Clifford, and, as it ffiould feem, when he refided
with Van Boyen, he had a long and dangerous fit of
ftcknefs; and upon his repevery went to Tans, where
he was properly entertained by the Juffieus, at that
time the firft botanifts in France. The opportunity
this gave him of infpe&ing the Herbaria of Royen
and Tournefort, and thofe of the above-named gentle¬
men, afforded him great fatisfaftion. He had in¬
tended to have gone from thence into Germany, to
vifit Ludwig and the celebrated Haller, with whom
he was in clofe correfpondence ; but he was not able
to complete this part of his intended _ route, and was
obliged to return without this gratification.
Our author did not fail to avail himfelf of every
'advantage that accefs to the feveral mufeums of this
country afforded him, in every branch of natural hi-
ftory ; and the number and importance of his publi¬
cations, during his abfence from his native country
fuftkiently demonftrate that fund of knowledge which
he muft have imbibed before, and no lefs teftify his
extraordinary application, Lhefe were Systema Na~
mra’, Fund anient a Botanica-, Bibliotheca Botanies, and
Genera Plantarutn; the laft of which is juftly confi-
dered as the moft valuable of all the works of tms ee-
lebrated author. What immenfe application had been
beftovved upon it, the reader may eafily conceive, on
being informed, that before the publication of the fiift
edition the author had examined the charafters of
8000 flowers. The laft book of Linnaeus’s compofi-
tion, pubWhed during his flay m Holland, was the
Clq/fes Plantaruni, which is a copious illuftration of the
fecond part of the bundarnenta.
About the latter end of the year 1738, or the be¬
ginning of the next, our author fettled as a phyfician
at Stockholm ; where he feems to have met vyith con-
fiderable oppofition, and was oppreffed with many
difficulties ; but all of thefe at length he overcame, and
got into extenfive prafrice ; and fiion after his fettie-
ment married the lady before fpoken of. By the m-
tereft of Count Teflin, who was afterwards his great
patron, and even procured medals to be ftruck in ho¬
nour of him, he obtained the rank of phyfician to the
fleet, and a ftipend from the citizens for givmg lec-
tures in botany. And what at this time elpeeial y
was highly favourable to the advancement of his cha-
rader and fame, by giving him an opportunity of ehi-
playing his abilities, was the eftablifbment of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm ; of which
Linnaeus was conflituted the firft prefident,. and to
which eftablifhment the king granted feveral privileges,
particularly that of free portage to all papers dircfted
to the fecretary. By the rules of the academy, t s
prefident held his place but three months. At the ex¬
piration of that term, Linnaeus made \us Oral 10 de me-
morabilihus in InfeBis, Oa. 3. 1739 > }n w«,ch he e"'
deaveurs to excite an attention and inquiry into the
knowledge of infeas, by difplaying the many finguiar
phenomena that occur in contemplating the nature of
thofe animals, and by pointing out, in a variety ot rn-
ftances, their ufefulnefs to mankind in particular, ana
to the economy of nature in general. _
During all this time, however, Linnseus appears to
have had his eye upon the botanic and medical chair
at Upfal, at this time occupied by Rudbetk, who
was far advanced in life. We learn indeed tnat he
was fo intent on purfuing and perfecting his great dc-
figos in the advancement of his favourite ftudy of na¬
ture, that he had determined, if he failed in procuring
7 tn©
Linnaeus.
LIN [
linnsetif. tfie profeffordiip at Upfal, to accept the offer that
i—~Y—^ had been made to him by Haller of filling the botanic
chair at Gottingen. However, in courfe of time, he
obtained his with. In the year 1741, upon the re~
fignation of Roberg, he was eonftituted joint profef-
for of phyiic, and phyftcian to the king, with Rofen,
who had bean appointed in the preceding year on the
death of Rudbeek. Thefe two colleagues agreed to
divide the medical departments between them ; and
their choice was confirmed by the univerfity. Rofen
took anatomy, phyfiology, pathology, and the the¬
rapeutic part j Linngeus, natural hiflory, botany, ma¬
teria mediea, the dietetic part, and the diagnofis mor-
borum.
During the interval of his removal from Stock¬
holm to Gpfal in confequence of this appointment,
our profeibr was deputed by the Rates of the king¬
dom to make a tour to the iflands of Oeland and Goth¬
land in the Baltic, attended by fix of the pupils, com-
miffioned to make fuch inquiries as might tend to
improve agriculture and arts in the kingdom, to
which the Swedifh nation had for fome time paid a
particular attention. The refult of this journey was
very fuccefsful, and proved fully fatisfaftory to the
Rates, and was afterwards communicated to the pub¬
lic. On his return he entered upon the profeffor-
fhip, and pronounced before the univerfity his oration
de Peregr inertia nil m intra P atria ni necejjitate, October 17.
1741 •, m which he forcibly difplays the ufefulnefs of
fuch excurfions, by pointing out to the ftudents that
vaft field of ofc^efls which their country held out to
their cultivation, whether in geography, phyfics, mi¬
neralogy, botany, zoology, or economics, and by fhow-
3fag the benefit that mufi: accrue to themfelves and their
country as rewards to their diligence. That animated
fpirit which runs through the whole of this compofition,
renders it one of the molt pleaftng and inftruflive of all
our author’s produftions.
Linnaeus was now fixed in the fituation that was
the bell adapted to his character, his tafte, and abili¬
ties ; and which feems to have been the objefl of his
ambition and centre of his hopes. Soon after his efta-
blifliment, he laboured to get the academical garden,
which had been founded in 1657, Put on a better foot¬
ing and very foon effected it j procuring alfo a houfe to
be built for the refidence of the profeffor. The whole
had been in ruins ever fince the fire in 1702 ; and at
the time Linnseus was appointed profeffor of botany,
the garden did not contain above fifty plants that were
exotic. His correfpondence with the firft botanifls in
Europe loon fupplied him with great variety. He
received Indian plants from Juffieu of Paris, and from
Van Royen of Leyden j European plants from Haller
and Ludwig ; American plants from the late Mr Coi-
linfon, Mr Catefby, and others ; and variety of annuals
from Dillenius : in fliort, how much the garden owed
to his diligence and care in a few years, may be feen by
the catalogue publiflied under the title of Hortus Uftfa-
lien/is, exhibens P/antas exoticas horto Upfalien/is Aca-
d*mi<% a fefe (Linnceo) illatas ab anno 1742, in annum
£ 74#, additis differentiis fynonymisy habitationibus, hof-
pitiis, rariorumque deferiptiombus, in gratiam Jludiofce
ju-ventutis} Holm. 174^* 8vo. pp. 306. tab. 3. By
this catalogue it appears, that the profeffor had intro¬
duced X100 fpecies, exclufively of all the Swedifh plants
35 ] _ , . L 1.N .
and of varieties; which latter, in ordmsff gardens, a-
mount not unfrequently to one-third of the whole tium- ~
ber. The preface contains a curious hiftory of the cli¬
mate at Upfal, and the progfefs of the feafons through¬
out the whole year.
From the time that Linnasus and Rofen were ap¬
pointed profeffors at Upfal, it fhotild feem that the
credit of that univerfity, as a fehool of phyfic, had
been increafing : numbers of ftudents reforted thither
from Germany, attravled by the character of thefe twof
able men j and in Sweden itfelf many young mefr were
invited to the ftudy of phyfic by the excellent manner
in which it was taught, who otheTwife would have en¬
gaged in different purfuits.
Whilft Linnsetrs was meditating one of his capital
performances, which had long been expected and great¬
ly wifhed for, he was interrupted by a tedious and
painful fit of the gout, which left him in a very weak
and difpirited ftate; and,-according to the intelligence
that his friends gave of him, nothing was thought to
have contributed more to the reftoration of his fpirits
than the feafonable scquiiition, at this juncture, of a
colleftion of rare and undeferibed plants.
The fame which our author had now acquired by
his Syftema Naturce, of which a fixth edition, much en¬
larged, had been pubTifhed at Stockholm in 1748 in
8vo. pp. 232, with eight tables explanatory of the
claffes and orders (and which was alfo republifhed
by Gronovius at Leyden), had brought, as it were, a
conflux of every thing rare and valuable in every branch
of nature, from all parts of the globe, into Sweden.
The king and queen of Sweden had their feparate col¬
lections of rarities': the former at Ulrickidahl j the
latter, very rich in exotic infefts and fhells, procured
at a great expence, at the palace of Drottningholm ;
both of which our author was employed in arranging
and deferibing. Befides thefe, the mufoum of the
Royal Academy of Upfal had been augmented by a
confiderable donation from the king, whilft hereditary
prince, in 1746 j by another from Count Gyllenborg
the year before ; by a third from M. Grill, an opulent
citizen of Stockholm.
From this time we fee the profeffor in a more
elevated rank and fituation in life. His reputation
had already procured him honours from almoft all the
royal focieties in Europe $ and his own fovereign,
truly fenfible df his merit, and greatly efteeming
his charafrer and abilities, favoured him with a mark
of his difttnftion and regard, by creating him a
knight of the Polar Star. It was no longer laudalur et
a/get. His emoluments kept pace with his fame and
honours : his practice in his profeflion became lucra¬
tive 5 and we find him foon after poffeffed of his coun¬
try houfe and gardens at Hammarby, about five miles
from Upfal. He had moreover received one of the
moft flattering teftimonies of the extent and magnitude
of his fame that perhaps was ever ftiown to any lite¬
rary chara&er, the ftate of the nation which conferred
it, with all its circumftances, duly ccnfidered. This
was an invitation to Madrid from the king of Spain,
there to prefide as a naturalift, with the offer of an an¬
nual peniion for life of 2000 piftoles, letters of nobi¬
lity, and the perfect free exercife of his own religion :
But, after the moft perfeft acknowledgements of
the Angular honour done him, he returned for anfwer,
E a i that
«
L I N
r 36 ]
L I N
Linn®us. < tliat i£ lie had any merits, they were due to his own
L"—v--"' country.’
In the year 1755, the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Stockholm honoured our profeffor with one of the
firft premiums, agreeably to the will of Count Sparree,
who had decreed two gold medals, of ten ducats value
each, to be annually given by the academy to the au¬
thors of fuch papers, in the preceding year’s Stock¬
holm Afts, as fliould be adjudged molt ufeful in pro¬
moting agriculture particularly, and all branches of ru¬
ral economy. This medal bore on one fide the arms -
of the count, with this motto, Superjies in fcientiis amor
Frederici Sparree. Linnaeus obtained it in confequence
of a paper De P/antis qua: Alpium Suecicarum indigence^,
magno rei ceconomica et medicce emolumento fieri pofiint :
and the ultimate intention was to recommend thefe
plants as adapted to culture in Lapland, Ihis paper
was inferted in the Stockholm A As for 1754, vol. xv.
Linnteus alfo obtained the premium centum aureontm,
propofed by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Pe-
terfburgh, for the bell paper written to eftablilh or dif-
prove, by new arguments, the doftrine of the fexes of
plants. It was, if pofiible, an additional glory to Lin-,
nseus to have merited this premium from the Peterf-
burgh academy } inafmuch as a profeflbr of that fo-
ciety, a few years before, had with more than common
zeal, although with a futility like that of the other
antagonifts of our author, endeavoured to overturn the
whole Linnaean fyftem of botany, by attempting to
(how that the doArine of the fexes of plants had no
foundation in nature, and was unfupported by faAs
and experiments.
It appears that Linnaeus upon the whole, enjoyed
a good conftitution j but that he was fometimes fe-
verely affliAed with a hemicraniay and was not exempt¬
ed from the gout. About the clofe of 1776, he was
feized with an apoplexy, which left him paralytic j and
at the beginning of the year 1777, he fuffered another
ilroke, which very much impaired his mental powers.
But the difeafe fuppofed to have been the more im¬
mediate caufe of his death, was an ulceration of the
urinary bladder ; of which, after a tedious indifpofition,
he died, January O. 1778, in the 71ft year of his age.
—His principal other works, befide thofe already men¬
tioned, are. The Iter O'elandicum et Got/andicum, Iter
Scanicum, Flora Suecica, Fauna Suecica, Materia Me-
dica, Philofiophia Botanica, Genera Morborum, different
papers in the ABa Upfialienfia, and the Amcenitates Aca¬
demic#. The laft of this great man’s treatifes was the
Mantiffd Altera, publifhed in 1771 J but before his
death he had finilhed the greateft part of the Mantifia
Tertia, afterwards completed and publilhed by his
Ion.
To the lovers of fcience it will not appear ftrange,
nor will it be unpleafant to hear, that uncommon re-
fpeA was fhown to the memory of this great man. We
are told, “ that on his death a general mourning took
place at Upfal, and that his funeral proceffion was at¬
tended by the whole univerfity, as well profeffors as
Undents, and the pall fupported by fixteen doAors of
phyfic, all of whom had been his pupils.” The king
of Sweden, after the death of Linnseus, ordered a me¬
dal to be ftruck, of which one fide exhibits Linnaeus’s
bull and name, and the other Cybele, in a dejeAed at¬
titude, holding in her left hand a key, and furrounded
4
with animals and growing plants 5 with this legend, Linnams.
Deam luBus angit amifii; and beneath, Pofi Obitum Up- ‘ lJ
fialicCy die x. Jan. M.DCC.LXXVIII. Rege jubente.—The
fame generous monarch not only honoured the Royal
Academy of Sciences wdth his prefence when Linnaeus’s
commemoration was held, at Stockholm, but, as a ftill
higher tribute, in his fpeech from the throne to the af-
fembly of the Hates, he lamented Sweden’s lofs by his
death. Nor was Linnaeus honoured only in his own
country. The late worthy profeffor of botany at
Edinburgh, Dr Hope, not only pronounced an eulo-
gium in honour of him before his ftudents at the open¬
ing of his leAures in the fpring 1778, but alio laid
the foundation ftone of a monument (which he after¬
wards erefted) to his memory, in the botanic garden
there \ which, while it perpetuates the name and me¬
rits of Linnaeus, will do honour to the founder, and, it
may be hoped, prove the means of raifing an emulation
favourable to that fcience which this illuftrous Swede
fo highly dignified and improved.
As to the private and perfonal charaAer of this il-
luftrious philofopher : His ftature was diminutive and
puny j his head large, and its hinder part very high j
his look was ardent, piercing, and apt to daunt the be¬
holder \ his ear not fenfible to mufic j his temper quick,
but eafiiy appeafed.
Nature had, in an eminent manner, been liberal in
the endowments of his mind. He feems to have been
poffeffed of a lively imagination, correAed however by
a ftrong judgment, and guided by the laws of fyftem.
Add to thefe, the moft retentive memory, an unremit¬
ting induftry, and the greateft perfeverance in all his
purfuits 5 as is evident from that continued vigour with
w hich he profecuted the defign, that he appears to have
formed fo early in life, of totally reforming and fa¬
bricating anew the whole fcience of natural hiftory j
and this fabric he raifed, and gave to it a degree of
perfeAion unknown before j and had moreover the un¬
common felicity of living to fee his own ftruAure rife
above all others, notwithftanding every difcourage-
ment its author at firft laboured under, and the oppofi-
tion it afterwards met with. Neither has any writer
more cautioufly avoided that common error of building
his own fame on the ruin of another man’s. He every¬
where acknowledged the feveral merits of each author’s
fyftem ; and no man appears to have been more fenfible
of the partial defeAs of his own. Thofe anomalies
which had principally been the objeAs of criticifm, he
well knew every artificial arrangement muft abound
with j and having laid it down as a firm maxim, that
every fyftem muft finally reft on its intrinfic merit, he
willingly commits his own to the judgment of pofte-
rity. Perhaps there is no circumftance of Linnaeus’s
life which (hows him in a more dignified light than his
conduA towards his opponents. Difavowing controver-
fy, and juftly confidering it as an unimportant and
fruitlefs facrifice of time, he never replied to any, nu¬
merous as they were at one feafon.
To all who fee the aid this extraordinary man has
brought to natural fcience, his talents muft appear in
a very illuftrious point of view j but more efpecially to
thofe who, from fimilarity of taftes, are qualified to fee
more diftinAly the vaft extent of his original defign,
the greatnefs of his labour, and the elaborate execution
he has given to the whole. He had a happy com¬
mand
LIN [ 37 J LIN
Llnrseus mand of the Latin tongue, which is alone the language
i! of fcience j and no man ever applied it more fuccefsful-
ly to his purpofes, or gave to defcription fuch copiouf-
nefs, united with that precihon and concifenefs which
fo eminently charafterize his writings.
The ardour of Linnaeus’s inclinations to the ftudy of
nature, from his earlieft years, and that uncommon ap¬
plication which he bellowed upon it, gave him a molt
comprehenfive view both of its pleafures and ufefulnefs,
at the fame time that it opened to him a wide field,
hitherto but little cultivated, efpecially in his own
country. Hence he was early led to regret, that the
fludy of natural hiltory, as a public inftitution, had
not made its way into the umverfities ; in many of
which, logical difputations and metaphyfical theories
had too long prevailed, to the exclulion of more ufeful
feience. Availing himfelf therefore of the advantages
which he derived from a large lhare of eloquence, and
an animated llyle, he never failed todifplay, in a live¬
ly and convincing manner, the relation this lludy hath
to the public good 5 to incite the great to countenance
and protedl it ; to encourage and allure youth into
its purfuits, by opening its manifold fources of plea-
fure to their view, and Ihowing them how greatly this
agreeable employment would add, in a variety of in-
ftances, both to their comfort and emolument. His
extenfive view of natural hiftory, as conne£led with al-
moft all the arts of life, did not allow him to confine
thefe motives and incitements to thofe only w’ho were
defigned for the praftice of phyfic. He alfo laboured
to infpire the great and opulent with a tafte for this
fludy y and wifhed particularly that fuch as w'ere de¬
voted to an ecclefiaftic life fhould lhare a portion of na¬
tural fcience ; not only as a means of fweetening their
rural fituation, confined, as many are, perpetually to a
country refidence, but as what would almoll inevitably
lead, in a variety of inllances, to difcoveries which on¬
ly fuch fituations could give rife to, and which the
learned in great cities could have no opportunities to
make. Not to add, that the mutual communication
and enlargement of this kind of knowledge among
people of equal rank in a country fituation, mull prove
one of the llrongeft bonds of union and friendfliip,
and contribute, in a much higher degree than the ufual
perilhing amufements of the age, to the pleafures and
advantage of fociety.
Linnaeus lived to enjoy the fruit of his own labour
in an uncommon degree. Natural hiftory raifed it-
fielf in Sweden, under his culture to a ftate of per-
feftion unknown elfewhere; and was from thence dif-
feminated through all Europe. His pupils difperfed
themfelves all over the globe : and, with their mafter’s
fame, extended both fcience and their own. More
than this, he lived to fee the fovereigns of Europe
eftablilh feveral public inftitutions in favour of this
ftudy; and even prefefforftiips eftabliftied in divers
univerfities for the fame purpofe, which do honour to
their founders and patrons, and which have excited a
curiofity for the fcience, and a fenfe of its worth, that
cannot fail to further its progrefs, and in time raife it
to that rank which it is entitled to hold among the
purfuits of mankind.
LINNET. See Fringilla, Ornithology In¬
dex.
LINSEED, the feed of the plant linum,—-Linfeed
fteeped and bruifed in water gives it very foon a thick LlnfeeA
mucilaginous nature, and communicates much of its H
emollient virtue to it. See Linum. . lnt2‘
LINT. See Flax j Linen j and Linum, Botany
Index.
Lint, in Surgery, is the fcrapings of fine linen,
ufed by furgeons in dreffing wounds. It is made into
various forms, which acquire different names accord¬
ing to the difference of the figures.—Lint made up in
an oval or orbicular form is called a pledgit; if in a
cylindrical form, or in fhape of a date, or olive-ftone,
it is called a dojjil.
Thefe different forms of lint are required for many
purpofes 5 as, I. To flop blood in frefti wounds, by
filling them up with dry lint before the application of
a bandage : though, if fcraped lint be not at hand, a
piece of fine linen may be torn into fmall rags, and ap¬
plied in the fame manner. In very large haemorrhages
the lint or rags fhould be firft dipped in fome ftyptic
liquor, as alcohol, or oil of turpentine j or fprinkled
with fome ftyptic powder. 2. To agglutinate or heal
wounds j to which end lint is very ferviceable, if fpread
with fome digeftive ointment, balfam, or vulnerary
liquor. 3. In drying up wounds and ulcers, and for¬
warding the formation of a cicatrix. 4. In keeping
the lips of wounds at a proper diftance, that they
may not haftily unite before the bottom is well di-
gefted and healed. 5. They are highly neceffary to
preferve wounds from the injuries of the air.—Sur¬
geons of former ages formed compreffes of fponge,
wool, feathers, or cotton j linen being fcarce : but
lint is far preferable to all thefe, and is at prefent uni-
verfaliy ufed.
LINTERNUM, or Literum, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a city of Campania, fituated at the mouth of the
Clanius, which is alfo called Liturnus, between Cumse
and Vulturnum. It received a Roman colony at the
fame time with Puteoli and Vulturnum; was improved
and enlarged by Auguftus; afterwards forfeited its
right of colonylhip, and became a prefeflure. Hither
Scipio Africanus the Elder retired from the mean envy
of his ungrateful countrymen ; and here he died, and
was buried : though this laft is uncertain, he having a
monument both here and at Rome. No veftige of the
place now remains.
LINTSTOCK, in military affairs, a wooden ftaff
about three feet long, having a fharp point in one
end and a fort of fork or crotch on the other; the
latte/ of which ferves to contain a lighted match, and
by the former the lintftock is occafionally ftuck in the
ground, or in the deck of a (hip during an engage¬
ment. It is very frequently ufed in Imall veffels,
where there is commonly one fixed between every two
guns, by which the match is always kept dry, and ready
for firing.
LINTZ, a very handfome towm of Germany, and
capital of Upper Auftria, with two fortified caftles j
the one upon a hill, the other below it. Here is a
hall in which the ftates affemble, a bridge over the
Danube, a manufacture of gunpowder, and feveral
other articles. It was taken by the French in 1741,
but the Auftrians retook it in the following year. E.
Long. 14. 33. N. Lat. 48. 16.
Lintz, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Lower Rhine, and eleClorate of Cologne, fubjeft to-
thafc.
L I O C 38 1 ! X P
Lint* that ele&oi'. It is feated on the river Rhine, in E.
li Long. 7. I. N. Lat. 50. 31.
Liotard. LINUM, Flax j a genus of plants belonging to
¥ ’ the pentandria clafs j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 14th order, Gruina/es. See Botany
Index.
LINUS, in claffical hiftory, a native of Colchis,
cotemporary with Orpheus, and one of the moft an¬
cient poets and muficians of Greece. It is impoffible,
at this diftance of time, to difcover whether Linus
was the difciple of Orpheus, or Orpheus of Linus.
The majority, however, feem to decide this queftion
in favour of Linus. According to Archbilhop Uther,
he flourilhed about 1280 B, C. and he is mentioned by
Eufebius among the poets who wrote before the time
of Mofes. Diodorus Siculus tells us, from Dionyfius of
Mitylene the hiftorian, who was cotemporary with Ci¬
cero, that Linus was the firft among the Greeks who in¬
vented verfes and mufic, as Cadmus firft taught them
the ufe of letters. The fame writer likewife attributes
to him an account of the exploits of the firft Bac¬
chus, and a treatife upon Greek mythology, written
in Pelafgian characters, which were alfo thofe ufed by
Orpheus, and by Pronapides the preceptor of Homer.
Diodorus fays that he added the ftring iichanos to the
Mercurian lyre j and afcribes to him the invention of
rhime and melody $ which Suidas, who regards him
as the moft ancient of lyric poets, confirms. Mr
Marpurg tells us, that Linus invented cat-gut firings
for the ufe of the lyre, which, before his time, was
only ftrung with thongs of leather, or with different
threads of flax ftrung together. Fie is faid by many
writers to have had feveral difciples of great renown $
among whom were Hercules, Thamyris, and, accord¬
ing to fome, Orpheus.—Hercules, fays Diodorus, in
learning from Linus to play upon the lyre, being ex¬
tremely dull and obftinate, provoked his mafter to
ftrike him $ which fo enraged the young hero, that in-
ftantly feizing the lyre of the mufician, he beat out his
brains with his own inftrument.
LION, in Zoology. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
LIONCELLES, in Heraldry, a term ufed for fe¬
veral lions borne in the fame coat of arms.
LIOTARD, called the Turk, an eminent painter,
was born at Geneva in 1702, and by his father was
ctefigned for a merchant j but, by the perfuafion of his
friends, who obferved the genius of the young man, he
was permitted to give himfelf up to the art of painting.
He went to Paris in 1725, and in 1738 accompanied
the marquis de Puifieux to Rome, who was going am-
baiTador to Naples, At Rome he was taken notice of
by the earls of Sandwich and Befborough, then Lord
Duncannon, who engaged Liotard to go with them
on a voyage to Conftantinople. There he became ac¬
quainted with the late Lord Edgecumbe, and Sir Eve-
*ard Fawkener, our ambaffador, who perfumed him
to come to England, where he ftaid two years. In
his journey to the Levant he had adopted the eaftem
habit, and wore it here with a very long beard, It
contributed much to the portraits of hirafelf, and feme
thought to draw cuffomers j but he was really a paint¬
er of uncommon merit. After his return to the conti¬
nent, he married a young wife, and facrifteed his beard
to Hymen. He came agwin to EngLnd in 1772, and
brought a coltae&m of pictures of different maftersj
a
which he fold by auftion, and fome pieces of glafs Lit^ari
painted by himfelf, with furprifing effedl of light and II .
fhade, but a mere curiofity, as it was neceflary to .
darken the room before they could be feen to advan¬
tage 5 he affixed, too, as ufual, extravagant prices to
them. He ftaid here about two years, as in his former
journey. He has engraved fome Turkifh portraits,
one of the emprefs queen and the eldeft archduchefs
in Turkifh habits, and the heads of the emperor and
emprefs. He painted admirably well in miniature }
and finely in enamel, though he feldom praclifed it.
But he is beft known by his works in crayons. His
likenefies were as exaft as poflible, and too like to
pleafe thofe who fat to him ; thus he had great bufi-
nefs the firft year, and very little the fecond. Devoid
of imagination, and one would think of memory, he
could render nothing but what he faw before his eyes.
Freckles, marks of the fmallpox, every thing found its
place } not fo much from fidelity, as becaufe lie could
not conceive the- abfence of any thing that appeared
to him. Truth prevailed in all his works, grace in
very few or none. Nor was there any eafe in his
outline ; but the ftiffnefs of a buft in all his por¬
traits, Walpole.
LIP, in Anatorfvy. See there, N° 102.
Hare-LlP, a diforder in which the upper lip is in a
manner flit or divided, fo as to referable the upper lip
of a hare, whence the name. See Surgery.
LIPARA, in Ancient Geography, the principal of
the iflands called JEolia, fituated between Sicily and
Italy, with a cognominal town, fo powerful as to have
a fleet, and the other iflands in fubjedlion to it. Ac¬
cording to Diodorus Siculus, it was famous for excel¬
lent harbours and medicinal waters. He informs us
alfo, that it fuddenly emerged from the fea about the
time of Hannibal’s death. The name is Punic, ac¬
cording to Bochart: and given it, becaufe, being a
volcano, it (hone in the night. It is now called Li*
pari, and gives name to nine others in its neighbour¬
hood viz. Stromboli, Pare, Rotto, Panark, Saline,
Volcano, Fenicufa, Alicor, and Uftica. Thefe are
called, in general, the Lipari Iflands. Some of thefe
are acftive volcanoes at prefent, though Lipari is not.
It is about 15 miles in circumference j and abounds in
corn, figs and grapes, bitumen, fulphur, alum, and mi¬
neral waters.
LIPARI, an ancient and very ftrong town, and
capital of an ifland of the fame name in the Medi¬
terranean, with a bilhop’s fee. It was ruined by
Barbaroffa in 1544, who carried away all the in¬
habitants into flavery, and demolifned the place $ but
it was rebuilt by Charles V. E. Long. 15. 30. N. Lat,
38, 35.
LiPARI, properly, is the general name of a clufter of
iflands, Thefe, according to Mr Houel, are principally
ten in number, the reft being only uninhabitable rocks
of narrow extent. The largeft and the moft populous
of them, that above mentioned, eoramunioates its name
to the reft. Volcano is a defert but habitable ifland,
lying fouth from the large ifland of Lipari. $alinesi
which Res weft-nofth-wvft from the fame ifland \ Fe*
licudi, nearly in the fame direction, but 20 miles farther
diflant) and Alicudl, jo miles fouth-weft of Felieudi |
are inhabited, Pannari is eaft of Lipari, the famous
StvmboH liorth-eaft, and both of them are inhabited.
L I P
Lipari. The reft are in adefert ftate; fuch as Bacauv-z-zo, which
was formerly inhabited; Atta/o, which might be inha¬
bited; and DExambianca, on which fome, remains of
ancient dwellings are ftill to be found. L‘‘Efcanera is
nothing but a bare. reck.
The Fertnicoli, a word fignifying ants, are a chain
of fmall black cliffs which run to the north-eaft of Li¬
pari, till within a little way of Lxambianca and Efca-
nera, riling more or lefs above the water, according as
the fea is more or lefs agitated.
Ancient authors are not agreed with refpefl to the
number of the Lipari illands. Few of thofe by whom
they are mentioned appear to have feen them; and in
places fuch as thefe, where fubterraneous fires ^burft
open the earth, and raife the ocean from its bed, ter¬
rible changes muft fometimes take place. Volcanello
and Volcano were once feparated by a ftrait, fo as to
form two illands. The lava and allies have filled up
the intervening ftrait •, and they are now united into
one illand, and have by this change become much more
habitable.
The caftle of Lipari Hands upon a rock on the eaft
quarter of the illand. The way to it from the city
leads up a gentle declivity. There are feveral roads
to it. This caftle makes a part of the city ; and on
the fummit of the rock is the citadel, in which the go¬
vernor and the garrifon refide. The cathedral Hands
in the fame fituation. Here the ancients, in confor¬
mity to their ufual practice, had built the temple of a
tutelary god. This citadel commands the whole city;
and it is accefllble only at one place. Were an hof-
tile force to make a defcent on the ifland, the inha¬
bitants might retreat hither, and be fecure againft all
but the attacks of famine.
The ancient inhabitants had alfo fortified this place.
Confiderable portions of the ancient walls are ftill
ftanding in different places, particularly towards the
fouth : Their ftru&ure is Grecian, and the ftones are
exceedingly large, and very well cut. The layers are
three feet high, which fhows them to have been raifed
in fome very remote period. Thefe remains are fur-
rounded with modern buildings. The remains of walls,
which are ftill to be feen here, have belonged not only
to temples, but to all the different forts of buildings
which the ancients ufed to ere6L The vaults, which
are in a better ftate of prefervation than any of the
other parts of thefe monuments, are now converted to
the purpofes of a prilbn.
In the city of Lipari there are convents of monks
of two different orders ; but there are no convents for
women, that is to fay, no cloifters in which women are
confined; thofe, however, vhofe heads and hearts
move them to embrace a ftate of pious celibacy, are at
liberty to engage in a monaftic life, with the concur¬
rence of their confeffors. They put on the facred ha¬
bit, and vow perpetual virginity, but continue to live
with their father and mother, and mix in fociety like
other women. The vow and the habit even enlarge
their liberty. This cuftom will, no doubt, M. Houel
obferves, appear very ftrange to a French woman ; but
this was the w:ay in which the virgins of the primitive
church lived. The idea of {hutting them up together
did not occur till the fifth century. The life of thefe
religious ladies is lefs gloomy than that which thofe un¬
der the fame vows lead in other countries. They wear.
[ 39 1
LIP
clothes of particular colours, according as they belong L'pad.
to this or that order. Their drefs gives them a right
to frequent the churches at any hours ; and the voice of
cenfure, which takes particular pleafure in directing
her attacks againft pious ladies, goes fo far as to affert,
that fome young women affume the habit with no
other views but that they may enjoy greater free¬
dom.
In this ifland oxen of a remarkably beautiful fpecies
are employed in ploughing the ground. The ancient
plough is ftill in ufe here. The mode of agriculture
pra£Hfed here is very expeditious. One man traces
a furrow, and another follows to fow in it grain and
pulfe. The ploughman, in cutting the next furrow,
covers up that in which the feed has been fown : and
thus the field is both ploughed and fown at once. Na¬
ture feems to be here uncommonly vigorous and fertile.
Vegetation is here more luxuriant, and animals gayer
and more healthful, than almoft anywhere elfe.
Near the city of Lipari, the traveller enters deep
narrow roads, of a very fingular appearance. The
whole ifland is nothing but an affemblage of moun¬
tains, all of them confifting of afties or lava difcharged
from the depths of the volcano by which it was at
firft produced. The particles of this puzzolana, or
afties, are not very hard; the aftion of the rain water
has accordingly cut out trenches among the moun¬
tains ; and thefe trenches being perhaps lefs uneven
than the reft of the furface, have of confequence been
ufed as roads by the inhabitants, and have been ren¬
dered much deeper by being worn for fo many ages
by the feet of men and other animals. Thefe roads
are more than five or fix fathoms deep, and not more
than feven or eight feet wide. They are very crooked,
and have echoes in feveral places. You would think
that you were walking through narrow ftreets without
doors or windows. Their depth and windings {helter -
the traveller from the fun while he is palling through
them ; and he finds them delicioufly cool.
The firft volcanic eruption in the Lipari iflands
mentioned in hiftery, is that of which Callias takes no¬
tice in his hiftory of the wars in Sicily. Callias was -
contemporary with Agathocles. That eruption con¬
tinued without interval for feveral days and nights;
and threw out great ftones, which fell at more than a
mile’s diftance. The fea boiled all around the ifland.
The works of Callias are loft, and we know not whe¬
ther he defcended to a detail of particulars concerning
the ravages produced by this eruption. Under the
confullhip of ALmilius Lepidus and L. Aurelius O-
reftes, 126 years before the Chriftian era, thefe iflands
w'ere affefted with a dreadful earthquake. The burn¬
ing of y£tna was the firft caufe of that. Around Lipari
and the adjacent iflands, the air was all on fire. Ve¬
getation was withered ; animals died ; and fufible be-
dies, fuch as wax and refin, became liquid. If the inha¬
bitants of Lipari, from whom our author received thefe
fa&s, and the writers who have handed down an ac¬
count of them, have not exaggerated the truth, we
muft believe that the fea then boiled around die
ifland; the earth became fo hot as to burn the cables
by which veffels were fixed to the fhore, and confumed
the planks, the oars, and even the fmall boats.
Pliny, the naturalift *, fpeaks of another fimilar* Lib. iiY.
event which happened 30 or 49 years afterwards, int:H>-i°&
the
%
Ixlnari.
LIP [ 4° ] LIP
the time of the war of the allied ftates of Italy againft
Rome. One of the iEolian illands, fays he, was all
-on fire as well as the fea j and that prodigy continued
to appear, till the fenate appealed, by a deputation, the
wrath of the gods. From the time of that war, which
happened 86 years before the birth of our Saviour,
till the year 144 of our era, we have no account of
any eruption of thefe volcanoes : and from that period
again, till the year 1444,, we hear of no explofion from
them, that is, for the fpace of 1300 years. But at
that time both Sicily and the iEolian ifles were agi¬
tated by dreadful (hocks of earthquakesthe volcano
of thefe ifles poured forth ftreams of lava with an aw¬
ful violence, and emitted a volume of flame and fmoke
which rofe to an amazing height. After that it dif-
charged enormous (tones which fell at the diftance of
more than fix miles.
A century later, in the year 1550, the fury of this
volcano w^s again renewed. 1 he allies and ftones
difcharged from the crater filled up the ftrait between
Volcano and Volcanello.
About two centuries after that, in the year i739>
there was a fixth eruption. The burftings of the vol¬
canic fire were attended with a noife fo dreadful, that
it was heard as far as Melazzo in Sicily.
Father Leandro Alberti fays, that on one of thofe
dreadful occafions, the women of Lipari, after im¬
ploring in vain all the faints, vowed to drink no more
wine if the volcano ftiould fpare them. Their giv¬
ing up this fmall gratification was doubtlefs of great
fervice, yet the eruptions ftill continue, and have
even become more frequent fince that time. Only
36 years intervened between this eruption and that
which happened in the year 1775* The whole ifland
was then fliaken ; fubterraneous thunder was heard $
and confiderable ftreams of flame, with fmoke, ftones,
and vttreous lava, iffued from the crater. Lipari was
covered over with allies ; and part of thefe was con¬
veyed by the winds all the way into Sicily. Five
years after, however, in the month of April 1780,
there iflued a new explofion from Volcano j the fmoke
was thick, the {hocks conftant, and the fubterraneous
noife very frequent. So great was the confternation
among the inhabitants of Lipari on this occafion, that
the commander Deodati Dolomieu, who vifited thefe
iflands not long after that event, informs us, that the
inhabitants in general, but efpecially the women, de¬
voted themfelves as flaves to the fervice of the blefled
virgin j and wore On their arms, as tokens of their
fervitude, fmall iron chains, which they ftill continue
to wear.
This aft of piety, however, was not fo efficacious
as the deputation of the fenate had been. For after
that deputation, more than 200 years pafled before the
jEolian ifles were afflifted by any other eruption, at
lealt by any confiderable one: Whereas, in three
years after the ladies devoted themfelves in fo fubmif-
live a manner to the fervice of the virgin, the ifles of
Lipari were agitated anew by that fatal earthquake
which ravaged Calabria and part of Sicily, on the 5th
of February 1783.
The dry baths of St Calogero, in the ifland of Li¬
pari, are ftoves, where fulphureous exhalations, known
to be of a falutary nature, afcend out of the earth
by holes or fpiracles. A range of apartments are
built around the place where the exhalations arife, Lipari.
The heat is communicated through thofe apartments, ,r“
in fuch a way, that when entering at one end, you ad¬
vance towards the other, the heat ftill increafes upon
you till you gain the middle apartment, and again di-
minifties in the fame manner as you proceed from the
middle to the other end of the range of chambers. In
confequence of this difpofition of thefe apartments,
the fick perfon can make choice of that temperature
■which beft fuits the nature of his difeafe. There are a
few miferable huts and a fmall chapel for the accommo¬
dation of the people who repair to thefe baths. The
people of the place are ready to attend them. Phyfi-
cians likewife follow their patients thither, when the
difeafe is of fuch a nature as to render their attendance
requifite, and the patient rich enough to afford them
handfome fees : but there is no phyfician fettled in the
place. Befides thefe dry baths, there are baths of hot
water diftinguifhed by the name of St Cahgero's bath.
There are around them buildings fufficient to lodge a
confiderable number of fick people with their neceflary
attendants. At prefent, however, thofe buildings are
but in a bad condition.
The baths conflft of two halls j one fquare, the other
round. The former is antique j it has been built by
the Romans j it is arched with a cupola, and 12 feet
in diameter $ it has been repaired : The other is like¬
wife arched with a cupola both within and without.
The water comes very hot into the firft. It gullies
up from among pieces of lava, which compofe a part
of the mountain at the foot of which thefe baths are
built. Thofe ftones remain in their natural ftate. All
that has been done is the railing of a fquare building
encloling them. Within that building the fick per-,
fons either fit down on the ftones, or immerfe them¬
felves in the intervening cavities which are filled with
•water. They continue there for a certain time, and
approach nearer to, or remain at a farther diftance
from the fpring, according as their phyfician direfts.
The place ferves alfo as a ftove. The hot vapours
arifing from the water communicate to the furround¬
ing atmofphere a confiderable degree of heat. It is
indeed not inferior to that of the hot baths of Ter¬
mini, which owe their heat to a fimilar caufe. In
thefe baths, therefore, a perfon can have the benefit
either of bathing in the hot w ater, or of expofing him-
felf to the vapour, the heat of which is more mode¬
rate. The bath before mentioned, under the appella¬
tion of dry bath, is alfo a ftove ; but the hot vapour
with which it is filled iffues dire&ly from the volcano.
The place of the bath is, however, at fuch a diftance
from the volcanic focus, that the heat is not at all in¬
tolerable.
The mountain at the foot of which thefe baths are
fituated is round, and terminates at the fummit in a
rock of petrified alhes, which are very hard and of a
very fine grain. This petrification confifts of pretty
regular ftrata, and appears to have been greatly prior
in its origin to the adjacent rocks j which confift like¬
wife of allies, but alhes that have been depofited at a
much later period. From this rock there proceeds
likewife a ftream of hot water, by which fome mills in
the neighbourhood are moved.
It cannot but appear furprifing, that nature has
placed nearly on the fummit of a volcanic mountain
fprings
r
LIP [ 41 ] ‘ LIP
Lipari. fprings wliich fupply fo confiderable a quantity of wa-
• v / ter. To account for fuch a phenomenon would be
well worthy of fome ingenious natural!ft. Nor are
thefe hot fprings all 5 proceeding around the fame hill,
at about a mile’s diftance, we find a fpring of cold
water rifing from the fummit of the fame rock, which
on the north-weft produces three hot fprings. The cold
water is very pleafant to drink, and much ufed both
by men and cattle.
Among thefe mountains there are many enormous
loofe maffes of lava, the appearance of which, M.
Houel informs us, naturally leads the obferver to take
notice, that the lava of the volcano of Lipari is of a
much greater diverfity of colours, and thofe richer
and more lively, than the lava of Vefuvius and iEtna.
The lava of Lipari is in fome places, for feveral miles,
of a beautiful red colour. It contains likewife in great
abundance fmall black cryftallized fcoriae, as well as
the fmall white grains which are commonly found in
lava.
Among the eminences which overlook the city of
Lipari, there are fome rocks of a fpecies which is very
rare in Europe. Thefe are large mafies of vitrified
matter, which rife fix or eight feet above the furface
of the ground, and appear to extend to a great depth
under it. They exift, through that range of moun¬
tains, in enormous maffes, mixed with lavas of every
different colour, and always Handing detached and in-
fulated. Were they cut and followed under ground,
they would probably be found to exift in immenfe
quarries in the bowels of the earth. The glafs of
which they confift might be employed with great ad¬
vantage in manufa&ures. It is ready made, and might
be eafily purified. It is green, compaft, and tranf-
parent.
The cultivation of the ground is the chief employ¬
ment of the inhabitants of Lipari. The poffeffion of
a few acres of land here gives a man great importance.
Parents, when they fettle their children, rather give
them money than any part of their lands.
More than two-thirds of the ifland is planted with
vines : three-fourths of the grapes which thefe produce
are dried, and fent moftly to London under the name
of pajjola. There are different forts of paffola : one
of thefe, called the black pajjblina^ is prepared from a
particular kind of grape, of which the berries are un¬
commonly fmall j and fold to Marfeilles, Holland, and
- Triefte. The vines are in fmall arbours, which rife
only to the height of two feet and a half above the
ground. Under thofe arbours there growr beans, gourds,
and other leguminous vegetables. In fo hot a climate,
the fhade of the vines does not injure but proteft the
vegetables growing under it : they would othervvife
be withered by the heat of the fun.
The method of preparing paffola and paffolina is
curious enough : They firft make a lixivium of com¬
mon allies ; after boiling this, they pafs it through a
cloth or a fieve j they then put it again on the five; and
when it is obferved to boil hard, fuddenly immerfethe
grapes, but inftantly bring them out again, and ex-
pofe them to the fun to dry on broad frames of cane.
When fufficiently dry, the raifins are put into calks
and barrels to be fold and exported. The number of
calks of different forts of raifins annually exported from
Lipari are eftimated at 10,000.
VOL. XII. Part I.
This illand likewife produces figs. There is fome Lipan
white malmfey and a little red wine exported from it. . ^ .
About 60 or 80 years fince, fulphur was one of the . .^1L
articles with which the inhabitants of this illand fup-
plied foreign merchants. But that trade has been
given up, from an idea which the Liparefe entertain,
that fulphur infefts the air fo as to injure the fertility
of the vines. The fame prejudice prevails in Sicily,
but it feems to be ill founded.
There are courts of juftice in Lipari of the fame
powers and charafter with thofe in the cities of Sicily.
Caufes of more than ordinary importance are carried to
Palermo.
The illand is entirely free from every kind of im~
polition. The king receives nothing from it j becaule
Count Roger anciently bellowed on its bilhop all his
rights of royalty over Lipari. The bilhop there re¬
ceived annually from the inhabitants a tenth part of
the produ£ls of their lands. They afterwards, to pre¬
vent fraud, eftimated the value of that tithe for one
year $ and on the condition of their paying in future a
fum of money equal to what that year’s tithe was va¬
lued at, he not only gave up his right to the tithe, but
alfo ceded to them a confiderable extent of land which
belonged to him.
In the archiepifcopal palace, and in the palace of
the Baron de Monizzio, there are fome noble pieces of
painting by Sicilian painters :—A St Peter, a St Ro-
falia, Jefus difputing with the Jewilh doftors, the adul¬
terous woman, the incredulity of St Thomas.
LIPOTHYMIA, Fainting, may arife from feve¬
ral caufes; as too violent exercife, luppreflion of the
menfes or other accuftomed evacuations, &c. See Me¬
dicine Index.
L1PPA, a town of Hungary, with a caftle. It
was taken by the Turks in 1552 } by the Imperialifta
in 16885 and by the Turks again in 16915 who aban¬
doned it in 1695, after having demolilhed the fortifi¬
cations. It is feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 2\.
55. N. Lat. 36. 5.
LIPPE, the capital of a county of the fame name
in Germany, and the circle of Weftphalia. It is feat¬
ed on a river of the fame name, and was formerly the
refidence of the principal branch of the houfe of Lippe.
It is now in the poffeffion of the king of Prullia, and
carries on a good trade in preparing timber for build¬
ing veffels on the Rhine, with which it has a commu¬
nication by the river Lippe. The country round it is
unwholefome and marlhy. E. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat.
51* 43*
LIPPI, Lorenzo, a painter of hiftory and portraits,
was born in 1606, and learned the principles of paint¬
ing from Matteo Rofelli. He had an exquifite genius
for mufic and poetry, as well as for painting, and in
the latter his proficiency was fo great, that fome of
his compofitions in the hiftoricai ftyle were taken for
thofe of Rofelli. However, growing at laft diffatisfied
with the manner of that matter, he chofe the manner
of Santi di Titi, who was excellent both in defign and
invention, and appeared to have more of fimple nature
and truth in his compofitions than any other artift of
that time. At Florence Lippi painted many grand
defigns for the chapels and convents, by which he en¬
larged his reputation ; and at the court of Infpruck,
he painted a great number of portraits of the firft no-
F- bility.
%
••
LIS [ 42 1 LI S
Lippi bility, which were defervedly admired. Yet, although
IJ he was fond of imitating Ample nature without any em~
bellifcnients from invention, his works are held in the
higheft efteem for the graceful airs of the heads, for
the correftnefs of his outline, and for the elegant dii-
pofition of the figures. He died in 1664.
LIPSIUS, Justus, a learned critic, was born at
Ifch, a fmall village near Bruflels, in 1547. After
having diftinguilhed himfelf in polite literature, he be¬
came fecretary to Cardinal de Granvellan at Rome,
where the bell libraries were open to him ) and^ he
fpent much labour in collating the MSS. of ancient
authors. He lived 13 years at Leyden 3 during which
he compofed and publilhed what he eileems his bell
works ) but fettled at Louvain, where he taught polite
literature with great reputation. He was remarkable
for unlleadinefs in religion, fluftuating often between
the ProteRants and Papifts j but he became finally a
bigoited catholic. He died at Louvain in 1606 j and
his works are collecled in fix volumes folio.
LIQUEFACTION, an Operation by which a folid
body is reduced into a liquid by the action of heat. See
Fluidity, Chemistry fot/ex..
LIQUID, a body which has the property of fluidi¬
ty, as water, mercury, &c. See tluid.
Liquid, among grammarians, is a name applied to
certain confonants oppofed to mutes. Thus 1, rn, n,
and r, are liquids.
LIOUIDAMBAR, Sweet-gum-tree, a genus of
pi a n tspb el on g i n g to the monoecia clafs ; and in the na-
turaPmethod ranking with thofe of which the order is
doubtful. See Bota>y Iwkx.
LIQUOR, a name for any fluid fubilance of the
aqueous or fpirituous kind.
The principal beverage amongft the Jews, as well as
the Greeks and Romans, in their early Hate, was wa¬
ter, milk, and the juices of various plants infufed
therein. For a long time, under the commonwealth
of Rome, wine was fo fcarce, that in their facrifices
to the gods the libations were made with milk only.
Wine did not become common there till A. U. C. 600,
when vines began to be planted-
Liquor of Flints. See Chemistry, N° 1450.
Smoking Liquor of Libavius. See Chemistry,
N° 1809.
Mineral Anodyne LlQUOR of Hoffman. This is a
compofition of highly rectified fpirit of. wine,. vitriolic
ether, and a little of the dulcified oil of vitriol. See
Chemistry, N° 84q.
LIQUORICE. See Glycyrrhiza, Botany and
Materia Medic a Index.
LIRI ODENDRON, the Tulip tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the polyandria clafs, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 52d order, Coadunatee.
See Botany Index.
LIS, or Lys, John Vandsr, painter of hiflory,
landfcapes, and converfations, was born at Oldenburgh
in 1 570, but went to Haerlem to place himftlf as a
difciple under Henry Gohziusp and as he was endowed
with great natural talents, he form diilinguilhed him¬
felf in that fchool, and imitated the manner of his ma¬
iler with great fuccefs. He adhered to the fame flyle
till he went to Italy ; where, having vifited Venice
and Rome, he ftudied the works of Titian, Tintoretto,
Paolo Veronefe, and Domenico Fetti, fo effe&ually,
2
that he improved his tafle and judgment, and altered
his manner entirely. He foon received marks of public ^llfbon'
approbation } and his compofitions became univerfally v
admired for their good expreffion, for their lively and
natural colouring, and the fweetnefs and delicacy of
his pencil: although it muR be acknowledged, that he
could never totally diveR himfelf of the ideas and tafle
peculiar to the Flemings. His fubjefts ufually were
hiftories taken from the facred writings, or the repre-
fentations of rural fports, marriages, balls, and villagers
dancing, dreffed in Venetian habits ; all which fubjeds
he painted in a fmall as well as a large fize, with a
number of figures, well defigned, and touched with a
great deal of delicacy. He was like wife accounted to
paint naked figures admirably, with natural and elegant
attitudes, and a very agreeable turn of the limbs.
A capital pi dure of this mailer is, Adam and Evy
lamenting the death of Abel ; which is extremely ad¬
mired, not only for the expreffion, but alio for the
beauty of the landfcape : and in the church of St Ni¬
cholas at Venice is another of his paintings, reprefent-
ing St Jerome in the deiert, with a pen in his hand, and
his head turned to look at an angel, who is fuppofei
to be founding the lall trumpet. The colouring of
this pidure is rather too red ; but it is defigned in a
fine Ryle, and charmingly penciled. The paintings oi
this mailer are very rarely to be purchafed. He died
in 1620.
Lis, John Vander, of Breda, hiflorical painter, was
born at Breda about the year 1601, and became a diL
ciple of Cornelius Polemburg, whofe mariner he imitated
with extraordinary exadnefs, in the tint of his colouring,
his neatnefs of penciling, and the choice of his fubjed;*;
There are feme paintings of this mailer’s hand, which',
though they appear to have fomewhat lefs freedom and
lightnefs of touch, are nearly equal to thofe of Polem¬
burg, and are frequently taken to be his. At Rotterdam*,
in the poffeffion of Mr BilTchop, there is a delicate;
painting reprefenting Diana in the bath, attended by
her nymphs ; and his moll capital performance, in
England, is faid to be in the pofieffion of the vifeount
Middleton. The portrait of Vander Lis, painted by
himfelf, is in the poffeffion of Horace Walpole, Efq.
which is deferibed by that ingenious gentleman as be¬
ing worked up equal to the fmoothnefs of enamel.
LISBON, the capital of the kingdom of Portugal,
fituated in the province of EAremadura, on the banks
of the river Tagus, in W. Long. 91 25. N. Lat. 38. 25,
It was anciently called Qiifpo, Ohjippo, and JJ/yfipo^
which are fuppofed to be derived from the Phenician
Vlifubbo or Olijippo, fignifying in that tongue apltafant
bay, fuch as that on which this city Rands. It firil be¬
came confiderable in the reign of King Emanuel j from
that time it has been the capital of the kingdom, the
refidsnee of its manarchs,, the feat of the chief tribu¬
nals and offices of the metropolitans, a noble univerfity,
and the receptacle of the richeft merchandife of ths
Eaft and Weft Indies. Its air is excellent-, being re-
freftied by the delightful fea breezes, and thole ot the
Tagus. The city extends for about two miles along
the Tagus*, but its breadth is inconfiderable. Like old
Rome, it Hands on feven hills : but the ft reels in gene¬
ral are narrow and dirty, and foive of them are very
fteep', neither are they lighted at night. The churches,
in general, are very fine y but the magnificence of ths
chapel
C
Lifaon
II
Lifla.
LIS [4
chapel royal is amazing. Here is one of the fineft
harbours in the world*, and there were a great number
, not only of fine churches and convents here, but alfo
of other public buildings, and particularly of royal pa¬
laces, and others belonging to the grandees ; but the
greatelt part of them, and of the city, were defiroyed
by a molt dreadful earthquake, on Nov. 1. 175 c, from
which it will require a long time to recover. The
inhabitants, before the earthquake, did not at molt
esceed 150,000. The government of it is lodged in
a council, confiding of a president, fix counfeliors, and
other inferior officers. The harbour has water enough
for the larged dups, and room enough for ic,ooo fail
without being crowded. For its fecurity, there is a
fort at the mouth of the river, on each fide, and a bar
that runs acrofs it, and is very dangerous to pafs with¬
out pilots. Higher up, at a place where the river is
eonfiderably contra&ed, there is a fort called Torre de
i?e/(?OT, or the Tower of Be/em, under whofe guns ail
fhips mud pafs in their way to the city ; and on the
ether fide are feveral more forts. Before the earth¬
quake, mod of the private houfes were old and un-
fightly, with lattice windows j and the number of con¬
vents and colleges amounted to 50, namely, 32 for
monks, and 18 for nuns. The king’s principal palace
dands on the river, and is large and commodious. Of
the hofpitals, that called the Great is obliged to re¬
ceive all perfons, of what degree, nation, or religion
foever, without exception. At the village of Belem,
near Liffion, is a noble hofpital for decayed gentlemen
who have ferved the king, and have not wherewithal
to maintain tkemfelves. That called the Houfe of Mercy
is alfo a noble charity. In the centre of the city,
upon one of the highed hills, is the cadle, which com¬
mands the whole, being large and ancient, and having
always a garrifon of four regiments of foot. The
cathedral is a vad edifice of the Gothic kind, but
heavy and clumfy : it contains, however, great riches $
and is finely adorned within. The fquare called Rojfio is
large, and furrounded with magnificent buildings.
The whole city is under the ecclefiadical jurifdiftion
of the patriarch, who was appointed in the year 1717.
Here is alfo an archbiffiop, who has, or at lead had,
before the ereflion of the patriarchate, a revenue of
40,000 crufadoes, or 6000I. The univerfity, which
was removed for fome time to Coimbra, but afterwards
Fedored to its ancient feat, makes a confiderable figure,
though much inferior to that of Coimbra.
LISBURN, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Antrim and province of Ulder, 73 miles from Dublin.
It was burnt down about 50 years ago; but is now
rebuilt in a neat and handfome manner, and has a large
linen manufa&ory. It is feated on the river Laggan,
in W. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 54.31. It gives title
of earl to the family of Vaughan, and formerly return¬
ed two members to parliament.
LISIEUX, a confiderable town of France, in Up¬
per Normandy, with a bifhop’s fee. The churches and
religious houfes, and the biffiop’s palace, are all very
handfome ftruftures. It is a trading place 5 and is feat¬
ed at the confluence of the rivers Arbeck and Gaffi, in
E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 49. 11,
LISLE, a large, rich, handfome, and drong town
of French Flanders, of which it is the capital, with a
£rong caftle, and a citadel built by Vauban, and faid
]
L I S
to be the fined in Europe, as well as the bed fortified.
The larged fquare, and the public buildings, are very
handfome j and they have manufactures of filks, cam¬
brics, and camblcts, as well as other duffs, which
have been brought to great perfection. It was taken
by the duke of Marlborough, after three months
fiege and the lofs of many thoufands of men, in 1708,
but reftored to the French by the treaty of Utrecht,
in confid'ration of their demoliffving the fortifications
of Dunkirk. It was befieged by the Andrians in 1792,
who on the 29th of September began a heavy cannon¬
ading againd it, which continued inceflant till the 6th
of O(Sober, when they were obliged to raife the fiege,
after having thrown into the city about 30,000 red-hot
balls, befides 6000 bombs. It is feated on the river
Duele, 14 miles weft of Tournay, 32 fouth-weft of
Ghent, 37 north-weft of Mons, and 130 north of Paris.
E. Long. 3. 9, N. Lat. 50. 83.
Lisle, Jofeph Nicholas de, an eminent aftronp-
mer and geographer, was born at Paris in the year
1668. His father having taught him the principles of
grammar, he afterwards attended leftures in tne Maza¬
rine college, where he delivered his rhetorical exercifes
in 1706. A total eclipfe of the fun having taken
place on the 12th of March that year, his tafte for
mathematics was thus difeovered, and he was accord-
ingly placed under a proper tutor, who taught him th©
elements of geometry, fortification and mechanics $ but
his favourite ftudy was the fcience of aftronomy.
In 1707 he was offered the place of an engineer at
Martinico, which made him acquainted with the artoi
drawing, an acquifition which proved highly ufeful to
him in his geographical labours, and alio in the ftudy
of aftronomy. His father having got a copy of An
Account of a Voyage to the South fea from his Ton’s
mafter, young de Lide was excited by the perufal of it
to the ftudy of natural hiftory, and he began to make
colle&ions of infetts, and Iketch their varieties ; but
being afterwards perfuaded that fo extenfive a dudy,
requiring fuch immenfe colleftions to be made as he
found in Aldrovandus, was wholly incompatible with
that unremitting attention which his favourite foience
required, he relinquiffied it accordingly. The atten¬
tion he paid to aftronomical refearches was fo great,
that he was confidered as meriting the correfpondence.
of fome of the ableft aftronomers of Europe at the early
age of 21. In 1709 he made a wooden quadrant,
which he divided with the utmoft accuracy, and which
anfwered the intended purpofe in his early obfervations.
He likewife conftru&ed a table for M. Caffini, of the
right afeenfions and declinations, adapted to all the de¬
grees of latitude and longitude of the planets, and the
obliquity of the ecliptic ; this table was made ufe of by
M. Caffini in foretelling the occultations of the ftars by
the moon.
De Lille being informed by Caffini in 1710 of his
method of reprefenting an eclipfe of the fun, by the
proje&ion of a terreftrial parallel on a plane ; he in-
ftantly conceived the idea of applying it to every part
of the earth, by means of a globe mounted and pre¬
pared for that purpofe. Such aftronomers as he made
acquainted with his projeft, conceived it to be imprac¬
ticable *, but when the machine was completed, they
beftowed the higheft encomiums on the noble invention.
The firft memorable obfervation made by de Lide was
F 2 that
JLi3e.
« *
LIS [ 44- 1 LIS
that of the moon, on the 23d of January 17^2, alter
which his labours experienced fome interruption from
bodily indilpoiition. About this time the fituaticn ot
his father’s numerous family rendered it nectifary that
he thould provide for himfelf, lo that he was obliged to
make his aftronomical knowledge lubfervient to the ab-
furdities of aftrology, receiving pecuniary pretents from
the regent for his fervices. He received alio in 1715 t^ie
grant of a penlion of 600 livres, on which occalion he
calculated tables of the moon according to the Newto¬
nian theory, prior to Halley’s communications to him,
■which were printed in 1719* -^e Lille vas cholen a
member of the Academy of Sciences in 1714, on which
account his exertions were redoubled.
In 17 20 he delivered a propofal to the academy for
ascertaining in France the figure of the earth, a defign
which was carried into execution fome years aiterw ards.
In 1723 he delivered to the fame academy a memoir
on the tranfits of Mercury, wherein a method of calcu¬
lating them was propofed by him, the way in which
they were to be obferved, and the inferences to be de¬
duced from thefe obfervations. He propoltd the ufe
of the quadrant in obferving the tranfits of Venus and
Mercury, which has been found fuperior to any other
inftrument for that important purpofe, and is fanc-
tioned fince his day by the pra&ice of the ablefl ahro-
nomers.
Our diftinguilhed philofopher came over to England
in the year 1724, where he became acquainted with
Newton and Halley, and had the honour of obtaining
their approbation. Newton made him a preient of his
own portrait, and Halley gave him a copy of the tables
which he had publilhed in 17I9' Lie was alfo created
a member of the Royal Society, and he enjoyed fimilar
honours from every literary fociety in Europe before
his death. In 1721 he received an invitation from
Peter the Great to go to Peterfburgh, to fill the chair
of aftronomer in the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
On the death of that emperor, his fucceffor Catharine
renewed the invitation, offering him a confiderable pen-
lion, of which he accepted, and, in 1726, fet out for
Peterlburgh, accompanied by his brother Lewis andM.
Vignon-, who were to aft as his alfiftants. He reached
Peterfburgh in the month of Oftober, and was elta-
blilhed in the obfervatory erefted by Peter the Great,
which he occupied for 21 years. It was in every
refpeft commodious, but extremely deficient in aftrono-
mical apparatus, which his own ingenuity and indefati¬
gable application in a great meafure fupplied.
A tranfit of Mercury over the fun’s difc was expeft-
ed in the year 1740* which would not be vifible in
Europe, and therefore de Lille undertook a journey to
the diftant regions of Alia j but after travelling through
the inhofpitable w ilds of Siberia, the cloudinefs of the
atmofphere prevented him from obferving the tranlit,—*
a mortification which he endeavoured to fupport by his
geographical and phyfical remarks, and in drawing up
a defcription of the country. He conftrufted an in-
terefting map of Ruflia, affifted by his brother Lewis,
who was appointed to make obfervations in the moft
diftant parts of that immenfe empire. He wras occafion-
ally employed for the long period of forty years, in
jnaking meteorological obfervations, which he executed
with an accuracy almoft incredible.
After a number of difcouragements and difficulties,
and the irregular paymentofhis penfion, had been long t
experienced by de Lille at Peterlburgh, he returned
diigufted to his native place, and was cbolen profelfor
of mathematics at the college-royal, where he did the
moft ellential fervice to the fciences, by the important
initruftions which he gave to his numerous pupils,
many of whom became aiterwards the moft diftinguilh¬
ed charafters, Rich as M. M. de la Lande and Mef-
lier.
When the tranfit of Mercury over the fun was ea¬
gerly exptfted in 1753 by the greateft aftronomers, de
Lille publilhed an interefting map of the world, repre-
fenting the effeft of Mercury’s parallaxes in different
countries, that fuch places might be known as were
proper for making thole obfervations on the tranfit as
might determine the diftance of the lun. As the ap¬
parent orbit of the planet traverfed nearly the centre of
the fun, de Lille made ufe of this eircumltance to de¬
termine the diameter of that luminary. The laft work
of our author which was inferted in the volumes of the
French academy, was a memoir on the comet which
appeared in the year 1738, difcovered by a peafant in
the vicinity of Drefden.
It may perhaps be afferted with juftice, that the moft;
important fervice which this great man rendered to af¬
tronomers was, his correftion of the double error of
Halley refpefting the tranfit of Venus, looked for in
the year 1761, as by this means he prevented many
learned men from undertaking long voyages in order
to obferve it. About the year 1754, de Lille was ap¬
pointed by the king of France, aftronomical geogra¬
pher to the marine, in which capacity he was to colleft
plans and journals of naval captains, to arrange them
methodically, and to make extraftsfrom them of what¬
ever might be beneficial to the fervice. About the
year 1738 he withdrew into quiet retirement at the ab-
bev of St Genevieve, where much of his time w as fpent
in devotional exercifes, and in afts of charity and bene¬
ficence. Still, however, he continued to profecute thofe
ftudies which had been fo dear to him during the eatiitm
part of his life; but in 1768 he was feized with a
fcorbutic complaint, of which he was cured by his me- .
dieal friends; but in the month of September the fame
year he w:as feized with a fpecies of apoplexy, which
carried him off on the 11th day of that month, in the
81ft year of his age.
His extraordinary merit as a man of fcience may in
fome meafure be gathered from this concife account
of his life *, and as a citizen of the world his piety was
unaffefted, his morals pure, his integrity undeviating,
his fpirit generous and difinterefted, and his whole
manners highly amiable. The only publication of our
author’s, beiides thofe already mentioned, confifted of
“ Memoirs illuftrative of the Hiftory of Aftronomy,”
in two volumes 410.
Lisle, Sir Jo/in, a brave loyalift in the time of
the civil wars, was the fon of a bookfeller in London,
and received his education in the Netherlands. He
fignalized himfelf upon many occafions in the civil war,
particularly in the laft battle of Newbury ; where, in
the dulk of the evening, he led his men to the charge in
his ffiirt, that his perfon might be more confpicuous.
The king, who was an eye-witnefs of his bravery,
knighted him on the field of battle. In 1648, he rofe
for his majefty in Effex j and was one of the royalifts
LIS [45] LIS
L’lsle, who To obtHnalely defended Colchefler, and who died
Lifraore. for defence of it. This brave man having tender-
v ly embraced the corpfe of Sir Charles Lucas, his de¬
parted friend, immediately prefented himfelf to the
jfoldiers who Hood ready for his execution. Thinking
that they flood at too great a dillance, he defired them
to come nearer: one of them faid, “ I warrant you,
Sir, we fhall hit you.” He replied with a fmile,
“ Friends, I have been nearer you when you have
milled me.” He was executed Auguft 28. 1648.
LiSMORE, one of the Weflern iflands of Scot¬
land, feated at the mouth of Loch Linnhe, an arm of
the fea in Argylelhire, navigable for the largeft (hips
to Fort William, which is in the country called Locha-
ber. This ifland is io miles in length by one in breadth j
and contains above 1000 inhabitants. It abounds in
liraeflpne, which forms a fine loamy and very fertile
foil, yielding rich crops of barley. This ifland was for¬
merly the refidence of the bifhop of Argyle, from
which he was frequently named Epifcopus Liftnorenjis.
Great part of the cathedral yet remains, and part of it
is ftill employed as the parifh church. The bifhop’s
caflle Hands four miles from the cathedral ; the walls
are yet pretty entire. There are feme vefliges of for¬
tified camps, and an old caflle with a ditch and draw¬
bridge, which, it is laid, were ere&ed by the Danes.
Lismore, a borough town of Ireland, in the county
of Waterford, and province of Munfler, 100 miles
from Dublin \ N. Lat. 52. 5. W. Long. 7. 50. It was
anciently called Lejfmore or Lias-more, i. e. the great
enclofure, or habitation j it is now a bifhopric, and
formerly had an univerfity. St Carthagh or Moehuda,
in the beginning of the feventh century, founded an
abbey and fehool in this place, which in a fhort time
was much reforted to, not only by the natives, but
alfo by the Britons and Saxons, during the middle
ages. According to an ancient writer of the life of
St Carthagh, Lifmore was in general inhabited by
monks, half of it being an afylum into which no wo¬
man dared enter; confuting entirely of cells and mo-
naileries, the ruins of which, with feven churches, are
yet vifible. A caflle was built here by King John.
The fke of Lifmore was in early ages denominated
magh Jkia, or the “ chofen fliield,” being the fituation
of a dun or fort of the ancient chieftains of the Decies,
one of whom granted it to St Calthagh on his expul-
fion from the abbey of Ratheny in Weftmeath. On
becoming an univerfity, Math Sgiath obtained the
name of Dunfginne, or the “ fort of the Saxons,”
from the number of Saxons who reforted thereto ; but
foon after, it was called Lios.more or Lefs-more, and
now Lifmore ; the bifhopric of which was united to
that of Waterford in 1363, being 730 years after its
foundation. J. he public road to Cork was formerly
through this place, and at that time it had a better
face of buflnefs. St Carthagh, who retired to this
place with fome of his religious in 636, to avoid the
fury of the then Irifh monarch, tied his difeiples to a
mofl flri61 rule of life; they never were allowed the
ufe of flefh, fifh, or fowl ; only the vegetables that
the ground produced at the expence of their own la¬
bour. Father Daniel, in his Hiftoire Monajlique, men¬
tions one on the fame foundation in France. The
caflle here, which, as we have formerly mentioned, was
built by King Jehn, was ere&ed in 1195 on the ruins
of the abbey of St Carthagh ; it belonged to the duke
of Devonfhire, and gave birth to the great philofopher
Robert Boyle. In 1189 it was demolifhed by the >
Irifh, who took it by furprlfe. Being afterwards re-
edified, it was for many years an epifcopal refidence,
till Myler Magrath, archbifhop of Cafhel, and bifhop
of this fee, granted the manor of Lifmore to that no¬
ted fcholar and foldier Sir Walter Raleigh, in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, at the yearly rent of 13I. 6s. 8d. j
but that ellate was lopped oil with his head in the
reign of King James I. After which it fell into the
hands of Sir Richard Boyle, who purebafed all Sir
Walter’s lands ; he beautified the whole, and added
many buildings to it, moft of which were burned down
in the Irifh rebellion ; at the breaking out of which,
it was clofely befieged by 5000 Irilh commanded by
Sir Richard Beling, and was well defended by the
young Lord Broghill, third fon of the earl of Cork,
who obliged them to raife the fiege. The caftle is bold¬
ly feated on the verge of a rocky hill, riling almoft per¬
pendicularly to a confiderable height over the river
Blackwater. The entrance is by an ancient and ve¬
nerable avenue of trees. Over the gate are the vene¬
rable arms of the fir ft earl of Cork. Oppofite to the en¬
trance is a modern portico of Bath ftane, of the Doric
order, defigned by Inigo Jones. Moft of the buildings
have remained in ruins ftnee the era of the rebellion ;
but the feveral offices that make up two fides of the
fquare are kept in repair. At each angle is a tower,
the chief remains of its former magnificence. In Oc¬
tober 1785, the late duke of Rutland, then lord-lieute¬
nant of Ireland, whilft on a tour in Munfter, held a
council in, and iflued proclamations from this caftle.
The cathedral is ftill pretty well kept in repair. Here
is a fine bridge over the river Biackwater, eredted at a
very great expence by the duke of Devonfhire : this
bridge is remarkable for the extent of the principal
arch, the fpan of it being 102 feet. Below the town
is a rich fiihery for falmon, which is the greateft branch
of trade here. Though this place is at prefent much
reduced, yet Cambrenfis informs us, that, not many
years after the conqueft, this was a very rich city, and
held out fome time againlt the Engliftr, who took it at
laft by ftorm, and gained rich plunder here, enough to
load 16 fail of (hips.
LISSA, an ifland in the gulf of Venice, on the coafl:
of Dalmatia, belonging to the Venetians, where they
have a fiftiery of fardines and anchovies. It produces
excellent wine, and is 70 miles weft; of Raguia. E.
Long. 17. o. N. Lat. 43. 22.
Lissa, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Pofna,
of which it is the capital. E. Long. 16. o. N. Lat.
32. 15- .
Lissa, a village of Silefia, 16 miles from Breflau,
remarkable for a battle fought between the Pruffians
and the Auftrians on the 15th of December 1757,
when the latter were entirely defeated.
LISSUS, in Ancient Geography, the laft town of
Illyricum, towards Macedonia, fituated on the Drilo.
It had a capacious port, the work of Dionyfius the
Tyrant, who led the colony thither, enlarged and wall¬
ed it round, (Diodorus Siculus). Now called AleJJio^
in Albania, on the Drino, near the gulf of Venice. E.
Long. 20. N. Lat. 42.
LIST, in commerce, the border of cloth or fluff ^
ferving
Lifiwore
I!
Lift.
 , 1
Lift.
Black/t.
Comment.
* See Re¬
venue.
LIS [46
ferving not only to fhow their quality, but to. preferve
them from being torn in the operations of fulling, dye¬
ing, &c.—Lift is ufed on various occafions 5 but chief¬
ly by gardeners for fecuring their wall-trees.
List, in ArchiteElure, a little fquare moulding, other-
wife called fillet, Ifiel, &c. See Architecture,
List, is alfo ufed, to fignify the enclofed field or
ground wherein the ancient knights held their jufts
and combats. It was fo called, as being, hemmed
round with pales, barriers, or flakes, as with a lifl.
Some of thefe wrere double, one for each cavalier *,
which kept them apart, fo that they could not come
nearer each other than a fpear’s length. See Just,
Tournament, Duel, &c.
Civil List, in the Britifh polity. The expences
defrayed by the civil lift are thofe that in any fhape re¬
late to civil government 5 as, the expences of the houfe-
hold } all falaries to officers of ftate, to the judges, and
every one of the king’s fervants, the appointments to
foreign ambaffadors j the maintenance of the queen
and royal family ; the king’s private expences, or privy-
pur fe ; and other very numerous outgoings, as fecret-
lervice money, penfions, and other bounties : which
fometimes have fo far exceeded the revenues appointed
for that purpofe, that application has been made to
parliament to difcharge the debts contradted on the ci¬
vil lift ; as particularly in 1724, when one million was
granted for that purpofe by the ftatute 11 Geo. I. c. 17*
and, in 1769, when half a million was appropriated to
the like ufes by the ftatute 9 Geo. III. c. 34.
The civil lift is indeed properly the whole of the
king’s revenue in his own diftindl capacity 5 the reft
being rather the revenue of the public, or its creditors,
though collected and diftributed again in the. name
and by the officers of the crown : it now (landing in
the fame place, as the hereditary income did formerly ;
and as that has gradually diminifhed, the parliamen¬
tary appointments have increafed. The whole revenue
of Oueen Elizabeth did not amount to more than
6oo,oool. a-year: that of King Charles I. was 8oo,oool.
and the revenue voted for King Charles II. was
1,200,000!. though complaints were made (in the firft
years at lead) that it did not amount to fo much. But
it mu ft be obferved, that under thefe fums were inclu¬
ded all manner of public expences *, among which Lord
Clarendon, in his fpeech to the parliament, computed
that the charge of the navy and land forces amounted
annually to 8oo,ocol. which was ten times more than
before the former troubles. The fame revenue, fubjeft
to the fame charges, was fettled on King James II. ,
but by the increafe of trade, and more frugal manage¬
ment, it amounted on an average to 1,500,000!. per
annum, (befides other additional cuftoms granted by
parliament, which produced an annual revenue of
400,000!.), out of which his fleet and army were main¬
tained at the yearly expence of 1,106,000k After
the Revolution, when the parliament took into its own
hands the annual fupport of the forces both maritime
and military, a civil lift revenue was fettled on the new
king and queen, amounting, with the hereditary du¬
ties, to 700,OOOl. per annum •, and the fame was con¬
tinued to Quegn Anne and King George I. That of
King George II. wasnommallyaugmented to 800,000].*,
and in fa£l was confiderably more : but that of his pre¬
feat majefty is exprefsly limited to that fum 5 though
] LIT
ioo,oool. hath been fince added. And upon the whole,
it is doubtlefs much better for the crown, and alfo for
the people, to have the revenue fettled upon the mo¬
dern footing rather than the ancient. For the crown,  
becaufe it is more certain, and collecied with greater
eaie 5 for the people, becaufe they are now delivered
from the feudal hlfdfhips, and other odious branches
of the prerogative. And though complaints have fome¬
times been made of the increafe of the civil lift, yet if
we confider the fums that have been formerly granted,
the limited extent under which it is now eftablifhed,
the revenues and prerogatives given up in lieu of it by
the crown, the numerous branches of the prefent royal
family, and (above all) the diminutiop of the value of
money compared with what it was worth in the laft
century, w!e muft acknowledge thefe complaints to be
void of any rational foundation •, and that it is impof-
fible to fupport that dignity, which a king of Great
Britain fhould maintain, with an income in any degree
lefs than what is now eftablifhed by parliament, bee
Revenue.
To LIST or Enllfi Soldiers, to retain and enroll
men as foldiers, either as volunteers, or by a kind of
compulfion. Perfons lifted muft be carried within four
days, but not fooner than 24 hours after, before the
nextjuftice of peace of any county, riding, city, or
place, ©r chief magiftrate of any city or town corporate
(not being an officer in the army) ; and if before fueh
juftice or magiftrate they diffent from fuch enlifting,
and return the enlifting money, and alfo 20 (hillings in
lieu of all charges expended on them, they are to be
difcharged. But perfons refufing or neglefting to re¬
turn and pay fuch money within 24 hours, (hall be
deemed as duly lifted as if they had affented thereto
before the proper magiftrate ", and they fhall, in that'
cafe, be obliged to take the oath, or, upon refufal, they
(hall be confined by the officer who lifted them till they
do take it.
LISTER, Dr Martin, an eminent Englifh phy-
fician and naturalift, w'as born in 1638, and educated
at Cambridge. He afterwards travelled into France j
and at his return praftifed phyfic at York, and after¬
wards at London. In 1683, he was created dodlor of
phyfic, and became fellow of the College of Phyficians
in London. In 1698, he attended the earl of Port¬
land in his embaffy from King William III. to the court
of France j of which journey he publifhed an account
at his return, and was afterwards phyfician to Queen
Anne. He alfo publifhed, I. Hifioria animalium An-
glice, quarto. 2. Conchyliorum fynopjis, folio. 3. Coch-
learum et litnachum exercitntio analomica, 4 vols. 8vo.
4. Many pieces in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions ; and
other works.
LISTOWEL, a pariffi, alfo a poll and fair town, of
Ireland, in the county of Kerry and province of Mttn-
fter, 131 miles from Dublin, anciently Lis iuathal,
i. e. “ th<? fort of Tuathal,” who was exiled in the firft
century, but returned ; and his life forms a brilliant
era in Irifti hiftory. Near this are the ruins of a caftle,
pleafantly fituated on the river Feale : it was taken in
November 1600, by Sir Charles Wilmot, being then
held out for Lord Kerry againft Queen Elizabeth.
Five miles beyond Liftowel are the ruins of a church.
The fairs are three in the year.
LIT ANA silva, in Ancient Geography, a wood
of
Lift]
li
Litana
Silva.
c
L I T
Litana
Silva
Litchfield.
* „ ■. - , , , ., t 47 1
cf the Bon, In Gallia Togata, or Cifpadana, where of die
the Romans, under L. Poithumius Albinus (whofe
head the Boii cut off, and carried in triumph into their
mod facred temple), had a great defeat ; of twenty-
five thoufand fcarcely ten efcaping (Livy). Hol-
ffenius cohjeftures, that this happened above the
fprings of the Sculte.nna, in a part of the Appen-
nine, between Cerfinianutn and Mutina. Now Selva
di Lugo.
LITANY, a folemn form of fupplication to God,
in which the pried utters fome things fit to be prayed
for, and the people join in their interceffion, faying, we
befeech thee to hear us, good Lord, &c. The word
xomes from the Greek xPiumx fupplication of
hfluviva, “ I befeech.”
At fird the ufe of litanies was not fixed to any dat¬
ed time, but were only employed as exigencies re¬
quired. They were obferved, in imitation of the Ni-
nevites, with ardent fupplications and fadings, to avert
the threatening judgments of fire, earthquakes, inun¬
dations, or hodile invafions. About the year 400, li¬
tanies began to be ufed in procefiions, the people
walking barefoot, and repeating them with great de-
votioa; and it is pretended, that by this means feveral
countries were delivered from great calamities. The
days on which thefe were ufed were called rotation
daijs:' thefe were appointed by the canons of different
councils, till it was decreed by the council of Toledo,
that they diould be ufed every month throughout the
year ; and thus by degrees they came to be ufed week¬
ly on Wednefdays and Fridays, the ancient ftationary
days for fading. To thefe days the rubric of our
church has added Sundays, as being the greated days
for affembling at divine fervice. Before the lad review
of the common prayer, the litany was a didin ft fervice
by itfelr, and ufed tome time after the morning prayer
was over ; at prefent it is made one office with the
morning fervice, being ordered to be read after the
third col left for grace, ffnddad of the interceffional
prayers in the daily fervice.
LITCHFIELD, a city of Staffordffiire, In Eng¬
land, 117 miles from London. It Bands low, about
three miles from the Trent: and its ancient name is
faid to have been Licidfield, fignifying, “ a field of
carcaffes,” from a great number of Chridians having,
as it is pretended, fuffercd martyrdom here in the per-
lecution under Dioclefian. In the Saxons time, it
was a biffioprick for a ffiort fpace 5 and is now, toge¬
ther with Coventry, a biffioprick. It is divided into
two parts by a rivulet and a'kind of fhallow lake, over
which are two caufeways with fluices. It is a lonp-
draggling place ; but has fome very handfome houfes^,
and well paved clean dreets. That part on the fouth
fide of the rivulet is called the city, and the other the
fiofe. , I. he city is much the larged, and contains feve¬
ral public druftures. It was incorporated by Edw. VI,
with the name of bailiffs and burgeffes ; and is both a
town and county, governed by 2 bailiffs chofen yearly
out of 24 burgeffes, a recorder, a flieriff, a deward, and
other officers The city has power of life and death
within their jurildiftion, a court of record, and a pie¬
powder court. Here is'a gaol both for debtors and
felons, a free fchool, and a pretty large well endowed
L I T
city is 10 or 12 miles in compafs, which the Litrhfie’ri,
Sheriff rides yearly^on the 3th of September, and then
feads the corporation and neighbouring gentry. The
clofe is fo called from its being encioi'ed with a .wall
and a deep dry- ditch on all tides except towards the
city, where it is defended by a great lake or marffi
formed by its brook. The cathedral, which Hands in
the clofe, was originally built by Ofwius king of Nor-
hofpital, for a mailer and 12 brethren. The county
thumb erlartd about 300. It was rebuilt andenlarged
by Offa king of Mercia in 766. In 114S was rebuilt,
and greatly enlarged in 1296. At the reformation,
Coventry was divided from it. In the civil wars its
fpire was dedroyed, and it converted to a dable. In
1776 a beautiful painted window, by the benefaftion
of Dr Adenbrook, has been fet up at the wedern end
of the cathedral. In the civil wars it was feveral times
taken and retaken, and thereby fuffered much ; but
was fo repaired after the redoration, at the expence of
20,oool. that it was one of the faired and nobleft
druftures of the kind in England. It is walled in like
a cadle, and Bands fohigh as to be feen 10 miles round.
It is 450 feet long, of which the choir is no, and the
breadth in the broaded place 80. Its portico is hard¬
ly to be paralleled in England. There were, till lately,
^.6 BatUes ol the prophets, apodles, kings of Judah,
and fome kings of this land, in a row above it, as big
as the life 5 and on the top, at each corner of the por¬
tico, is a dately fpire, befides a fine high deeple on the
middle of the church. The choir is paved in great
part with alabader and cannel coal, in imitation of
black and white marble. In 1789 it underwent a
general repair, when the maffive groined arch betwixt
the wed end of the church and the tranfept, which
had forced the fide wall out of Its perpendicular, was
removed. The prebendaries Balls, which are thought
to be the bed in England, were mod of them re-erect¬
ed at the charge of the country gentlemen, whofe
names and arms are painted at the top of the Balls,
The north door is extremely rich in fculpture, but
much injured by time. The body which is fupported
by pillars formed of numbers of Bender columns, has
lately had its decayed leaden roof replaced by a neat
Bated covering. The choir merits attention on ac¬
count of the elegant fculpture about the windows*
and the embattled gallery that runs beneath them j to
which the altarpiece of Grecian architefture but ill
cofrefponds ; behind which is Mary’s chapel, divided
from it by a mod elegant done Ikreen of beautiful work-
manflfip, ^ Here dood St Chad’s ffirine, which cod
2000I. The charter houfe is an oftagon room. In
the fame clofe are the palaces of the biffiop and dean,
and the prebendaries houfes in a court on the hill!
Here are three other churches * one of which, St Mi¬
chael’s, has a churchyard of 6 or 7 acres. There was
a cadle here, long fince dedroyed : and ancient camps
have been difcovered in its environs. In the neigh¬
bourhood are frequent horfe races. The markets there
are on Tuefday and Friday, and fix fairs in the year.
By the late inland navigation, this place has commu¬
nication with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Kibble, Oufe*
Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon!
&c.; which navigation, including its windings extends
above 500 miles in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancader, Weftmoreland, Chcfler, War!
’wic$L
{ 48
Litchfield
Literature.
to Litera-
L I T
Litchfield wick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
I! fends two members to parliament.
LITERARY, any thing belonging
LITER AR T Property, or Copy Right. See COPT Right.
LITERATI (/etrados, “ lettered”), an epithet gi¬
ven to fuch perfons among the Chinefe as are able to
read and write their language. ^ The literati alone are
capable of being made mandarins, , .
Literati, is alfo the name of a particular lecL,
either in religion, philofophy, or politics, confiding
principally of the learned men of that country j among
whom it is called jukiao, i. e. “ learned.”
It had its rife in the year of Chrift 1400, when the
emperor, to awaken the native affeftion of the people
for knowledge, which had been quite banilhed by the
preceding civil wars among them, and to ftjr up
lation among the mandarins, chofe out 42 of the ableit
among the do&ors, to whom he gave a commiflion to
compofe a body of do&rine agreeable to that of the
ancients, which w’as then become the rule or ftandard
of the learned. The delegates applied themfelves. to
the bufinefs with very great attention : but fome fancied
them rather to have wrefted the doftrine of the ancients,
to make it confift with theirs, than to have built up
theirs on the model of the ancients.
They fpeak of the Deity, as if it were no more than
mere nature or the natural power or virtue that pro¬
duces, difpofes, and preferves, the feveral parts of the
univerfe. It is, fay they, a pure, perfea principle,
without beginning or end ; it is the fource of all things,
the effence of every being, and that which determines
it to be what it is. They make God the foul of the
world : they fay, he is diffufed through all matter,
and produces all the changes that happen there. In
fhort, it is not eafy to determine, whether they refolve
God into nature, or lift up nature into God j for
they afcribe to it many of thofe things which we at¬
tribute to God.
This doarine, in lieu of the idolatry that prevailed
before, introduced a refined kind of atheifm. Ehe
work, being compofed by fo many perfons of learning
and parts, and approved by the emperor himfelf, was
received with infinite applaufe by all the people. Many
were pleafed with it, becaufe it feemed to fubvert all
religion •, others approved it, becaufe the little religion
that it left them could not give them much trouble.
And thus was formed the fea of the Literati : which
confifts of the maintainers and adherents to this doc-
The court, the mandarins, and the perfons .of for¬
tune and quality, &c. are generally retainers to it ; but
a great part of the common people ftill hold to their
worfhip of idols.
The literati freely tolerate the Mahometans, becaule
they adore, with them, the King of heaven, and Au¬
thor of nature j but they bear a perfect averfion to all
forts of idolaters among them : and it was once re-
folved to extirpate them. But the diforder this would
have occafioned in the empire prevented it •, they now
content themfelves with condemning them, in general,
as herefies : which they do folemnly every year at Pe¬
kin.
LITERATURE denotes learning or {kill in let¬
ters.
1
L I T
LITERNUM. See Linternum.
LITHANTHRAX, or Pit-Coal, is a black or
brown, laminated, bituminous fubftance 5 not very ea-
fily inflammable, but, when once inflamed, burns long¬
er and more intenfely than any other fubftance. See
Mineralogy Index.
LITHARGE, a preparation of lead, ufually in
form of foft flakes, of a yellowilh reddifti colour. . If
calcined lead be urged with a hafty fire, it melts into
the appearance of oil, and on cooling concretes into
litharge. Greateft part of the litharge met with in
the (hops is produced in the purification of filver from
lead, and the refining of gold and filver by means of
this metal : according to the degree of fire and other*
circumftances, it proves of a pale or deep colour . the
firft has been commonly called litharge of fiver, the
other litharge' of gold. See Lead, Chemistry Index.
LITHGOW, William, a Scotl'man, whofe fuffer-
ings by imprilonment and torture at Malaga, and
whofe travels, on foot, over Europe, Afia, and Afri¬
ca, feem to raife him almoft to the rank of a martyr
and a hero, publiflred an account of his peregrinations
and adventures. Though the author deals much in
the marvellous, the horrid account of the {{range cruel¬
ties of which, he tells us, he was the fubjefl,. have,
however, an air of truth. Soon after his arrival in
England from Malaga, he was carried to Theobald’s
on a feather-bed, that King James might be an eye-
witnefs of his martyred anatomy, by which he means
his wretched body, mangled and reduced to a {keleton.
The whole court crowded to fee him ; and his majefty
ordered him to be taken care of, and he was
fent to Bath at his expence. By the king’s command
he applied to Gondamor, the Spanilh ambaffador, for
the recovery of the money and other things of value
which the governor of Malaga had taken from him,
and for 1000I. for his fupport. He was. promifed
a full reparation for the damage he hadfuftained : but
the perfidious minifter never performed, his promife.
When he wzs upon the point of leaving England,
Lithgow upbraided him with the breach of his wnrd.
in the prefence-chamber, before feveral.gentlemen ol
the court. This occafioned their fighting upon the
fpot; and the ambaffador, as the traveller oddly ex-
preffes it, had his fiftula (with which diforder he was
afflifted) contrabanded with his fift* The unfortunate
Lithgow, who was generally condemned for his fpi-
rited behaviour, was fent to the Marfhalfea, w-here he
continued a prifoner nine months. At the conclufion
of the oClave edition of his Travels he informs us,
that, in his three voyages, “ his painful feet have tra¬
ced over (befides paffages of feas and rivers) 36,000
and odd miles, which draweth near to twice the cir¬
cumference of the whole earth.” Here the marvellous
feetr.s to rife to the incredible 5 and to fet him, in
point of veracity, below Coryat, whom it is neverthe-
fefs certain that'he far outwalked. His defcription.of
Ireland is whimfical and curious. This, together with
the narrative of his fufferings, is reprinted in Morgan’s
Phoenix Britannicus.
LITHIASIS, or Stone. See Medicine Index..
LITHOMANTIA, in antiquity, a. fpecies of di¬
vination performed with ftones. Sometimes.the ftone
called fderites was ufed : this they waftied in fpring-
water in the night by candle-light > the perfon that
Liternmn
.11
Litho-
mantia..
   -
4
LIT r 49 i L I T
LUhoman- confalted It was to be purified from all manner of pol-
tia lution, and to have his face covered : this done, he
Lithuania rePeatecl divine prayers, and placed certain characters
- ^ in an appointed order ; and then the (lone moved of
itfelf, and in a foft gentle murmur, or (as fome fay)
in a voice like that of a child, returned an an Twer.
By a (tone of this nature, Helenus is reported to have
foretold the deftruftion of Troy.
LITHONTRIPTICS ('from XiOas, “ a ftone,” and
dgvTrlt, “ to break”) ; an epithet for medicines that are
iuppofed to break the ftone in the bladder. Though
the different ftones that are generated in the human
bladder require different folvents when out of the bo¬
dy ; and though art hath not yet afforded a medicine
which, when injected into the bladder, will, without
injury thereto, diffolve the ftone therein lodged $ it
cannot thence be concluded, that there are no lithon-
triptic medicines. It may be here obferved, that one
folvent affcfts one fubjeft, but hath no effeCt on ano¬
ther 5 fo a folvent may yet be met with that will de-
ftroy the ftone, and not hurt the human body. The
water into which the boiled white of egg diffolves will
liquefy myrrh, but may be put into the human eye
without caufing any uneafinefs.
Soap ley taken at firft in fmall dofes in broth that
is freed from all its fat, fucceeds in moft cafes which
require an alkaline folvent. The patient may begin
with 20 drops, and gradually increafe the dofe as he
is able 5 and by repeating it three times a-day for fix,
eight, or twelve months, the wifhed-for effefts often
follow.
LITHOPHYTA, the name of Linnaeus’s third
order ef vermes. See Helminthology Index.
LITHOSPERMUM, GROMWELL,agenus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 41ft order, Afperifolice. See
Botany Index.
LIPHOSTROTON, among the Romans, was a
pavement of mofaic work, confifting of fmall pieces of
• ut marble of different kinds and colours, firft ufed in
the time of Sylla, who made one at Pramefte in the
temple of Fortune, and afterwards in private houfes j
and were brought to filch perfedion, that they exhibit¬
ed moft lively reprefentations of nature, with all the
accuracy of the fineft painting.
LI1 HOFOMY, in Surgeryy the operation of cut¬
ting for the ftone. See Surgery Index.
LITHUANIA, an extenlive province of Poland.
By the natives it is called Letwa, and has Great Po¬
land and Ruflia on the weft 5 part of Mufcovy on the
eaft ; Livonia, the Baltic fea, and part of Mufcovy,
on the north j Red Ruflia, Volhinia, and Podolia, on
the fouth ; and the Ukraine on the fouth-eaft. Its
length is faid to be about 360, and its breadth 340
miles ; but it is much indented both ways. Lithuania
was anciently overrun with wood ; and there are ftill
many forefts in it, which yield a great deal of honey,
wax, pitch, tar, and timber; and abound with wild
boars, buffaloes, elks, wild horfes, wild affes, uri, and
woodcocks. ’1 he lakes are alfo numerous, and well
ftored with fifti : but the air, by reafon of thefe forefts
and Jakes, is faid to be thick and foggy. The country
produces a great deal of buck wheat and other corn ;
the paftures are luxuriant, and the flocks and herds
numerous: fo that, notwithftanding agriculture is
Vol. XII. Part I,
much negledled, proviiions are exceeding cheap, and Lhl.u;.n'a
money fo fcarce, that 10 per cent, is the common in- ii
tereft. The principal nobility have large eftates, and , ^‘Uct‘ t
live in great pomp and fplendour, generally retaining y
fome hundreds of thofe that are poor, in quality of do-
meftics. The eftablifhed religion is Popery ; but Lu¬
therans, Calvinifts, Jews, Turks, Greeks, and Socini-
ans, are very numerous. Lithuania was governed by
its own dukes till it was united to Poland, towards the
end of the 14th century, when the great duke Jagello
married Hedwug, the dowager of Louis king of Poland
and Hungary. It had even dukes after that, but they
were fubordinate to the king ; and at this day, though
one diet ferves for both countries, yet each has its
peculiar laws, cuftoms, dialed!, and privileges. In a
diet held at Lublin in 1569, it was more clofely united
to Poland than it had been before ; and it was enadled,
that both countries, for the future, ftiould form but one
date under the fame prince. As to their courts of juf-
tiee, the tenth part of what is adjudged in all real ac¬
tions goes always to the judge’s box, and is immediate¬
ly paid in court ; and in perfonal aftions he claims
half the damages given. A nobleman is only fined for
murder, as in Poland. The dialed! is a language of
the Sclavonic ; and they fpeak here, as in Poland, a
barbarous kind of Latin. Lithuania is divided into
nine palatinates. Another divifion is into Lithuania
properly fo called, and Lithuanian Ruflia. Some alfo
comprehend under it Samogitia and Courland, which
is a fief of Poland.
LITMUS, or Lacmus, in the arts, is a blue pig¬
ment, formed from archil. It is brought from Hol¬
land at a cheap rate : but may be prepared by adding
quicklime and putrified urine, or fpirit of urine diftil-
led from lime, to the archil previoully bruifed by grind¬
ing. The mixture having cooled, and the fluid fuffer-
ed to evaporate, becomes a mafs of the confiftence of a
pafte, which is laid oh boards to dry in fquare lumps.
It is only ufed in miniature paintings, and cannot be
well depended on, becaufe the leaf! approach of acid
changes it inftantly from blue to red. The beft litmus
is very apt to change and fly.
LITTER (leclica'), a kind of vehicle borne upon
fhafts ; anciently efteemed the moft eafy and genteel
way of carriage. Du Cange derives the word from the
barbarous Latin ledleria, “ ftravv or bedding for beafts.”
Others will rather have it come from leflus, “ bed
their being ordinarily a quilt and a pillow to a litter in
the fame manner as to a bed.
Pliny calls the litter the traveller's chamber ; it was
much in ure among the Romans, among whom it was
borne by {laves kept for that purpofe ; as it ftill conti¬
nues to be in the eaft, where it it called a palanquin  
The Roman leftica, made to be borne by four men,
was called tetraphorum ; that borne by fix, hexapkarum ;
and that borne by eight, oclaphorum.
The invention of 3itters,^^-ording to Cicero, was
owing to the kings of Bithyrna : in the time of Tiberius
they were become very frequent at Rome, as appears
from Seneca ; and even ilaves themfelves w ere borne in
them, though never by more than two perfons, whereas
men of quality had fix or eight.
Litter alfo denotes a parcel of dry old ftraw put on
the floor of a horfe’s flail for him to lie down and reft
upon. When a horfe comes tired into a liable, frefin
G litter
*
4 4
Liturgy.
LIT t
Litter litter lias the virtue of making him ftale immediately.
This is known to be of very great advantage to a horie
in a tired ftate \ and when the litter is old and dirty, it
never has any fuch effeft upon him. If the owners knew
how refreihing it is for a horfe to difcharge his urine
on his return from labour, they would be more care¬
ful of giving them all means and occahons of it than
they are. This ftaling after fatigue, prevents thofe ob-
Itruftions in the neck of the bladder or urinary paf-
fages which horfes are too fubjeft to.
LITTLETON, Sir Thomas, judge of the com¬
mon pleas, was the eldeft fon of Thomas Weftcote,
Efq. of the county of Devon, by Elizabeth, foie
heirefs of Thomas Littleton of Frankley in Wor-
cefterlhire, at whofe requeft he took the name and
arms of that family. He was educated at one of our
universities, probably at Cambridge. Thence he re¬
moved to the Inner Temple, where he became one of
the readers ; and was afterwards, by Henry VI. made
fteward or judge of the court of the palace, or roar-
flialiea of the king’s houfehold. In I455» thirty-
third of that reign, he was appomted king’s ferjeant,
and rode the northern circuit as judge of affize. In
3462, the fecond of Edward IV., he obtained a par¬
don from the crown ; and, in 1466, was appointed one
of the judges of the common pleas, and rode the
Northamptonlhire circuit. In the year 1474 he was,
with many of the firft nobility, created knight of the
Bath. He died in 1481 ; and was buried in the ca¬
thedral church of Worcefter, where a marble tomb,
with his ftatue upon it, was ere&ed to his memo-
rv. As to his charafter as a lawyer, it is fufficient
to inform the reader, that he was the author of the
Treatife upon tenures, on which Sir Edward Coke
wrote a comment, well known by the title of Coke
upon Littleton.
Littleton, Adamt defcended from an ancient
family in Shroplhire, was born in 1627, educated at
Weftminfter fchool, and went to Oxford a ftudent of
Chrift-church, whence he was ejected by the parlia-
xnent vifitors in 1648. Soon after* he became ufher
of Weftminfter fchool, and in 1658 was made fecond
mafter of WTeftminfter fchooL After the reftoration
he taught a fchool at Chelfea in Middlefex, of which
church he was admitted redor in the year 1664. In
1670 he accumulated the degrees in divinity, being
then chaplain in ordinary to his majefty. In 1674, he
became prebendary of Weftminfter, of which churc 1
he was afterwards fub-dean. Befid'e the well-known
Latin and Englijh Diftionary, he publiftied feveral
other works. He died in 1694, and was interred at
Chelfea. He was an univerfal fcholar ; and extremely
charitable, humane, and eafy of accefs. .
LITURGY, denotes all the ceremonies m general
belonging to divine fervice. .
The wqrd comes from the Greek teervqyict, . lervice,
public miniftry -/’ formed of tones, “ public,” and
e#y«v, “ work.” _ . r.
In a more reftrained fignification, liturgy is uled
among the Romanifts to fignify the ma/s ; and among
us the common prayer. . . .
All who have written on liturgies agree, that in the
primitive days divine fervice was exceedingly fimple,
only clogged with a very few ceremonies, and confift-
Ihg of but a fmall number of prayers j but, by degrees,
50 1 LIT
they increafed the number of external ceremonies, and
added new prayers, to make the office look more awful
and venerable to the people. At length things were
carried to fuch a pitch, that a regulation became ne-
Liturgy,
Lituus.
ceffary ; and it was found proper to put the fervice,
and the manner of performing it, into writing 3 and
this was what they called a liturgy.
Liturgies have been different at different times, and
in different countries. We have the liturgy of St Chry-
foftom, that of St Peter, of St James, the liturgy of
St Bafil, the Armenian liturgy, the liturgy of the
Maronites, of the Cophtae, the Roman liturgy, the
Gallican liturgy, the Englith liturgy, the Ambrofian
liturgy, the Spanifh and African liturgies, &c.
In the more early ages of the church, every bifhop
had a power to form a liturgy for his own djocefe 3
and if he kept to the analogy of faith and doflrine, all
circumftances were left to his own diferetion. After¬
wards the practice w-as for the whole province to fol¬
low the metropolitan church, which alfo became the ge¬
neral rule of the church : and this Lindwood acknow¬
ledges to be the common law of the church 3 intimat¬
ing, that the ufe of feveral fervices in the fame pro¬
vince, which was the cafe in England, was not to be
warranted but by long cuftom. The liturgy of the
church of England was com poled in the year 154/*
and eftablifhed in the fecond year of King Edward VL
flat. 2. and 3. Ed. VI. cap. 1. .
In the fifth year of this king rt was reviewed 3 be-
caufe fome things were contained in that liturgy which
{bowed a compliance with the fuperftition of thofe
times, and fome exceptions were taken againft it by
fome learned men at home, and by Calvin abroad.
Some alterations were made in it, which _ confifted in
adding the general confefllon and abfolution, and the
communion to begin with the ten commandments. I he
ufe of oil in confirmation and extreme undion was
left out, and alfo prayers for fouls departed, and what
tended to a belief of Chrift’s real prefence in the eu-
charift. This liturgy, fo reformed, was eftabhthed by
the aft of 5 and 6 Ed. VI. cap. 1. However, it was
aboliftied by Queen Mary, who enafted that the ler¬
vice Ihould ftand as it was moft commonly ufed m the
laft year of the reign of King Henry \ III. The li¬
turgy of 5 and 6 Ed. VI. was re-eftabliftied with fome
few alterations and additions, by 1 Eliz. cap. 2. Some
farther alterations were introduced, in confequence or
the review of the common-prayer book, by order of
King James, in the nrft year of his reign 3 particular¬
ly in the office of private baptifm, in feveral rubrics
and other paffages, with the addition of five or fix new
prayers and thankfgivings, and all that part of the ca-
techifm which contains the doctrine of the facraments.
The book of common-prayer, fo altered, remained in
force from the firft year of King James to the four¬
teenth ef Charles II. But the laft review of the li¬
turgy was in the year 1661, and the. laft a6t of uni¬
formity enjoining the obfervance of it is 13 and 14,
Car. II. cap. 4. See COMMOX-Lraycr. Many appli¬
cations have been fince made for a review, but hither¬
to without fuccefs. ,
LITUUS, among the Romans, was the ftait made
ufe of by the augurs in quartering the heavens. It
bore a great refcmblance to the crofier of a bilhop, but
was {hotter. It was crooked at one end, and thicken:
L I V r 51 ] L I V
Lituus In the curved part, according to A. Gcllxus. We fre-
^ quently meet with a reprefentation of it upon medals,
_, amongft other pontifical inftrUments, It was called
Lituus ^uirinalisy from Quirinus, a name of Romulus,
who was Ikilled in all the myfteries of augury.
Lituus, was alfo an inftrument of mufic in ufe in
the Roman army. It was itraight, excepting that it
had a little bending at the upper end like a lituus or
facred ftaff of the augurs j and from the fimilitude it
derived its name.
LIVADIA, anciently Achaia and Hellas, or Greece
properly fo called j a province of Turkey in Europe,
bounded on the north by Epirus and Theffaly, from
which it is feparated by Mount Oeta, now Banina, and
by the Euripus, now the ftrait of Negropont ; on the
eaft, by the Archipelago j on the fouth, by the gulf
of Engia or Egina, the ifthmus of Corinth, and the
gulf of Lepanto •, and on the weft, by the Ionian fea
and part of Epirus. Its extent is about 130 miles
from north-weft to fouth-eaft ; but its greateft breadth
is not above 36 miles. It is in general a mountainous
country j but neither unpleafant nor unfruitful. The
principal mountains are, Mount Oeta in Boeotia, where
is the famous pafs of Thermopylae, not above 25 feet
broad ; and Parnaffus, Helicon, and Cythaeron in Pho-
cis, which were facred to Apollo and the mufes, and
confequently much celebrated by the poets. The ri¬
vers of moft note are, the Sionapro, anciently the
Achelous, the Cephiffus, the Ifmenus, and the Afo-
pus. The province is at prefent divided into Livadia
proper, Stramulippa, and the duchy of Athens. The
principal places are, Lepanto, anciently Naupaflus j
Livadia, anciently Libadia or Lebadia the celebrated
city of Athens, now Setines ; Thebes, now' Stibes j
Lepfina, anciently Eleufis j Caftri, formerly Delphi 5
and Megara.
Livadia, an ancient town of Turkey in Europe,
and capital of a province of the fame name in Greece.
It is a large and populous place, feated on the gulf of
Lepanto, about 25 miles from the city of that name.
It has now a confiderable trade in' woollen fluffs and
rice. Anciently it w'as celebrated for the oracle of
Trophonius, which was in a cavern in a hill above the
town. E. Long. 23. 29. N. Lat. 38. 40.
LIVER, fee Anatomy, N° 96.—Plato, and others
of the ancients, fix the principle of love in the liver ;
whence the Latin proverb, Cogit amare jecur; and in
this fenfe Horace frequently ufes the word, as when he
fays, Si torrere jecur queer us Idoneum. The Greeks,
from its concave figure, called it jirag, “ vaulted, fuf-
pended j” the Latins call it jecur, q. d. juxta cor, as
being “ near the heart.” The French call it foye,
from foyer, focus, or “ fireplace agreeable to the
dodlrine of the ancients, who believed the blood to be
boiled and prepared in it.—Erafiftratus, at firft, called
it parenchyma, i. e. effufon, or mafs of blood-, and Hip¬
pocrates, by way of eminence, frequently calls it the
hypoch ndrium.
Liver of Antimony. See Chemistry Index.
LlVER of Arfenic, is a combination of white arfenic
with potalh. See Arsenic, Chemistry Index.
Liver of Sulphur. See Potash, Sulphuret of, Che¬
mistry Index.
LiVER-Wort. See Marchantia and Lichen, Bo¬
tany Index.
LIVERPOOL, a large, flouriftiing, and populous Liverpool,
town of England, in the county of Lancafter, fxtuated *'
at the influx of the river Merfey into the fea. This
town has fo much increafed in trade fince the com¬
mencement of the prefent eentury, that it is now the
greateft fea-port in England except London, having
exceeded Briftol confiderably of late years, which will
appear by the following account of the cuftom-duties,
received in the feveral ports of London, Liverpool, and
Briftol, in the year 1784, taken from the report of the
commiffioners for inlptding the ftate of public ac¬
counts.
London, - L.5,187,052 9 54.
Liverpool, - 640,684 2 24-
Briftol, - - 334,9°9 19 34
Liverpool exceeded Briftol, L.305,774 2 11
The following {hows how much the trade has increafed
fince the above period :
Duties received in the port of Liverpool from July 5th
1785, to Oftober 10th 1787, L.298,361 9 104
The merchants here trade to all parts of the world ex¬
cept Turkey and the Eaft Indies j but the moft bene¬
ficial trade is to Guinea and the Weft Indies, by
which many of them have acquired very large for¬
tunes.
Liverpool, during the laft war, carried on more fo¬
reign trade than any town in England $ and fuch is
the ftate of it at this time, that there are near three
thoufand veffels cleared from that port in one year to
different parts of the world. Here are feveral manu-
fa£tories for China-ware, and pot-houfes which make
very fine w’are, fome falt-works, glafs-houfes, and up¬
wards of 50 breweries, from fome of which large quali¬
ties of malt liquor are fent abroad. Many of the build¬
ings are formed in the moft elegant manner ; but the
old ftreets are narrow; which defeft will foon be re¬
moved, as the corporation have lately obtained an aft
of parliament for the improvement of the town, which
they have already begun to put in force with great fpi-
rit, having taken down the principal ftreets in the
centre of the towm, and rebuilt them in a fpacious and
moft magnificent manner ■, fo that in a few years it will
be one of the handfomeft towns in England. This
town contains fixteen churches, namely, St Peter’s, St
Nicholas’s, St George’s, St Thomas’s, St Paul’s, St
Ann’s, St John’s, Trinity, St James’s, St Catherine’s,
St Mary’s, St Stephen’s, St Matthew’s, St Mark’s,
Chrift Church, and All Saints. There are alfo meet¬
ings for independents, anabaptifts, quakers, methodifls,
and prefbyteriaps. The exchange is a noble ftnufture,
built of w hite ftone in the form of a fquare, and round
it are piazzas where the merchants affemble to tranfafl
bufinefs. Above it are the mayor’s offices, the feflions-
hall, the council-chamber, and two elegant ball-rooms.
The expence of erefting this building amounted to
30,000!. The cuftom-houfe is fituated at the head of
the old dock, and is a handfome and convenient ftruc-
ture. Here are many charitable foundations, among
which is an excellent grammar fchool well endowed,
and many of the youth taught in it have exhibitions in
the univerfities. The infirmary is a large edifice of
G 2 brick
*
« 4
L I V [53
Liverpool brick and done, fituated on a hill in a very pleafant
* **** * ■ ' ' airy iltuation, at one end of the iflrwn.
In the town is a charity-fchool fupported by volun-
tary fubfctiptions and contributions for 50 boys and
12'girls, who are not only clothed and educated, but
alfo° provided with food and lodging : likewife feveral
alms-houfes for the widows of feamen 5 and an excel¬
lent poor-houfe, fuperior to any in the kingdom, where
upwards of 800 men, women, and children, are fupport-
ed, many of whom are employed in fpinning cotton
and wool. There are five large wet docks, three dry
docks, and feveral graving docks for the repairing of
{hipping ; which renders it the mofl commodious fea-
port in the world. The quays which bound thefe
docks are covered with warehoufes 5 which is a conve¬
nience that enables the merchant to difeharge his fhip
at a very fmall expence. The new priion lately finifh-
ed is a hoble edifice, being built entirely on the plan
of the great and benevolent Mr Howard, for folitary
confinement", and is perhaps the moft convenient, airy,
magnificent building of the kind of Europe 5 being
upon a very extenfive feale.
Liverpool received its charter from King John j but
it was a borough by prefeription long before his reign.
It is under the government of a recorder, mayor, and
an unlimited number of aldermen,_ two bailiffs, .and a
common council of forty of the principal innabitants,
with a town-clerk and other proper officers.. The town
has a weekly market on Saturday, and is diftsmt from
London 204 miles. The progreflive rife of popula¬
tion in Liverpool, may be conceived by perufing the
following table :
Year. Chriftened. Buried
1660
1680
1700
1720
1740
1760
1780
1787
3
106
132
410
485
986
I7°9
2267
51
124
293
608
599
*544'
*773
Married..
5
35
58
*37
408
606
804
The whole population of Liverpool in the year 1793
was computed to amount to 56,782.
By means of inland navigation, Liverpool has com¬
munication with the rivers 17ee, Kibble, Oufe, Irent,
Darwent, Severn, Humber,Thames, Avon, &c.; which
navigation, including its windings, extends above 500
miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham,.York,
Weftmoreland, Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter,
Oxford, Worcefler, &c. The Merfey, upon which
the town is fituated, abounds with falmon, cod, floun¬
ders, turbot, plaice, and frnelts } and at full fea it is
above two miles over. In the neighbourhood are fre¬
quent horfe-races, on a five-mile courfe, the fineft for
the length in England. The foil in and near the
town is dry and Tandy, and particularly favourable to
the growth of potatoes, on which the farmers often
depend more than on wheat or any other grain. Frefli
water is brought into the town by pipes, from feme
fprings four miles off, purfuant to an aft of parliament
in the reign of Queen Anne. Lhe dock duties of
] L I V
Liverpaol in 1760 amounted to 2330I. but in 1805 lo Liverpeoi
33,3641. an aftonilbing proof of the rapid increafe of jJL.
its trade. The difpenfary of this town does honour to
human nature, and has been of the moft lingular advan¬
tage to the afflifted, fince 172,273 perfons were cured
of every diforder incident to human nature, between
the years 1778 and 1794, being on an average about
10,000 perfons every year. The Union News Room
was inftituted on the iff of January 1801 } the Lyceum
much about the fame period, the ereftion of which colt
the fum of ti,oool. and the Commercial News Room
in 1803. The iuftitution for reftoring drowned per¬
fons is worthy of notice, as more than 4'2|-) people have
become objefts of it finee it was founded, and more
than one half of that number have been reftored. The
Athenaeum, which comprifes a news room and library,
was projefted in 1798? and finifhed before the clofe i>£
the year. There are four weekly papers publifhed at
Liverpool. From 1783 to 1793 inciufive the value of
(laves imported into the Weft Indies in Liverpool vef-
fels, amounted to 15,186,850!. fteiling } and the ad¬
vantages which it derives from its inland navigation
are more than can be properly eftimated. Liverpool
fends two members to parliament.
LIVERY, in matters of drefs and equipage, a cer¬
tain colour and form of drefs, by which noblemen and
gentlemen choofe to diftinguifh their fervants.
Liveries are ufually taken from fancy, or continued
in families by fucceflion. The ancient cavaliers,, at
their tournaments, diftinguifhed themfelves by weari.ng
the liveries of their miftreffes : thus people of quality
make their domeftics wear their livery.
Father Meneftrier, in his Treatife of Caroufals, has
given a very ample account of the mixtures of colours
in liveries. Dion tells us, that Oenomaus was the firft
who invented green and blue colours, for the troops
which, in the circus, were to reprefent land and fea
figXhe Romilb ebureb has alfo her feveral colours and
liveries •, white, for. confeffors and virgins, and in times
of rejoicing 5 black, for the dead ; red, for the apoftles
and martyrs ; blue or violet, for penitents} and green,
in times of hope. . r 1 v
Formerly, great men gave liveries to leveral, who
were not of their family or fervants, to engage them in
their quarrels for that year ; but this was prohibited
by the ftatutes 1 Rich. II. 1 Hen. IV. cap. 27. 2 and
7'Hen. IV. 8 Hen. VI. cap. 4. 8 Ed. IV. cap. 2. ;
and no man, of whatever condition, was allowed to
give any livery, but to his domeftic officers, and coun-
fel learned in the law. However, moft of the above
ftatutes are repealed by 3 Car. I. cap. 4. . .
J.IVERT of Se?yin, in Law, fignifies delivering the
poffeffion of' lands, &c. to him who has a right to
them.
LIVERYMEN of London, are a number of men
chofen from among the freemen of each company. Out
of this body the common-council, fheriff, and other
fuperior officers for the government of the city., are
elefted 5 and they alone have the privilege of giving
their votes for members of parliament, from which the
reft of the citizens are excluded. .
LIVIUS, Titus, the beft of the Roman hiftori-
ans, as he is called by Mr Bayle, was born at Patavi-
um or Padua. Few particulars of his life have been
handed
C
L I V r « J L I V
Livlus. handed down to us. Coming to Rome, lie acquired
 the notice and favour of Auguftus, and there he long
refided. Some have fuppofed, (for there is not any
proof of it), that he was known to Auguftus before,
by certain Philofophical Dialogues which he had de¬
dicated to him. Seneca fays nothing of the dedication1:-
but mentions the dialogues, which he calls hiftorical
and philofophical ; and alfo fome books, written pur-
pofely on the fubjedt of philofophy. Re this as it will,
it is probable that he began his hiftory as foon as he
was fettled at Rome ; and he feems to have devoted
himfelf fo entirely to the great work he had underta¬
ken, as to be perfectly regardlefs of his own advance¬
ment. The tumults and diftradtions of Rome frequent¬
ly obliged him to retire to Naples ; not only that he
might be lefs interrupted in the purfuit of his deftin-
ed talk, but alfo enjoy that retirement and tranquillity
which he could not have at Rome, and which yet he
feems to have much fought after : for he was greatly
diflatisfied with the manners of his age, and tells us,
that “ he fhould reap this reward of his labour, in
compofing the Roman hiftory, that it would take his
attention from the prefent numerous evils, at leaft
while he was employed upon the firft and earlieft ages.”
He ufed to read parts of this hiftory, while he was
compofing it, to Mecaenas and Auguftus j and the lat¬
ter conceived fo high an opinion of him, that he pitch¬
ed upon him to fuperintend the education of his grand-
fon Claudius, who was afterwards emperor. After the
death of Auguftus, Livy returned to the place of his
birth, where he was received with all imaginable ho¬
nour and refpeft : and there he died, in the fourth
year of the reign of Tiberius, aged above feventy.
Some fay, he died on the fame day with Ovid : it is
certain that he died the fame year.
Scarce any man Avas ever more honoured, alive as
Avell as dead, than this hiftorian. Pliny the younger
relates, that a native gentleman travelled from Gades,
in the extremeft parts of Spain, to fee Livy : and,
though Rome abounded with more ftupendous and cu¬
rious fpeftacles than any city in the world, yet he im¬
mediately returned j as if, after having feen Livy, no¬
thing farther could be worthy of his notice. A mo¬
nument was erefted to this hiftorian in the temple of
Juno, where was afterwards founded the monaftery of
St Juftina. There, in 1413, was difcovered the fol¬
lowing epitaph upon Livy : OJJa Titi Livii Patavini,
omnium tnortahum judicio digni, cujus prope inviBo ca~
iamo tnviEh popuh Romani res gejice confcriberentur;
that is, “ The bones of Titus Livius of Patavium, a man
worthy to be approved by all mankind, by whofe almoft
invincible pen the a£ts and exploits of the invincible
Romans Avere written.” Thefe bones are faid to be
preferved Avith high reverence to this day, and are
fhown by the Paduans as the moft precious remains.
In 1451, Alphonfus, king of Arragon, fent his ambaf-
fador, Anthony Panormita, to deftre of the citizens of
Padua the bone of that arm with which this their fa¬
mous countryman had Avritten his hiftory ; and, ob¬
taining it, caufed it to be conveyed to Naples with the
greateft ceremony as a moft invaluable relic. He is
faid to ha\re recovered from an ill ftate of health by
the pleafure he found in reading this hiftory : and there¬
fore, out of gratitude, put upon doing extraordinary
honours to the memory of the writer. Panormila alfo,
who Avas a native of Palermo in Sicily, and one of the
ableft men of the 15th century, fold an eftate to pur-
chafe this hiftorian.
The hiftory of Livy, like other great works of an¬
tiquity, is tranfmitted down to us exceedingly mutilated
and imperfeft. Its books Avere originally a hundred and
forty-two, of Avhich are extant only thirty-five. The
epitomes of it, from which we learn their number, all
remain, except thole of the 136th and 137th books.
Livy’s books have been divided into decades, Avhich
fome will have to have been done by Livy himielf, be-
caufe there is a preface to every decade j Avhile others
fuppofe it to be a modern contrivance, lince nothing
about it can be gathered from the ancients. The firit
decade, beginning with the foundation of Rome, is ex¬
tant, and treats of the affairs of 460 years. The fe-
cond decade is loft j the years of which are feventy-
five. The third decade is extant, and contains the
fecond Punic war, including eighteen years. It is rec¬
koned the moft excellent part of the hiftory, as giving
an account of a very long and (harp war, in Avhich the
Romans gained fo many advantages, that no arms could
afterwards withftand them. The fourth decade contains
the Macedonian war againft Philip, and the Afiatic
war againft Antiochus, which take up the fpace of about
23 years. The five firft books of the fifth decade were
found at Worms, by Simon Grynceus, in 143 L but
are very defedtive ; and the remainder of Livy’s hif¬
tory, which reaches to the death of Drufus in Ger¬
many in 746, together with the fecond decade, are
fupplied by Freinftiemius.
Never man perhaps was furniftied with greater ad¬
vantages for writing a hiftory than Livy. Refides his
own great genius, Avhich was in every refpedt admi¬
rably formed for the purpofe, he Avas trained as it were
in a city, at that time the emprefs of the world, and
in the politeft reign that ever w as j having fcarcely had
any other fchool than the court of Auguftus. He had
accefs to the very bell materials, fuch as the Memoirs
of Sylla, Csefar, Labienus, Pollio, Auguftus, and o-
thers, written by themfelves. “ What Avriters of me¬
morials (fays Lord Bolinbroke), what compilers of the
Materia Hiftorica, were thefe ! What genius Avas ne-
ceffary to finifti up the pidlures that fuch mailers had
iketched ! Rome afforded men that were equal to the
talk. Let the remains, the precious remains, of Sa3-
luft, of Li\'y, and of Tacitus, witnefs this truth. -
What a fchool of public and private virtue had been
opened to us at the refurredion of learning, if the lat¬
ter hiftorians of the Roman commonwealth, and the
firft of the fucceeding monarchy, had come dow n to us
entire i The few that are come down, though broken
and imperfed, compofe the belt body of hiftory that
we have j nay, the only body of ancient hiftory that
deferves to be an objed of ftudy. It fails us indeed
moft at that remarkable and fatal period, Avhere our
reafonable curiofity is raifed the higheft. Livy em¬
ployed forty-live books to bring his hiftqry down to the
end of the iixth century, and the breaking out of the,
third Punic war : but he employed ninety-five to bring
it down from ther^-e to the death of Drufus; that is,
through the courfe of 120 or 130 years. Appian,
Dion Caffius, and others, nay, even Plutarch uricluded,
make us but poor amends for w hat is loft of Livy.”
Speaking then of Tully’s,orations and letters, as thq
heft
L I V E 54 ] L I V
Livius. beft adventitious helps to fupply this lofs, he fays, that levelled at Livy in particular, the pontiff having de- LWms,
—v-— « the age in which Livy flourilhed, 'abounded with dared war againft all human learning. Livonra.
fuch materials as thefe : they AVere fre(h, they were au- Though1 we know nothing of Livy’s family, yet we ' -
thentic: it was eafy to procure them ; it was fafe to learn from Quintilian, that he had a fon, to whom he
employ them. How he did employ them in executing addrefled fome excellent precepts in rhetoric. An an-
the fecond part of his defign, we may judge from his cient infeription fpeaks alfo ot one of his daughters,
execution of the firft *, and, I own, I fhould be glad named Livia ^uarta : the fame, perhaps, that efpoufed
to exchange, if it were poflible, what we have of this the orator Lucius Magius, whom Seneca mentions;
hiftory for what we have not. Would you not be glad, and obferves, that the applaufes he ufually received
my Lord, to fee, in one ftupehdous draught, the whole from the public in his harangues, were not fo much
progrefs of that government from liberty to fervitude •, on his own account, as for the fake of his father-in-
the whole feries of caufes and effeds, apparent and real, law. _
public and private ?” &c. Our author’s hiftory has been often publiftied with
The encomiums beftowed upon Livy, by both an- and without the fupplement of Freinftiemius.
bients and moderns, are great and numerous. He not beft editions are, that of Gronovius, ctrm notis varic-
only entertains like Herodotus j he alfo inifruds and rum etfuis, Lugd. Bat. 1679, 3 vols 8v0 5 that of Le
interefts in the deepeft manner. But his great probity, Clerc at Amiterdam, I7C9> 10 vo^s 1 2mo 5 and that
candour, and impartiality, are what have diftinguifh- of Crevier, at Paris, I73i» 6 vols 4tb. Ihefe have
ed Livy above all hiftorians j for neither complaifance the fupplements.—Learning perhaps never iuftained a
to the times, nor his particular connexions with the greater lofs, in any fingle author, than by the deftruc-
emperor, could reftrain him from fpeaking well of Pom- tion of the latter and more interefling part of Livy,
pey • fo well, as to make Auguftus call him a Paw- Several eminent mode rns have indulged the pleaftng ex-
peian. This we learn from Cremutius Cordus, in Ta- pe&ation that the entire work of this noble hittorian
citus j who relates alfo, much to the emperor’s ho- might yet be recovered. It hks been laid to cxift in an
nour, that this gave no interruption to their friend- Arabic verfion : and even a complete copy of the ori-
ftlip., But whatever elogies Livy may have received ginal is fuppofed to have been extant as la;e as the year
as an hiftorian, he has not efcaped cenfure as a writer. 1631, and to have peri died at that time in the plunder
In the age wherein he lived, Afinius Pollio charged of Magdeburg. The munificent patron of learning,
him with Patavinity j which Patavinity has been vari- Leo X. exerted the moft generous zdal to reicue from
oufly explained by various writers, but is generally fupi oblivion the valuable treafure, which one of his moft
pofed to relate to his ftyle. The moft common is, that bigotted predeceffors, above mentioned; had expelled
this noblO Roman, accuftomed to the delicacy of the from every Chriftian library. Bayie has'prelerfed, un^
language fpoken in the Court of Auguftus, could not der the article Leu, two curious original letters of that
bear with certain provincial idioms, which Livy, as a pontiff, concerning his hopes of recovering Livy •, which
Paduan, ufed in diver* places ofhis hiftory. Pignorius afford moft honourable proofs of his liberality m the
is of another opinion, and believes that this Patavinity caufe of letters.—A lately dilcovered fragment of Li-
regarded the orthography of certain words, wherein Livy vy’s hiftory was publifhed in 1773 by Dr Bruns,
ufed one letter for another, according to the cuftom of Livius Audromcus, a comic poet who flounftied at
his country^Writingj^e and quafe for Jdji and' qutiji/ Rotne about 240 years before the Chriftian era. He
which he attempts to prove by feveral ancient inferip- was the firft who turned the perfonal iatires and fefeen-
tions. The expreffiohs, however, or the orthography nine verfes, fo long the admiration of the Romans, in-
of words, are tto> loaded with obfeurity, and the per- to the form of a proper dialogue and regular play,
fe 61 cl a flic is as familiarly acquainted with thofe fup- TL hough the chara&er of a player* fo valued and ap-
pofed provincialifms as with the pureft Latinity.—Livy plauded in Greece, was reckoned vile and defpicable
has been cenfiired too, and perhaps with jdfiice, for be- among the Romans, Andromcus a6ted a part m ms
inw too credulous, and burdening his hiftory with vul- dramatical compofitions, and engaged the attention
gar notions and fuperftitious tales. He may difguft of his audience, by repeating what he had laboured
when he mention’s that milk and blood were rained from after the manner of the Greeks. Andronicus was the
heaven, or that an ox fpoke or a woman changed her freedman of M. Livius Salinator, whofe children he
fex : yet he candidly confeffes that he recorded only educated. His poetry was grown obfolete in the age
what made an indelible impreflion upon the minds of a of Cicero, whofe nicety and judgment would not even
credulous age. recommend the reading of it.
Is it worth while to mention here the capricious and LIVONIA, a large province of the Ruffian empire,
tyrannic humour of the emperor Caligula, who accufed with the title of a duchy. It is bounded on the north
Livy of being a negligent and wordy writer, and refol- by the gulf of Finland, on the weft, by that of Riga,
ved therefore to remove his works and ftatues out of all on the fouth by Courland, and on the eaft, partly by Plef-
libravies, where he knew they w ere curioufly preferved ? cow, and partly by Novogorod. It is about 250 miles
Or the fame humour in Domitian, another prodigy of from north to fouth, and Jjo from eaft to weft. Ihe
nature, who put to death Melius Pompofianus, becaufe land is fo fertile in corn, that it is called the granary of
he made a colleaion of fome orations of kings ahd ge- the north: and would produce a great deal more, if it
nerals out of Livy’s hiftory ? Pope Gregory the Great, was notfo full of lakes. The fiih that abound here are
alfo, would not fuffer Livy in any Chriftian library, be- falmons, carps, pikes, flat fifb, and many others. In
caufe of the Pagan fuperftition wherewith he abounded: the forefts there are wolves, bears, elks, rein-deer, flags,
but the fame reafon held good againft all ancient au- and hares. The domeftic animals are very numerous •,
thors ; and indeed Gregory’s zeal was far from being but the flieep bear very bad wool. Here are a great
a si* number
L o A [ 55 T L O A
Livonia number of forefts, which confift of birch trees, pines,
11 and oaks; and all the hnufes of the inhabitants are
^'oac^, built with wood. The merchandifes which they fend
abroad are flax, hemp, honey, wax, leather Ikins, and
potalhes. The Swedes were formerly pofleffed of this,
province, but were obliged to abandon it to the Ruf¬
fians after the battle of Pultowa *, and it w as ceded to
them by the peace of the north, concluded in 1722,
which was confirmed by another treaty in 1742. It is
divided into two provinces, viz. Letonia and Eftonia ;
and two iflands called Oefeland Dagho, which are again
fubdivided into feveral diftrifts.
LIVONICA-terra, a kind of fine bole ufed in the
fhopsof Germany and Italy. It is found in Livonia,
from w hence it takes its name. It is in the form of
little cakes.
LIVRE, a French money of account, containing 20
Cols. See MONET-Tab/e.
LIXA, or Lixus, in Ancient Geography, a town on
the Atlantic near the river Lixus •, made a Roman co¬
lony by Claudius Caefar; famous in mythology for the
palace of Antaeus and his encounter with Hercules*
(Pliny). Now Larache, 65 leagues to the fouth of the
ftraits of Gibraltar.
LIXIVIOUS, an appellation given to falls ob¬
tained from burnt vegetables by pouring water on their
fjjfcfftns?!. lo no-ifiiq Jtvrtftur
LIXIVIUM, in Pharmacy, &c. a ley obtained by
pouring fome liquor upon the afhes of plants; which
is more or left powerful, as it has imbibed the fixed falls
contained in the alhes.
L1XN AW, a barony in the county of Kerry and
province of Munfter in Ireland, which gives title of
baron to the earls of Kerry ; the village here of this
name being their ancient feat, where the caftle was
erefted. This feat Hands agreeably on the river Brick,
which is here cut into feveral pleafant navigable canals,
that adorn its plantations and gardens. W. Long. 9. 15,
N. Lat. 52. 15. u fas mat ©dw hid arfj ajew
LIZARD. See Lacerta, ErpetolOgy Index.
Lizard, in Geography, a cape or promontory of
Cornwall, fituated, according to the moft common com¬
putation, in W. Long. 5. 47. N. Lat. 49. 30.
LLANDAFF. See Landaef.
LLOYD, William, a moft learned Englifh waiter
and bifliop, was born in Berkfhire in England in 1627.
He was educated under his father, re&or of Sonning,
and vicar of Tyle-hurft in Berkfliire; then went to Ox¬
ford, and took orders. In 1660 he was made preben*
dary of Rippon ; and in 1666 chaplain to the king. In
1667 he took the degree of doftor of divinity ; in 1672
he was inftalled dean of Bangor ; and in 1680 wascon-
fecrated bilhop of St Afaph. He was one of the fix
bilhops who, with Archbilhop Sancroft, were commit*-
ted prifoners to the Tower of London, for fubfcribing
a petition to the king againft diftributing and publifhing
his declaration for liberty of confcience. Soon after the
revolution he was made almoner to King William and
Queen Mafy : in 1692 he was tranflated to thebilhop-
ric of Litchfield and Coventry; and in 1699, to ^le
fee of Worcefter, where he fat till his death, which
happened in 1717, the 91ft year of his age. Dr Bur¬
net gives him an exaltedcharafter, and his works are
highly efteemed.
LOACHi. See Cobitis, Ichthyology Index.
LOAD, or Lode, in Mining, a word ufed efpecial- boat!
ly in the tin-mines, for any regular vein or courfe, whe- M
ther metallic or not; but molt commonly load means a 0rt
metallic vein. When the fubftances forming thp(e
loads are reducible to metal, the loads are by the Eng-
lilh miners faid to be alive ; otherwise they are termed
dead loads.
In Cornwall and Devonlhire the loads chiefly hold
their courfe from call ward to welt ward, though in other
parts of England they frequently run from north to
fouth. See Veins, Geology Index.
Load is alfo ufed for nine difhes of ore, each dilh
being about half a hundred weight.
LOADSTONE. See Magnet.
LOAMS, in Natural HiJlonj, are defined to be
earths compofed of diflimilar particles, lliff, denfe, hard,
and rough to the touch ; not eafily broke while moift,
‘ readily difl'ufible in water, and compofed of land and a
tough vifcid clay. Of thefc loams fome are whitilh, and
others brown and yellow.
LOAN, any thing given to another, on condition of
return or payment.
Public Loans. See Funds and National Debt.
LOANDA, a province of the kingdom of Angola
in Africa. It is anilland about 15 miles in length, and
three in breadth ; remarkable chiefly for the capital of
Angola fituated upon it, in E. Long. 12. 25. S. Lat.
8. 45. This town was built by the Portuguefe in 1378,
under the dire&ion of the firlt Portuguefe governor in
thefe parts. It is large, populous, and pleafantly feat-
ed on the declivity ©f a hill near the fea-coafi, and fa¬
cing the fouth-weft. The ifland is fupplied with frefti
water from wells dug in it; and which are not funk be¬
low the depth of three feet when they are filled with
excellent water. It is remarkable, however, that the
water of thefe wells continues good only during the
time of high tide ; for, as that finks, the water becomes
more and more brackilh, till at Laft it is quite fait, al-
moft as much as the fea itfelf. On the coaft of this
ifland are fiflied the zimbis, or Ihells ufed in feveral
parts of Africa inftead of money ; and with thefe fhells,
inftead of coin, is carried on a great part of the traffic
of this country.
LO ANGO, a kingdom of Africa, extending itfelf
about 180 geographical miles in length from fouth to
north ; that is, from Cape St Catherine under the fe-
cond degree of fouth latitude, to a fmall river called
Lovanda Louijia, on the 5th degree of the fame. From
weft to eaft it extends from Cape Negro on the coafl of
Ethiopia towards the Buchuma/ean mountains, fo called
on account of the vaft quantity of ivory and great
droves of elephants, about 300 miles. It is divided
into four principal provinces, viz. thofe of Lovangiri,
Loango-mongo, Chilongo, and Pin.
The inhabitants are very black, well Ihaped, and
of a mild temper. The men wrear long petticoats, from
the waift downwards, and have a piece of cloth round
their waift. The w omen’s petticoats are made of ftraw.
This country abounds with poultry, oxen, cows,
ftieep, goats, elephants, tigers, leopards, civet-cats, and
other animals ; fo that here are great quantities of ele¬
phants teeth, and fine furs, to be traded for.
The capital city, where the king refides, called
Loango, and in the language of the negroes, Boaric, is
fituated in South Lat. 4! degrees, a league and a half
from
%
Loango
II
Local.
LOG [5
from the fea-eoaft, and is fhaded and adorned with ba¬
nanas, and other trees. I he king, who refides in
a large palace in the middle of it, has about 1500 con¬
cubines. If any of them is furprifed in adultery, {he
and her paramour are inftantly conveyed to the top of a
very high hill, whence they are hurled down headlong
from the fteepeft place.
Every man marries as many wives here as he pleafes,
who are obliged to get their hufbands a livelihood, as
is the practice all along the African coaft inhabited by
blacks. The women, therefore, cultivate the land, fow
and reap, while the lazy hufbands loiter away their tima
in idlenefs.
The king’s revenue confifts in elephants teeth, cop¬
per, and a kind of petticoats made of palm-tree leaves,
and called /avogus.” he has whole ftore-houfes full of
thefe lavogus j but his greateft riches confift in Haves
of both fexes.
LOBBY, in ArchiteBure, is a fmall hall or waiting-
room : it is alfo an entrance into a principal apartment,
where there is a confiderable fpace between that and a
portico or veftibule, and the length or dimenfions will
not allow it to be confidered as a veftibule or an anti¬
room. See Antichamber.
LOBE, in Anatomy, any flefhy protuberant part, as
the lobes of the lungs, the lobes of the ears, &c.
LOBELIA, Cardinal-flower; a genus of plants
belonging to the fyngenefia clafs; and in the natural
method ranking under the 29th order, Campanacece,
See Botany Index.
LOBETUM, anciently a town of the Hither Spain:
faid to have been built by the Libyan Hercules,
Pliny). Now Albara%in, a town of Arragon on the
confines of New Caftile, on the river Guadalavir. E.
Long. 2. N. Lat. 40. 40.
LOBO, Jerome, a Jefuit miflionary, was born at
Lifbon in the year 1593. He became a member of the
Jefuit fociety at 16 years of age, and in 1622 went out
as a miffionary to the Eaft Indies. Pie failed to the
coaft of Mozambique, after making fome flay at Goa ;
and afterwards penetrated into Abyflinia, where his
zeal and refolution brought on him the hatred of the
monks, from which he incurred much danger and fuf-
fering. As he returned to Portugal he was fhipwreck-
ed on the coaft of Natal, where feven months were
Spent in conftrutting fliallops to bring them away.
One of them foundered, but that in which Father Lobo
failed arrived fafe at Angola. After a variety of ad¬
ventures he arrived at Lifbon; and he employed him-
felf in the caufe of the Ethiopian miffion both at Ma¬
drid and Rome. He took a fecond voyage to the In¬
dies, where he was made reftor of the houfe at Goa.
He returned to Lifbon in 165S, and was chofen reftor
-of the college of Coimbra, where he died in 1678, at
the age of 84.
Lobo wrote an hiftorical account of Abyffinia in the
Portuguefe language, which contains information both
curious and valuable. It was tranflated into French by
the abbe le Grand in 4to, in 1728 ; and the earlieft
production of Dr Samuel Johnfon was an abridged ver-
fion of this work.
LOBSTER, a fpecies of cancer. See Cancer, En¬
tomology Index.
LOCAL, in Law, fomething fixed to the freehold,
U tied to a certain place 5 thus, real a&ions are local,
6 ] LOG
fince they muft be brought in the country where they Local
lie ; and local cuftoms are thofe peculiar to certain jjj-g
countries and places. c—.. v—
LOCAL Medicines, thofe deftined to a£l: upon par¬
ticular parts; as fomentations, epithems, veficatories,
&c.
LOCARNO, a town of Swifferland, capital of a
bailiwick of the fame name, feated at the north end
of the lake Maggiore, near the river Magie. It car¬
ries on a great trade ; and the country abounds in
paftures, wine, and fruits. E. Long. 8. 41. N. Lat.
46. 6. .
LOCHABER, a diftriftof the {hire of Invernefs in
Scotland. It is bounded by Moydart on the weft,
Glengary on the north, Badenoch on the eaft, and
Lorn on the fouth. It derives its name from the lake
or loch Aber ; and extends about 20 miles from eaft to
weft, and 30 from north to fouth. Ihe country is
barren, bleak, mountainous, and rugged. Near the
mouth of the river Aber, in the centre between the Vv eft
and North Highlands, Hands Fort William, with the
town of Maryburgh, built upon a navigable arm of the
fea, not far from the foot of Benevis. The town, defigned
as a futlery for the garrifon, was erefted into a borough ;
and the fort itfelf was defigned as a check upon fome of
the clans, who had been guilty of depredations and other
irregularities. Lochaber is inhabited moftly by the
Macdonalds, Camerons, and Mackintefhes. The caftle
of Macdonald of Glengary, in this diftri£t, was burnt
to the ground in the year 1715, in confequence of his
declaring for the Pretender. I he elegant houfe and
gardens belonging to Cameron of Lochiel underwent
the fame fate, for the fame reafon, in the year 1746.
LOCHIA, in Midwifery, a flux from the uterus
confequent to delivery. See Midwifery.
LOCK, a well-known inftrument ufed for fattening
doors, chefts, Sec. generally opened by a key. .
The lock is reckoned the mafterpiece in fmithery ;
a great deal of art and delicacy being required in con¬
triving and varying the wards, fprings, bolts, Sec. and
adjufting them to the places where tney are to be ufed,
and to the various occafions of ufing them.
From the various ftrufture of locks, accommodated
to their different intentions, they acquire various
names. Thofe placed on outer doors are called^ocA
loch ; thofe on chamber doors, fpring-locks thofe on
trunks, trunk-locks, pad-lecks, See.
Of thefe the fpring-lock is the moft confiderable,
both for its frequency and the curiofily of its ftrudfure.
Its principal parts are, the main-plate, the cover-plate,
and the pin-hole : to the main-plate belong the key¬
hole, top-hook, crofs wards, bolt-toe or bolt-knab,
drawback-fprink tumbler, pin of the tumbler, and the
ftaples ; to the cover-plate belong the pin, main-ward,
crofs ward, ftep-ward or dap-ward ; to the pin-hole
belong the hook-ward, main crcfs-ward, {hank, the pot
or bread, bow-ward, and bit.
As on the proper conftrudtion of locks the fecurity
of the moft valuable kinds of property alnioft entirely
depends, and as numberlefs devices are continually
fallen upon to elude the utmoft efforts of mechanical
invention in this refpedl, it thence becomes an objedl
of no fmall importance to invent a lock which it fhould
be impojfible to open except by its proper key. A Lrea-
tife upon this fubjed has been publiftied by Mr Jo-
* feph
c
LOG [
Lock, feph Bramah; who is confident that he has brought
the matter to the requifite perfeftion, and that every¬
one may reft affured of the fecurity of his property
when under the protection of a lock of his invention.
He begins with obferving, that the principle on which
all locks depend, is the application of a lever to an in¬
terior bolt, by means of a communication from with¬
out ; fo that, by means of the latter, the lever a£ts
upon the bolt, and moves it in fuch a manner as to
fecure the lid or door from being opened by any pull
ftr pulh from without. The fecurity of locks in ge¬
neral therefore depends on the number of impediments
we can interpofe betwixt the lever (the key) and the
bolt which fecures the door ^ and thefe impediments
are well known by the name of wards, the number and
intricacy of which alone are fuppofed to diftinguiftia
good lock from a bad one. If thefe wards, however,
do not in an effectual manner preclude the accefs of all
other inftruments befides the proper key, it is ftill
pqftible for a mechanic of equal fkill with the lock-
maker to open it without the key, and thus to elude
the labour of the other.
“ Locks (fays our author) have been conftruCted,
and are at prefent much ufed and held in great efteem,
from which the picklock is excluded : but the admif-
fion of falfe keys is an imperfeCtion for which no lock-
fmith has ever found a corrective; nor can this imper¬
feCtion be remedied whilft the protection of the bolt
is wholly confided to fixed wards.'1'1 This pofition is
proved by a remark, that the wards, let them be as
intricate as we pleafe, muft all be exprefled on what is
called the bit or web of the key : and therefore when
all the varieties that can be expreffed on this bit or web
have been run through, every iucceeding lock muft be
the counterpart of fome other ; and confequently the
fame key which opens one will open the other alfo.
This is evident from the locks ufually put upon drawers ;
and which, though they fhould he made to refill; the
picklock, are ftill liable to be opened by ten thoufand
other keys befides that appropriated to each of them.
But though the variety of wards could be augmented
even to infinity, ftill there could be no fecurity againtt
falfe keys j for as every one of the wards muft be ex-
preiTed on the web of the key. it another key with a
web quite plain be made to fit the key-hole exaCtly,
we have only to cover it over with fome colouring fub-
ftance upon which the wards may make an imprefiion j
after which, it is eafy to cut out the web in a proper
manner for admitting them, when the lock will be as
eafily opened by the falfe as by the true key.
The firft perfon, according to our author, who had
any claim to merit in the branch of lock-making, is
Mr B*ron ; whofe lock he acknowledges to be by far
more perfeft and fecure than any that ever appeared
before : though he ftill confiders it as unfit for giving
that abiblute fecurity which is to be wiflied for. His
improvement confifted in the proper application of
what are called tumblers. “ Thefe (fays Mr Bramah)
are a kind of grapple : by which the bolt is confined,
as well in its aflive as in its paftive ftation, and render¬
ed immoveable till fet at liberty by the key. One of
thefe inftruments is commonly introduced into all locks
that are of any ufe or value : it is lodged behind the
bolt, and is governed by a fpring which afts upon the
tumbler as the tumbler acts upon the bolt : The an-
VOL. XII. Part I.
57 ] LOG
plication therefore of any force to the tumbler, which Lock,
is fuperior to the force of the fpring, will caufe it to v '
quit its hold, and fet the bolt at liberty.” In the
common method of applying thefe machines, however,
it matters nothing how far the tumbler is lifted above
the point at which it ceafes to controul the bolt \ but
it is otherwife in thofe of Mr Baron’s conftruftion.
The atlion of his tumblers is circumfcribed by a cer¬
tain fpace cut in the centre of the bolt, of dimtnfions
fufficient only to anfwer the purpofe intended. The
fpace in which the tumbler moves is an oblong fquare $
and is not only furniihed with niches on the under fide,
into which the hooks of the tumblers are forced by the
fpring as in other locks, but is provided with cor-
refpondent niches on the other fide, into which the
hooks are driven, if any greater force be applied to the
tumblers than w-hat is juft fufficient to difengage them
from the bolt. Hence it becomes abfolutely neceffary,
in the making of a falfe key, to conftrufl it in fuch a
manner, that it may with the greateft exadfnefs give
the requifite degree of preffure and no more,
Mr Bramah allows that this is a very great improve¬
ment, but objedls that it is ftill poflible to frame a key
which will open it as well as its own j nor w ill the ad¬
dition of any number of tumblers preclude the poftibi-
lity of opening it. “ By giving (fays he) an uniform
motion to the tumblers, and prefenting them with a
face which exadtly tallies with the key, they ftill par¬
take, in a very great degree, of the nature of fixed
wards; and the fecurity of this lock is thereby render¬
ed in a proportionable degree defedtive. Thus, fup-
pofe the falfe key to have paffed the wards, and to be
in contadl with the moft prominent of the tumblers,
the impreffion, which the Uighteft touch will leave on
the key, wdll diredt the application of the file till
fuffLejent fpace is prepared to give it a free paflage.
Tire key will then bear upon a more remote tumbler j
which difficulty being in like manner got o\tr, the
lock will beasealily opened by the falie as by the true
key.”
This feemingly infuperable objedlion to the ptrfec-
tion of lock-making, however, our author removes with
the greateft eafe imaginable, by caufing the tumblers
which projedi unequally to prefent a plane furface :
whence they would require a feparate and unequal mo¬
tion to difengage them j of confequence no diftindl un-
preflion could be made by them upon the plane furface
of the web that would give any idea of their politions
with regard to one another, and the conftruftien of a
falfe key would be altogether impoffible.
But though the principal difficulty with regard to
Mr Baron’s lock be now overcome, others ftill occur,
viz. the difficulty of making locks which are conftrudl:-
ed with tumblers fufficiently durable. The tumblers
themfelves, he obferves, muft be but llightly made j
and being expofed to perpetual fridf ion by the key and
their own proper motion, they muft foon decay ; and
the keys of Mr Baron’s locks, he alfo oblerves, are
much lefs durable than thole of any other locks he
ever faw.
With regard to the lock which Mr Bramah pre-
fents to the public as abfolutely perfect, he informs
us, that the idea of conftrudting it was firft fugg* tied
by the alarming increafe ot houie robberies, which may
reafonably be fuppofed to be perpetrated in a great
H meal'ure
%
• a
LOG
r 58 i
LOG
Lock, meafure by perfidious fervants, or accomplifhed by their
—v—- connivance. Thus it is evident, that the locks which
might exclude ordinary houfebreakers could be no fe-
curlty againft faithlefs fervants, who having corjlant
accefs to the locks, might ealily get falfe keys fabri¬
cated at their leifure. In confidering the fubjeft, our
author was convinced, that his hope of fuccefs de¬
pended entirely upon his ufing means as diffimilar as
poflible to thofe by which the old locks were con-
ilmfted j as thele, however varied, had been found
infufficient for the purpofe. “ As nothing (fays he)
can be more oppofite in principle \.ofixed wards f\ax\.
a lock which derives its properties from the motion of
all its parts, I determined that the conlfruftion of iuch
a lock Ihould be the fubjrft of my experiment.’’ In
the profecution of this experiment he had the fatisfac-
tion to find, that the leaft perfe£t of all his modds
fully afeertaintd the truth and certainty of his prin¬
ciple. The exclufion of wards made it needfary to cut
off all communication between the key and the bolt }
as the fame paffage, which (in a lock, fmply conftruft-
ed) would admit the key, might give admiffion like-
wife-to other inftruments. The office, therefore, which
in other locks is performed by the extreme point of
the key, is here affigned to a lever, which cannot ap¬
proach the bolt till every part of the lock has under¬
gone a change of pofition. The neceflity of this change
to the purpofes of the lock, and the ablolute impofli-
bility of effecting it otherwife than with the proper
key, are the points to be afeertained > and this our
author does in the following manner.
Fig. 1. Shows Mr Bramah’s firfl; attempt to con-
ftruft a lock upon this principle : which, to his fur-
prife, turned out complete and perfeft. A reprefents
a common axis on which the fix levers, eroding the
face of the lock, are united as on a joint. Each of
thefe refts upon a feparate fpring fufficiently ftrong to
bear its weight ; or, if depreffed by a fuperior force,
to reftore it to its proper pofition when that force is
removed. B reprefents a frame through which the
levers pafs by feparate grooves, exadly fitted to their
width, but of fufficient depth to allow them a free
motion in a perpendicular direftion. The part which
projeds from the oppofite fide of the joint A, and is
inferted in the bolt C, is a lever to which two offices
are affigned ; one’to keep the bolt in a fixed pofition,
in the abfence of the key ; the other, to give it its
proper motion upon the application of the key. D is
a circular platform turning upon a centre. On this
the joint or carriage of the levers, and the fprings on
which they reft, are fixed ; and the motion of this plat¬
form impels the bolt, in either diredion, by means of
the lever which is projeded from the joint A. The
inviolable reftraint upon this lock, by which means jt
is fubjeded only to the adion of the key, is lodged in
the part E, which is a thin plate, bearing at each ex¬
tremity on a blocks and having of courie a vacant fpace
beneath, equal in height to the thicknefs of the blocks
on which it refts. By this plate the motion of the
machine is checked or guided in the following manner :
On the edge of the plate which faces the movement
there are ftx notches which receive the ends of the
levers projeding beyond the frame B j and while they
are confined in this manner the motion of the machine
Plate
CCXGVI.
is fo totally fufpended as to defy every power of art to
overcome.
To underftand in what manner the proper key of
this lock overcomes thefe obftacles, it muft be obferv-
ed, that each lever has a notch on its extremity, and
that thofe notches are difpofed as irregularly as pof-
lible. To give the machine a capacity of motion, thefe
notches muft be brought parallel to each other, and
by a diftind but unequal preffure upon the levers, be
formed into a groove in a dired line with the edge of
the plate E, which the notches are exadly fitted to
receive. The leaft motion of the machine, while the
levers are in this pofttion, will introduce the edge of the
plate into the groove •, which, controuling the power
of the fprings, will give liberty to the levers to move in
a horizontal diredion as far as the fpace between the
blocks which fupport the plate E will admit, and
which is fufficient to give the machine a pow'er of ad-
ing on the bolt. The impoffibility of thus bringing
the notches on the points of the levers into a dired
line, fo as to tally with the edge of the plate E by any
other means than the motion and impulfe of the key,
is that which conftitutes the principal excellency of this
lock.
The key (fig. 2.) exhibits fix different furfaces,
againft which the levers are progreffively admitted in
the operation of opening the lock : the irregularity of
thefe furfaces (hows the unequal and diftind degree of
preffure which each lever requires to bring them to
their proper bearings, in order to put the machine in
motion. Hence it appears, that unlefs the various
heights of the furfaces expreffed on the bit of the key
are exadly proportioned to the feveral diftances necef-
fary to bring the notches into a ftraight line with each
other, they muft remain immoveable •, “ and (fays our
author) as one ftroke of a file is fufficient to caufe
fuch a disproportion as will prove an infurmountable
impediment to their motion, I may fafely affert, that
it is not in art to produce a key or other inftrument,
by which a lock, conftruded upon this principle, can
be opened.”
On this principle it would even be a matter of great
difficulty for any workman, however Ikilful, toconftrud
a key for the lock when open to his infpedion : 44 for
the levers being raifed, by the fubjacent fprings, to an
equal height in the frame B, prelent a plane furface £
and confequently convey no diredion that can be of
any ufe in forming a tally to the irregular furface which
they prefent when ading in fubjedfion to the key.
Unlefs therefore we can contrive a method to bring
the notches on the points of the levers in a dired line
with each other, and to retain them in that pofition
till an exad impreffion of the irregular furface, which
the levers will then exhibit, can be taken 5 the workman
will be unable to fit a key to the lock, or to move the
bolt. This procefs muft be rendered extremely trou->
blefome by means of the fprings •, and if fuch diffi¬
culties occur, even when the lock is open to the in¬
fpedion of a Ikilful workman, much more muft we
fuppofe it out of the power of one who has not accefs
to the internal parts to make a falfe key to a lock of
this kind. _ ....
Thefe difficulties render it neceffary in making locks
of this kind not to fit the key to the lock, as is ufual
in
Lock.
LOG [ 59 ] L O 0
Lock, hi otlier locks, but to fit the lock to the key. In
this kind of lock, therefore, the key mufi: be made firft j
and the inequalities upon the furface of the bit work¬
ed as chance or fancy may direft, without any refer¬
ence to the lock. The key being thus completed,
and applied to the furface of the levers, will, by a gen¬
tle preffure, force them to unequal ditlances from their
common ftation in the frame B, and fink their points
to unequal depths into the fpace beneath the plate E.
While the levers are in this pofition, the edge of the
plate E will mark the precife point at which the notch
on each lever mull be exprelfed. The notches being
cut by this direction, the irregularity which appears
when the levers refume their {ration in the frame B,
and the inequality of the recefles on the bit of the
key, will appear as a feal and its correfponding im-
preffion.
The following.is a lock contrived upon the fame
principle, but more curious j and, in our author’s opi¬
nion, more extenfively ufeful. Fig. 3. reprefents a
circular block of metal divided from the centre into
eight compartments, each containing a cell which forms
a pafiage through the block, as is reprefented by the
fmall circles defcribed on the flat furface A. In each
of thefe cells two grooves are cut at oppofite points,
which open a communication with the centre at one
point, and with the fpherical furface of the block or
barrel at the other. The fmall circle, which marks
the centre of the fiat furface A, is the key-hole, which
likewife forms a paffage through the barrel in a parallel
line with the cells which furround it. This figure re¬
prefents the frame in which the aftive parts of the lock
are depofited.
Fig. 4. (hows a fpiral fpring lodged in the bottom
of each cell, and occupying one half of the fpace, the
other being filled with a Aider refiing upon the fpring,
ctnd reprefented by fig. 5. the office of thefe Aiders ex¬
actly correfponding with that of the levers in the lock
already defcribed. Thus, when lodged in their refpec-
rive cells, they are fuAained, like the levers, by the
rlaAicity of the fprings upon which they reA, till a fu-
perior power be applied j and they are again reAored
to their Aations by the reaction of the fprings when
the weight is removed. The fide B of each Aider is
projected beyond the circular furface, as reprefented
tig. 6. in a manner Amilar to the proje&ion of the le¬
vers in the former lock beyond the curved frame in
which they move. The point C is projected through
the interior groove into the fpace which forms the cen¬
tre or key-hole, expreAed on the Aat furface A.
Fig. 7. reprefents the key. Wh en this is applied,
it muft of courfe encounter thefe interior projections ;
and when prefled forward, the indented fpaces on its
point being unequal, will force the Aiders to unequal
diAances from their bearers; bringing the notches ex¬
preAed on their exterior projeftions in a direft line with
each other, in a manner fimilar to that by which the
eftect is produced upon the levers in the former lock.
When the key is withdrawn, and the Aiders refume their
fiations by the preflfure of the fprings, the difpofition
of the notches muft be irregular in the fame proportion
that the indentations on the point of the key are un¬
equal ; and they muft neceftarily fall again into a
flraight line when acfed upon by the key.
iig. 6. Aiows 'the barrel completely fitted for aftion.
Its interior end is caped with a plate, which unites
its compartments, and confines the fprings and Aiders
within the cells to which they belong. From that plate
proceeds the point A, which reprefents the lever by
which the bolt is projected or withdrawn, according
to the direftion in which the machine performs its re¬
volution.
Fig. 8. (hows the Aat furface of a thin plate, corre¬
fponding in its office with the part C of the former
lock. The fpace cut in its centre is exadtly fitted to
tile fpherical furface of the barrel; the circle defcribing
its circumference, and the notches cut on its edge co¬
inciding with the projections of the Aiders. The barrel,
when encircled with this plate at the middle of its fphe¬
rical furface, has its motion totally fufpended till the
notches on the projections of the Aiders are forced, by
the preffure of the key, into a line with each other : a
groove being thus formed on the fpherical furface of the
barrel parallel to, and coinciding with, the edge of the
plate, the machine is at liberty to perform a revolution
in any direction, but returns to its confined Aate when
the key is withdrawn.
The parts of the movement being thus united, the
interior end of the barrel is depofited in a bed repre¬
fented fig. 9. To this it is fafiened at the angles of
the plate reprefented fig. 8. by which the barrel is en¬
circled. The ftation of the bolt is at A ; the lever
which ads upon it being projected on the other fide.
Fig. 10. is a cap or mafic which covers the face of the
movement, and completes the lock.
On this lock our author obferves, that it is excellent
for ftreet doors : “ For no method of robbery (fays he)
is more praCtifed, than gaining admittance into houfes
by thofe keys, which, as is well known, may be pro¬
cured at the old iron fiiops to fit almoft any lock in
ufe. Such robberies are generally committed where
the fervants are allowed to take the key with them
when fent on errands, it being impraClicable while the
key is fixed in the lock. The variations, by which
the produClion of correfpondent keys is avoided, have
two fources; the one arifing from the changes that may
be made in the difpofition of the levers; the other from
the number of points contained on the projected fur¬
face of each lever ; by which the pofition of its notch
may, in the fmallelt degree, be varied.
“ The variations produceable in the difpofitions of
fix figures only, are 720 : thefe, being progrefiively
multiplied by additional figures, will increafe by afio-
nifhing degrees ; and eventually (how, that a lock con¬
taining twelve levers will admit of 479,001,500 changes;
which, with the addition of another lever, will increafe
to 6,227,020,800. Thefe being again multiplied by
the number of changes which the projected furface of
the levers will admit in the difpofition of the notches,
their amount will exceed numeration, and may there¬
fore be properly faid to be infinite. The flighted; in-
fpcCtion will at once (how, that their eonfiruCtion pre¬
cludes all poffibility of obtaining an-imprefiion of their
internal parts, which is neceffary for the fabrication of
a falfe key ; for it will be eafily fecn, that the pofitions
into which the levers are forced by the preffure of the
key in opening the lock, can no more be afeertained
when the key is withdrawn, than the feal can be co¬
pied from its imprefiion on a fluid, or the courfe of a
(hip be difeovered by tracing it on the furface. of the
H 2 waves,
Lccb
%
Lock,
Locke.
L O C [ 60
\
waves. But inviolable fecurity is not tbe only excel¬
lence they polfefs •, the fimplicity of their principle
gives them likewife a great advantage over locks that
are more complicated, in point of duration j for their
efiential parts being lubjedt to no friction, nor expofed
to any poffible accident from without, they will be
lefs affected by ufe, and lefs liable to ftand in need of
repair.”
"Lock, or JVeir, in inland navigations, the general
name for all thofe works of wood or itone made to con¬
fine. and raife the water of a river: the banks alio which
are made to divert the courfe of a river, are called by
thefe names in iome places. But the term lock is more
particularly appropriated to exprefs a kind of canal en-
clofed between two gates •, the upper called by work¬
men theiluice gate, and the lower called the flood gate.
Thefe ferve in artificial navigations to confine the wa¬
ter, and render the pafiage of boats eafy in paffing up
and down the dream. See Canal.
LOCKE, John, an eminent Englifh philofopher
and writer in the latter end of the 17th century, was
fon of Mr John Locke of Pensford in Somerfetfhire,
and born at Wrington, near Briftol, in 1632. He
was fent to Chrift-church m Oxford ; but_ was highly
difiatisfied with the common courfe of ftudies then pur-
fued in the univerfity, where nothing was taught but
the Ariftotelian philofophy •, and had a great averfion to
the difputes of the fehools then in ufe. The firft books
which gave him a relifli for philofophy were the writ¬
ings of Des Cartes : for though he did not always
approve of his notions, yet he thought he wrote with
great perfpicuity. He applied himfelf with vigour
to his ftudies, particularly to phyfic, in which he
gained a confiderable knowledge, though he never
praftifed it. In 16649 he went to Germany as fe-
cretary to Sir William Swan, envoy from the Eng¬
lifh court to the eleftor of Brandenburg and fome other
German princes. In lefs than a year, he returned to
England •, where, among other fludies, he applied
himfelf to that of natural philofophy, as appears from
a regifter of the changes of the air, which he kept at
Oxford from June 24. 1666, to March 28. 1667.
There he became acquainted with the lord Afhly,
afterwards earl of Shaftefbury, who introduced him in¬
to the converfation of fome of the molt eminent per-
fons of that time. In 1670, he began to form the
plan of his Effay on Human Underflanding *, but his
employments and avocations prevented him from firufh-
ing it then. About this time he became a member of
the Royal Society. In 1672, his patron, now earl of
Shaftefbury, and lord chancellor of England, appoint¬
ed him fecretary of the prefentations, which place
he held till the earl refigned the great feal. In 1673,
he was made fecretary to a commiflion of trade, worth
<jool. a-year •, but that commiflion was diffolved in
1674. The earl of Shaftefbury being reftored to fa¬
vour, and made prefident of the council in 16799
for Mr Locke to London : but that nobleman did not
continue long in his poll, being fent prifoner to the
Tower j and after his difeharge retired to Holland in
1682.
Mr Locke followed his patron thither. He had not
been abfent from England a year, vyhen he was _ac-
cufed at court of having written certain tradfs againft
the government, which were afterward difeovered to be
3
LOG
w'ritten by another perfon $ and in November 1684,
he was deprived of his place of ftudent in Chrift-
church. In 1685, the Englifh envoy at the Hague w
demanded him and 83 other perfons to be delivered up
by the ftates general : upon which he lay concealed
till the year following j and during this time formed a
weekly affembly with Mr Lmaborch, Mr Le Clerc,
and other learned men at Amfterdam. In 1689
returned to England in the fleet which conveyed the
princefs of Orange } and endeavoured to procure his
reftoration to his place of ftudent of Chrift-church,
that it might appear from thence that he had been un-
juftly deprived of it : but when he found the college
would admit him only as a fupernumerary ftudent, he
defifted from his claim.
Being efteemed a fufferer for revolution principles,
he might eafily have obtained a more profitable poft j
but he contented himfelf with that of commiflioner of
appeals, worth 200I. a-year, which was procured for
him by the lord Mordaunt j and about the fame time
he was offered an appointment in a diplomatic charac¬
ter, but the infirm ftate of his health prevented him
from accepting it. He went afterwards to refide. with
Sir Francis Malham and his lady, at Oates in Effex,
about 25 miles from London, where he fpent moft of
his time during the reft of his life. In this agreeable
fituation he enjoyed that health and vigour which en¬
abled him to exert his talents in writing on political
fubje&s. Hence he appears in defence of the revolution
in one piece j and confidering the great national concern
at that time, the ill ftate of the filver coin, and propofing
remedies for it, in others. Hence he was made a com-
miflioner of trade and plantations in 1695* which en¬
gaged him in the immediate bufmefs of the ftate and
with regard to the church, he publithed a treatife the
fame year, to promote the fcheme which King William
had much at heart, of a comprehenfion with the dif-
fenters. This, however, drew him into one contro-
verfy; which was fcarcely ended, when he entered into
another in defence of his eflay, which held till 1698 j
foon after which the afthma, his conftitutional dif-
order, increaling with his years, began to fubdue hinyv
and he became fo infirm, that in 1700 he refigned his
feat at the board of trade, becaufe he could no longer
bear the air of London fufticient for a regular attend¬
ance upon it. After this refignation he continued al¬
together at Oates j in which retirement he employed
the remaining laft years of his life entirely in the ftudy
of the Holy Scriptures.
He died in 1704, aged 73. His writings will im¬
mortalize his name. The earl of Shaftelbury, author
of the Chara&erlftics, though in one place he fpeaks
of Mr Locke’s philofophy with feverity •, yet obferves,
concerning his Effay on the Human Underflanding,
in general, “ that it may qualify men as well for bufi-
nefs and the world, as for the fciences and the uni-
verfitv.” His Difcourfes on Government, Letters on
Toleration, and Commentaries on fome of St Paul’s
Epiftles, are alfo held in much efteem.
LOCKED jaw. See Medicine Inakx.
LOCKMAN, an officer in the ifle of Man, who
executes the orders of government, much like our under
Iherift*.
Lockman, an eaftern philofopher. See Lokman.
LOCLE, a fmall town in a diftridl of the fame
name
Locke
Lode.
C
*
♦ <
Plate
CCXVIF.
LOG [6
name in Switzerland, adjacent to Neufchatel and Val-
lengin, and united with another named La Ghaux de
Fund, Idoth thefe diilrifts occupy fome valleys formed
by the mountains of Jura j the greateft part of which
not many years ago was one continued foreft, though
now converted into fine pafture ground filled with tlou-
rifhing villages. The inhabitants of thefe diftri£ts are
remarkable for their induftry, and excel in many me¬
chanical arts, particularly in watch and clock making j
40,000 watches, it is faid, are made in a year.
LOCRI, or Loom Epi%ephyru, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town on the Ionian fea near the promontory
Zephyrium. The people were called Locn and Lo-
crenfes, and are faid to be the firft who ufed a code of
written laws, compiled by Zaleucus from the laws of
the Cretans and others.
LOCRIS, the diftrift or territory of the Locri.
Locals, a country of Achaia in Greece •, twofold,
and divided by Mount Parnaffus. The Hither was oc¬
cupied by the Locri Ozolre, called alfo Zephyni, or
Weftern, contained between ZEtolia and Phocis. The
Farther Locris lay beyond Parnaffus, running out to¬
wards Thermopylae, and reaching to the Euripus of
Euboea •, occupied by the Locri Opuntii, and Epicne-
midii, who were called the Eaftern Locri.
LOCUS GEOMETRlCUS, denotes a line by which a
local or indeterminate problem is folved.
A locus is a line, any point of which may equally
folve an indeterminate problem. Thus if a right line
fuffice for the conftruftion of the equation, it is called
locus ad re&um; if a circle, locus ad circulum; if a pa¬
rabola, locus adparabolam ; if an ellipfis, locus ad cllip-
jin: and fo of the reff of the conic febtions.
LOCUL AMENTA, and Loculi, in Botany, cells
or pockets : The internal divifions of a capfule, or other
dry feed-veffel, enclofing the feeds.
LOCUST. See Gryllus, Entomology/wV#.
LOCUST-Eaters. See Acridophagi.
American Locust, or Frog-hopper. See Cicada, En¬
tomology Index.
LocusT-Tree. See Hymen^ea and Gleditsia, Bo¬
tany Index.
LOCUTIUS, in Mythology, the god of fpeech a-
mong the Romans, called by Livy Aius Locutius.
LOCUTORIUM. A hall or apartment in mona-
fteries where the monks and other religious met after
dinner to converfe together.
LODE, in Mining. See Load.
LODGMENT, in military affairs, a work made by
the befiegers in fome part of a fortification (after the
befieged have been driven out), to maintain it, and be
covered from the enemy’s fire.
LOG, in the Jewilh antiquities, a meafure which
held a quarter of a cab, and confequently five-fixths of
a pint. There is mention of a log, 2 Kings vi. 25. •
under the name of a fourth part of a cab. But in Levi¬
ticus the word log is often met with, and fignifies
the meafure of oil which lepers were to offer at the
temple after they were cured of their difeafe. Dr Ar-
buthnot fays, that the log was a meafure of liquids,
the feventy-fecond part of the bath or ephah, and
twelfth part of the hin, according to all the accounts of
the Jewilh writers.
Log, a fea term, fignifying a fmall piece of timber a,
(%• 3*) °f a triangular, feftoral, or quadrantal figure,
i ] L O G
on board a Ihip, generally about a quarter of an inch Log’,
thick, and five or fix inches from the angular point to '““‘“v w
the circumference. It is balanced by a thin plate of
lead, nailed to the arch, or circular fide, fo as to fwitn
perpendicularly in the water.
LOG-Line,®. little cord, or line, about a hundred and
fifty fathoms long, faftened to the log by means of two pIate
legs ab (tig. 4.), one of which paffes through a hole ccXUVII.
at the corner, and is knotted on the oppofite fide, while fig 4.
the other leg is attached to the arch by a pin fixed into
another hole, fo as to draw out occafionally. By thefe
legs the log is hung in equilibrio ; and the line thus
annexed to it is w ound round a reel (fig. 2.), fixed for Fig. 3.
that purpofe in the gallery of the {hip.
This line, from the diftance of about ten, twelve, or
fifteen fathoms off the log, has certain knots or divifions,
which ought to be at leatt fifty feet from each other j
though it wras the common practice at fea not to have
them above forty-two feet afunder.
The length of each knot ought to be the fame part
of a fea mile as half a minute is of an hour ; and ad¬
mitting the meafurement of Mr Norwood, who makes
a degree on a great circle of the earth to contain
367,200 Englifir feet, or about 69!- Englifh ftatute
miles, and therefore -gE-th part of it, or a nautical
mile, will be 6120 feet j xvoth of 6x20, or 51 feet,
fliould be the length of each knot. But becaufe it is
fafer to have the reckoning rather before the ihip than
after it, therefore fifty feet may be taken 3s the pro¬
per length of each knot. The knots are fometimes
made to confifi: only of forty-twm feet each, even in the
prefect prattice j and this method of dividing the log-
line was founded on the fuppofition that 60 miles,
each of 5C00 Engliffi feet, made a degree 5 for T4o °f
5000 is qi-y, or, in round numbers, 42 feet. Mari¬
ners rather than quit the old w-ay, though known to
be erroneous, ufe glaffes for half minute ones, that run
but 24 or 25 feconds. They have alfo ufed a line of
45 feet to 30 feconds, or a glafs of 28 feconds to 42
feet. When this is the cafe, the diltance between
the knots fiiould be corredfed by the following pro¬
portion : as 30 is to 50 •, fo is the number of feconds
of the glafs to the difiance between the knots upon
the line. The heat or moiffure of the weather has of¬
ten a confiderable effedl upon the glafs, fo as to make
it run flower or fafter j it flxould, therefore, be fre¬
quently tried by the pendulum in the follow’ing man¬
ner. On a round nail hang a firing that has a mufket
ball fixed to one end, carefully meafuring between the
centre of the ball and the firing’s loop over the peg
39! inches, being the length of a fecond pendulum j
then fwing it, and count one for every time it paffes
under the peg, beginning at the fecond time it paffes,,
and the number of fwings made during the time the
glafs is running out {hows the feconds it contains. The
line alfo is liable to relax and {brink, and fliould there¬
fore be occafionally meafured.
The ufe of the log and line is to keep account and
make an eftimate of the {hip’s way or diftance run •
which is done by obferving the length of line unwound
in half a minute’s time, told by a half-minute glafs j
for fo many knots as run out in that time, fo many
miles the ftiip fails in an hour. Thus, if there be four
knots veered out in half a minute, the {hip is computed
to run four miles an hour.
Ih&
LOG , [
Log- The author of this device for meafuring the (hip’s
' ' v way is not known *, and no mention of it occurs till the
year 1607, in an Eaft India voyage publilhed by Pur-
chas ; but from that time its name occurs in other voy¬
ages among his eolleftions j and henceforward it be¬
came famous, being taken notice of both by our own
authors and by foreigners 5 as by Gunter in 1623 ; Snel-
lius in 1624*, Metius in 1631 •, Oughtred in 1633 j
Herigone in 1634; Saltonllall in 1636 j Norwood in
1637 } Fournier in 1643 ? an<^ ahnoft by all the fuc-
ceeding writers on navigation of every country.
To Heave the Log, as’ they call it, they throw it in-
, to the water on the lee fide, letting it run till it comes
without the eddy of the (hip’s wake then one hold¬
ing a half minute glafs, turns it up juft as the firft
knot, or the mark from which the knots begin to be
Fig- 2. reckoned, turns off the reel (fig. 2.) or paffes over the
ftern. As foon as the glafs is out, the reel is ftopped,
and the knots run off are told, and their parts eftimated.
It is ufual to heave the log once every hour in (hips
of war and Eaft Indiamen, and in all other veffels
once in two hours, allowance being made for the wind
having increafed or abated in the intervals.
The log is a very precarious way of computing,
and muft always be correfted by experience, there be¬
ing much uncertainty from the motions of the fhip, the
winds of variable force, the friction of the reel and light-
nefs of the log in the courfe of the current. Yet this is
a much more exaft way of computing than any other in
ufe $ much preferable certainly to that of the Spaniards
and Portuguefe, who gueffed at the (hip’s way by the
running of the froth or water by the (hip’s fide j or
to that of the Dutch, who ufed to heave a chip over¬
board, and to number the paces they walk on the deck
while the chip fwims between any two marks or bulk
heads on the fide.
Compound Log. The above-mentioned errors, and
particularly the log’s being fubjeft to drive with the
motion of the water at its furface, whereas the experi¬
ment requires it to be fixed in the place where it is
when the mark commencing the knots goes off the reel,
have .been confidered, and many methods propofed to
remove or to leffon them. M. Bouguer propofed the
Mem.Acad, following method. Take for the log a conical piece of
Scien. 1747. wood, which fix to the log line paffed through or along
its axis, at about 40, 50, or 60, or more feet, from one
end j and to this end fix the diver, which is a body
formed of two equal fquare pieces of tin, or of thin iron
plate, fixed at right angles to one another along their
diagonals 5 and its fize fo fitted to that of the cone,
that the whole may float. A cone of three inches
diameter in the bale, and of fix inches in the flant
height, is propofed by M. Bouguer to fuit a diver made
of plates about inches fquare ; the interfe&ion of
the diagonals is joined to the log line, and the loop
and peg fixed as in the common log. However, it has
been found, that no kind of wood ufed in Britifti dock,
yards, when formed into a cone of the above dimen-
fions, wull float a diver made of flout tin plates, one fide
cf the fquare being 9} inches. Such a diver weighing
ijjlb. avoirdupois, required to float it a cone of five
inches diameter and twelve inches on the flant fide, fo
as the point of the cone, which was made of light fir,
ftrould juft appear above the water. Now, fuppofing
one fide of fuch a fquare tin diver to be about ten inches,
62 ] LOG
and made of plates only two-thirds of the thicknefs of
the former, fuch a diver would weigh, with its folder,
about 20 ounces, and can be floated by a light fir cone
of four inches diameter in the bafe, and ten inches in
the flant height or length j and fuch a compound log
might perhaps be found on trial to be affedted by about
as much again as that propofed by M. Bouguer j and
confequently the difference between the numbers
given by the common log and compound log, muft be
augmented by two-thirds of itfelf for the neceffary cor-
reftion, as below. When the compound log of Bou¬
guer, above delcribed, is hove overboard, the diver
will fink too deep to be much affetted by the current
or motion of water at the furface, and the log will
thereby keep more fteadily in the place where it firft
fell 5 and confequently the knots run off the reel
will (how more accurately the (hip’s rate of (ailing.
As the common log is affefted by the whole motion
of the current, fo this compound log will feel only a
part thereof, viz. fuch a part nearly as the refiftance
of the cone is to the refiftance of the diver } then the
refiftances of the above cone and diver are about as 1
1; •, and confequently this log will drive but one-
to
fifth part of what the common log would do ; and fo
the (hip’s true run will be affe&ed by one-fifth only of
the motion of the waters. To obtain the true rate of
failing, it will be proper to heave alternately, hour and
hour, the common log, and this compound log ; then
the difference of their knots run off, augmented by its
one-fourth part, is the correction 5 which applied to the
knots of the common log, will give the (hip’s true rate
of failing at the middle time between the hours when
thefe logs were hove. The correfiion is additive when
the compound log’s run is the greateft, otherwife it is
fubtraftive. To find the courfe made good : increafe
the obferved angle between the log lines by one-fourth
part ; and this gives the correftion to be applied to
the apparent courfe, or the oppofite of that (hown by
the common log ; the cor re ft ion is to be applied to the
{ ^'eff \ °f ^ie aPParent courl['e> wlien tlie bear5ng
the common log is to the fright ^ tbe cornPounc^
log. Or thus : the lengths run off both logs, toge¬
ther with their bearings, being known j in a card or
compafs apply the knots run off, taken from a (bale
of equal parts along their refpeftive hearings from the
centre j join the ends j and in this line produced, on
the fide next the compound log’s length, take one-
fourth of the interval ; then a line drawn from the
end, thus produced, to the centre of the card, will
(how the true courfe and diftance made good. When,
a current, fuch as a tide, runs to any depth, the velo¬
city of that current may be much better afcertained by
the compound log than by the common one, provid¬
ed the diver does not defcend lower than the run of
the current 5 for as. thole (hips which are deepeft im-
merged, drive fafteft with the tide ; fo the diver, by
being afted on below, as well as the log on the fur¬
face, their joint motion will give the total effeft of the
current’s motion better than what could be derived
from the motion at the furface only. Alfo, by fuch a
compound log, the depth to which any current runs
may be eafily tried.
Other LOGS. We have an account in the voyage to the
North
C
L O G.
plate cexrvu.
Lo£.
Plate
CCXCVTI.
fig. r.
LOG [ 63 ] LOG
North Pole, p. 97. of two other logs, which were tried
by Captain Phipps: one invented by Mr Ruffel, the
other by Foxonj both conftrufled upon this principle,
that a fpiral, in proceeding its own length in the direc¬
tion of its axis through a relifting medium, makes one
revolution round the axis j if therefore the revolutions
of the fpiral are regiftered, the number of times it has
gone its own length through the water will be known.
In both thefe the motion of the fpiral in the water is
communicated to the clockwork within board, by
means of a fmall line fattened at one end to the fpiral,
which tows it after the Ihip, and at the other to a
fpindle, which fets the clockwork in motion. That
invented by Mr Ruflel has a half fpiral of two threads,
made of copper, and a fmall dial of clockwork, to
regifter the number of turns of the fpiral. The other
log has a whole fpiral of wood with one thread, and a
larger piece of clockwork with three dials, two of
them to mark the diftance, and the other divided into
knots and fathoms, to Ihow the rate by the half-mi¬
nute glafs, for the convenience of comparing it with
the log. This kind of log will have the advantage
of every other in fmooth water and moderate wea¬
ther ; and it will be ufeful in finding the trim of a
fhip when alone, in fijrveying a coaft in a fingle fhip,
or in meafuring diftances in a boat between head¬
lands and ftioals ; but it is fubjeft to other inconve¬
niences, which will not render it a proper fubftitute
for the common log.
Perpetual Log, a machine fo called by its inventor,
Mr Gottlieb of London, is intended for keeping a con-
ftant and regular account of the rate of a fliip’s velo¬
city in the interval of heaving the log.
Fig. I. is a reprefentation of the whole machine j
the lower part of which, EFG, is fixed to the fide of
the keel ; H reprefenting only the boundary line of the
fhip’s figure. EF are the feftion of a wooden external
cafe, left open at the ends KL, to admit the paflage
of the water during the motion of the fhip. At M is
a copper grating, placed to obftrudl the entrance of
any dirt, &c. into the machine. I is a feiftion of a
water wheel, made from 6 to 12 inches in diameter,
as may be neceffary, with floatboards upon its circum¬
ference, like a common water wheel, that turn by the
refiftance of the water palling through the channel
LK. It turns upon a fhouldered axis, reprefented by
the vertical fe&ion at K. When the fhip is in motion,
the refiftance of the water through the channel LK
turns round the wheel I. This wheel, by means of a
pinion, is conne£fed with and turns the rod contained log.
in the long copper tube N. This rod, by a pinion
fixed at its upper extremity, is connedted with and
turns upon the whole fyftem of wheels contained in
the dial of the cafe ABCD. This dial, by means of
the copper tube N, may be fixed to any convenient
place aboard the ihip. In the front of the dial are
feveral ufeful circular graduations, as follow : The re¬
ference by the dotted line A has a hand which is
moved by the wheels within, which points out the mo¬
tion of the fhip in fathoms of 6 feet each. The circle
at B has a hand fhowing the knots, at the rate of 48
feet for each knot: and is to be obferved with the half¬
minute glafs at any time. The circle at C has a fhort
and a long hand ; the former of which points out the
mile in land meafure, and the latter or longer the
number of knots contained in each mile, viz. 128,
which is in the fame proportion to a mile as 60 minutes
to the hour in the reckoning. At e, a fmall portion of
a circle is feen through the front plate called the regi-
Jler; which ftiows, in the courfe of 24 hours (if the
ihip is upon one tack) the diftance in miles that Ihe
has run ; and in the 24 hours the mariner need take but
one obfervation, as this regifter ferves as an ufeful
check upon the fathoms, knots, and miles, ftiown up¬
on the two other circles.
/Is a plate ftiowing 100 degrees or 6000 miles,
and alfo a£ls as another regifter or check ; and is ufe¬
ful in cafe of any miftake being made in obfervingthe
diftance run by the other circles. The reckoning by
thefe circles, without fear of miftake, may therefore be
continued to nearly 12,000 miles.
A communication from this machine may eafily be
made to the captain’s bedfide, where by touching a
fpring only, a bell in the head ABCD will found as
many times in a half minute as the Ihip fails miles in
an hour.
LOG-Board, a fort of table, divided into feveral co¬
lumns, containing the hours of the day and night, the
direction of the winds, the courfe of the Ihip, and all
the material occurrences that happen during the 24
hours, or from noon to noon $ together with the lati¬
tude by obfervation. From this table the officers of
the ffiip are furniffied with materials to compile their
journals.
LOG-Book, a book into which the contents of the log-
board is daily copied at noon, together with every cir-
cumftance deferving notice that may happen to the ftiip,
either at fea or in a harbour. See Navigation.
LOGARITHMS.
INTRODUCTION.
rTPHE labour and time required for performing the
arithmetical operations of multiplication, divifion,
and the extratlion of roots, were at one time confider-
able obftacles to the improvement of various branches
of knowledge, and in particular the fcience of aftro-
nomy. But about the end of the 16th century, and
the beginning of the 17th, feveral mathematicians be¬
gan to confider by what means they might fimplify thefe
operations, or fubftitute for them others more eafily
performed. Their eft'orts produced fome ingenious
contrivances for abridging calculations j but of thefe the
moft complete by far was that of John Napier Baron of
Mercliijion in Scotland, who invented a fyftem of num¬
bers called logarithms, which were fo adapted to the
numbers to be multiplied, or divided, that thefe being
arranged in the form of a table, each oppofite to the
number
64
logarithms.
Introcjuc.
tion.
number called its logarithm, the product of any two
, numbers in the table was found by the addition of their
logarithms ; and, on the contrary, the quotient arifing
from the divifion of one number by another was found
by the fubtraftion of the logarithm of the divifor from
that of the dividend 5 and timilar Amplifications took
place in the ftill more laborious operations of involu¬
tion and evolution. But before we proceed to relate
more particularly the circumftances of this invention,
it will be proper to give a general view of the nature
of logarithms, and of the circumftances which render
them of ufe in calculation.
Let there be formed two feries of numbers, the one
conftituting a geometrical progreflion, the firft term of
which is unity or 1, and the common ratio any num¬
ber whatever, and the other an arithmetical progreflion,
the firft term of which is o, and the common difterence
alfo any number whatever j (but as a particular ex¬
ample we {hall fuppofe the common ratio of the geome¬
trical feries to be 2, and the common difference of the
arithmetical feries 1), and let the two feries be written
oppofite to each other in the form of a table, thus :
Geom. Prog.
1
2
■ 4
8
16
32
64
128
256
512
J024
2048
4096
&.C.
Arith. Prog.
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Stc.
The two feries being thus arranged, the terms in
the arithmetical feries are called the logarithms of the
correfponding terms of the geometrical feries ; that
is, o is the logarithm of I, and 1 is the logarithm
of 2, and 2 is the logarithm of 4, and 3 that of 8, and
fo on. ,
From the manner in which the two feries are related
to each other, it will readily appear by induftion that
the logarithms of the terms of the geometrical feries
have the two following properties :
1. The fum of the logarithms of any two numbers
or terms in the geometrical feries is equal, to the loga¬
rithm of that number, or term of the feries, which is
equal to their produft.
For example, let the terms of the geometrical ienes
be 4 and 32 ; the terms of the arithmetical feries cor¬
refponding to them (that is, their logarithms) are 2
and 5 ; now the product of the numbers is 1:8, and the
fum of their logarithms is 7 ; and it appears by inspec¬
tion of the two feries, that the latter number is the
logarithm of the former, agreeing with the propofition
we are illuftrating. In like manner, if the numbers or
terms of the geometrical feries be 16 and 64, the lo¬
garithms of which are 4 and 6, we find from the table
that io~4-f6 is ihe logarithm of 1024=16x645
and fo of any other numbers in the table.
2. The difference of the logarithms 01 any twa num¬
bers, or terms of the geometrical feries, is equal to the
logarithm of that term of the feries which is equal to
the quotient arifing from the divifion of the one number
by the other.
Take for example the terms 128 and 32, the lo¬
garithms of which are 7 and 5 j greater °f theie
numbers divided by the lefs is 4> and the difference of
their logarithms is 2 and by infpedling the two feries,
this lait number will be found to be the logarithm
of the former. In like manner, if the terms of the
geometrical feries be 1024 and 16, the logarithms
of which are 10 and 4» we find that 1024-^16=64,
and that 10-—4-—^ > now it appears from the table
that the latter number, viz. 6, is the logarithm of the
former 64.
Thefe two properties of logarithms, the fecond of
which indeed is an immediate confequence of the firft,
enable us to find with great facility the product or
the quotient of any two terms of a geometiical feries
to which there is adapted an arithmetical feries, fo that
each number has its logarithm.oppofite to it, as in the
preceding lliovt table, hor it is evident, that.to mul¬
tiply two numbers we have only to add their loga¬
rithms, and oppofite to that logarithm which is the fum
we thall find the produft required. Thus, to. mul¬
tiply 16 by 128 5 to the logarithm of 16, which is
4, we add the logarithm of 128, which is 7, and op¬
pofite to the fum 11, we find 2048, the produ£l {ought.
On the other hand, to divide any number in the table
by any other number, we muft fubtraft tne logarithm
of the divifor from that of the dividend, and look for
the remainder among the logarithms, and oppofite to
it we {hall find the number fought.. Thus, to. di¬
vide 2048 by 128 ; from 11, which is the logarithm
of 2048 we fubtraft 7> logarithm of 128, and
oppofite to the remainder 4 we find 16, the quotient
fought.
Let us now fuppofe any number of geometrical means
to be interpofed between each two adjoining terms ol
the preceding geometrical feries, and the fame number
of arithmetical means between every two adjoining
terms of the arithmetical feries 5 then, as the relults will
ftill be a geometrical and an arithmetical feries., the in¬
terpolated terms of the latter will be the logarithms ot
the correfponding terms of the former, and the two new
feries will have the very fame properties as the original
feries.
If we fuppofe the number of interpolated means to
be very great, it will follow that among the terms of
the refulting geometrical feries, feme one or other will
be found nearly equal to any propofed number what¬
ever. Therefore, although the preceding table exhi¬
bits the logarithms of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c. but does
not contain the logarithms of the intermediate num¬
bers, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, &c. yet it is eafy to. conceive
that a table might be formed by interpolation, which
{hould contain, among the terms of the geometrical fe¬
ries, all numbers whatever to a certain extent, (or at leaft
others very nearly equal to them) together with their
logarithms. If fuch a table were conftruaed, or at
leaft if fuch terms of the geometrical progreflion were
found together with their logarithms, as were either
accurately equal to, or coincided nearly with, all num¬
bers
LOGARITHMS,
Introduc- bers within certain limits (for example between I and
tion. 100000), then, as often as we had occafion to multiply
or divide any numbers contained in that table we might
evidently obtain the produfts or quotients by the lim-
ple operations of addition and fubtraftion.
The firft invention of logarithms has been attributed
by fome to Longomontanus, and by others to Jujle Byrge,
two mathematicians who were cotemporary with Lord
Nopier ; but there is no reafon to fuppofe that either of
thefe anticipated him, for Longomontanus never publidl¬
ed any thing on the fubjeft, although he lived thirty-
three years after Napier had made known his difeovery j
and as to Bi/rge, he is indeed known to have printed a
table containing an arithmetical and a geometrical pro-
greflion written oppofite to each other, fo as to form in
effect a fyftem of logarithms of the fame kind as thofe
invented by Napier, without however explaining their
nature and ufe, although it appears from the title he
intended to do fo, but was probably prevented by fome
caufe unknown to us. But this work was not printed
till 1620, fix years after Napier had publifhed his dif¬
eovery.
It is therefore with good reafon that Napier is now
univerfally confidered as the firft, and moft probably as
the only inventor. This difeovery he publilhed in the
year 1614 in a book entitled Miri/ici Logarithmorum
Canonis Defcriptio, but he referved the conftruftion of
the numbers till the opinion of the learned concerning
his invention ftiould be known. His work contains a
table of the natural fines and cofines, and their loga¬
rithms for every minute of the quadrant, as alfo the
differences between the logarithmic fines and cofines,
which are in effeift; the logarithmic tangents. There is
no table of the logarithms of numbers •, but precepts are
given, by which they, as well as the logarithmic tan¬
gents, may be found from the table of natural and lo¬
garithmic fines.
In explaining the nature of logarithms, Napier fup-
pofes fome determinate line which reprefents the radius
of a circle to be continually diminifhed, fo as to have
fucceflively all poffible values, and thus to be equal
to every fine, one after another, throughout the qua¬
drant. And he fuppofes this diminution to be effected
by a point moving from one extremity towards the other
extremity, (or rather fome point very near it), with a mo¬
tion that is not uniform, but becomes flower and flower,
and fuch, that if the whole time between the beginning
and the end of the motion be conceived to be divided
into a very great number of equal portions, the decre¬
ments taken away in each of thefe ftiall be to one ano¬
ther as the refpe&ive remainders of the line. Accord¬
ing to this mode of conceiving the line to decreafe, it is
eafy to {hew that at the end of any fucceflive equal in¬
tervals of time from the beginning of the motion, the
portions of the line which remain will conftitute a de-
creafing geometrical progreflion.
Again, he fuppofes another line to be generated by
a point which moves along it equably, or which paffes
over equal intervals of it in equal times. Thus the por¬
tions of the line generated at the end of any equal fuc¬
ceflive intervals of time from the beginning of the mo¬
tion will form a feries of quantities in arithmetical pro¬
greflion. Now’ if the two motions be fuppofed to be¬
gin together, at the end of any equal intervals of time
the remainders of the one line will form a feries of
Vol. XII. Part I.
6
quantities in geometrical progreflion, and the corref- Introduc-
ponding portions generated of the other line, will con- t100’
ftitute a feries in arithmetical progreflion, fo that the
latter will be the logarithms of the former. And as
the terms of the geometricwl progreflion decreafe con¬
tinually from radius, which is the greateft term, to o,
while the terms of the correfponding arithmetical pro¬
greflion increafe from o upwards, according to Napier’s
iyftem the logarithm of radius is o, and the logarithms
of the fines from radius down to o, are a leries of
numbers increafing from o to infinite.
The velocities or degrees of quicknefs with which
the motions commence may have to each other any ratio
whatever, and by afluming different ratios we fhall
have different fyftems of logarithms. Napier fuppofed
the velocities to be equal $ but the fyftem of logarithms
produced in confequence of this affumption having been
found to have fome difadvantages, it has been long dif-
ufed, and a more convenient one fubftituted inftead of
it, as we {hall prefently have occafion to explain.
Napier’s work having been written in Latin was
tranftated into Englilh by Mr Edward Wright, an in¬
genious mathematician of that period, and the inventor
of the principles of what is commonly though errone-
oufiy called MercatoNs failing. The tranflation w'as
fent to Napier for his perufal, and returned with his
approbation, and the addition of a few lines, intimating
that he intended to make fome alterations in the fyftem
of logarithms in a fecond edition. Mr Wright died
foon after he received back his tranflation ; but it was
publiftied after his death, in the year 1616, accom¬
panied with a dedication by his fon to the Eaft India
Company, and a preface by Henry Briggs, who after¬
wards diftinguilhed himfelf fo much by his improvement
of logarithms. Mr Briggs likewife gave in this work
the defeription and draught of a fcale which had been
invented by Wright, as alfo various methods of his own
for finding the logarithms of numbers, and the contrary,
by means of Napier’s table, the ufe of which had been
attended with fome inconvenience on account of its con¬
taining only fuch numbers as were the natural fines to
every minute of the quadrant and their logarithms.
There was an additional inconvenience in ufing the
table, arifing from the logarithms being partly pofitive
and partly negative ; the latter of thefe was, however,
well remedied by John Speidell in his New Logarithms,
firft publiftied in the year 1619, which contained the
fines, cofines, tangents, cotangents, fecants, and cofe-
cants, and given in fuch a form as to be all pofitive j
and the former was ftill more completely removed by an
additional table, which he gave in the fixth impreflion
of his work, in the year 1624, and which contained the
logarithms of the whole numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. to
1 coo, together with their differences and arithmetical
complements, &c. This table is now commonly call¬
ed hyperbolic logarithms, becaufe the numbers ferve to /
exprefs the areas contained between a hyperbola and
its afymptote, and limited by ordinates drawn parallel
to the other afymptote. This name, however, is cer¬
tainly improper, as the fame fpaces may reprefent the
logarithms of any fyftem whatever, (fee Fluxions,
§ 152. Ex. 5.).
In 1719 Robert Napier, fon of the inventor of lo¬
garithms, publiftied a fecond edition of his father’s
Logarithmorum Canonis Defcriptio. And along with
I this
LOGARITHMS.
66
IntrodiK- this the promifed Lcgaritkmorum Canoms ConfiruBw,
tion. and other pieces written by bis father and Mr Briggs.
An exaft copy of the fame two works in one volume
was alfo printed in 1620 at Lyons in France. In 1618
or 1610 Benjamin Uijinus, mathematician to the eleftor
of Brandenburg, publilhed Napier’s tables of logarithms
in his Curjus Nlatheifiaticus^ to which he added fome
tables of proportional parts j and in 1624, he printed
his Trigonometric!, with a table of natural fines, and
their logarith'.ls of the Napierean kind and form, to
every ten feconds of the quadrant.
In the fame year, 1624, the celebrated John Kepler
publilhed at Marpurg, logarithms of nearly the fame
kind, under the title of Chitias Logarithmorum ad to-
lidem Numeros Rotundas, preemijfa Uemonflratione legi-
tima Orlus Logarilhmorufn eorumque U/us, &c. and in
the following year he publilhed a fupplement to this
work. In the preface to this lalt he lays, that feveral
of the profefiors of mathematics in Upper Germany,
and more efpecially thofe of them who were fomewhat
advanced in years, and were grown averle to new me¬
thods of reafoning that carried them out of the old doc¬
trines and principles with which habit had rendered
them familiar, doubted in fome degree whether Napier’s
demonftration of the property of logarithms was perfeft-
ly true, and whether the application of them to trigo¬
nometrical calculations mignt not be unfafe and lead
the calculator who Ihould truft in them to erroneous
refults j and in either cafe, whether the doftrine were
true or not, they confidered Napier’s demonllration of
it as illegitimate and unfatisfatlory. This opinion in¬
duced Kepler to compote the above-mentioned work, in
which the whole do&rine is treated in a manner ftriftly
geometrical, and free from the confiderations of motion
which the German mathematicians had objefted to
{and not without reafon) in Napier’s mode of treating
the fubjeft.
On the publication of Napier’s logarithms, Mr Henri/
Briggs, fome time profeffor of geometry in Grefham
college London, and afterwards Savilian profeffor of
geometry at Oxford (whom we have already mentioned)
applied himfelf with great earneltnefs to their ftudy and
improvement, and it appears that he had projected at
an early period that advantageous change in the fyftem
‘which has fince taken place. From the particular view
which Napier took of the fubjea, and the manner in
which he conceived logarithms to be generated, it hap¬
pened that in his fyftem, the logarithms of a feries of
numbers which increafed in a decuple ratio, (a* 1, xo,
100, iooo,*&c.) formed a decreafing arithmetical feries,
the common'' difference of the terms of which was
2.3205851. But it occurred to Briggs that it would
be better and more conformable to the received deci¬
mal notation, to adopt a fyftem in which the logaritnms
of the terms tjf fuch a geometrical feries ftiould differ
from each other by unity or 1. I his idea Briggs com¬
municated to the public in his leftures, and alfo to
Napier himfelf. He even went twice to Edinburgh to
fee him, and to converfe with him upon the fubjeft ,
and on his firft vifit Napier faid that he had alfo form¬
erly thought of the fame improvement, but that he
chofe to publiih the logarithms he had previoufly cal¬
culated. till fuch time as his health and convenience
would allow him to make others more commodious.
And whereas in the change which Briggs propofed, it
was intended to make the logarithms of the fines to in-
creaie from o (the logarithm of radius) to infinity,
while the fines themfelves ftiould decreafe, it was fug-
gefted to him by Napier that it would be better to
make them increafe fo that o, inftead of being the lo¬
garithm of radius, (hould be the logarithm of 1 j and
that icoooo, &c. {hould be the logarithm of radius }
and this Briggs admitted would be an improvement j
and having changed the numbers he had already cal¬
culated fo as to make them fuit Napier’s modification
of his plan, he returned with them next year to Edin¬
burgh, and fubmitted them to his perufal.
It appears therefore that Briggs was the inventor of
this improved fyftem of logarithms which has fince
been univerfally adopted, and that the only {hare that
Napier had in it was his fuggefting to Briggs to begin
with the low number i, and to make the logarithms,
or the artificial numbers, as Napier had always called
them, to increafe with the natural numbers, inftead of
decreafing, which made no alteration in the figures, but
only in their affeftions or figns, changing them from
negative to pofitive.
On Briggs’s return from Edinburgh, in 1617, he
printed the firft thoufand logarithms to eight places of
figures, befides the index, with the title of Logarithmo¬
rum Chilias prima; but thefe feem not to have been
publiftied till after the death of Napier, which happen¬
ed in 1618, for in his preface he expreffes a hope, that
the circumftances which led to a change in the fyftem
would be explained in Napier’s pofthumous work, which
was prefently to appear. But although Napier had in¬
timated in a note he had given in Wright’s tranflation
of the Canon Mirificus, as well as his Rabdologia, print¬
ed in 1617, that he intended to alter the fcale, yet he
altogether omits to ftate that Briggs either was the firft
to think of this improvement, or at leaft to publifti it
to the world. And as the fame filence on this point
was obferved in Napier’s pofthumous work publiflied
in 1619 by his fon, Briggs took occafion in the preface
to his Arithmetic a Logarithm'ica to affert his claims to
the improvement he had now carried into execution.
The ftudied filence which Napier feems to have ob¬
ferved refpefting the improvement of the fyftem, which
Briggs had communicated to him, has given juft reafon-
to fufpeft that he wilhed to be confidered as the author
of that improvement, as well as the original inventor.
But although it is poflible that he thought of it as foon
as Briggs, it would feem to have been no more than
juftice, if, when announcing his intended change of
the fcale, he had acknowledged that the fame idea had
occurred to Briggs as well as to himfelf.
In 1620 Mr Edmund Gunter publilhed his Canon of
Triangles, which contains the artificial or logarithmic
fines and tangents to every minute to feven places of
figures befides the index, the logarithm of radius being
jo. Thefe logarithms are of the kind which had been
agreed upon between Napier and Briggs, and they were
the firft tables of logarithmic fines and tangents that
were publilhed of this fort. Gunter alfo in 1623 re'
printed the fame in his book de SeBore et Radio, toge¬
ther with the Clulias prima of Briggs ; and in the fame
year he applied the logarithms of numbers, fines, and
tangents, to ftraight lines drawm upon a ruler. This
inftrument is now in common ufe for navigation and
other purpofes, and is commonly called GunuTs fcale.
The
LOG AR
Introduc- The dircoveries in Logarithms were firft carried to
tion. France by Mr Edmund Wingate, but not firft of all as
fayS ;n the preface to his book. He publiihed at
Paris in 1624 two fmall trails in the French language
upon logarithms, and thefe were reprinted with improve¬
ments at London in 1626.
In the year 1624, Briggs publilhed his Arithmetica
Logarithmic a, a ftupendous work confidering the flrort
time he had been in preparing it. He here gives the
logarithms of 30000 natural numbers to fourteen places
of figures, befides the index namely, from 1 to 20000
and from 90000 to 100000, together with the differ¬
ences of the logarithms. He alfo gives an ample
treatife on their conftruclion and ufe, and he earnelily
folicits others to undertake the computation of the in¬
termediate numbers, offering to give inftrudlions, and
paper ready ruled for that purpofe, to any perfon in¬
clined to contribute to the completion of fo valuable a
work. By this invitation he had hopes of collefting
materials for the logarithms of the intermediate 70000
numbers, while he fhould employ his time upon the
Canon of Logarithmic fines and tangents, and fo carry
on both works at once.
Soon after this, Adrian Vlacq or Elach of Gouda in
Holland completed the intermediate 70 chiliads, and
republifhed the Arithmetica Logarithmica in 1627 and
1628, with thefe intermediate numbers, making in all,
the logarithms of all numbers to 100,000, but only to
io places of figures. To thefe was added a table of
artificial fines, tangents, and fecants, to every minute
of the quadrant.
Briggs himfelf lived alfo to complete a table of lo¬
garithmic fines and tangents, to the 100th part of every
degree, to fourteen places of figures befides the index,
together with a table of natural fines to the fame parts
to fifteen places, and the tangents and fecants of the
fame to ten places, with the conftruftion of the whole.
But his death, which then happened, prevented him
from completing the application and ufes of them.
However, when dying, he committed the performing
of this office to his friend Henry Gellibrand, who ac¬
cordingly added a preface, and the application of the
logarithms to plane and fpherical trigonometry. The
work was called Trigonometria Britannica, and was
printed at Gouda in the year 1633 under the care of
Adrian Vlacq.
In the fame year, 1633, Adrian Vlacq printed a
work of his own, called Trigonometria Artificialis, Jive
Magnus Canon Triangulorum Logarithmicus ad Decadas
Secundorum Scrupulorum Conjirudlus. This work con¬
tains the logarithmic fines and tangents to 10 places of
figures, with their differences for every ten feconds in
the quadrant. It alfo contains Briggs’s table of the
firft 20000 logarithms to ten places, befides the index,
with their differences •, and to the whole is prefixed a
defcription of the tables and their applications, chiefly
extrafted from Briggs’s Trigonometria Britannica,which
we have already mentioned.
Gellibrand publifhed alfo, in 1635, An Injlitution
Trigonometrical, containing the logarithms of the firft
10,000 numbers, with the natural fines, tangents, and
fecants, and the logarithmic fines and tangents for de¬
grees and minutes j all to feven places of figures befides
die index.
ITHMS. 67
The writers, whofe works we have hitherto noticed, Tntroane¬
wer e for the moft part computers of logarithms. But .
the fyftem beft adapted to practice being how well af-
certained, and the labour of conftrucling the table ac-
compliffied, fucceeding writers on the fubjeft have had
little more to do than to give the tables in the moft
convenient form. It is true that, in coniequence of
the numerous difeoveries which-were afterwards made
in mathematics, particularly in the doflrine of feries,
great improvements were made in the method of com¬
puting logarithms ; but thefe, for the moft part, came
too late to be of ule in the adlual conftru£lion of the
table, although they might be applied with advantage
to verify calculations previoufly performed by methods
much more laborious.
As it is of importance that fuch as have occafion to
employ logarithms fliould know what works are held in
eftimation on account of their extent and accuracy, we
{hall enumerate the following.
1. Sherwin’s Mathematical Tables, in 8vo. Thefe
contain the logarithms of all numbers to 101,000 ; and
the fines, tangents, fecants, and verfed fines, both na¬
tural and logarithmic, to every minute of the quadrant.
The third edition, printed in 1742, which was revifed
by Gardiner, isefteemed the moft correfl 5 but, in the
fifth edition, the errors are fo numerous, that no de¬
pendence can be placed upon it when accuracy is re¬
quired.
2. Gardiner’s Tables of Logarithms for all numbers
to 101,000, and for the fines and tangents to every ten
feconds of the quadrant ■, alfo for the fines of the firft
72 minutes to every Angle fecond, &c. This work,
which is in quarto, was printed in 1742, and is held in
high eftimation for its accuracy.
3. An edition of the fame work, with feme additions,
printed in 1770 in Avignon in France. The tables in
both editions are to feven places of figures.
4. Tables Portatives de Logarithmes, publiee d Lon-
dres, par Gardiner, augmentees ct perfechonees dans
leur difpojition, par M. Callet.—This work is moft
beautifully printed in a fmall odlavo volume, and con¬
tains all the tables in Gardiner’s quarto volume j w ith
feme additions and improvements.
5. Dr Hutton’s Mathematical Tables, containing
common hyperbolic and logiftic logarithms, &c.—This
work has paffed through feveral editions, under the
care of the learned author : it is perhaps the moft com¬
mon of any in this country, and is defervedly held in
the higheft eftimation, both on account of its accuracy,
and the very valuable information it contains refpedling
the hiftory of logarithms, and other branches of mathe¬
matics conne£led with them.
6. Taylor’s Table of Logarithmic Sines and Tangents
to every fecond of the quadrant j to which is prefixed
a table of logarithms from 1 to 100,000, &c.—This is
a moft valuable work j but being a very large quarto
volume, and alfo very expenfive, it is lefs adapted to
general ufe than the preceding, which is an odlavo,
and may be had at a moderate price.
7. Tables portatives des logarithmes, contenant les
logarithmes des nombres depuis \ jufqiA a 108,000 les
logarithmes des Jinus et tangentes, de feconde en feconde
pour les cinq premiers degrees, de dix en dix fecondes
pour tous les degrees du quart-de cercle, et fuivant la
I 2 nouvelle
P 311-
68 LOGAR
Natuie of nouvelle divijion centejimale de dix-milheme en dix mil-
Loganthms,gj,c. par Callet.—This work, which is in odavo,
. ^c’ may be reafonably exptded to be very accurate, it be¬
ing printed in the ftereotype manner, by Didot.
In addition to thefe, it is proper that we ihould no¬
tice a ftupendous work relating to logarithms, origi¬
nally fuggefted by the celebrated Carnot, in conjundion
with Pncur de la Cote d'Or, and Brunet de Montpelier,
about the beginning of the French revolution. This
enterprife was committed in the year 17945 the care
of Crony, a French mathematician of great eminence,
who was not only to compofe tables which Jhould leave
nothing to be delired with refped to accuracy, but to
make them the mo ft extended and mojl Jlr iking monument
of calculation which had ever been executed or ever ima-
* Nicholf. gined*. It appears that two manufcript copies of the
Joum. work were formed, compofed of 17 volumes large fo-
feneJ 4t° and containing, befides an introdudion, the fol¬
lowing tables.
1. The natural fines for each 10,000th part of the
quadrant, calculated to twenty-five places of decimals,
to be publilhed with twenty-two decimals and five co¬
lumns of differences.
2. The logarithms of thefe fines, calculated to four¬
teen decimals, with five columns of differences.
3. The logarithms of the ratios of the fines to the
arcs for the firft five thoufand 100,000th parts of the
quadrant, calculated to fourteen decimal places, with
three columns of differences.
4. The logarithms of the tangents correfponding with
the logarithms of the fines.
5. The logarithms of the ratios of the tangents to
the arcs, calculated like thofe of the third article.
6. Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100,000, calcu¬
lated to nineteen places of decimals.
7. The logarithms of numbers from 100,000 to
200,000, calculated to 24 decimals, in order to be pub-
lifhed to 12 decimals and three columns of differences.
The printing of this work was begun at the expence
of the French government, but was fufpended at the
fall of the aflignats j whether it has been fince refumed
we cannot pofitively fay, but it certainly is not yet
completed.
SECT. I.
OF THE NATURE OF LOGARITHMS AND
THEIR CONSTRUCTION.
WE have already fhewn that the properties of loga¬
rithms are deducible from thofe of two feries, the terms
of one of which form a geometrical progreflion, and thofe
of the other an arithmetical progreffion j and as this
manner of treating the fubjeft is Ample, it is perhaps
the beft adapted of any to fuch of our readers as have
not purfued the ftudy of mathematics to any great ex¬
tent. We fir all now fhew how, from the fame princi¬
ples, the logarithm of any propofed number whatever
may be found.
The firft ftep to be taken in conftrufting a fyftem of
logarithms is to affume the logarithm of fome determi¬
nate number, befides that of unity or I, which muft ne-
eeffarily be o. From the particular view which Napier
took of the fubjeft, he was led to affume unity for the
logarithm of the number 2.718282, by which it hap-
4
I T H M S.
pened that the logarithm of 10 was 2.302585, and this Nature of
affumption being made, the form of the fyftem became
determinate, and the logarithm of every number fixed r .
to one particular value.
Mr Briggs however obferved, that it would be bet¬
ter to affume unity for the logarithm of 10, inftead of
making it the logarithm of 2.718282, as in Napier's
fyftem, and hence the logarithms of the terms of the
geometrical progreftion
i, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, &c.
were neceffarily fixed to the correfponding terms of this
arithmetical progreflion,
O, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.
That is, the logarithm of 1 being o, and that of 10
being 1, the logarithm of 100 is 2, and that of 1000
is 3, and fo on.
The logarithms of the terms of the progreffion, I, 10,
10O, 1000, &c. being thus determined ; in order to
form the logarithms of the numbers between 1 and 10,
and between 10 and 100, and fo on, we muft conceive •
a very great number of geometrical means to be inter-
pofed between each two adjoining terms of the prece-
ding geometrical feries, and as many arithmetical means
between the correfponding terms of the arithmetical fe¬
ries ; then, like as the terms of the arithmetical feries
O, 1,2, 3, &c. are the logarithms of the correfponding
terms of the geometrical feries 1, 10, ico, 1000, &c.
the interpolated terms of the former will alfo be the lo¬
garithms of the correfponding interpolated terms of the
latter. Now as by fuppofing the number of means in-
terpofed between each two terms of the geometrical fe¬
ries to be fufficiently great, fome one or other of them
may be found which will be very nearly equal to any
propofed number } it is evident that to find the lo¬
garithm of fuch a number, we have only to feek for one
of the interpolated means which is very nearly equal to
it, and to take the logarithm of that mean as a near
value of the logarithm required.
As a particular example, let it be required to find
the logarithm of the number 5, according to Briggs’s
fyftem.
Firft fep of the procefs.—The number 5 is between
I and 10, the logarithms of which we already know
to be o and 1 : Let a geometrical mean be found be¬
tween the two former, and an arithmetical mean be¬
tween the two latter. The geometrical mean will be
the fquare root of the produfl of the numbers I and
10, which is 3.162277 ; and the arithmetical mean
will be half the fum of the logarithms o and 1, which
is 0.5*, therefore the logarithm of 3.162277 is 0.5.
But as the mean thus found is not fufficiently near to
the propofed number, we muft proceed with the opera¬
tion as follows :
Second fep.—The number 5, whofe logarithm Is
fought is between 3.162277, the mean laft found, and
10, the logarithms of w'hich we know to be 0.5 and
I •, we muft now find a geometrical mean between the
two former, and an arithmetical mean between the
two latter. The one of thefe is ^7(3.162277 X10.)
. 1 -l-o. c
= 5.623413, and the other is —-— =0.75 j there¬
fore the logarithm of 5.623413 is 0.75.
Third fep.—We have now obtained two numbers*
namely
Nature of namely 3.162277 and j.6234^3* °^e on each fide of
Logarithm?,^ together with their logarithms 0.5 and .075, we
&c* therehire proceed exaffly as before, and accordingly we
find the geometrical mean,or \/ (3.162277 X 5-^23413)’
c.54-0.7 5
to be 4.216964, and the arithmetical mean,or^ ;-
to be 0.625; therefore the logarithm of 4.216964 is
C.625.
Fourth —We proceed in the fame manner with
the numbers 4.216964, and 5.623413 (one of which
is lefs, and the other greater than 5) and their loga¬
rithms 0.625 and 0.75, and find a new geometrical
mean, viz. 4.869674, and its correfponding arithmeti¬
cal mean, or logarithm, 0.6875*
We muft go on in this way till we have found twenty-
two geometrical means, and as many correfponding
arithmetical means or logarithms. And that we may
indicate how thefe are found from each other, let the
numbers 1 and 10 be denoted by A and B, and their
geometrical means taken in their order by C, D, E,
&c. then the refults of the fucceffive operations will be
as in the following table :
LOGARITHMS. 69
found by a feries of calculations fimilar to that which Nature of
A =
B =
C = t/ AB
D = v/BC
E ~ VCD
F = VUE
G == V-DF
H = VFG
I = VFH
K - t/HI
L = VIK
M= t/KL
N = VKM
o = vKN
P = VNO
o - vop
R = VOQ
S = VOR
T = v/OS
V = 1/ OT
W= t/TV
X - vwv
Y = -/VX
Z VXY
Numbers.
I.OOOOOO
10.000000
3.162277
5.623413
4.216964
4.869674
5.232991
5.048065
4.958069
5.002865
4.980416
4.991627
4.997242
5.000052
4,998647
4-99935°
4.999701
4.999876
4 999963
5.000008
4.999984
4.999997
5.000003
5.000000
Logarithms.
0.0000000
I.OOOOOOO
O.5OOOOOO
O.75OOOOO
O.625OCOO
O.687 50OO
°-7i875°°
0-7°3I250
°-6953i25
0.6992187
0.6972656
0.6982421
0.6987304
0.6989745
0.6988525
0.6989135
0.6989440
o 6989592
0.6989668
0.6989707
0.6989687
0.6989697
0.6989702
0.6989700
As the laft of thefe means, viz. Z, agrees with 5, the
propofed number, as far at leaft as the fixth place of de¬
cimals, we may fafely confider them as very nearly equal,
therefore their logarithms will alfo be very nearly equal,
that is, the logarithm of 5 will be 0.6989700 nearly.
In performing the operations indicated in the prece¬
ding table, it will be neceffary to find the geometrical
means at the beginning to many more figures than are
here put down, in order to obtain at laft a refult true
to 7 decimal places. Thus it appears that the labour
of computing logarithms by this method is indeed very
great. It is, however, that which was employed by
Briggs and Vlacq in the original conftru&ion of loga¬
rithms ; but fince the period in which they lived, others
more eafy have been found, as we (hall prefently have
occafion to explain.
The logarithm of any number whatever may be
we have juft now explained. But in conftructing the
table it would only be neceffary to have recourfe to this _
method in calculating the logarithms of prime num¬
bers ; for as often as the logarithm of a number which
was the produfl of other numbers, whofe logarithms
were known, was required, it would be immediately
obtained by adding together the logarithms of its fac¬
tors. On the contrary, if the logarithm of the product
of two numbers were known, and alfo that of one of
its faftors, the logarithm of the other faftor would be
obtained from thefe, by Amply taking their difference.
From this laft remark it is obvious, that having now
found the logarithm of 5, we can immediately find that
of 2 ; for fince 2 is the quotient of 10 divided by 5,
its logarithm will be the difference of the logarithms
of 10 and 5; now the logarithm of 10 is I, and the
logarithm of 5 is 0.6989700, therefore the logarithm
of 2 is 0.3010300.
Having thus obtained the logarithms of 2 and 5, in
addition to thofe of 10, 100, 1000, &c. we may thence
find the logarithms of innumerable other numbers.
Thus, becaufe 4= 2X2, the logarithm of 4 will be the
logarithm of 2 added to itfelf, or will be twice the lo¬
garithm of 2. Again, becaufe 5x10=50, the loga.-
rithm of 50 will be the fum of the logarithms of 5 and.
10. In this manner it is evident we may find the lo¬
garithms of 8=2 X 4, °f 16=2 X 8, of 25=5 X 5* ant^
of as many more fuch numbers as we pleafe*
Befides the view we have hitherto taken of the theo¬
ry of logarithms, there are others under which it has
been prefented by different authors. Some of thefe we
proceed to explain, beginning with that in which they
are defined to be the meafures of ratios ; but to fee the
propriety of this definition, it muft be underftood what
is meant by the meafure of a ratio.
According to the definition of a compound ratio, as-
laid down by writers on geometry, if there be any num¬
ber of magnitudes A, B, C, D, which are continual
proportionals, or fuch that the ratio of A to B is equal
to the ratio of B to C, and that again is equal
to the ratio of C to D, and fo on, the ratio of the firft
of thefe magnitudes A to the third C is confidered as
made up of two equal ratios, each equal to the ratio of
the firft A to the fecond B. And in like manner the
ratio of the firft A to the fourth D is confidered as
made up of three equal ratios, each equal to the ratio
of the firft to the fecond, and fo on. (See Geometry,
Seel. III. Def. IQ, II, and 12,). Thus, to take a par¬
ticular example in numbers, becaufe the ratio of 81 to
3 may be confidered as made up of the ratio of 81 to
27, and of 27 to 9, and of 9 to 3, which three ratios
are equal among themfelves, (Geometry, Se£l. III.
Def. 4.) the ratio of 81 to 3 will be triple the ratio of
9 to 3 ; and in like manner the ratio of 27 to 3 will
be double the ratio of 9 to 3. Alfo, becaufe the ratios
of 1 coo to 100, 100 to IQ, 10 to 1, are all equal, the
ratio of 1000 to 1 will be three times as great as the
ratio of 10. to 1 ; and the ratio of 100 to 1 will be
twice as great; and fo on.
Taking this view of ratios, and confidering them as
a particular fpecies of quantities, made up of others of
the fame kind, they may evidently be compared with
each other, in refpedl of their magnitudes, in the fame
manner as we compare lines or quantities of any kind
whatever..
Logarithms,
Sic.
LOGARITHMS.
7° . .
Nature of whatever. And as when eftlmating the relative mag-
Loganthmf, njtuc}es 0f two quantities, two lines for example, if
. ^~c' we find that the one contains five fuch equal parts as
the other contains feven, we fay the one line has to the
other the proportion of 5 to 7 j to, in like manner, if two
ratios be fuch, that the one can be refolved into five
equal ratios, and the other into feven of the fame ratios,
we may conclude that the magnitude of the one ratio
is to that of the other as the number 5 to the number
7 ; and a fimilar conclufion may be drawn, when the
ratios to be compared are any multiples whatever of
fume other ratio.
It is well known that there may be lines and other
quantities, which, as they admit of no common meafure,
are faid to be incommenfurable to each other j and the
fame will alfo happen to ratios : 'lhat is, there may be
two ratios fuch that into whatever number of equal ra¬
tios the one is divided, the other cannot poflibly be ex-
aftly equal to a ratio compofed of any number of thefe.
We may however conceive the number of equal ratios
into which the one is divided to be fo great, that a cer¬
tain number of them (hall compofe a ratio more nearly
equal to the other ratio than by any aflignable differ¬
ence. Therefore, like as we can always find numbers
which (hall have among themfelves, either accurately,
or as nearly as we pleafe, the fame ratios as any num¬
ber of lines or other magnitudes have to each other,
and which therefore may be taken as the meafures or
reprefentatives of the lines 5 fo alfo, correfponding to
any fyftem of ratios, there may be always found a feries
of numbers which will have the fame proportions a-
mong themfelves as the ratios have to each other, and
Avhich may in like manner be called the meafures of the
ratios.
Let us now fuppofe that unity, or I, is affumed as the
common eonfequent of all ratios whatever j and that
the ratio 6f 10 (or feme particular number) to 1 is
compounded of a very great number of equal ratios, as
for example 1000,000 : then, as each of thefe will be
very near to the ratio of equality, (for it will be the
ratio of the firft term to the fecond of a feries of one
million and one continued proportionals, the firft of
which is 10 and laft 1), it will follow, and is eafy to
conceive, that the ratios of all other numbers to unity
will each be very nearly equal to fome multiple of that
fmall ratio. And by fuppofing the number of fmall
equal ratios of which the ratio of 10 to 1 is compofed
to be fufficiently great, the ratios of all other numbers
to unity may be as nearly equal to ratios which are
multiples of that fmall ratio as we pleafe. Let us ftill
fuppofe, however, for the fake of illuftration, that the
number of fmall ratios contained in that of 10 to 1 is
1000,000} then, as it may be proved that the ratio of 2
to 1 will be very nearly the fame as a ratio compofed of
301030 of thefe ; and that the ratio of 3 to 1 will be
nearly equal to a ratio compofed of 477121 of them,
and that the ratio of 4 to 1 will be nearly equal to a
ratio compofed of 602060 of them, and fo on ; thefe
numbers, viz. 1000000, 301030, 477121, and 602060,
or any other numbers proportional to them, will be the
meafures of the ratios of 10 to 1, 2 to 1, 3 to 1, and 4
to 1, refpeftively ; and the fame quantities will alfo be
what have been called the logarithms of the ratios; for
the wmrd logarithm, if regard be had to its etymology,
is eegifyw/, or the numbers of fmall and equal
ratios (or ratiuncu/ce as they have been called) con- Nature of
tained in the feveral ratios of quantities one to another.
We have for the fake of illuftration, aiTumed locoooo c'
as the meafure of the ratio of 10 ta 1, by which it hap¬
pens, as already obferved, that the meafures of the
ratios of 2 to 1, 3 to 1, &c. are 301030 and 477121
refpeftively ; as, however, thefe meafures are not abfo-
lute, but relative quantities, we may afiume any other
numbers whatever inftead of thefe, provided they have
the fame proportions to each other as thefe numbers
have among themfelves. Accordingly, we may affume 1
as the meafure or logarithm of the ratio of i o to 1 ; and
then the logarithms of the ratios of 2 to 1, 3 to 1, Sec.
inftead of being 301030, 4771 21, &c. w ill be .301030
and .477121, &c. refpeftively, that is, each will be the
one-millionth of what it was before.
In Briggs'1 s fyftem, the logarithm of the ratio of 10
to 1, or, to (peak briefly, the logarithm of 10, is unity;
but we are at liberty to aflume any number whatever,
as that whofe logarithm (hall be unity. Napier, in con-
fequence of his particular views of the fubjefl, chofe
the number 2.718282 ; and hence it happens that the
logarithms of the ratios are expreffed by different num¬
bers in the twro fyftems.
It yet remains for us to (hew the identity of the pro¬
perties of logarithms, as explained in the two different
viewrs we have now given of the fubjeft ; and this may
be done as follows.
Let A and B denote any two numbers. The ratio
of their product to unity, that is, the ratio of A X B to
1, is compounded of the ratio of A X B to B, and of
B to 1; (fee Geometry, Part III. Def. xo.) but fince
AxB, B, A, and 1 are four proportionals, the ratio of
Ax B to B is equal to the ratio of A to 1. There¬
fore the ratio of A X B to 1 is compounded of the
ratio of A to 1 and of B to 1 ; and confequently the
logarithm of the ratio of A X B to I will be equal to
the fum of the logarithms of the ratios of A to I, and
of B to I ; or, in other word's, the logarithm of A X B
will be the fum of the logarithms of A and B.
And becaufe log. (AxB)=rlog. A + log. B, there¬
fore, log. B—log. (AxB)—log. A. In this equation
C
let — be fubftituted for B, and D for A, then, (be-
C C
caufe A x,B=D X jj=C) we have log. — =log. C—
log. D.
We have now given a ftxort (ketch of the theory
of logarithms as deducible from the doftrine of ratios.
It was in this way that the celebrated Kepler treated
the fubjeft according to the ftrifteft rules of geometri¬
cal reafoning; and in this he has been followed by Mer¬
cator, Halley, Cotes, as w'ell as by other mathemati¬
cians of later times, as by Mr Baron Maferes, in his
“ Elements of Plane Trigonometry,” a work in which
the whole theory of logarithms is treated with all that
perfpicuity and accuracy which charaflerize the ingeni¬
ous author’s various w ritings. The fame mode of treat¬
ing the fubjeci was likewife adopted by that excellent
geometrician Dr Robert Simfon, as appears by a (hurt
traifl: in Latin, written by him and publilhed in his poft-
humous works. As, however, the doftrine of ratios is
of a very abftra£t nature, and the mode of reafoning up¬
on which it has been eftabliftied is of a peculiar and
fubtle kind, we prefume that the greater number of
readers
L O G A R
Nature of readers will think this view 'of the fubjeft lefs fnnple
Logarithms, an(^ natural than the following, in which we mean to
^c‘ , deduce the theory of logarithms, as well as the manner
of computing them, from the properties of the exponents
of powers.
If we attend to the common fcale of notation in
arithmetic, we {hall find that it is fo contrived as to
exprefs all numbers whatever by means of the powers
of the number xo, w hich is the root of the fcale, and
the nine digits which ferve as coefficients to thefe
powers, Thus, if R denote 10, the root of the fcale,
fo that R2 will denote xoo, and RJ 1000, and fo on,
the number 471509 is otherwdfe expreffed by 4R*-J-
^R^-j-iR3 4-5R2-[-oRt-f-9R0» which is equivalent to
4RS.I-7R4-J-R3 _{_5R4-|-9. Again, the mixt number
371.243 is expreffed by 3R, + 7Rl+RO+^_+
A, or by 3R1+7R1 + R°-{-2R—1+4R“'2-f3R_3.
As to vulgar fraffions, by transforming them to deci¬
mals, they may be expreffed in the fame manner.
Thus 4=.37j=3R-,+7R-s+jR-'3. Alfo 4=
.666, &c.=6R “,+6R-I+6R—-5+ &c.
Although the number xo has been fixed upon as the
root of the fcale of notation, any other number may
be employed to exprefs all numbers whatever in the
fame manner j and fome numbers are even preferable
to 10. Thus, 'making 8 the root of a fcale, and de¬
noting it by R, the number 2735, when expreffed ac¬
cording to this fcale, is 5R1-f-2R2-}-5RI-}-7^0» or
5R3-j-2R:! +5R+7 ; and here we may obfexve, that if
a number greater than 10 were affumed as the root of
the fcale of notation, it would be neceffary to adopt
fome new numeral charafters in addition to thofe in
common ufe, and if a fmaller number were affumed,
we might difpenfe with fome of thofe we already
have.
But inllead of exprefiing all numbers by the fums of
certain multiples of the fucceffive powers of fome par¬
ticular number, we may alfo exprefs them, if not accu¬
rately, at leaft as near as we pleafe, by a fingle powrer,
whole or fraftional, of any pofitive number whatever,
which may be either whole or fraftional, but muff not
be unity.
Let us take, for example, 2 as the number, by the
powers of which all others are to be expreffed. Then
it may be (hewn that the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. are all
expreffible by the powers of 2, as follows.
1 — 2°
2— 21
3 —2I,j:84PiS, nearly
4=2*
5—21,3”9, nearly
6_2’-ss496 nearly
7— 22*®073 nearly
8=2*
p—23.1699
lorz23-J219 nearly,
and fo on. And if inftead of 2 we take the number 10,
then we have
1 = 10° 6= 1 O'77813
2=io-30103 y-io-scrio
3~ 1 o’4771* 8=io-9°309
4=rio*s020<s 9—icr93424
5=io-6P897
Hence we may conclude, that if r be put for fome
I T H M S.
7r
determinate number, and n for any indefinite pofitive Nature of
number, whole or fractional, it is always poffible to find Logarithms,
another number N, fuch, that the number r being raifed ,
to the power N fhall either be exaCtly equal to «, or
(hall be as near to it as we pleafe ; that is, wre {hall have
rN=*.
When numbers are expreffed in this way by the
powers of fome given number r; the exponent of that
power of r which is equal to any ajjigned number is
called the logarithm of that number. Therefore, if r^ =n,
(n being put for any number) then N w ill be the loga¬
rithm of the number n.
The logarithms which are produced by giving to r
fome determinate value conftitute afyfemoi logarithms,
and the conftant number r, from which the Tyftem is
formed, is called the bafe or radical number of the
fyftem.
The properties of logarithms may be readily deduced
from the above definition as follows. Let a and b be
put for any two numbers, and A and B for their loga¬
rithms ; then, r being fuppofed to denote the bafe, or
radical number of the fyftem, we have a—r^ and
b—r^ : now if w^e take the produCI of a and £, we
have a £~rA X rB=r j but according to the de¬
finition, A-f-B is the logarithm of a bt (for it is the in¬
dex of that power of r which is equal to a b) therefore,
the fum of the logarithms of any two numbers a and b is
the logarithm of their product a b. Again, we have
a rK
y——rrrA but here A—B is the index of that
e> rtS
power of r which is equal to —therefore, A—B is the
logarithm of ^ j hence, if one number a be divided by
another number b, the excefs of the logarithm of the divi¬
dend above that of the divifor is equal to the logarithm
of the quotient —.
Let n exprefs any number whatever, then, railing
both fides of the equation a—r^ to the «th power, w e
have (rA)’z = r"Aj but here « A is manifeftly
the logarithm of an •, therefore, the logarithm of a”, any
power of a number, is the product of the logarithm of the
number by n, the index of the power. And this mujl
evidently be true, whether that index be a whole num¬
ber, or a fraBion, either pofitive or negative.
From thefe properties it is eafy to fee in what man¬
ner a table that exhibits the logarithms of all numbers
within certain limits may be applied to {amplify calcula¬
tions : for fince the fum of the logarithms of any two
numbers is equal to the logarithm of their produCl, it
follows, that as often as we have occafion to find the
produdt of tw'o or more numbers, we have only to add
their logarithms into one fum, taking them from the
table, and to look in the table for the number whofe
logarithm is equal to that fum, and this number will be
the produCt required. Alfo, becaufe the exee.fs of the
logarithm of the dividend above that of the divifor is
equal to the logarithm of the quotient \ as often as we
have occafion to divide one number by another, we have
only.
72
logarithms.
A' R
' ’ 1.
Nature of only to fubtraft the logarithm of the divifor from that
Logarithms,tj^e dividend, and oppofite to that logarithm m
. ^c' the table, which is the remainder, we {hall find the
quotient. ...
As the logarithm of any power of a number is the
produft of the logarithm of the number, and the in¬
dex of the power *, and on the contrary, the logarithm
of ?ny root of a number is the quotient found by di¬
viding the logarithm of the number by the index of the
root j it follows, that we may find any power or root of
a number, by multiplying the logarithm of the number
by the index of the power, or dividing it by the in'^eX
of the root, and taking that number in the table whofe
logarithm is the produft or quotient for the power or
root required.
If in the equation (where a is any number,
A its logarithm, and r the bafe of the fyftem) we fup-
pofe <7=1, then, in this cafe \ but this equation
can only be fatisfied by putting A=o. Hence it ap¬
pears, that in every fystem of logarithms, the logarithm
of unity tnujl be o. If on the other hand we aflume
a—r ; then w'e have the equation r=rA", which is im¬
mediately fatisfied by putting A=l *, therefore, the lo¬
garithm of the bafe, or radical number of every fystem, is
neceffarilij unity.
If we fuppofe r to be a pofitive number greater than
unity, and a a pofitive number greater than unity, then
A wdll be a pofitive number j for if it be negative we
A7 R I t Nature 0?
— = Tv;, and A : A'(: : R/ : R) : : ff : -nr* Logarithms,
A R'’ R R &C.
Hence it appears, that the logarithm of a number, taken
according to one fystem, has to its logarithm, taken^ ac¬
cording to any other fystem, aconfant ratio,.’which is the
fame as that of the reciprocals of the logarithms of the
radical numbers of thofe fystems, taken according to any
fystem whatever.
Let us next fuppofe, that a and b are two numbers,
and A and B their logarithms, taken according to the
fame fyftem, andr the bafe of the fyftem j then becaufe
—.
r*=b;
i AB _ A.B t A.
we have r ~ a , r —£ ,
A
therefore aB=bx, and <z=&B, now as r is not found hi
this equation, the value of the fraftion g-depends only
on the numbers a and b ; therefore, the logarithms of
any two given numbers have the fame ratio in every fys¬
tem whatever. . . , , .
Having now explained the properties which belong
to the logarithms of any fyftem whatever, w’e proceed
to inveftigate general rules by which the number cor-
refponding to any logarithm, and on the contrary, the
logarithm correfponding to any number, may be found
the one from the other. And for this end let us de-
"* r- - —— ' - noteany number whatever byy, and itslogarithmby x,
would have a(=r-± = \) a proper fraftion, and at and put r as before for the bafe, «r.radl?ta^?U^ehra^
\ rA' . . the fyftem then by the nature of logarithms we have
this equation
y=r*.
Put r=ri-f<?, and let the expreflion (i-f<j)*be ex¬
panded into a feries by the binomial theorem •, thus we
(hall have y—
the fame time a number greater than unity by hypothe-
fis, which is impoffible. If on the contrary we lup-
pofe a a proper fradion, then A muft neceffanly be ne¬
gative, for if it wrere pofitive, then rNvould be greater
than unity, and <j( = r A) alfo greater than unity, while
by hypothefis it is a fradion lefs than unity, which is
impofiible. Therefore, in every fystem, the bafe of which
is greater than unity, the logarithm of a whole or mixt
number is always pofitive, but the logarithm of a proper
fra&ion is always negative.
Becaufe the logarithm of r is unity, the logarithm
of rn will be n ; therefore, the logarithm of any integer
power of the radical number r will always be an in-
teper. . -
Let r and r' denote bafes of two different fyitems j
and let A be the logarithm of a number, a, taken ac¬
cording to the firft of thefe, and A' its logarithm taken
according to the laft. Then becaufe fl==rA, and
<7=r,A', it follows that rA=r,A', and r=r' A. Let us
now fuppofe that r" is the bafe of a third fyftem of lo¬
garithms, and R and R' the logarithms of r and r' ta¬
ken according to this third fyftem } then becaufe
TTTTj
1)(*—2)(*—3)„, h &c.
’1“ i . 2 . 3.4
Let this feries, the terms of which are arranged ac¬
cording to the powers of the quantity a, be transform¬
ed into another, the terms of which (hall be arranged
according to the powers of x; and to effed this we
muft find the adual produds of the fadors which con-
ftitute the powers of a, and arrange the terms anew, as
follows,
i = l,
X <7= -|-<7 X,
«(.V-—l) .
I . 2
 v-1 x*
2 2
x{x—l)(.V—2)
r"R=r,
. „RR'  R' -oRR.' .
we have r',EV =r , rw __r ,
1.2.3
x(x— I) (x—2)(*-—3)
o’==4—*-
3
=— X-
R
I . 2.3.4
y &C.
"’ll"3 s
-^+T* ’
24 4 7 24
&c.
therefore rR'=r,R, and r=rfR' j but we have already
A' A' R
found r=rA, therefore tjA=:rK\ and confequently
fo that adding into one fum the quantities on each fide
of the fign =, and recolleding that the fum of thefe
on the left-hand fide is equal to y, we have
LOGARITHMS.
73
Nature of
logarithms,
&cc.
f I
/~rx— <
fl*
^ v 2 3 4
a* «3 11 a*
-4- f:— — }- &C.) X ,
~V 2 2 ‘ 24
T+&c*>3>
+(£-Stc.)x*,
+ &c.
which equation, by fubftituting
, a* a* « , <?
A for fl  f- &c.
2 r 3
ri^
4
A' for-
aJ
11 a'
&c.
2 2 • 4
A" for  ^—J- &c.
6 4
A'" for — — &c,
24
&c.
may be abbreviated to
r* — 1 -{- A .v -f- A'x* -f- A"#3 4" + &c*
Next, to determine the law of connexion of the
quantities A, A', A", A'", &c. let tf+sbe fubftituted
in the laft equation for x, (here 2; is put for any inde¬
finite quantity) thus it becomes
r*+*=i + A(a?-f z) + A'(tf-{-5s)* +A"(¥-j_2;)3-J-&c.
But and fince it has been ftiewn that
rx— 1 -f- A a? 4- A'x2 + A"*3+A"'x*-j- &c.
for the very fame reafon
r'K=:i-}-Ass-|-A/!z8-|-A"z3-|-A//,2s4+ &c.
therefore the feries
i+A(¥-f-i2)+A'(¥4-z)2+A'/(¥4-2)3+Aw(¥+2:)44-&c.
is equal to the product of the two feries
1-{-Aw-fAV-}-A,/¥3-f.A,"¥4-f- &c,
1-j-A:s-f-A'«*A"«3A"^4-j-&c.
That is, by actual involution and multiplication
I+A¥ + A'x* -j- A" x3 -j- A"1 x* -j- &c.")
-\-Az-\-'2.A'xiz,-\-$A"xt‘z-\-/\A"'x'i‘z 4- &c. |
-}-A' ss* 4-3A,/¥iz34-6A/f/A?*z,4- &.c> r1 ::=
+ A" »3 +4Aw¥2;3 + &c. I
4- A"' 524 4- &.C. J
' i-{-A^-f-A'**-f- A^a?3 -}- A"'x* &c.
-j-Az4-A1x^4" AA'a?1^-}-AA'^z 4- &c.
rr < +AV4.AA^4-AAV^+ &c.
4- A" is3 4-AA,'Afis3 -{- &c.
4_ Aw z4 -J- &-c*
Now as the quantities A, A', A", &c. are quite inde¬
pendent of x and xs, the two fides of the equation can
Vol. XII. Part I.
only be identical upon the fuppofition that the coeffi- Nature of
cients of like terms in each are equal; therefore, felting Logan^rn5*
afide the firft line of each fide of the equation, becaufe t _ ^ - ■
their terms are the fame, and a!ro the firft term of the
fecond line, for the fame reafon, let the coefficients of
the remaining terms be put equal to one another, thus
we have
Ai=2A/
AA'=3A'/
AA"=4Aw ‘
&c.
r
and hence
we have
A'=-
A"—
A*
1 . 2
A}
Ii2
A'"=
•3
A4
1.2.3.4
&c.
Here the law of the coefficients A, A', A"', See. is
obvious, each being formed from the preceding by mul¬
tiplying it by A, and dividing by the exponent of the
power of A which is thus formed. Let thefe values
of A', A", &c. be now fubftituted in the equation
3'=r*:=i-{-AAr-f-A',¥*-hA/',¥1+ See.
and it becomes,
, a , A* »
y— 1 + A* _j_-—_x*
A5
1.2.3
*3 +
A4
1. 2
3-4
JC4 Sec.
thus we have obtained a general formula expreffing a
number in terms of its logarithm and the bafe of the
fyftem, for we muft recolledt that the quantity A which
is equal to
a ^  fli  &c
a 2+ 3 4*5 C‘
is otherwife expreffed by
(r-iy , (r—l)5
r—1-
(r—i)4 (r-i)J
2 3 4 5
where r denotes the bafe of the fyftem (a).
- &c.
If in the formula
A
r*=i + A;v-
*»+
A3
1.2 1.2.3
we fuppofe Ar=i, it becomes
-x1
A4
x.2.3.4
A4-f- Sec.
r=l+A+A-+
A3
A4
+ &c.
1.2’ 1.2.3' 1.2.3.4
an equation which contains r only ; but as r has been
all along fuppofed an indeterminate quantity, this equa¬
tion muft be identical, that is, if inftead of A, its va¬
lue, as exprefled above in terms of r, were fubftituted,
the whole would vanilh.
Again, let us fuppofe that is fubftituted inftead of
.A.
x in the general formula, thus it becomes
:i + i
I . 2
1.2.3
K
1.2.3.4
+ &c.
Thus
(a) For other analytic methods of inveftigating the fame formula, fee Algebra, § 293, and Fluxions, § 54.
and J 70. Ex. 1. alfo § 200. Prob. 1.
logarithms.
7+
Nature of X
logarithms,Thus ^ quantity, r\^ whatever be the value of r, is
>««..»v»i.. evidently equal to a conftant number, which, as appears
from the lalt equation, is equal to the value of r when
A= i. By adding together a fuffigient number of the
terms of the feries exprefling the value of r A, we find
that quantity equal to
2.718281828459045 . ..
I
Let this number be denoted by e, and we haverA = e,
and r—e^ j hence it appears, that if the number e be
confidered as the bafe of a logarithmic fyftem, the quan¬
tity A, that is
2 3 4 5
is the logarithm of r to the bafe e. But as r is not re-
itri&ed here to any particular value, we may fubftitute
y inftead of it, keeping in mind that y denotes any
number whatever, and x its logarithm •, thus we have x
the logarithm of y, exprefled by the feries
0* 1 (y—O3 O'-1)4
•?/ 2 ■*" 3 4 5
fuppofing that the bafe of the fyftem is the number we
have exprefled above by e.
We have now found a general formula for the lo¬
garithm of any number, y, taken according to a parti¬
cular fyftem, namely, that which has the number e for
its bafe. But it is eafy from hence to find a formula,
which flrall apply to any fyftem whatever. For it has
been {hewn that the logarithms of the fame number,
taken according to two different fyftems, are to each
other as the reciprocals of the logarithms of the bafes
of the fyftems, thefe laft logarithms being taken ac¬
cording to any fyftem whatever, that is,
log. y to bafe e : log. y to bafe r ::
hence we find
log. y \o bafe r= V to e'
Let the value we have already found for the logarithm
of y to bafe e be fubftituted in this equation, and it be¬
comes
which is a general formula for the logarithm of any
number whateverto the bafe r. And it is to be re¬
collected that in the fraction which is a common
log. r
multiplier to the feries, the logarithms are to be taken
according to the fame bafe, which however may be any
number whatever (b).
If in the above for mula we fuppofe r=e, the multiplier
log. e ' log. r
log. e . . , - , Nature of
-will be unity, and the formula will become {imply Logarithms,
See.
(y—0* (y—O* (y—O4 + &c.'—v—1
log. r
log-y=y—1
2*3 4
as we have already remarked. Now this is the fyftem
w hich was adopted by Lord Napier ; and although the
logarithms which were computed according to this fyf¬
tem, or upon the fuppofition that the radical number is
2.7182818, &c. have been called hyperbolic logarithms,
becaufe they happen to be proportional to certain hy¬
perbolic fpaces, yet, as the logarithms of every fyftem
have the fame property, it is more proper to call them
Napierean logarithms.
As the conftant multiplier which occurs in
the general formula for the logarithm of any number,
is the only part of the formula which depends for its
value upon the bafe of the fyftem, it has been called
by writers on logarithms, the modulus of the fyftem*
If we fuppofe the logarithms taken to the bafe e, then
the numerator, viz. log. e, will be unity, and the de¬
nominator will be the Napierean logarithm of r. If
however w'e fuppofe the logarithms taken to the bafe r,
then the numerator will be log. e to bafe r; and the
denominator will be unity, fo that the modulus of any
fyftem whofe bafe is r, is the reciprocal of the Napierean
logarithm of that bafe ; or it is the logarithm of the
number e (the bafe of the Napierean fyftem) to the
bafe r.
In the Napierean fyftem the modulus is unity, and
hence the logarithms of this fyftem, as far as depends
upon facility of computation, are the moft fimple of
any. It was, however, foon found that a fyftem whofe
bafe ftiould be the fame as the root of the fcale of the
arithmetical notation, viz. the number 10, would be
the moft convenient of any in praftice •, and according¬
ly fuch a fyftem was adually conftruaed by Mr Briggs.
This is the only one now in common ufe, and is called
Brigg's fystem, alfo the common fystem of logarithms.
The modulus of this fyftem therefore is the reciprocal
of the Napierean logarithm of 10 j or it is the common
logarithm of ^“2.7182818 &c. the bafe or the Na¬
pierean fyftem. We {hall in future denote this modulus
by M •, fo that the formula expreffing the common lo¬
garithm of any number y will be
log. y—M \ 1 y — +
O—->01 1 O—.y)3 O—>0‘
■+ &c
\
3 4
If the number y, whofe logarithm is required be very
near to unity, fo that t—y is a fmall quantity, then
the logarithm may be found from this formula with
great eafe, becaufe the feries will converge very rapid¬
ly. If, however, I—y be greater than unity, the fe¬
ries, inftead of converging, will diverge, fo as to be in
its prefent form of no ufe. _
It may however be transformed into another, which
{hall converge in every cafe, by fubftituting in it nsJ y
/— log.y
inftead of y, and obferving that log. {psJy)——^-y
it
(b) For ether methods of inveftigating the fame formula fee Algebra, 284, and Fluxions, { #o. F.x,
alfo § 136.
1
Natuw of it thus becomes
ko^itntiwns,
See.
log.y—nM ^ «^/y—r—§(w V/<J—l)*-j--T( &c.
where n may denote any number whatever, pofitive or
negative. But whatever be the number y, we can always
take n, fuch, that n\/y fhall be as nearly equal to i, as
we pleafe, therefore by this laft formula, we can al¬
ways find the logarithm of y to any degree of accuracy
whatever.
LOGARITHMS. 75
Thus we have two limits to the value of the lo- Nature of
garithm of y, which, by taking the number n fuffi-LoS^t
ciently great, may come as near to each other as we ^
pleafe.
In like manner we find two limits to the value of the
reciprocal to the modulus, viz.
1
M'
M
1.
V
It is evident that the difference between the two limits
If we fuppofe n to be taken negative, then n<Jy
rr ■1 ■, and the feries which exprefleslog. y becomes,
Vy .
by changing the figns,
108 •k="m 1,^+i(1 -^) +KI-»-^)’+s‘ci
where all the terms are pofitive. Thus we have it in
our power to exprefs the value of y, either by a feries
which lhall have its terms all pofiti^e, or by one which
fhall have its terms alternately pofitive and negative^
for it is evident that y being greater than unity, n \/y
will alfo be greater than unity, and y being lefs than
unity, *\/J will alfo be lefs than unity, but the differ¬
ences will be fo much the fmaller as n the exponent of
the root is greater j therefore n \/y—I will be pofitive
in the firfl cafe, and negative in the fecond.
Becaufe M=:  r > therefore Nap. log. 10
Nap. log. 10
hence by the two laft formulas we have
M t. j
alfo
It is evident that by giving to * \/y fuch a value that
*^/y 1 is a fra&ion lefs than unity, we render both
the feries for the value of log. y converging ; for as
"y'y 1 is a fraftion lefs than unity, the expreflion
l  *■— will alfo be lefs than unity, feeing that it is
nVy
equal to—Therefore, in the firft feries, the fe-
"v'y
cond and third terms (taken together as one term) con-
ftitute a negative quantity, and as the fame is alfo true
of the fourth and fifth, and fo on 5 the amount of all
the terms after the firft is a negative quantity, that is a
quantity which is to be fubtra6fed from the firft, that
we may have the value of log. y. Hence we may in¬
fer that
log. y^«M(,*v/y*—1).
And fince, cm the contrary, the terms of the fecond fe¬
ries are all pofitive, the amount of all the terms after
the firft is a pofitive quantity, that is, a quantity which
muft be added to the firft to give the value of log. y;
fo that we have
leg. y-^nM^i
of log. y, is
0—(1—,7^-)}.
therefore if we take either the one or the other of the
two preceding expreflions for log. y, the error in excefs
or defeat is neceffarily lefs than this quantity.
By thefe formulas we may depend upon having the
logarithm of any number true to m figures, if we give
to « fuch a value that the root "\/y lhall have m cy¬
phers between the decimal point and the firft fignifi-
cant figure on the right. So that in general, as the er¬
ror is the fmaller according as n the exponent of the
root is greater, we may conclude that it becomes no¬
thing, or may be reckoned as nothing, when « is taken
indefinitely great 5 and this being the cafe, we may con¬
clude that either of thefe expreflxons
is the accurate value of log. y.
The beft manner of applying the preceding formula
is to take fome power of the number 2 for for by
doing fo, the root n y/y may be found by a repetition
of extractions of the fquare root only. It was in this
way that Briggs calculated the firft logarithms ; and
he remarked, that if in performing the fucceflive extrac¬
tions of the fquare root, he at laft obtained twice as many
decimal places as there were cyphers after the decimal
point, the integer before it being unity, then the deci¬
mal part of this root was exaCHy the half of that which
went before; fo that the decimal parts of the two roots
were to each in the fame proportion as their logarithms:
now this is an evident confequence of the preceding
formula.
To give an example of the application of the formu¬
la, let it be required to find the numerical value of M,
the modulus of the common fyftem of logarithms,
which, as it is the reciprocal of the Napierean logarithm
of 10 is equal to
I I
— X 
n n^io—1
nearly,
when n is fome very great number. Let us fuppofe
n=z260=zS*° j then, dividing unity by 8, and this refult
again by 8, and fo on, we fhall after 20 divifions have.
or Jsr eftual t0
0.00000 00000 00000 00086 73617 37988 40354.
Alfo, by extracting the fquare root of 10, and the
fquare root of this refult, and fo on, after performing
60 extractions we ftiall find n\/lO equal to
1.0000000000000000019971742081255052703251.
K 2 Therefore.
?6
Nature of I
Logarithms, Therefore, — X
&c.
"V'10—1
86736^798840354 8l
OQ71742081 2C CO C27
LOGARITHMS.
or M, is equal to quently
1 for a, will be otherwife expreffed thus, Logarithm^
See.
I997I742o8r25J°527’
As a fecond example, let it be required to find by
the fame formula the logarithm of the number 3,
which is nearly equal to
«M(V3—J):
»(V3—1)_ V3-
—1) "v^io—1’
n being as before a very great number. Let us fup-
pofe alfo in this cafe that »=26°j then aftey 60 ex¬
tractions of the fquare root we have ”^3 equal to
1.00000 ocooo 00000 0095 28942 64074 58932.
Therefore, taking the value of ”>y/iO as found in laft
example, we have
1 „ V3—1
l°g- 3 = — 
95289426407458932
Vio—1 199717420812550527
=.47712 11547 19662.
'•-=-ts+i(s)+KS)'+i:-}‘
and this formula for the logarithm of a number is not
only fimple, but has alfo the property of converging in
every poffible cafe.
That we may give an example of the utility of this
formula, we {hall employ it in the calculation of the
Napierean logarithm of 2, which by the above formula
will be
sf— -|——
'3 3-3
5-3s 7-37 9-39
&c
•)
where A is put for B for —r = —, C for — = —-1
Y 3 ' 33 9 3s 9
2 C
D for — = —, &c. The calculation will be as fot-
37 9
lows.
This method of computing logarithms is evidently
attended with great labour, on account of the number
of extractions of roots which it requires, to obtain a re-
fult true to a moderate number of places of figures.
But the two fcries, which we have given, ferve to
fimpliiy and complete it. For whatever be the number
y, it is only neceffary to proceed with the extractions of
the fquare root, till we have obtained for nVy a value
which is unity followed by a decimal fraction j and
then n^y—i, being a fraCtion, its powers will alfo be
fractions, which will be fo much the fmaller as their
exponents are greater *, thus a certain number of terms
of the feries will ferve to exprefs the logarithm to as
many decimal places as may be required.
There are yet other analytical artifices by which the
feries
log.y=M l(y-i)*+T(y~I)3"i(y“I^4+^cc- ^
may be transformed into others which fhall always
converge, and in particular the following. Let l+«
be fubftituted in the feries for y ; then it becomes
log,
(1 -}-«) = M —
A= .66(5666666666
B= ^=.074074074074
C= ^=.008230452674
D= f €=.000914494742
E= £ D=.oooioi6io527
F= f E=.oooon 290059
G= f F=.oooooi25445i
H=f €=.000000139383
I=f H=.ocoooooi5487
K=f- I = .OOOOOOOOI72I
L= f £=.000000000191
M=fL=.00000000002I
A=.666666666666
f B=.o2469i358o25
€=.001646090535
•f £=.000130642106
f £=.000011290059
T*T £=.000901026369
^€=.000000096496
^£[=.000000009292
TITK=.000000000911
■Jg £=.00000000009 I
^TM=.00000000000 r
In like manner let 1—u
have
leg. (1—a) = M
a*
2
be fubftituted for y, and we
Let each fide of the latter equation be fubtra&ed
from the correfponding fide of the former ; the refult
on the left-hand fide will be log. (i-fa)—log. (1—a),
which, by the nature of logarithms, is equal to log.
• and on the right-hand fide the alternate terms
1—a ' -
of the two feries, having the fame fign, thefe will by
fubtraCtion deftroy each other, fo that we {hall have
los* 73^=2M + Y+y+y&c* }
I -f" ^ 1 r
which feries, by fubftituting % for y-—and confe-
1
Nap. log. 2 =.693x47180551
Thus, by a very eafy calculation, we have obtained the
Napierean logarithm of 2 true to the firft ten places of
figures -, the accurate value, as far as the 12th place,
being 0.693147180550.
If this very fimple procefs by which we have found
the logarithm of 2 (the whole of which is here aClually
put down), be compared with the laborious calcula¬
tions which muft have been performed to have found
the fame logarithm by the method explained in the be¬
ginning of this fe&ion, the great fuperiority of this me¬
thod to the other, and even to the fecond method, by
which we have found the numerical value of M, and
the common logarithm of 3, muft be very apparent.
In the fame manner as we have found the logarithm
of 2 we may find thofe of 3, 5, Sec. In computing the
logarithm
Natnre of logarithm of 3 the feries would converge by the pov'ers
Logantxm?, 2 j
of the frafHon =:-§•» a^d in computing the loga-
Scc.
■T 1
rithm of 5 it would converge by the powers of
but in each of thefe cafes the feries would converge
flower, and of ceurfe the labour would be greater than
in computing the logarithm of 2. And if the number
whofe logarithm was required was ftill more confider-
able $ as for example 199, the feries would converge fo
flow as to be ufelefs.
We may however avoid this inconvenience by again
transforming this laft formula into another which fliall
exprefs the logarithm of any number by means of a
feries, and a logarithm fuppofed to be previoufly known.
To effedl: this new transformation, let ——- — 14- —.
1—u ‘ nr
then, by refolving this equation in refpeft of we have
LOGARITHMS.
Es/yDrr.ooooo 1024000
.0000000^0960
G—2V F=-oooooooo 163 8
H=:-2ITG=.000000000066
77
Nature of
Logarithms,
&c.
5—1
5 + i
Let thefe values of
1 +«
and a be fub-
2n-\-x
ftituted in the formula,
1-I-a us u* ~ V
IoS-H^ = 2M(“+ 3+7 + 7+&c*)
and w'e have log. ^1 -j~-^ equal to
2m|—+\(—Y++(—)5+&c.l
L 2n-t-z' 7\2n-^-zJ 'T\2n-{-z/ ' j
but log. ^ 1 -j- ^ = log.^—^ = log. («+«) —log. a,
therefore, by fubftituting this value of log. and
n
tranfpofing log. n to the other fide of the equation, we
have
log- (n+x) = log. a-f-
By the afliftance of this formula, and the known pro¬
perties of logarithms, we may proceed calculating the
logarithm of one number from that of another as fol¬
lows.
To find the Napierean logarithm of 3 from that of
2, which has been already found. We have here n=2,
1, andTherefore the logarithm re¬
quired is equal to
log.j+2(i+_LT+_L + -£_ + &c.)
^log. 2+A + &c*
A B
where A is put for f, B for —, C for —, and fo on.
25 25
The calculation may Hand thus :
A =.400000000000
Brr /y-A—.O I 6000000000
C=-2~-B =.000640000000
D=:VC =.000025600000
A=.400000000000
t •005333333333
f C =.000128000000
4 D=.000003657143
-g- E=.OOOOOOII3778
XT £=.000000003724
Xy G=.OOOOOOOOO 125
xVH=.000000000004
.4O5465IO8IC8
Nap. log. 2. =.693147x80551
Nap. log. 3. = 1.098612288659
This logarithm is true to id decimal places, the accu¬
rate value to 12 figures being 1.098612288668.
To find-the Napierean logarithm of 4. This is im¬
mediately had from that of 2 by confidering that as
4=2*, therefore log. 4 = log. 2-j- log. 2.
Nap. log. 2:
:-693i47i8o55i
2
Nap. log. 4=1.386294361102
This logarithm is alfo true to 10 places befides the
integer.
To find the Napierean logarithm of 5, from that of
4; we have «=4, 2=1, and = -&» therefore the
2«-f-x *
logarithm of 5 is expreffed by
l,,E'4+2G + ^ + 5-9!+7^+&C-)
log. 4+A+f B C -f f D + &c.
where A=J, B=/T A, C—-gVB, &c.
The calculation.
A=.222222222222
B=/TA=.oo 2743484225
C=yTB=.oooo3387oi76
D=yx-C=.oooooo4i8i5o
E=-gITP:::::.0ooooooo5162
F =/TE=.oooooooooo64
A=.222222222222
B = .c
B = .ooo9i449474-2
f €=.000006774035
^ ^=.000000059736
£=.000000000574
xTF=.ooooooooooo6
.223x43551315
Nap. log. 4 = 1.386294361102
Nap. log. 5=1.609437912417
This refult is alfo correft to the firft ten places of deci¬
mals.
The
7$
Nature of The logarithm of 6 is found from thofe of 2 and 3
Xogarithms, confidering. that becaufe 2 X 3> therefore log. 6
= log. 2 + log. 3.
Nap. log. 2=0.693147180551
Nap. log. 3=1.098612288659
Nap. log. 6=1.79175946921°
This refult is correft as far as the tenth decimal place.
We might find the logarithm of 7 from the loga¬
rithm of 6, that is, from the logarithms of 3 and 2, in
the fame manner as we have found the logarithms of 5
and 3 } but it may be more readily found from the
logarithms of 2 and 5 by reafoning thus. Becaufe
3. ^ ■5-— —, therefore log. 2 -j- 2 log. 5 — 2 log. 7
7* 49
= log.—, and confequently
*49
logarithms.
log. 7=4- log* 2-}- log. 5—4 log-
5£
49
Now the logarithm of £3 may be readily obtained from
4-9
the formula
log.3=2M£2=I+4(:=!) +j(^) +&c-}
For fubftituting — for a, the formula gives
49
Nap. log.|=»(i + ^ +J^+ &■=•)
= A-j-rB-^J-CHh &c.
2 A. B
''here A=^xr’B=5MT.’c=53T?’
&c. This
B =-
A=.020202020202
rA=.O0000206l 220
C =—-—-B=.ooooocooo2io
9*. 1 i2
A=.020 2020 20 20 2
4-B=.000000687073
fC=.000000000042
Nap. log. ^=.020202707317
t log* 2 = 0.346573590275
log. 5= 1.609437912417
1.956011502692
* log.33 = 0.010101353658
49
Nap.log.7 = i.9459ioi49°34
This logarithm, like thofe we found before, is correft
in the firft ten decimal places. “ate.
The logarithms of 8, 9, and 10 are immediately ob-
tained from thofe of 2, 3, and 5, as follows;
Nap. log. 2 = 0.693147180551
3
Nap. log. 8 = 2.07944154^653
Nap. log. 3 = 1.098612288659
2
Nap. log. 9 = 2.197224577318
Nap. log. 2 = 0.693147180551
Nap. log. 5 = 1.609437912417
Nap. log. 10 = 2.302585092968
Thus by a few calculations we have found the Na-
pierean logarithms of the firft ten numbers, each true,
to ten decimal places j and fince the Napierean loga¬
rithm of 10 is now known, the modulus of the common
fyftem, which is the reciprocal of that logarithm will
alfo be known, and will be
,30258k568 = '434*944819
feries converges with great rapidity, and a few of its
terms will be fufficient to give the logarithm of 7, as
appears from the following operation.
The common logarithms of the firft ten numbers may
now be found from the Napierean logarithms by multi¬
plying each of the latter by the modulus, or dividing
by its reciprocal, that is, by the Napierean logarithm
of 10. And as the modulus of the common lyftem is
fo important an element in the theory of logarithms, we
fhall give its value, together with that of its reciprocal,
as far as the 30th decimal place.
M=-434294481903251827651128918917
2.30258 509 2994045^^4°17991454^^4
The formulus we have already given are fufficient
for finding the logarithms of all numbers whatever
throughout the table, but there are yet others which
may often be applied with great advantage, and we
fhall now inveftigate feme of thefe.
Becaufe
log.Z=2M||:p+f(^) +*(!Z + i) &c*}
If we now fuppofe
25=-
fo that
25 1
25 + 1 2«‘—I
log
* 1 (« X I )
^ . then the formula becomes
2 »*
 ni———= 2M y -—j- r ~f~
But
LOGAR
Loganthms, But log. log.. * log. (»■ l)
■ , log. (« + x), therefore, putting N for the feries
2M{^ZI+t(^tz7) +&c-}
we have this formula,
2 log. n—log. (n—i)—log. (n-f-i)=N
and hence, as often as we have the logarithms of any
two of three numbers whofe common difference is uni¬
ty, the logarithm of the remaining number may be
found. Example. Having given
the common log. of 9=0.95424250943
the common log. of 10=1 j
it is required to find the common logarithm of I I.
Here we have «mo, fo that the formula gives
in this cafe 2 log. 10—log. 9—log. n=N, and hence
we have
log. 11 = 2 log. 10—log. 9—N,
, 2M 2M , p
where N= 1- ;4-8tc.
199 3.1993
M being .43429448190.
Calculation of N.
A=^^=.oo436476866
B=—=.00000003674
3-399* ^
.00436480540
2 log. 10=2.00000000000
log. 9=0.95424250943
1^=0.00436480 540
log. 9-^=0.95860731483
log. 11 = 1.04139268517
Here the feries expreffed by N converges very faft,
fo that two of its terms are fufficient to give the loga¬
rithm true to 10 places of decimals. But the loga¬
rithm of 11 may be expreffed by the logarithms of
fmaller numbers, and a feries which converges ftill more
rapidly, by the following artifice, which will apply alfo
to fome other numbers. Becaufe the numbers 98, 99,
and 100 are the products of numbers, the greateft
of which is 11, for 98=2x7% 99=:9XII» and
100=10 XtOj it follows that if we have an equation
compofed of terms which are the logarithms of thefe
three numbers, it may be refolved into another, the
terms of which (hall be the logarithms of the number
11 and other fmaller numbers. Now by the preceding
formula, if we put 99 for «, we have
2 log. 99—log. 98—log. ioo=N,
that is, fubftituting log. 9 + log. 11 for log. 99, log. 2-f-
2 log. 7 for log. 98, and 2 log. 10 for log. 100,
2'log. 9-4-2 log. 11—log. 2—2 log. 7—2 log. I0=N,
ITHMS. 79
and hence by tranfpofition, &c. Nature of
Logarithms,
log. II=iN-}-llog* 2 + log. 7—log. 9-f-log. 10) &c.
and in this equation.
XT 2M , , 2M ,
N—   ■ TT ' 2 i 0£0.
19601 3i96oj3
The firft term alone of this feries is fufficient to give
the logarithm of 11 true to 14 places.
Another formula, by which the logarithm of a num¬
ber is expreffed by the logarithms of other numbers and
a feries, may be found as follows.
Refuming the formula
log. ,=2M{5=+7(|=i)3+fg=l)'+&c.}
Let us affume
i)*(”4-2)_r”3—3 ”+2
(«—2)(«-j-lji «3—3 n—2
then
z—1
3 n
1
2 M
Let thefe values of z, and ,be fubilitutedin the
formula, and it becomes
But the quantity on the left-hand fide of this equation is
manifeftly equal to 2 log, («—Cw + 2)—log.
(«—2)—2 log. («+i), therefore, putting P for the
feries,
{=p+t(,=p) +K;^r») +&c'l
we have this formula,
log. (« -f- 2) 2log. («-i )-log. (»-2)-2log. (« -j-1 )= P.
By this formula we may find, with great facility, the
logarithm of any one of the four numbers n—2, «—I,
w-j-ij w-f-2, having the logarithms of the other three.
We may alfo employ it in the calculation of logarithms,
as in the following example. Let the numbers 5, 6, 7,
8, be fubftituted fucceffively in the formula ) then, ob-
ferving that log. 6=log. 2-j-log. 3, and log. 8=3 log. 2,
we have thefe four equations,
... , 2M 2M
log. 7 + 2 log. 2—3 log. 3=— H * + &c.
—2 log. 7 +log. 2+2 log. 5=
55
2 M
3-55
2 M
&c.
+ &c.
+ Sec 1
99 3-99J
2 M 2 M
4 log. i-4 log. 2-log. S=TZT +JJ6Z,
2 M 2 M
log. 5 5 log. 3+2 log. 7=— + JTJT
Let log. 2, log. 3, log. 5, and log. 7, be now con-
fidered as four unknown quantities, and by refolving
thefe equations in the ufual manner, (fee Algebra,
Seft. VII.) the logarithms may be determined.
Refuming once more the formula
log.*=2M{2=|+|(|=i)! + &c.}
3
let
of «a(«+5)C”~5) 
imS’ (*+3) C«—3) C»+4) («—-4)
LOG AR
be fubftituted in it
Jnftead of z, then, by this fubftitution —-— will become
—72
K4 25 «* -f* 7 2
log
the formula will be transformed to
**04-0 Cff—.O
‘ 0+3) («—3) C«+4) C" 4)
=—2M
72
t «4-25'/*+72
) +&c*T
^T\«4—2i;« 4-72/ J
Hence, puttinp- the latter fide of this equation equal to
& we have i.his formula,
2log.«4-log-(« + 5) + log- (a—5)—l°g.(«+3)l
—log. («—3)—log. («-j-4)—log. («—4) + 0.J
which may be applied to the calculation of logarithms
in the fame manner as the former.
When it is required to find the logarithm of a high
number, as for example 1231, we may proceed as fol¬
lows :
log. 1231 =log.( 1230 + i)=log. •[ 1230(I + }
-log. i230 + log.(i + ^).
Again, log. i230=log. 24-log. 5+log. 123 and log.
123 = log. {120(1+^)}
—- log* 120-flog. (I
log. 120”log. (23 X3X5) = 3log- 2+log-3+log- 5
Therefore
log. i23l=4log. 2 +log. 34-2 log. 5+log'(I+“)
+los-(I+T^)
Thus the logarithm of the propofed number is expref-
fed by the logarithms of 2, 3, 5, and the logarithms of
t j__L i j ^— all of which may be eafily found by
*40’ 1230
h formulas already delivered.
Having now explained, at confiderable length, the
theory of logarithms upon principles purely analytical,
fuch being, as we conceive, the moft natural way of
reafoning concerning the properties of number, we {hall
conclude this fe&ion by {fating briefly the ground upon
which it was referred to the principles of geometry by
the mathematicians of the 17th century. Let C (fig. 2.)
be the centre, and CH, CK the afymptotes of an hy-
’ perbola. In either of thefe let there be taken any
number of continual proportionals CA, CB, CD, CE,
&c. then if B D i/, E e, &c. be drawn parallel to
the other ai'ymptote, meeting the curve in a, b, d, e,
&c. the hyperbolic fpaces AabB, HbdD, D^/eE,
&c. are equal to one another alfo if ftraight lines be
drawn from C to the points a, b, d, e, &c. the hyper¬
bolic fedfors aCb, bCd, dCe, &c. {hall alfo be equal
(Conic Sections, Part III. prop. 30.). Now, fince it
ITEMS.
appears by this propofition that the fegments CA, CB, Def' ription
CD, CE, Sec. of the afymptote being taken in con-
tinned geometrical progreflion, the correfponding hy- . e e’f
perbolic areas Art^B, Afl</D, AaeE, Sec. confti-
tute a feriesof quantities in continued arithmetical pro¬
greflion, it is evident that the two feries will have, in
refpedl to each other, the fame properties as numbers
and their logarithms; fo that, if we aflume C A any
fegment of the afymptote as the reprefen tative of unity,
and fuppofe CB, CD, CE, See. to be the reprefenta-
tives of other numbers, the hyperbolic areas, A 0 & B,
Aa</D, Ao^E will be the geometrical reprefenta-
tives of the logarithms of thefe numbers 5 and fo alfo
will the hyperbolic fedfors Cab, C b d, C d e, Sic.
Let CA (the line denoting unity) be the fide of a
rhombus CAaL inferibed at the vertex of the hyper¬
bola, and let CP=« X C A (« being put for any num¬
ber) ; draw P/> parallel to CL meeting the hyperbola
in f>, then it may be {hewn, by the methods ufually
employed in reafoning about curvilineal areas, that the
area of the rhombus A a LC is to the hyperbolic area
A P as 1 to the Napierean logarithm of the number
n. Therefore if the hyperbola be equilateral, fo that
AaLc is a fquare, &c. confequently its area=l X l = l»
the Napierean logarithm of a, and the area Aa/>P may
be taken as the mutual reprefentatives of each other.
It is this circumftance which induced mathematicians
to call thefe logarithms hyperbolic. But with equal
propriety might the logarithms of any other fyftem be
called hyperbolic, as they may be equally expreffed by
the area of the equilateral hyperbola, or indeed by the
area of any hyperbola whatever, (fee Fluxions, § 152.
Ex. 5.).
SECT. II.
DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE TABLE.
THE common fyftem of logarithms is fo conftrudled,
that, o being the logarithm of unity, or 1, the loga¬
rithm of 10 is 1 j by which it happens that the loga¬
rithm of 100 is 2, that of 1000 is 3, and fo on. Alfo,
the logarithm of or .1, is —1, that is, 1 confider-
ed as fubtradlive •, or, in the language of algebra,
minus one ; and the logarithm of xfo or .01, is.—2 j
and the logarithm of .ooi is —3, and fo on, as in the
following ftiort table.
Numbers. Logarithms.
.001
.00
.1
I
10
100
1000
&c.
—3
—2
— 1
o
1
2
3
&c.
As the terms of the geometrical progreflion I, 10,
100, &c. continued backwards as well as forward, are
the only numbers whofe logarithms are integers j the
logarithms of all other numbers whatever muft be either
fradtions or mixt numbers. Accordingly, the loga¬
rithms of all numbers, whether integer or mixt, be¬
tween I and 10 are exprelfed by decimal fradlions lefs
- - than
LOGARITHM S.
8r
Defoimion than unity. The logarithms of numbers between 10
TeTatK anC^ 100 are exPre^'e^ by mixt numbers compofed of
, iie ta '‘ ' unity and a decimal fraftion. The logarithms of num¬
bers between xoo and 1000 are exprelfed by mixt num¬
bers compofed of the number 2 and a decimal fradtion,
and fo on. On the other hand, the logarithm of any
vulgar or decimal fradlion lefs than I, but greater
than tTo- or .1, will be fome negative decimal fradlion
between o and —I } and the logarithm of any fradtion
between .1 and .01, will be a negative mixed quantity
between —I and —2, and fo on.
But it mull be remarked, that any fradtion, or mixt
number, confidered as entirely negative, may always
be transformed into another mixt number of equal va¬
lue, that (hall have its integer part negative, but its
fradlional part pofitive, by diminifhing the integer by
unity, and increafing the fradtional part by the fame
quantity. Thus let the mixt quantity be—2T5o-, which
may be alfo written thus —2—Let the integer
—2 be diminifhed by I, and the refult is —2—1=—3.
Alfo, let the fradtion —^ be increafed by 1, and it
becomes —to- + 1 — + 7% ? therefore the fradtion
—2Tg- or —2.3, when transformed, is —3+t7o, or
—3-}-.7, which may be written thus, 3.7 j where the
negative fign is placed over the integer to indicate that
it is the only part of the expreffion that is confidered
as negative, the other part, viz. .7, being reckoned pofi-
tive.
Since therefore any fradtional or mixt quantity, con¬
fidered as entirely negative, is equivalent to another
mixt quantity, the integer part of which only is nega¬
tive, but the fradtional part pofitive, it is evident that
inftead of expreffing the logarithms of fradtions by num¬
bers confidered as entirely negative, we may exprefs
them by numbers having their integer parts negative,
and their decimal parts pofitive j and it is ufual fo to
exprefs them. Thus the logarithm of .03, inftead of
being expreffedby —1.52288, that is, by —1—.52288,
is ufually expreffed by 2.47712, by which is to be un-
derftood —2-f-.47712. Again, the logarithm of .7,
which, if confidered as entirely negative, would be
—.15490, is otherwife 1.84510.
As the logarithms of any feries of numbers forming
a geometrical progreflion, the common ratio of which
is 10, will exceed each other by the logarithm of 10,
that is, by 1, it follows that the logarithms of all num¬
bers denoted by the fame figures, and differing only in
the pofition of the decimal point, will have the decimal
part of their logarithms the fame ■, but the integers
ftanding before the decimals will be different, and will
be pofitive or negative, according as the numbers are
whole or fradtional, as in thefe examples.
Numbers.
69150
6915
691.s
69.i5
6.91s
.6915
.06915
Logarithms.
4.83980
3.83980
2.83980
1.83980
O.83980
1.83980
2.83980
The integer figure of a logarithm, is called its index
or charaBeriftic ; and it is always lefs by one than the
Vol, XIL Part I.
number of integer figures which the natural number con~ Defcription
fi/ls of; or it is equal to the difiance of the firfi figure and
from the place of units or firfi place of integers, whether the Table\
on the left or on the right of it. ¥
The table of logarithms given at the end of this ar¬
ticle, contains the decimal parts of the logarithms of
all numbers from 1 to 10,000 ; and indeed of all num¬
bers which can be expreffed by four figures, preceded
or followed by any numbers of cyphers, fuch as the
numbers 367500, .002795, &c. The index, however,
is not put down j but it is eafily fupplied by the rule
which has juft now been given. The table alfo con¬
tains the differences of the logarithms of all numbers
from 1000 to 10,000, by means of which the loga¬
rithm of any number confifting of five figures may be
eafily obtained.
1. To find the logarithm of any number confifiing of
four or any fmaller number of figures. Look for the
number in the columns titled at the top Numbers ; and
in the fame line with it, on the right, in the column of
logarithms, will be found the decimal part of its loga¬
rithm, to which fupply the decimal point, and its index,
according to rule delivered above. Thus,
The log. of 9 is found to be 0.95424
of 17
of 2.63
of 13.42
of 6280
of 3749
of .6027
of .00234
of 8 52600
1.23045
0.41996
2.12775
3.79796
_3*57392
1.78010
3.36922
5-93075
2. To find the logarithm of a number confifiing offive
figures.
Find the decimal part of the logarithm of the firft
four figures of the number, (that is, find the logarithm
of the propofed number as if the laft figure were a cy¬
pher), by the preceding rule, and find the difference
between that logarithm and the next greater, as given
in the column of differences (to the right of the column
of logarithms). Then ftate this proportion :
As 10,
To the tabular difference,
So is the laft, or fifth figure of the number,
To a fourth proportional j
which being added to the former logarithm, and the
decimal point and index fupplied, will be the logarithm
fought.
Example. Required the logarithm of 186.47. The
decimal part of the logarithm of the firft four figures,
viz. 1864, *27045» and th6 difference oppofite to it
in the column marked D on the top is 23. Therefore
we have this proportion ;
10 : 23 :: 7 : 7 X-2-3—i6.x
10
The fourth proportional is 16.1, or, reje&ing the deci¬
mal part, .16 nearly ; therefore,
to log. of 1684 •27°45
add 16
the log. of 168.47 is
L
^2.27061
3 . To
82
Defer! ption
and Ute of
the Table
3. To fin tthe logarithm of a vulgar fraBion or mixt
number. _ .
Either reduce the vulgar fraftion to a decimal, and
fmd its logarithm as above, or elfe (having reduced the
mixt number to an improper fraction) fubtraft the lo¬
garithm of the denominator from the logarithm of the
numerator, and the remainder will be the logarithm of
the frachon fought.
Ex. I. To find the logarithm of
From the log. of 3
Subtract the log. of 16
Rem. log. of or of .1875
Here, as the lower number is greater than the upper,
the remainder muft be negative *, the fubtraflion, how¬
ever, is fo performed, that the decimal part of the re¬
mainder is pofitive, and the integer negative.
LOGARITHMS.
The dec. part of given log. is
That of next lefs, viz. log. of 1357, is
.13278
•13258
Defc; 'pti'on
and Life of
the Table.
Difference 20
The tabular difference is 32, therefore we have this
proportion,
20 y. 10
32 : 10 :: 20 :
3 2
6 nearly.
0.47712
1.20412
"i.27300
Ex. 2. To find the logarithm of 13^ or f
From log. of 55
Subtradl log. of 4
1.74036
0.60206
Rem. log. of 13^ or of 13.75 I-I383°
4. To find the number correfponding to any given lo¬
garithm.
Seek the decimal part of the propofed logarithm in
the column of logarithms, and if it be found exaftly,
the figures of the number correfponding to it will be
found1 in the fame line with it in the column of num¬
bers. If the index of the given logarithm is 3, the
four figures of the numbers thus found are integers 5 but
if it be 2, the three firft figures are integers, and the
fourth is a decimal, and fo on ; the number of integer
figures before the decimal point being always one great¬
er than the index, if it be pofitive ; but if it be nega¬
tive, the number fought will be a decimal, and the
number of cyphers between the decimal point and firft
fignificant figure will be one lefs than the index—F^-
amples. The number correfponding to the logarithm
8-57392 3749" number correfponding to
3/12775 is 13.42. The number correfponding to
3.36922 is .00234, and fo on.
"But if the given logarithm is not exactly found in
the table, fubtraft the next lefs tabular logarithrn from
it, and take the difference between that logarithm,
and the next greater (as given in the column of differ¬
ences). Then flate this proportion :
As the difference, taken from the table,
Is to TO,
So is the difference between the given logarithm and
the next lefs, ;
To a fourth proportional,
which being annexed to the four figures correfponding
to the logarithm next lefs than the given one, will be
the logarithm required.
Example. Find the number anfwering to the loga¬
rithm 4.13278.
Therefore the number correfponding to the propofed
logarithm is .13576.
in like manner may the numbers to the following lo¬
garithms be found.
Logarithms. Numbers.
1-23457 I7-162
3-7343° 5423-8
1.09214 .12363
4.61230 40954
The table of logarithms of numbers is followed by a
Table of logarithmic Sines and Tangents, for every mi¬
nute of the quadrant, with their differences. For the
explanation of this table we refer to Trigonometry,
to which branch of mathematics it is intended to be
applied.
We fliall now give practical rules, illuftrated by ex¬
amples, for performing the different operations of arith¬
metic by logarithms.
MULTIPLICATION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Take out the logarithms of the faftors from the
table; then add them together, and their fum will be
the logarithm of the produdi required. Then find, by
infpecHon of the table, the natural number anfwering
to their fum, and it will be the prcdmft required.
Obferving to add what is to be carried from the de¬
cimal part of the logarithm to the pofitive index or in¬
dices, or elfe fubtraft it from the negative.
Alfo adding the indices together when they are of
the fame kind, that is, both pofitive or both negative j
but fubtra&ing the lefs from the greater when the one
is pofitive and the other negative, and prefixing the
fign of the greater to the remainder.
Examples.
Ex. 1. To multiply 2.314 by 50.62.
Numbers. Logarithms.
2.3x4 0.36436
50.62 I.70432
Product 117.13
2.06868
Ex. 2. To multiply 2.5819 by 3.4573.
Numbers. Logarithms.
2.5819
3-4573
0.41194
o-53874
Prod. 8.9265 0.95068
Ex. 3.
.Numbers.
qo.02
S91-x6
‘O3147
LOGARITHMS.
83
ftefcnphon Ex. 3. To multiply 39.0:
»nd tife of together.
.the Foible. “
, and 597.16, and .03147
Logarithms.
1.591 29
2.77609
2.4979O
3. Divide .06314 by .007241.
Numbers Logarithms.
Divid. .06314 2.80030
Divif. .007241 3.85980
Quot. 8.720
0.94050
Defciiption
and Ule of
the Fable.
V 1.'.in J
Prod. 753.3 2.86528
Here the fum of the pofitlve indices, together with 1
■which we carry, is 4, and from this we fubtradl 2, be-
cauie of the negative index —2.
Ex. 4. To multiply 3.586 and 2.1046, and 0.8372
and 0.0294 all together.
Here 1 carried frcm the decimals to the —3 makes ic
— 2, which taken from the other —2, leaves o re¬
maining.
Ex. 4. Divide .7438 by 12.947.
Numbers, Logarithms.
Divid. .7438 1.87146
Divif. 12.947 i.i 1 218
Numbers.
3v>86
2.1046
0.8372
0.0294
Logarithms.
O.55461
0.3 23 ! 7
I.92283
2.46835
£uot. .057449 2.75928
Here the 1 taken from the —1 makes it become —>2
to fet down.
PROPORTION by Logarithms.
1.26896
Here the 2 to carry cancels the—2, and there remains
the—x to fet down.
DIVISION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Subtract the logarithm of the divifor from the lo¬
garithm of the dividend, and the number anfwering to
the remainder will be the logarithm of the quotient re¬
quired.
Obferving to change the fign of the index of the di¬
vifor from poll live to negative, or from negative to
pofitive $ then take the fum of the indices if they be of
the fame name, or their difference when they have dif¬
ferent ftgns, with the fign of the greater for the index
to the logarithm of the quotient.
Alfo, when 1 is borrowed in the left-hand place of
the decimal part of the logarithm, add it to the index
of the divifor when that index is pofitive, but fubtraft
it when negative •, then let the index arifing from thence
be changed, and work with it as before.
Examples.
Ex. To divide 24163 by 4567.
Numbers.
Divid. 24163
Divif. 4567
Logarithms.
4-383I5
3-65963
Quot. 5.2908 0.72352
Ex. To divide 37.15 by 523.76.
Numbers.
Divid. 37.15
Divif. 523.76
Logarithms.
I.56996
2.71913
Quot.
.07093
2.85083
Rule.
Add the logarithms of the fecond and third terms,
and from the fum fubtraft the logarithm of the firft
term by the foregoing rules, the remainder will be the
logarithm of the fourth term required.
Or in any compound proportion whatever, add toge
ther the logarithms of all the terms that are to be mul¬
tiplied y and from that fum take the finn of the others,
the remainder will be the logarithm of the anfwer.
But, inftead of fubtracUng any logarithm, we may
add its arithmetical complement, and the refult will be
the fame. By the arithmetical complement is meant
the logarithm of the reciprocal of the given number,
or the remainder by taking the given logarithm from
o, or from 10, changing the beginning of the fcale
from o to 10 ; the eafieft way of doing which is to be¬
gin at the left hand, and fubtradl each figure from 9,
except at the laft fignificant figure on the right hand,
which muff be fubtra&ed from 10. But when the in¬
dex is negative, it muff be added to 9, and the reft
fubtra&ed as before j and for every complement that is
added, fubtraft 10 from the laft fum of the indices.
Examples.
Ex. 1. Find a fourth proportional to 72.34, 2.519,
and 357.48'.
Numbers.
As 72.34
To 2.519
So is 357.48
To 12.448
Logarithms.
I.85938
O.4OI23
2-.55325
2.95448
I.O95IO
Here the logarithms of the fecond and third terms are
added together, and the logarithm of the firft term is
fubtrafted from the fum5 but by taking the arithmeti-
L 2 cal
«
\
84
LOGARITHMS.
Defcription Cal complement of the firft term, the work might ftand
and Ufe of .
the Table.
As 72.34
To 2.519
So is 357.48
To 12.448
Comp. log. 8.14062
0.40123
2*55325
1.09510
Ex. 2. If the intereft of 100I. for a year, or 365
days, be 4.5, What will be the intereft of 279.25I. for
274 days ?
. C 8.00000
Comp. long. (7.4377,
2.44599
M3775
0.65321
As^
To
100
_ 365
1279.25
.l274
So is 4.5
To 9.4333
0.97466
Here, inftead of fubtra&ing the fum of the logarithms
of 100 and 365, we add the arithmetical complement
of the logarithms of thefe numbers, and fubtraft 20
from the fum of the indices.
INVOLUTION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Multiply the logarithm of the given number by
the index of the power, and the number anfwering to
the product will be the power required.
Note.—In multiplying a logarithm with a negative
index by a pofitive number, the produft will be nega¬
tive. But what is to be carried from the decimal part
of the logarithm will always be politive. And there¬
fore the difference will be the index of the produdt,
and is always to be made of the fame kind with the
greater.
Examples.
Ex. 1. To fquare the number 2.579.
Number. Logarithm.
Root 2.569 0.41145
The index 2
Power 6.6513 0.82290
Ex. 2. To find the cube of 3.0715.
Logarithm.
<M8735
3
Number.
Root 3.0715
The index
Power 28.976 1.46205
Ex. 3. To raife .09163 to the fourth power.
Number. Logarithm.
Root .09163 2.96204
4
3 to carry, the difference —5, is the index of the Defcription
produft. and Ule
the Table.
Ex. 4. To raife 1.0045 t0 t^ie 365th powrer.
Number.
Root 1.0045
The index
Powrer 5.1493
Logarithm.
O.COI95
365
» ' ■■■«
975
1170
585
EVOLUTION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Divide the logarithm of the number by the index
of the root, and the number anfwering to the quotient
is the root fought.
When the index of the logarithm to be divided is
negative, and does not exaftly contain the divifor with¬
out fome remainder, increafe the index by fuch a num¬
ber as will make it exaftly divifible by the index of the
root, carrying the units borrowed as fo many tens to
the left-hand place of the decimal, and then divide as
in whole numbers.
Examples.
Ex. I. Find the fquare root of 2.
Number. Logarithm,
2)0.30103
Power .2
Root 1.4142
0.15051
Ex. 2. Find the 10th root of 365.
Number.
Power 365
Root 1.804
Ex. 3. To find \A°93'
Number.
Power .093
Root .30496
Logarithm.
10)2.56229
O.25623
Logarithm.
2)2.96848
I.48424
Here the divifor 2 is contained exa&ly in the nega¬
tive index —2, and therefore the index of the quo¬
tient is —I.
Ex. 4. To find 3i/ .00048.
Number. l£garithm.
Power .00048 3)4.68124
Root .078298
2-89375
Power .000070495 5.84816
Here 4 times the negative index being —8, and
3
Here the divifor 3, not beingexadtly contained in—4,
it is augmented by 2 to make up 6, in which the divi¬
for is contained juft 2 times, then the 2 thus borrowed
being carried to the decimal figure 6, makes 26, which
divided by 3 gives 8, Sees
Ex.
N. i Log.
1,00000
2)30102
347712
460206
569897
677815
7845x0
890309
995424
1000000
Ti]°4I39
1207918
I3 XI394
i4i46i3
1517609
16 20412
17 23045
18 2C C27
19 27875
2030x03
2132222
2234242
2336173
2438021
2539794
2641497
2743136
2844716
2946240
30^7712
3149x36
325°5I5
335i855
34 53I48
3554407
3655630
37 56820
38 57978
3959x06
4060206
4161278
4262325
4363347
4464345
45 65321
4666276
4767210
4868124
4969020
5069897
5170757
5271600
53 72428
5473239
5574036
5674819
5775587
5876343
5977085
6077815
N. | Log.
60
61
62
63
64
65
77815
78533
79239
79934
80618
81291
66
67
8i954
82607
6883251
6983885
7084510
7'
72
73
74
75
7688081
77 88649
89209
7989763
8090309
8190849
8291381
8391908
8492428
8592942
91
92
93
9
9
9
9
9
9
100
101
102
103
104
105
xo6
107
108
10'
no
III
11 2
XI3
1X4
II
11
II
11
11
120
85126
85733
86332
86923
87506
8693450
8793952
8894448
8994939
9095424
95904
96379
96848
*3
597772
698;
227
798677
I23
999564
00000
00432
00860
01284
01703
02119
02531
02938
03342
903743
04x39
04532
04922
05308
05690
506070
606446
706819
807188
907555
07918
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N. Log.
120
I 21
122
12
I24
J25
07918
08279
08636
308991
O9342
09691
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
J33
x34
x35
136
137
138
139
10037
10380
10721
H059
M3 94
11727
120 f7
12385
12710
l3°33
14014613
141
142
J43
!44
J45
146
147
148
149
I5°
151
152
M3
154
155
M6
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
16 5
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
J73
174
r75
176
177
J78
J79
180
I3354
13672
13988
14301
14922
15229
I5534
M836
16137
16435
!6732
17026
I73I9
17609
17898
18184
18469
18752
I9°33
19312
I959°
19866
20140
20412
20683
20952
21219
21484
21748
22011
22272
2253
22789
23045
23300
23553
23805
24055
24304
24551
24797
25042
25285
25527
N. Log.
180
181
182
183
184
186
187
188
189
190
T9T
192
193
194
x95
25527
25768
26007!
26245
26482
26717
26951
27184
27416
27646
27875
28103
28330
8556
28780
29003
196
197
198
199
200
29226
29447
29667
29885
3°103
30320
30535
30750
30963
20531175
201
202
203
204
206
207
2083
2093
210
221
222.
22j
22
22
263
2
22
2
22'
230
231
232
233
23
235
3M87
3*597
1806
2015
32222
32428
32634
32838
3304
533244
211
212
213
214
21
'2163344s
21
218
21
220
733646
33846
934044
34242
34439
34635
34830
435025
5352*8
54**
735603
5793
935984
26173
36361
36549
36736
22
37*07
4369
2363
237
23
23
240
729
37475
8 37658
937840
38021
N.
240
241
242
24
244
245
38021
38202
38382
561
38739
389*7
241
247
2483
249
25
639094
39270
9445
39620
39794
25*
252
253
254
255
3996/
40140
40312
40483
40654
256
257
258
259
26c
40824
40993
41162
4*33o
4*497
261
26;
260
264
265
41664
4*830
41996
42160
42325
266
267
268
269
2704
271
272
273
274H
275
2764
277
278
27
280
281
282
2834
2844
285
286
287
288
2894
290
29
292
29
29
29
296
29
298
29
300
Log.
42488
42651
42813
42975
3*36
43297
43457
43616
3775
43933
4091
44248
44404
94456o
447*6
4487*
45025
5*79
5332
45484
45637
45788
45939
606c
46240
46389
46538
346687
446835
546982
47129
747276
47422
947567
477*2
N. Log.
300
301
3°2
303
304
3°5
477*2
47857
48001
48144
48287
48430
3064
3°7
30
30
3*o
3*-*
3*2
3*
3*4
3*5
8572
487*4
848855
948996
49*36
49276
494*5
9554
49693
4983*
34
3*6
31
3*8
3*
3 2
49969
0106
7 5
95
50243
0379
505*5
321
522
323
324
325
50651
50786
5092c
5*055
51188
3265
327
328
329
33c
33*
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
34]
342 5
343)5
34
3+5
346
347
348
349
35
35*
352
353
354
355
1522
5*455
5*587
5172c
5*85*
5*983
52114
52244
52375
52504
52634
52763
52892
5302
53*48
53275
3403
3529
453656
53782
53908
54033
54*58
54283
54407
5453*
54654
54777
549oo
55023
35655*45
35755267
55388
55509
55630
358
359
360
N. Log.
3605
361
3625
363
364
365
5630
5575*
587*
5991
5611c
56229
366
36
368
369
370
56348
756467
56585
56703
56820
37*
372
373
374
375
6937
57054
57*7*
57287
57403
376
377
37s
37
575*9
57634
57749
957864
7978
3805
381
382
383
384
385
58092
58206
58320
58433
58546
386
387
388
38
39°
39*
392
393
394
395
3965
397
398
39
400
401
402
4036'
4056
40
4°
40
407 6
4086
4096
410
4*1
412
4*
4*
4*
58659
58771
58883
958995
59106
59218
59329
59439
59550
59660
9770
59879
59988
960097
60206
60314
60423
053*
4)60638
0746
660853
0959
1066
**7
61278
61384
61490
*595
170
1805
41661909
41762014
418:62118
4I9|62221
42oj62325
N.
62325
62428
253*
62634
62737
562839
420
421
4226
423
424
42
4266
427
4286
429
43°
2941
63043
53*44
63246
63347
43*
432
433
43
435
63448
63548
63649
463749
63849
436
43
43
43
440
63949
7 64048
*47
964246
64345
44*
442
44
44
445
44
44
448:
44
45°
45*
452
45
454
_45
45
457
45
459
46
461
462
463
46'
465
46
46
46
46
47°
Log.
°4444
64542
.0
464738
64836
664933
76503*
65128
965225
6532*
654*8
655i4
10
65706
5658:
665896
65992
866087
66181
066276
66370
66464
,66558
46665:
66745
666839
766932
' 025
**7
67210
867c
967]
47*j67302
472j67394
47367486
47467578
47567669
476,67761
47767852
478,67943
47968034
48068124
«
B6
N. ! Log.
480I68124
48168215
48268305
483
484
485
68395
68485
685-4
486 68664
48768753
48868842
489
490
491
492
493
49a
496
68931
690 20
69108
69197
69285
69373
69461
49669548
49769636
49869723
j 126 j
7I349
7J433
I5I7
71600
5217168.
[97
5267
529
53°
531
53
533
53
53:
536
537
2099
72181
72263
72346
72428
47
72 COG
7259]
72673
2 7 54
72835
72916
72997
53873078
539
540
73159
73239
N.
54°
541
Log.
73239
73320
54273400
7348
7356o
73640
546737x9
543
544
545
547
54873878
73957
74036
549
55°
551
552
553
554
555
556
55*
559
73799
74II5
74194
74273
743 51
74429
4507
55774586
74663
74741
56074819
561
562
563
564
565
74896
7 97 l
75051
7 ci .-8
752o <;
5667528^
567
753 ^
56875431?
56975511
57075587
57175664
5727574
575j758i 5
574j7589
575175967
576,76042
577|76ix8
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
76193
76268
76343
76418
76492
76567
76641
585 76716
5867679
587
588
5S9
59
591
59:
593
594
595
5967
597
598
599
600
76864
76938
77012
7708
77159
723
773°
77379
7745
7525
77 597
77670
77743
7781
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
600
601
602
603
604
605
778i5
77887
7960
78032
78104
78176
60678247
60778319
608
609
610
7839°
78462
78533
8604
78675
78746
61478817
611
612
61
615
78888
6x6
617
618
619
62c
78958
79029
79099
79169
9249
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
63 1
631
632
633
635
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
Log.
79309
79379
79449
79518
79588
79657
79727
79796
9865
79934
80003
8007
80140
63480209
80277
63680346
80414
80482
50
80618
80686
80754
80821
80889
956
81023
8x090
81158
64981224
8129
81T58
81425
650
651
652
653
8 !491
6568
6578
6588
65
660
65481558
65581624
1690
I757
1823
981889
81954
N.
66081954
661
662
663
66482217
665
666
667
668
66982543
670
671
672
673
674
677
681
682
683
685
Log.
82020
82086
82151
82282
82347
82413
82478
82607
82672
82737
82802
82866
67582950
67682995
83059
67883123
67983187
68083251
833i5
83378
83442
68483506
83569
686 83632
687
688
690
83696
83759
68983822!
691
69 21
693
694
695
83885;
83948!
840111
84073!
84136
84x98
696 8
697
698
699
4261
84323
84386
84448
7ooS45i<
701
702
7°3
7°4
7°5
7°
70
708
7°9
710
711
712
7T3
71
7*5
71
71
71
71
720
84572
84634
84696
84757
84819
684880
784942
85003
85065
85126
85187
85248
85309
485370
85431
68
5491
785552
885612
985673
85733
N. Log.
720
721
722
723
7248
725
726
72
728
72
730
85733
85794
85854
859i4
5974
86034
7861
86094
lS3
862x3
986273
86332
86392
86451
86510
7368
737
738
73
740
746
747
74
749
750
751
752
753
755
731
732
733
7348657c
73586629
6688
86747
86806
986S64
8692:
56982
8704c
87099
87157
741
742
743
744
74587216
87274
87332
8 87390
87448
87506
87563
87622
87679
75487737
'795
75687852
75787910
75887967
88024
88081
88T38
8819 c
88252
88309
88366
76688423
759
760
76
762
763
763
765
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
77
777
778
77
780
88480
88536
88593
88649
88705
8876'
1
77488874
7758893
688986
89042
89098
i54
89209
9891
N.
780
781
782
783
784
785
7868
787
788
789
79c
Log.
89209
89265
80321
89376
89432
89487
9542
89597
89653
89708
89763
791
792
793
794
795
89818
89873
89927
8998
90037
79690091
797
90146
79890200
90255
90309
799
800
80190363
80290417
80:
90472
80490526
80590580
80690634
80790687
80890741
80990795
81090849
811
812
813
814
815
821
822
823
83
83
832
83
836
837
838
840
90902
90956
91009
91062
91116
81691169
8x7
91222
81891275
819
82c
91328
3Sl
9I434
9x487
9154°
82491593
82591645
82691698
82791751
82891803
82991855
91908
91960
92012
92065
8339211
92169
92221
92273
92324
83992376
92428
N.
840
841
842
8439
844
845
92428
92480
92531
2583
92634
92686
8469
847.
8489
8499
85c
859
852
853
8549
855
8569
8579
8589
859
8609
861
8629
86
86
865
866
86
86
8699
Log.
2737
92788
2840
2891
92942
92993
93044
93°95
3x46
93T97
3247
3298
3349
93399
3450
93500
3551
393601
493651
93702
93752
793802
893852
3902
8709395
87194002
87294052
873
94101
87494x51
87594201
87694250
8779430
87894349
87994399
88094448
881
882
88
885
94498
94547
4596
494645
94694
8839
8869
8879
88
88
890
891
89?
893
8949
8959
8969
8979
89!“
8999
900
4743
4792
894841
994890
94939
94988
95036
95085
»5I34
)5iS2
5231
5279
895328
5376
95424
N. Log.
900
901
902
5>5424
95472
95521
90395569
90495617
90 (9566 s
9o6|957i3
907195761
908195809
909,95856
91005904
9x1
912
91
9l
9I5
916
95952
95999
,n47
496095
96142
96190
91796237
91896284
91996332
92096379
921
922
92
924
92
96426
96473
520
96567
396
5966
92
92
92
92
93°
69666
796708
896755
9968
96848
931
932
93
93‘
93
9369
941
942
944
945
02
96895
96942
3 96988
497°35
597o8
7128
97174
_ 7220
997267
973*3
937
938972
93
940
97359
974°5
943 9745
97497
97543
94697589
94797635
94897681
949977
95097772
95*
952
953
954
97818
97864
97909
9795
95598000
95698046
98091
957
95
959
960
898
>37
9818
98227
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
96098227
96I98272
96298318
96398363
96498408
96598453
96698498
96798543
968 98588
96998632
97098677
97198722
97298767
97398811
97498856
975 98900
Log.
D.
97698945
97798989
97899034
97999078
98099123
98199167
98299211
98399255
08499300
98599344
98699388
98799432
98899476
98999520
99099564
99199607
99299651
99399695
99499739
99599782
99699826
99799870
99899913
99999957
100000000
1001
1002
100043
00087
100300130
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
104301828^
104401871 ^
0173
00217
00260,
003°5
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-43
43
0038
101000432
101190475
1012100518
101300561.
ioi4Soo6o44:i
101 ;!oo647^8
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102000860 J108003342s
102100903^ 1081 03383 4
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11061
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106302653
106402694
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Log.
D.l N.
01494
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1046
1047 i,L
104802036
10490207*
105002119
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108803663
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101
42
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42
41
41
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105602366
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106602776
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112605154
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1070(02938
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1070
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Log. D.
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Log.
D.
05690
05729
05767
05805
05843
05881
391
38
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114906032
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14860
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31
30
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15746
f 577^
158c
15836
30
31
30
30
31
30
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32
31
3°
630
l
ss
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
Mi1
f452
1453
1454
1455
16167
16197
16227
16236
16286
r456
T457
I458
•459
1460
16316
16346
16376
16406
16435
1461U6465
1462I16495
r463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
r47°
16324
16554
16584
1471
1472
1473
J474
475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
r483
16613
16643
16673
16702
16732
16761
16791
16820
x68 50
16879
16909
x6938
16967
16997
17026
17056
17085
17114
1484I7I43
148517173
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
7202
17260' ^
17289
I73I9
1491
1492
1493
1494
T495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1500
1501
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17609
I7638
150217667
15°3
I5°4
1 7696
I7725
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1506:17782
I5°7
1508
1509
1510
1511
1512
17811
1784c
17869
17898
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8099
151818127
1520
18156
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152218241
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18270
18298
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1328
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1532
1533
1534
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1537
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1539
1540
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17926
I7955
17984
i8355
18384
18412
18441
18469
18498
18526
i8554
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18639
18667
18696
18724
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18780
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D.
29
29
29
29
29
28
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29
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28
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28
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28
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28
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18921
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1688
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22531
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174c
1741
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24°55
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24105
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174424155
174524180
1746
1747
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175°
25!t
26
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1803 25600
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25648
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178425139
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25164
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1788
1789
1790
25237
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1791
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25310
25334
25358
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25431
25455
25479
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25527
25672
25696
5720
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1811
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2579
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181325840
1814
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25864
25888
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
25912
25935
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25983
26007
1821
1822
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1824
1825
26031
26055
26079
26102
26126
1826
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1828
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26150
26174
26198
26221
26245
1831
26269
1832 26293
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1840
25
24
24
25
241
24
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24
24
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24
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24
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1860
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26316 28
26340
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266
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26717
26741
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26811
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1871
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1880
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241
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1898
1899
1900
1901
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D.!
269^1
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27021
27045 2CJ
27068 8
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27114 o
27138
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23
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1909
1910
28081
28103
1911
1912
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1917
192c
28126
28149
28171
1914 28194
1915 28217
191628240
28262
191828285
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28330
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1936
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1939
1940
28691
28713
28 73 5
287 ;8
28780
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192
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1930
1931
1932
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1946 28914
1947128937
1948,28959
1949 28981
1950 29003
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LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
Log. D.;j N. Log. D.J N. Log. D. N. ) Lag. I),
30984 ;i2ioi32243:;0-
2253l2,|2l62334»620
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199830060 M 2058313452!
199930081 2J20593136621
2060 3x387 2i
200030103 22
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2001 301252I;2o6j 31408
2002
2004
30146
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200330168 -2063314502, 2123^ ^
;20643 147I 2J 2x24327152, 21843392520
12005 302II
1951129026
1952129048
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1954129092
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22 /
200830276
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200630233 206631513 21 ;2126 32756
28 200730255 20673I5342i!2I2732777
22 200830276 206831555 211212832797
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* ' 12074316812,1213432919
;2Q*7 C 21702., 21 2 C 2 204.0
2OI43O406
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1957
10 c8
29159
29181
1959129203'
i960 29226
2oi6ho44922 207631723 2ir*o-^-y—
2017304712i 20773[7442!^2137329802I
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
X971
I972
r973
1074
1975
1976
*977
1978
x9
1980
29248
29270
29292
29314
29336
293 58
29380
29403
29425
29447
2027
29469
29491
29513
29535
29557
22
. 2037130771 2I|'20913 2035 2J
29579
29601
29623
929645
29667
Vol. XI
208631931
208731952
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LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
2400
2401
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38o39
38o57
240^38=751,8'
38o93
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N.
2460
2461
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24631
Log. D.
39°94
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39811
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39898
250739915
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2580
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41162
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LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
288045939
288145954
288245969
288345984
288446000
288546015
288646030
288746045
288846060
288946075
289046090
289146105
289246120
289346135
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289546165
Log.
289646180
2897 46195
289846210
289946225
290046240
290146255
290246270
290346285
29044630
290546315
290646330
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294646923
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50352
50379
50393
50406
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50433
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3302
3303
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LOG AM i BMS OF
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336°
3361
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534°3
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53428
53441
53453
53466
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52879
52892
52904
52917
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52943
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354°
3541
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54949
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NUMBERS,.
LogTlIxi
N. J Log . |D.
56005563
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3609
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LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
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58681
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63215
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10
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10
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LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
432o63548
432163558
432263568
43 23 63 5 79
432463589
432563599
432663609
432763619
432863629
432963639
433063649
N.
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D.
10
438064147;
43Sl
4382
433163659
433263669
4333 63679
433463689
433563699
433663709
433763719
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434063749
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434163759
434263769
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434563799
434663809
434763819
434863829
434963839
435063849
438364177
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10
N.
Log. |D.
64i57i1
64167
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D.
438664207
438764217
438864227
438964237
439064246
439164256
439264266
439364276
439464286
439564296
435163859
435263869
4353 63879
435463889
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439664306
439764316
430864326
439964335
440064345
440464385
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63939
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10
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441864523
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442164552
442264562
442364572
442464582
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446965021
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1456065896
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474067578
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LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
95
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4800
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68151
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68178
68187
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480968205
481068215
48x168224
481268233
4813 68242
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4815 68260
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4818 68287
481968296
482068305
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482268323
482368332
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486668717
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68664
68673
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68690
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486868735
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9 488668895
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N
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
Log.
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6360
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4
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
672082737
1672182743
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672382756
672482763
672582769
672682776
6727 82782
672882789
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84017
D.i N. j Log.
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6 70 20,184634
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N.
Log.
85003
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7085^5034
7686 85040
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LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
7200
7201
720
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72°4
720
720
720
7208
720
7210
N. } Log. D.
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6739286876
0739386882
739486888
739586894
N. | Log. |D.
7380 86806:
7381 868i2l
738286817
738386823
738486829
738586835
7406 869 58
7407 86964
^7408 86970
'740986976
I741086982
7396 8690c
7397 86906
739886911
739986917
7400 86923
7426
740186929
740286935
7403 86941
740486947
740586953
741186988
741286994
74*386999
741487005
741587011
741687017
741787023
741887029
74*987035
742087040
742187046
7422 87052
742387058
742487064
7425
87070
87075
7427 87081
742887087
742987093
743087099
i743*
7432
17433
7434
7435
7436
7438
’ 7439
1 744°
87105
87111
87116
1.7122
87128
87*34
743787140
87146
87*5*
87*57
7440
744*
7442
7443
7444187181
744587186
7446
,7447
7448
17449
745°
N.
Log. ID.
87157
87163
87169
87*75
87192
87198
87204
87210
87216
745*
7452
17453
7454
7455
87221
87227
87233
87239
87245
17456
17457
7458
7459
7460
87251
87256
87262
87268
87274
7461
7462
:7463
7464
7465
7466
7467
747*
7472
7473
7474
7475
7476
7477
747887379
747987384
7480
7481
7482
7483
7484
1748587419
8728c
87286
87291
87297
87303
873c9
873*5
7468 87320
746987326
747087332
87338
87344
87349
87355
87361
87367
87373
87390
87396
87402
87408
874*3
748687425
7487
'17488
7489
7490
1749*
7492
8743*
87437
87442
87448
87454
87460
7493!87466
74948747*
7495
87477
7496
87483
749787489
7498
7499
7500
87495
87500
87506
750087506
75°* 875*2
50287518
750387523
750487529
750587535
N. 1 Log. D.j N. | Log.
7 50687 541
75°787547
750887552
750987558
751087564
75** 8757°
751287576
75*38758*
75*487587
75*587593
751687599
751787604
751887610
751987616
752087622
752187628
752287633
752387639
752487645
75258765*
752687656
752787662
752887668
75-2987674
753087679
753*|87685
7532187691
7533187697
7534
7535
87703
87708
753687714
7537|8772o
7538,87726
7539|8773*
7540,87737
:754*|87743
7542I87749
7543,87754
7544!8776o
1754587766
754687772
7547
7548
|7549
17550
87777
87783
87.789
8779-5
1755*
61:7552
J7553
$7554
J7555
7556
6!i7557
.6
£17559
17560
8780a
87806
87812
87818
87823
87829
87835
87841
87846
87852
J756087852
756*187858
756287864
756387869
756487875
7565187881
D.
7566187887
756787892
7568:87898
756987904
757087910
757*879*5
757287921
6 7573 87927
6fi757487933
,7577
17579
175808
7575
87938
75768
7944
87950
7955
87961
7967
7581
7582
7583
75848
7585
87973
87978
87984
799°
87996
j7586
7587
7588
7589
17590
6 759*
17592
17593
17594
|7i?J
759688Q58
3759788064
I75988807
^759988076
I760O 8808 ’
88001
88007
88013
880l8
88024
8803O
88036'
8804I
.88047
88053
^601
617602
£!76o3
617604
6|76o5!88i 10
6
88087
88093
88098
88icz!
7620
7621
7622
7623
762488218
7625
17626
7627
7628
7629
7630
760688116
760788121
760888127
17609
7610
I761 *
.7612
7613
76*4
7615
88133
88138
88144
!'i5°
88156
88161
88167
761688173
76*7
7618
7619
7620
88178
88184
88190
88195
N.
88195
88201
88207
88213
88224
88230
88235
88241
88247
88252
7631
7632
7633
17634
7635
88258
88264
88270
88275
88281
7636
7637
7638
,7639
17640
764*
7642
7643
7645
617646
7647
7648
7649
7650
765*
7652
.7653
7654
7655
7656
7657
7658
7659
Log.
iD.
88287
88292
88298
88304
88309
88315
88321
88326
764488332
88338
88343
88349
88355
88360
88366
88372
88377
88383
88389
88395
88400
884
88412
88417
'660188423
766ij88429
766288434
7663:88440
7664188446
766518841
5
6
6
6
5
^7668188468
^7669188474
517670188480
7666-J88457
766788463
J767*|88485
I767288491
'4 7673;88497
-4767488502
§767588508
(7670188513
517677:88519
617678,88525
§7679,88539
61768088536
6
5
6
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
102
7680
7681
7682
7683
768
768
N.
88536
88541
88547
^88553
>488559
588564
768
768
768
768
7690
688570
7 88576
888581
988587
88595
7691
7692
7693
7694
7695
7696
7697.
7698
7699
7700
7701
7702
77°3
770
77°5
770
7707
770
77°
771°
7711
7712
77J3
7714
7715
88598
88604
88610
88615
88621
88627
88632
88638
88643
88649
88633
88660
88666
488672
88677
7721
7722
7723
7724
7725
Log. |D.J N. Log
1688683
88689
8 88694
00
88705
88711
88717
88722
88728
88734
771688739
771788745
771888750
lll9
7720I
88756
88762
772688795
7727 88801
772888807
7729
773°
773 „ n
7732 88829
7733
7734
773 ^
[774088874
j 774188880
[774288885
^774388891
I774488897
7745 88902
774688908
7747889i3
774888919
774988925
775088930
88936
77 5288941
775388947
775488953
775588958
775688964
775788969
775888975
775988981
776088986
7766 89020
776789025
776889031
776989037
777089042
88767
88773
88779
88784
88790
88812
88818
88824
DJ
776188992
776288997
776389003
776489009
776589014
777189048
777289053
777389°59
777489064
7775 89°70
y776 89076
7777 89081
777889087
777989092
778089098
7781
7782
7783
778489120
88835
88840
88846
773688852
773788837
7738 88863
7739 88868
774088874
89104
89109
89ii5
7785
89126
778689131
778789137
778889143
778989148
779°89154
7791
7792
7793
617797
7798
:78oo
89i59
89165
89170
779489176
779389182
779689187
89193
89198
.779989204
89209
7800
7801
7802
7803
780489232
7805
780689243
7807
7808
N.
,og.
D. N. Log.
89209
89215
89221
89226
89237
89248
89254
780989260
7810
8926 5
7811
7812
7813
89271
89276
89282
781489287
781589293
7816 89298
781789304
7818
7819
7820
89310
893i5
89321
7821
7822
7823
89326
89332
89337
782489343
7825
89348
782689354
7827
7828
7829
7830
7831
7832
7833
783489398
783689409
7837
7838
7839
784089432
89360
89365
89371
89376
89382
89387
89393
7835
7841
7842
7843
7845
7847
7848
7850
7851
7852
7853
7854
7855
89404
894i5
89421
89426
89437
89443
89448
784489454
89459
784689465
89470
89476
784989481
89487
89492
89498
89504
89509
895i5
785689520
7857
7858
7859
7860
89 326
89531
89537
89542
7860
7861
7862
7863
7864
7865
89542
89548
89553
89559
89564
89570
786689575
7867
7868
7869
7870
89581
89586
89592
89597
7871
7872
7873
7875
7876
7877
7878
7879
7880
7881
7882
7883 89669
788489675
7885
788689686
7887
7888
7889
789089708
D. N. Log.
89603
89609
89614
78748962
89625
89631
89636
89642
89647
89653
89658
89664
89680
89691
89697
89702
7891
7892
7893
897i3
89719
89724
789489730
7895
89735
7896
7897
7898
7899
7900
89741
89746
89752
89757
89763
7901
7902
79°3
.!79°4
7905
7906
, 79°7
J79°8
,,7910
6^
6L
J7913
6 79M
5 79I5
6 7916
J79I7
179l8
17920
89768
89774
89779
89785
89790
89796
89801
89807
12
89818
9 898
89823
89829
89834
89840
89845
89851
89856
89862
7919 89867
89873
7920
7921
7922
792
792
7925
79268
792
792
792
7930
89873
89878
89883
:3 89889
,489894
899OO
99°5
89911
:8 89916
22
9899
89927
7931
7932
7933
7934
7935
89933
89938
89944
89949
89955
793689960
793.
7938
793
7940
7941
7942
7943
794
7945900°9
794<
794'
79489
794
7950
7951
7952
7953
795. - -
795590064
7 89966
89971
989977
89982
89988
89993
89998
490004
.69001
79589
795!
796'
7961
79629
79639
79649
79659
79669
79679
79689
79699
7970
7971
7972
7973
797
7975
D.i N
J5
790020
0026
99oo3i
90°37
90042
90048
90053
490059
795690069
795
790O75
080
990086
9009
90097
0102
0108
,0113
10119
0124
10129
lOI35
0140
90146
90151
9OI57
90162
168
9OI73
490
79769
7977
7978
7979
7980
■| 7980
7981
7982
7983
79849
7985
79869
,0179
90184
90189
9OI95
90200
7987
7988,
79899
7990
90200
90206
90211
90217
0222
90227
.0233
90238
90244
0249
90255
7991
7992
7993
/
799
90260
90266
90271
0276
,590282
9949
79969
,0287
799790293
90298
799990304
903°9
8001
80029
8003^
80049
80059
80069
90314
10320
90325
'0331
0336
80079
80089
80099
801c
801
801
801
801
80209
8021 _
80229
802
80249
8025
8031
8032
8033
8034
8035
Log.
N.
10342
l0347
,0352
, 0358
90363
8011
8012
8OI„,
801490385
801590390
90369
90374
390380
690396
790401
890407
990412
10417
90423
0428
39°434
0439
9°445
802690450
802790455
802890461
802990466
803090472
90477
90482
90488
9°493
90499
803690504
803790509
803890515
803990520
804090526
J8o40,90526
1804190531
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804390542
804690558
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804890569
804990574
805090580
805190585
805290590
805390596
0805490601
805590607
806190639
806290644
8063 90650
806490655
806590*660
Log.
D.| N. J^og. ID.
8100
8101
8102
8103
810490870
I8105 90875
805690612
805790617
805890623
805990628
8060 90634
8o6(
80679
80689
806
8070
690666
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990682
90687
8071
8072
8073
80749
80759
90693
90698
907°3
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0714
80769
6 8°7- -
0 80789
80799
80809
8081
8082
80839
^80849
80859
80869
80879
8088
8089
8090
8091
8092
809
809
10720
790725
073°
0736
10741
90747
90752
0757
10763
0768
0773
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90784
90789
9°795
90800
90806
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68°9'
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6 q°9-
8100
690827
790832
1890838
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90854
90859
90865
811690934
811790940
811890945
811990950
812090956
[810690881
810790886
810890891
810990897
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8 is 11290913
[811390918
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811590929
8l2I90961
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812390972
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812590982
8l 2690988
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81299IOO4
81309IOO9
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8i33 9io25
813491030
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813691041
813791046
813891052
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814091062
814691094
814791100
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814991110
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814291073
814391078
[814491084
814591089
815191121
815291126
815391132
815491137
815591142
815691148
8i579ii53
815891158
815991164
816091169
102
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N__
816091169
816191174
816291180
816391x85
81649119
816591196
Log. jl>.
816691201
816791206
816891212
816991217
817091222
817191228
817291233
817391238
^i749i243
8x7591249
8176191254,
8177 91259
8178J91265
1 |
91275;
91281
86
818c
8181
818291
818391291
8184
S18-
91297
91302
818691307
818791312
818891318
818991323
819091328
S'! 91
8192
91334
9I339
8i93 9r344
8i949I35°
8iq i
91355
8190
8201
8202
8203
8 204
8205
8206
819691360
8197913-65
819891371
91376
820091381
91387
91392
l9I397
91403
91408
914x3
82079I4l8
820891424
820991429
8210191434
821191440
821291445
8215I9T450
8214I91455
821991461
8216I91466
8217191471
8218191477
821991482
8220191487
822091487
822191492
822291498
N.
Log.
822c
3822491508
822591514
8226
915°3
9I5I9
^822791524
822891529
1535
^8230191540
55823 i|9i 545
5! 823291551
5:823391556
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6|823 791577
8238,91582
8239191587
5824091593
824191598
824291603
58243916
824491614
824591619
824691624
58247
8248
8249
5
5825091645
8251
825?
8254
8255
91630
9i635
91640
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825891687
j!n 9J693
91698
A 259
511826c
8261
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826591724
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9*656
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9*6ll
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9I735
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827691782
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•’1827991798
^1828091803
91787
D. N. Log.
5 828491824
828591829
828091803
828191808
828291814
8283
8286
8287
8290
6?29*
8292
8293
8294
D. N. Log.
91819
9l834
91840
828891845
828991850
9i855
91861
91866
91871
91876
5829591882
82969188/
829791892
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83°3
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6'83ic
8311
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83 x 3
6;83i49i981
831591986
83i6
831791^97
831892002
8320
8321
8322
18324
8326
8327
8328
9*9*3
91918
9x924
9J934
9I944
9I95°
9r955
91960
9!965
9I97I
91976
9I99I
92007
92012
92018
92023
832392028
92033
832592038
92044
92049
92054
832992059
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835892210
8359922I5
836092221
'8365 92247
834592I43
8346
8347
I).* N. j Log.
2117
92122
92127
92132
92I37
92148
92I53
92163
92169
92174
92179
92184
92189
836
362
;8363
8364
8371
8372
8373
r 8374
8375
6^376
8377
8378
8379
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92236
92241
836692252
836792257
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837°92273
92278
92283
392288
92293
92298
92304
92309
92314
923I9
92324
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838292335
8383j9234c
8384I92345
8385I9 2350
838692355
92361
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£8389
92366
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92351
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Vql. XII. Part L
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LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
o Degrees.
bin.
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0-46373
6.76476
6.94085
7-o6579
5 7.16270
Dif.
67.24188
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8 7.36682
97.41797
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7.54291
7.60985
7.63982
7.66784
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7.80615
7-82545
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25 7.86166
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7.92612
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Tang.
7.95508
7.96887
7.98223
7.9952°
33 8:00 7 79
36 8.02002
378.03192
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398.05478
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41 8.0765
42 8.08696
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448.10717
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478.13581
488.14495
498.25391
508.16268
51 8.17128
528.17971
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54 8.19610
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568.21189
578.21958
588.22713
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8.10720
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8.18804
8.19616
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12.93421
12.83730
12.75812
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12.63318
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12.53627
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107
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60
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11.78036
11.77280
11.76538
11.75808
89 Degrees.
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9.99997
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9.99997
9.99997
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9-99995
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b-99993
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I Degree.
Sin.
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0j8.24i86
118.24903
28.256
518.27661
6 8.283 24
7 8.28977
88.29621 ^
8.24192
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718
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128.32103
13 8.32702
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168.3445°
178.35018
188 35578
198.36131
208.36678
1 8.37217
228.37750
238.38276
248.38706
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268.39818
278.40320
288.40816
298.41307
308.41792
31 8.42272
328.42746
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368.44594
378.45044
388.45489
398.45930
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458.48485
46 8.48896
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48 8.49708
498.50108
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8.26312
8.26996
8.27669
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8.28986
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583
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11.75808 9
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9.99992 5
9.99992
9.99991
11.68495 9
11.6788819
11.67289 9
11.66698 9
11.66114 9
ii-65539 9
11.64071
11.64410
n.638579
ix-63311
999894
9.999894
9.999894
9.999894
9.99988
xi.62771
11.62238 9
11.61711
11.61191
11.60677 9
11.60168J9
11.596669
11.5917c
11.5867
n.58193
9:99988
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9.99987
9.99987^
^9873
II-577I
n.57238
11.
11.56304
11.55844
II-55389i9
XI-54939
II-54493
11.54052
11-53615
ii-53i83
XI-52755
II-52331
11.51911
11.51495
367
363
11.51083
11.50675
11.50271
11.49870
i x-49473
11.4908
11.48690
11.48304
11.47921
1147541
11.47165
11.46792
11.46422
11.46055
11.45692
88 Degrees.
Tang.
A
Coi.
-9999300
. 99993 59
9-99993 58
9-99993
99992
99992
52
5°
.99991
.99990
.999904
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•9999°4
999 8 N
.999863
9.999S6 3
99,999853
9.99985
3 9\99985
9.99984
56768I9.99984
9.^9984
9.99983
.99983
9.99983
9.99982
9.99982
9.99982
9.99981
9.99981
9.99981
9.9998c
9.99980
9.99979
9.99979
9.99979
9.9997b
9.99978
9.99977
9.99977
9.99977
9.99976
9.99976
9-99975
9-99975
9.99974
9.99974
9.99974
Sin.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
2 Degrees.
Sin. Dif.
8:54282
8.54642
8.54999
38-55354
48.557°5
58.56054
8.56400
78.56743
8. C7084
98.5742
io8-57757
11
8.58089
8.58419
138.58747
i4j8.<;9072
8-59395
16
18
19
20 8.60973
21 8.61282
22I8.61589
8.61894
248.62196
258.62497
360
357
355
351
349
346
343
341
337
336
33 2
33°
328
325
323
3 20
3f8
3i6
8.62795
8.6309
28 8.63385
8.63678
3.63968
3.64256
328.64543
8.64827
8.65110
8.65391
268.6 ^670:
8.65947
8.66223
8.66497
8.66769
8-597i5
17 8.60033
"8.60349
8.606628 8
311
3°9
3°7
3°5
302
301
298
296
294
293
290
288
287
284
283
281
279
277
276
274
272
270
269
267
266
263
263
260
259
258
2 56
254
253
252
250
249
247
246
244
243
242
8.67039
8.67308
8.67575
8.67841
8.68104
468.68367
8.6862.,7
8.68886
8.69144
8.69400
3.69654
528.69907
8.7oi59
8.70409
558.70658;
60
568.70905
8.71151
3.71395
598.71638
8.71880
Co?;
Dif.
Cot. Coi.
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8.55382^^ ii.
8.55734^0 ri-
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8-59749 11
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8.60698314 11,
8.61009311 11.
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8.61319'' 11.
18.6162630' 11,
8.61931303 11.
8.62234303 11.
8.62535301 11.
8.62834^ n.
8.63131 ^ ii.
8.63426^ ri.
8.637182^ "■
8.64009 11.
8.64298 ^ 11.
8.6458528c II-
8.64870^ 11.
8.65i5428^ II-
8-65715 g II
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8.66269 274 11
8.66 543 II
8.668l6273 II.
I 8.67087 ^ II
8.67356^ II
8.67624^ II.
8.67890^64 II.
8.684x7 6j ii-
8.68678 ii,
8.6893826q ii.
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8.S9453,r? 14
8.69708 “ II,
8.69962234 11.
8.70214 2^j H--
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9.9996747
9.9996746
9.99967 45
9.99966
9.99966
41221
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40572
40251
39932
39616 9.9996542
9.999644
9.99964
9.99963
39302
38991
3 8687
38374|9.99963
38069 9.99962
37766 9,9996236
37465 9.9996i 35
34
33
37166 9.99961
36869 9.99960
36574 9.9996032
31
9-99959 3°
362829.99959
35991
357029.99958
354i5j9.99958
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31322
310629
30804 9
3° 547
30292
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29786;9
29535
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9-99957
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34007
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33457
33184 9-99953
9-99955
9-99954
9.9995421
20
19
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3291319-99952
32644 9.99952
9995i
9-99951
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99949
9-99949
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99948
9-99947
9.99946
•99946
99945
9.99944
99944
99943
9.99942
99942
■PI 99941
28060 9.99940
Sin.
87 Degrees.
08.71880
1 8.72120
28.72359
3 8.72597
48.72834
58.73069
68.73303
78.73535
88.73767
98.73997
TO 8.74226
8-74454
8.74680
138.74906
8.75I30
il8 \75353
8-75575
22
r7 8.75795
18 8.76015
8.76234
8.7645:
8.76667
8.76883
238.77097
248.77310
8.77522
268.77733
8-77943
288.78152
298.78360
308.78568
31 8.78774
328.78979
338.79183
348.79386
358.79588
368.79789
378.7999c
388.80189
398.803881
408.8058 5
41 8.80782
428.80978
438.81173
448.81367
45 8.81560
3
Sin. Dit. j Tang. Dif
468.81752
47 8.8I944
48 8.82134
498.82324
5^8.82513
51 8.82701
528.82888
8.83075
8.83261
8.83446
55
568.83630
8.83813
88.83996
8.84177
8:_84358
" Co?. ;
240
239
238
237
235
234
232
232
23°
229
228
22$
226
224
23
222
220
220
219
217
216
216
214
213
212
211
210
209
208
208
206
205
204
203
202
201
201
199
199
197
I97
196
*95
194
!93
192
192
190
190
189
188
187
187
186
185
184
183
183
181
181
8.71940
8.72181
8.72420
8.72659
8.72896
8.73132
8.73366
8.73600
8.73832
8.74063
8-7429 2
8.74521:
8.74748
8-74974
8.75199
8-75423
8.75645
8.75867;
8.76087
8.76306
8.76525
8.76742
8.76958
8.77387
8.7760
8.77811
8.7802
8.7823
8.78441
8.78649
8T7885}
8.79061
8.79266
8.79470
3.79673
8.7987
8.80076
8.8027
8.80476
8.8067
8.80872
8.81068
8.8x264
8.81459
8.81653
8.81846
8.82038
8.82230
8.82420
8.82610
8.82799
8.82987
8-83175
8.83361
8-83547
8.83732
(8.83916
8.84100
8.84282
8.84464
241
239
239
237
236
234
234
232
231
229
229
227
226
225
224
222
222
220
219
219
217
216
215
214
213
Cot.
210
209
208
206
206
205
204
203
20 2
201
201
!99
198
198
196
196
i95
194
!93
192
192
190
190
189
188
188
186
186
185
184
184
182
182
Cot.
11.2806
11.27819
11.275809.99939
9.9994060
59
58
9.9994:
11.
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9.99938
11.271049.99938
11.268689.99937
11.266349.99936
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11-25937
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11.250269.99932
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11.232589.99926
11.230429.99925
79.99924
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11.21978 9.99921
11.21768
11.2155$
11.21351
9.99920
9.99920
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11.21145 9.99918
11.2093$
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11.20 53c
11.20327
11.20125
11.19924
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11.19524
11.193269.99911
11.191289.9991c
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11.187369.99909
11.18541
11-183479-99907
11.181549.99906
11.179629.99905
11.177709.99904
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Ii-T73909-999°3
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9.999264c
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9.9991728
9.99917
9.999x6
9.99915
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9.99913
9.99913
9.99912
21
26
9.99908
11.172019.99902
11.170139.99901
11.168259.99900
11.166399.99899
1 K 16453 9.99898
86 Degrees.
11.162689.99898
II.160849.99897
II.I59009.99896
II.157189.99895
6 9-99894
Tang.
Sin.
:i
1 %
16
£5
14
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12
11
IQ
9
8
7*
6
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4
3
2
1
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107
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LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
4 Degrees.
bm.
Dif.
8.84358
18.84539
28.84718
3 8.84897
181
179
179
178
68.85429
h 8485605
88.85780
8.85955
8.86128
8.86301
8.86474
8.86645
8.86816
^ 8.86987
5 8.aj ^5^ j
176
I75
I75
173
*73
[73
71
I7I
171
169
169
169
167
168
166
166
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164
164
63
163
162
162
160
161
!59
l59
I59
16 8.87156
78.87325
r. 8 8.87494
n 8.8766
20 3.87829
21 8.87995
228.88161
2^ 8.88326
24 3.88490
24 8.88654
268.88817
27 8.88980
288.89142
298.89304
308.89464
8.84464
8.84646
8.84826
8.85OC6
8.85185
8.85363
8.85540
8.85717
8.85893
8.86069
8.86243
8.87277
8.87447
8.87616
8.87785
8-87953
31 8.89625
32 8.89784
338.89943
368.90417
378.90574
388.90730
398.90885
408.91040
4118.91195
428.91349
438.91502
448.91655
45 8.91807
r57
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T55
J55
J55
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152
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Dif. |
182
180
180
179
178
x77
177
176
176
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8.8639' ^
8.86,63; f2
8.87106
170
169
169
168
167
167
166
165
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11.14637
11.14460
11.14283
11.14107
II-I393I
11.1-
11.1;
11-I34°9
11.13237
11.13065
11.12894
8.88120
8.88287
8.88453
3.88618
8.88783
11.12723
11.12553
11.12384
11.12215 9-9987741
11.12047 9.9987640
8‘89II1!i62
8.89274I163
8.89437
8.89598
8.89760
8.89920
8.9008
8.9024c
8.90399
8-90557
8.90715
8.90872
•8.91029
8.91185
8.91340
8.91495
8.91650
8.91803
8.91957
468.91959
47 3.92110
488.92261 5
- 8.92411 ^5°
8.92561
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528.92859^49
53 8.93007|
54 8*93154! 47
558.9330t| 47
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578.93594!:^
59
60
588.9374^46
8.93885;«
8.94030I 45
163
161
162
160
160
160
x59
158
158
i57
157
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T54
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452
152
Cot. | Cof: 
11.1 5536|l9-99894i6o!
11.15354
1 I*I5174
11.14994
Degrees.
9.9989359
9.99892|58
. 9.99891:57
11.14815 9.99891 56
9.9989055
;9.99889!54
9.9988853
9.9988752
9.9988651
3757 9-99885
3P3 9.9988449
9.9988348
9.9988247
9.99881 46
9.998804J
11.11880
9.9987944
9.9987943
9.9987842
9-9987539
11.11713 9.9987438
11*11547
11.11382
11.11217 9.99871
11.11052
11.10889
11.10726
11.10563
11.10402!
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11.10080
11.09920!
50
9.9987337
9.9987236
9.9987034
9.9986933
9.998683
9.998673
9.998663c
29
28
9.99865
9.99864
,, 9.99863
11.09760 9.99862
1 r.09601
9.99861
11.09443
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11.09128
11.08971
11.08815 9.99856
11.08660
11.08505
8.92110
8.92262
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8-93609
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8.9419 j 4
Cot.
35
9.9986c 24
9.99858
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9.99854
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11.0804319.99851
n.o789oi 9.99850
11.07738 9.99848
11.07586,19.99847
11.07435 9.99846
11.07284 9.99845
11.07134 9.99844
11.06984 9.99843
11.06835 9.99842
11.06687 0.99841
11.0653819.99840
11.0639119.99839
11.0624419.99838
11.06097:9.99837
II.°595I |9.99836
11.05805I9.99834
T ang. 1 Sin.
! 1
10
Sin.
0,8.94030
I|8-94I74
28.94317
38.94461
4:8.94603
5i8.94746
20
268.97629
27 8.97762
28 8.97894
29 8.98026
308.98157
6,8.94887
7,8.95029
8,8.95170
918-95310
8.95450
Dif.
8.95589
8.95728
3 8.95867
48.96005
58.96143
68.96280
7 8.96417
88.96553
98.96689
8.96825
Tang.
8.96960
8.97095
8.97229
8.97363
58.97496
31 8.98288
328.98419
338.98549
348.98679;
358.98808:
368.98937
37 8.99066
388.99194
398.99322
408.99450
41 8-99577
8.99704;
8.99830
8.99956
9.00082
M4
143
144
142
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141
142
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140
140
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138
138
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136
136
136
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133
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132
132
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131
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130
130
129
129
129
128
128
128
127
I27
126
126
8.94195
8.94340
8.94485
8-949*7
Dif.
J45
H5
H5
Cot.
11.05805
11.o 5660
8.95060
8.95202 4
8-95344 4.
8"95486II4;
8.95627 4
140
8-95767 i.i
8.959°8 x oQ
8.96047
38
8.96187 ]4°
8.96325
8.96464
8.96602 3°
8.96739
8.96877 ;p
8.97013
8.97285
8.97421 ^
8.97556 j8"
'8.9769I 33
8.97825 134
8.97959 |34
8.98092 133
8.98225 133
8.98358 J33
469.OO2O7
9.00332
9.OO456
499.OO581
9.OO7O4
9.OO828
529.OO95I
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9.OI I96
9.OI318
569.OI44O
9.OI561
9.OI682
9.O1803
60^.01923
126
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124
125
123
124
123
123
122
122
122
121
121
121
120
8.98490
8.98622 132
8.98753 |3 J
8.98884 131
8.99OI5 131
- 130
8.99I45
8.99275 30
8.994°5 3q
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8.99662
8.9979
8.999I9
9.00046127
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9.00301
11.04940I9.99828 54
11.04798 9.-998 27 53
11.046569.9982552
11.045149.9682451
11-04373
11.04233(9.9982249
11.04092 9.9982148
iI.03953t9.9982o'(47
11.03813 9.9981946
11.03675
11-03536
11.03398
11.03261
11.03123
129
128
Cof.
9.9983460
9.9983359
II-055I5 9.9983258
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11.052279.9983056
11.050839.9982955
9.9982350
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11.0298719.99812,40
11.028 5c 9.9981039
11.02715 9.9980938
11.02579 9.99808I37
11.02444 9.9980736
11.02309 9.9980635
11.0151c 9.99798
11.013789.99797
11.02175 9.9980434
11.02041 9.9980333
11.01908 9.9980232
11.01775 9.9980131
11.01642 9.9980c 3c
29
28
27
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2_5
24
23
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21
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11.01247
II.OIII
11.00985
9:99796
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9-99793
11.008559.99792
11.00725
11.00595
11.00466
11.00338
9.00427
9.°0553
9.00679
9.00805
9.00930
85 Degrees.
Cof.
9.01055
9.01179
9.01303
9.01427
9.0I55°
128
127
126
126
126
126
125
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124
124
124
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11.00209
11.00081
10.99954
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9.02040
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10-99573
9.99791
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9-997
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9.99786
9-99785
9-99783
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2
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS,
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11 Degrees.
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LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
113
14 Degrees.
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74 Degrees.
Vol. XII. Part I.
H4
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Tang. | Sin.
70 Degrees.
6c
59j
58‘
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5^
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
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26
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24
23
22
21
20
*9
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
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P 2
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116
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
20 Degrees.
Sin.
°9-SM°5
i!9"53440
2,9‘53475
39-S3509
49-53544
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59-5357833
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Tang, i Sin.
00
59
58
57
56
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53
52
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45
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43
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21 Degrees.
1 Sin. D. Tang. D,
9-55433,
9.55466
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68 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
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67 Degrees.
9.59188
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Sin.
D.j Tang.
23 Degrees.
9.62785
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LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
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LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
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LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
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559.8248
10.06084
10.06058'
10.06033
10.06007
10.05982
10.05956
9"94I97
9.94222
9.94248
9.94273
9-94299
9.94324
9.94350
9*94375
9.94401
9.94426
9.94452
9-94477
9.94503 2,
9-945^;^
9.94554
J5
Hi
I4'
l4'
l5i
Mi
I A’
10,05931
IO.O59O5
IO.O5880
IO.O5854
IO.O5829
IO.O5803
Cof. !D.
9.87778ixi
9.87767
9.87756
9.87745
9-87734
11
9.87712
9.87701
9.87690
9.87679
9.87668
9.87^57
10.057789.87646
10.0575219.87635
9.87624
9.87613
10.05727
10.0 5701
10.0 5676I9.87601
10.0565019.87590
10.05625 9.87579
io.o5599 9-87568
10.05574M7557
10.0554819.87546
10.055239.87535
10.05497 9.87524
11
n
11
9-94579
9.94604
9.94630
9.94655
i9.9468i
19.94706
9.94732
9*94757
i9.94783
9.94808
M
M
M
M
M
M
.94834
9.94859
9.94884
9-94910
9-94935
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
25
,6
25
26
25
26
10.05472
10.05446
10.05421
10.05396
10.05370
9.87513
9.87501
12
9.94961
9.94986
9.95012
x ,.9.95037
^9.95062
19.95088
I49-95IM
tT 9-95138
9.95164
9-95I9°
9.95215 2
9.95240 J
9.95266 2
9.95291
9-95317
M
M|
M
I5
M
M
Ml
5619.82495
57:9.82509
58,9.82523)4
59ll9.82537ii‘+ ,
6o;9.8255i| 4 9.95444
TCof. 1 Cot
9.87490
9.87479
9.87468
^ 10.05345 9.87457
.10.053199.87446
10.0529419.87434
9.87423
9.87412
9.87401
9-87390
9.87378
. . 9.87367
10.0511619.87356
19.05090
10.05065
10.05268
10.05243
10.05217
10^05192
10.05166
10.05141
12
11
9.87345
9'87334
10.050399.87322
10.050149.87311
10.04988 9.87300
10.04963,9.87288
0.0493819-87277
10.04912 9.87266
10.04887 9.87255
10.0486119.87243
10.04836I9.87232
10.0481019.87221
9.95342
9.95368
9.95393
9-9541
10.04785S9.87205
10.0476019.87198
10.047349.87187
10.0470919.87175
10.04683I9.87164
8 2l
26
10.04658S9.87153
10.046329.8714
io.o46o7'9.87130
10.04582I9.87119
10.04556
Tang.
9.8710
Sin.
12
6c
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52|
51
5°
(49
48
47
46
45
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3^
29
28
7
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
48 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
127
42 Degrees.
' 1 Sin.
o 9.82551
19.8256 c
29-82579
39-82593
49.82607
59.82621
69.82635
79,82649
8 9.82663
99.82677
109.82691
D.
119.82705
129.82719
39-82733
49.82747
159.82761
169.82775
179.82788
189.82802
99.82816 {4
209.82830^
219.82844
29.82858
239.82872
249.82885
259.82899
469.83188
4719.83202
48:9.83 2! 5
499.83229
509.83242
269.82913
279.82927
289.82941
299-82955
309.82968
31 9.82982
329.82996
339.8301°
349.83023
359-83037
369.83051
379.83065
389.83078
399.83092
;40 9.83 106
41 9.83120
429.83133
439-83f47
449.83161
45 9-83 *74
5T|9-83256
520.83270
539.83283
549.83297
55 9-83310
569.83324
579-83338
589-83351
59
60
9-83365
*4
*4
*4
*4
*4
*4
*4
*4
r4
l4
14
f4
Tang.
9-95444
9.95469
! J9-95495
T19-955 20
9-95545
9-95571
9-95596
9.9 5622
9-95647
9.95672
9.95698
D
9-95723
9-95748
9-95774
9-95799
9-95825
9-95850
9-95875
9.95901
9.95926
9-95952
9-95977
9.96002
9.96028
9-96053
9.96078
9.96104
9.96129
9-96i55
9.96180
9.96205
9.96231
9.96256
9.96281
9.96307
9.96332
9-96357
9-96383
t il9-964o8
r, 9-96433
9.96459
9.96484
9.96510
9-96535
9.96560
9.96586
9.96611
9.96636
9.96662
9.96687
9.96712
9.96738
9,96763
9.96788
9.96814
,49-9^39
J19.95864
Cot.
IO.O4556
IO.O453I
IO.O45O5
IO.O4480 9.87073
:9.87o62
9.87050
10.04455
10.04429
10.04404
10.04378
*0.04353
10.0432819.87005
10.04202 9.86993
10.04277
Col.
9.87107
9.87096
;9-87°85
‘9-87039
9.87028
'9.87016
9.86982
10.04252 9.86970
10.04226I9.86959
'9.96890
9-969*5
19.96940
0-83378 1‘5 9.96966
Col.
Cot.
10.03845 9.86^86
10.03820 9.86775
10.03769
*0.03744
10.03719 9.86728
10.03693
10.03668 9.8670 $
10.0364319.86694
10.03617 9.86682
10.04201
*o.o4i75
9.86924
9.86913
9.86902
9.86890
10.04048 9.86879
10.04150
10.04125
10.04099
10.04074
10.04023 9.86867
10.0399819.8.685 5
10.03972
*0.03947
10.03922
10.03896
10.03871
9.86947
9.86936
9.86844
9.86832
9.86821
9.86809
9.86798
*0-°3795 9-86763
9.86752
9.86740
9.86717
10.03592
*°-°3567;9-86659
*0-0354*|9-86647
*°-o35*6|9-86635
9.86624
9.86612
9.86600
9.86589
10.03490
10.03465
10.03440
10.03414
10.03389
10.03364
9.86577
9-S6565
*0.033389.86554
*0.033139.86542
10.032889.86530
10.03262
*0.03237
10.03212
10.03186
10.03161
26 IO-°3I3^
10.031 10
2 10.03085
2g 10.03060
10.03034 9.86413
 Tang.
47 Degrees.
9.86670
D.
9.86518
9.86507
9.86495
i9'86483
9.86472
'9.86460
9.86448
9.86436
9.86425
Sin.
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
5 2
5*
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
4*
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
35
29
28
2 7
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
*9
18
*7
16
15
*4
*3
12
43 Degrees.
Sin.
°9-83378!
19-83392
219-834°5
39-834*9
49-83432
59-83446
69-83459,
79-83473
89.83486
99.83500
*°9-835*3
Dj
Tang,
Hr-9«S66
,7 9-9699'
I9.97OI6
i9.97042
I9.97067
9-97°92
**9-83527
*29-8354°
*39-83554
*49-83567
*59-8358*
*69-83594
179.83608
189.83621
*99-83634
209.83648
21 9.83661
229.83674
23 9.83688
249.83701
259-837*5
269.83728
279-8374*
289-83755
299.83768
309.83781
3*9^3795
32 .
339-8382*
349-83834
359.83848
^ 9-97750
9.83808 9-97776
^ 9.978
9.97826
9.97851
369.83861
9.97118
9-97*43
9.97168
9-97*93
9-972*9
9.97244
9.97269
9-97295
9.97320
9-97345
9-9737*
9.97396
9.9742*
9-97447
9.97472 25
~ 25
26
9.97497
9-97523
9-9 7 548
9-97573
9-97598
9.97624
9.97649
9.97674
9.97700
9-97725
379-83874 j2 9-97902
389.83887 ^ 9.97927
399.83901 J 9-97953
4°9-839*4T. 9-97978
419.83927
429.83940
43 9-83954
449.83967
45 9-8398
469.83993
9.84006
37
489.84020
49
50
5*
9-84°33 I2
9.84046 8
9.84059
529.84072
9.84085
9.84098;
9.84112'
53
54
55
569.84125;
9.84138:
9-84*5*
9.84164
9-84*77
Cof.
*3
*3
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*4
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9-98o°3
9.98029
9-98o54
9.98079
9.98104
9.98130
9-98i55
9.98180 25
9.98206
9.98231
D.l Cot.
10.02882 9.86342
10.028579.86330
10.02832 9.86318
3 10.02807 9-86306
J *0-02731
10.02705
10.02680
9.982 c6
9.98281
9-983°7
9.98332
9-98357
9.98383
I9.98408
9-98433
I,19-98458
^9-98484
Cot.
*0.03034
10.03009
10.02984
10.02958
*0.02933
10.02908
10.02781
10.02756 9.86283
10.026559.86235
10.02629 9.86223
10.026049.86211
*0-02579
*0.02553
10.02528
10.02503
Col.
9.86413
9.86401
9.86389
9.86377
9.86366
9.86354
9.86295
9.8627
9.86259
9.86247
9.86200
9.86188
9.86176
9.86164
10.0247719.86152
10.0245219.86140
10.02427I9.86128
10.024021I9.86116
10.02376I9.86104
10.02351I9.86092
10.0232619.86080
10.02300I9.86068
10.02275I9.86056
10.02250 9.86044
10.02224
10.02199
10.02174
10.02149
10.02123 9.85984
10.02098 9.85972
2510.02073 9-85960
10.C2047I9.85948
10.02022I9.85936
9.86032
9.86020
9.86008
9.85996
10.019979.85924
10,01971
10.01946
10.01921
10.01896 9.85876
10.01870
10.01845
10.01820
2610.01794
2510.01'
25
10.01744
9.8 5864
9.85851
9-85839
9.85827
769I9.85815
10.017199.85791
\\
10.01693
10.01668
25UQ.01643
2(*|io.oi6i7
25l*0-°*592
2510.01567
2510.01542
2610.0151
Tang.
9.859*2
9.8590c
9.8 5888
9.85803
9-85779
9.85766
9-85754
9.85742
9.85730
9.85718
9.85706
9.85693
.Sin.
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
11
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
1 2
12
12
12
1 2
12
12
12
1 2
12
12
*3
12
12
12
12
12
12
*3
12
12
12
12'
12
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
521
5*
5£
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
4*
12
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
1
32
29
28
27
26
25
24
3
22
21
20
*9
18
*7
16
£5
*4
*3
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
o.
46 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
44 Degrees.
Sin.
D.| Tang.
09.84177
1 9.84190
29.84203
39.84216
4I9.84229
519.84242
6,9.84255
79 84269
89.84282
9.84295
9.84308
9.84321
9-84334
9-84347
9.84360
9-84373
17
169.84385
D.
13
9.98484
^j!9-98509
I, 9-98534
4i9-9856o
^ 9 98585
9.98610
9.9863 s
9.98661
I9.98686
19.98711
;9-98737
9.84398
189.84411
9.84424
9-8443 7
2ii9.84450
229.84463
9.844761
49.84489!
9jH5°2|
25
269.84515
27
26
'9.98762
9.98787
9.98812
9.98838
9.98863
9.98888
i9989I3
9.98939
9.98964
9.98989
10.01516
10.01491
10.0x466
10.01440
10.01415
10.01390
10.01365
!3
9.99015
9.99040
9.99065
9.99090
9.99116
9.84528
9.84540
9-84553
9.84566
Cof.
9 99I4I
9.99166
9 99x91
9.992x7
9.99242
Cot.
Cot.
Cof. ID.
9-85693 j2
9.856811
9.85669 J2
9.85657
9.85645
9; 8 5 63 2
9.85620
0.01339 9.85608
10.01314
10.01289
10.01263
9.85596
9.85583
9.85571
io.oi238[9 85559
10.012x3
10.ox 188
10.01162
xo.ox 137
10.OX I 12
10.01087
10.01061
10.01036
10.0101 I
10.00985
10.00960
10.00935
10.00910
9.85547
9.85534
9.85522
9.85510
9.85497
9.85485
9-85473
9.85460
9-85448
9.85436
9.85423
9.8541 X
i9 85399
54l
53
1000884 9-85386
10.00859
10,00834
10.00809
xo.00783
10,00758
Tang.
9-85374
985361
9 85349
'9 85337
:9j5324
i Sin.
45 Degrees.
44 Degrees.
369-84643 x
9.84566
9.84579
9.84592
84605
84618
9.84630
Stn. D.
13
13
13
13
12
13
9.84656^8
9-84669L,
9-84682! 8
i9
Tang.
D.
i9
19
9
9.846941; J9
84707 xJ9
9.84720
9-84733
449.84745
45
9.84758
469.84771
47
lS
9.84784
489.84796
9.84809
9.84822
9.84835
9.84847
9.84860
9 84873
984885
9.84898
9 84911
589.84923
599.84936
609.84949
Cof.
19
I3
12
!3
13
12
13
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•99343
•99368
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99520
99545
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1.99697
99722
99747
Cot.
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10.0075819,
10.00733 9
10.00707I9
10.00682S9
10.00657119
10.00632 9
io.oo6o6|9
10.00581S9
10.005 5 6!j9
10.00531 9
xo.oo505j!9
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99848
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-99899
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85274
,85262
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10.00480!
10.004551
10.00430
10.00404
10.00379
10.00354
10.00328
10.00303;
10.002781
10.00253
10.00227
10.00202
10 00177
,85187
85175
85162
85150
■85137
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85112
85100;
30
29
28
27
26
15
24
23
2
21
20
25
25
2510.00152
26
251
J:iO.OOI26
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25!
Cot.
10 00x01
85087I15
410.00051|9
2 1
25:
10,00025 9
— li
10.0000019
Tans.
85074
8 >062
85049
85037
.85024
85012
84999
84986
84974
84961
84949
Sin.
45 Degrees.
LOG
LOGARITHMIC curve. If on the line AN
olh ways indefinitely extended, be taken AC, CL,
;G, GI, IL, on the left hand-, and alfo A g, g P,
te on the right, all equal to one another ; and if at
ie'points P?, A, C, E, G, I, L, be ereaed to the
io-ht line AN, the perpendiculars PS, ^G AL, L1X,
lF, GH, IK, LPvI, which let be continually propor-
ional, and reprefent numbers, viz. AR, 1 J CD, 10 j
-.F, 100, &c. then fiiall we have two progreflions of
ines, arithmetical and geometrical : for the lines AC,
kE, AG, &c. are in arithmetical progreflion, or as I,
■ 4 ’ 4, r. &c, and fo reprefent the logarithms to which
he geometrical lines AB, CD, EF, &c. do correfpond.
Ar fince AG is triple of the firft line AC, the number
4H (hall be in the third place from unity, if CD be
n the firft : fo likewife (hall LM be in the fifth place,
5nce AL=5 AC. If the extremities of the propor-
ionals S, rf, B, D, F, &c. be joined by right lines,
be figures SRML will become a polygon, coninung
if more or lefs fides, according as there aremiore or lels
terms In the progreflion. . ,
If the parts AC, CE, EG, &c. be bifeaed in the
points c, e, g, i, /, and there be again raifed the per-
pendiculars, c ef, g h, i kjtn, which are mean pro-
portionals between AB, CD, CD, EF, &.c. then there
LOG
will arife a new feries of proportionals whofe terms, be- Logantb
ginning from that which immediately follows unity,
are double of thofe in the firft feries, and the difference
of the terms is become lefs, and approaches nearei to a
ratio of equality than before. Likewife, in this new
feries, the right lines, AL, Ac, exprefs the diftances
of the terms LM c from unity, viz. fince AL is ten
times greater than A c, LM ftiall be the tenth teim or
the feries from unity *, and becaufe A <? is three times
greater than A c, e/will be the third term of the feries
if f ^ be the firft, and there ftiall be two mean propor¬
tionals between AB and ef and between AB and LM
there will be nine mean proportionals. And if the ex¬
tremities of the lines B/ D/ h h, &c. be joined by
right lines, there will be a new polygon made, confift-
ing of more but ftiorter fides than the laft.
If9 in this manner, mean proportionals be continual-
ly placed between every two terms, the number of
terms at laft will be made fo great, as alfo the number
of the fides of the polygon, as to be greater than any
given number, or to be infinite -, and every fide of the
polygon fo leffened, as to become lefs than any given
right line ; and confequently the polygon will be chan¬
ged into a curve-lined figure j for any curve-lined fi¬
gure may be conceived as a polygon, whofe fides are
LOG [i
Lcgarith- infinitely fmall and infinite in number. A curve defcrib-
iwic Curve, after this manner is called logarithmical.
Lir'-s ^ man^e^ from this defcription of the logarith-
■ _^ mic curve, that all numbers at equal diftances are con¬
tinually proportional. It is alfo plain, that if there
be four numbers, AR, CD, IK, LM, fuch that the
diftance between the firft and fecond be equal to the
diftance between the third and the fourth, let the di¬
ftance from the fecond to the third be what it will, thefe
numbers w ill be proportional. For becaufe the diftances
AC, IL, are equal, AB (hall be to the increment Dr,
as IK is to the increment MT. Wherefore, by r.om-
pofition, AB : DC IK : ML. And, contrariwife,
If four numbers be proportional, the diftance between
the firft and fecond lhall be equal to the diftance be¬
tween the third and fourth.
The diftance between any two numbers is called the
logarithm of the ratio of thofe numbers $ and, indeed,
doth not meafure the ratio itfelf, but the number of
terms in a given feries of geometrical proportionals, pro¬
ceeding from one number to another, and defines the
number of equal ratios by the compofition whereof the
ratios of number is known.
LOGARITHMIC Lines. For many mechanical purpofes
it is convenient to have the logarithms of numbers laid
down on fcales, as well as the logarithmic fines and
tangents •, by which means computations may be car¬
ried on by mere menfuration with csmpaffes. Lines
of this kind are always put on the common Gunter’s
fcale •, but as thefe inftruments muft be extended to a
very great length, in order to contain any confiderable
quantity of numbers, it becomes an objedl of import¬
ance to fhorten them. Such an improvement has been
made by Mr William Nicholfon, and publiftied in the
77th volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions. The
principles on which the conftrudlion of his inftruments
depends are as follow :
1. If two geometrical feries of numbers, having the
fame common ratio, be placed in order with the terms
oppofite to each other, the ratio between any term in
one feries and its oppofite in the other will be conftant:
Thus,
2 6 18 54 162, &c.
3 9 27 81 243, &c. Then,
2 ^3 6 9 18 27 54 81 162 243, &c.
wvhere it is evident, that each of the terms in the upper
feries is exadlly two-thirds of the correfponding one in
the low'er.
2. The ratio of any two terms in one feries will be
the fame with that between thofe which have an equal
diftance in the other.
3. In all fuch geometrical feries as have the fame ra¬
tio, the property above mentioned takes place, though
we compare the terms of any feries wdth thofe of ano¬
ther : Thus,
J 2 4 8 16 32 64, &c.
I 3 6 12 24 48 96, &c.
S 4 8 16 32 64 128, &c.
10 20 40 8o 160, &c.} v,'here it is
plain that 2, 4, 3, 6; alfo 2, 4, 4, 8, and 2, 4, 5, 10, &c.
have the fame ratio with that of each feries.
4. If the differences of the logarithms of the num¬
bers be laid in order upon equidiftant parallel right
lines, in fuch a manner that a right line drawm acrofs
.the whole (hall interfeft it at divillons denoting num-
Vol, XII. Part I.
59 ] LOG
bers in geometrical progreffion ; then, from the condi- Logam’n-
tion of the arrangement, and the property of this lo- m c
garithrnic line, it follows, ift, That every right line fo
drawn will, by its interfeftions, indicate a geometrical
feries of numbers j 2dly, That fuch feries as are indi¬
cated by thefe right lines will have the fame common
ratio ; and, 3dly, That the feries thus indicated by two
parallel right lines, fuppofed to move laterally, without
changing either their mutual diftance or paralielifm to
themfelves, will have each the fame ratio and in all
feries indicated by fuch two lines, the ratio between an
antecedent and confequent j the former taken upon one
line, and the latter upon another, will be alfo the fame.
The 1 ft of thefe propofitions is proved in the fol- p]at(.
lowing manner. Let the lines AB, CD, EF, repre- CCXCVU.
Cent parts of the logarithmic line arranged according il-
to the proportion already mentioned j and let GH be
a right line palling through the points e, c, a, denoting
numbers in geometrical progreflion j then will any
other line IK, drawn acrofs the arrangement, likewife
pafs through three points f d, b, in geometrical progref¬
fion. From one of the points of interfedKon f in the
laft-mentioned line IK, draw the line/j-parallel to
GH, and interfering the arrangement in the points
i, h; and the ratios of the numbers e,f c i, will be equal,
as well as of ah; becaufe the intervals on the loga^
rithmic line, or differences of the logarithms of thofe.
numbers, are equal. Again, The point^ the line id,
and the line hb, are in arithmetical progreffion denot¬
ing the differences between the logarithms of the num¬
bers themfelves 5 whence the quotients of the numbers
are in geometrical progrefiion.
The 2d propofition is proved in a fimilar manner.
For as it was fhown that the line fg, parallel to GH,
paffes through points of divifion denoting numbers in
the fame continued ratio as thofe indicated by the line
GH ; it may alfo be Ihown, that the line LM parallel
to any other line IK, will pafs through a feries of
points denoting numbers which have the fame continued
ratio with thofe indicated by the line IK, to which it is
parallel.
The 3d propofition arifes from the paralielifm of the
lines to their former fituation ; by which means they
indicate numbers in a geometrical feries, having the
fame common ratio as before: their diftance on the lo¬
garithmic line alfo remains unchanged : whence the dif¬
ferences between the logarithms of the oppofite num¬
bers, and of confequenee their ratios, will always be
conftant.
5. Suppofing nowr an antecedent and confequent to
be given in any geometrical feries, it will always be
poffible to find them, provided the line be of unlimited
length. Drawing two parallel lines, then, through each
of the numbers, and fuppofing the lines to move with¬
out changing their direction or parallel fituation, they
will continually defcribe newr antecedents and confe-
quents in the fame geometrical feries as before.
6. Though the logarithmic line contain no greater
range of numbers than from I to 10, it will not be
found neceffary for the purpofes of computation to re¬
peat it. The only thing requifite is to have a Aider
or beam with two fixed points at the diftance of the
interval betwixt 1 and 10, and a moveable point made
to range betwixt them always to indicate the antece¬
dent j then, if the confequent fixed point fall with-
R out
L O G
[
Lcgarith- out the rule, the other fixed point will always denote
ink Lines, diylflon on which it would have fallen had the
ruje j3een pr0]0I1ged j and this contrivance may eafily
be adapted to any arrangement of parallel lines what¬
ever. The arrangement of right lines, however, ought
always to be difpofed in fuch a manner as to occupy a
right-angled parallelogram, or the crofs line already
mentioned ought always to be at right angles to the
length of the ruler.
Tig. y. is a ruler confifting of ten parallel lines.—
Fig. 8. a beam compafs for meafuring the intervals.
B, A, C, are the parts w'hich apply to the furface of
the ruler ; the middle one, A, being moveable fide-
wife in a groove in the piece DE, fo as always to pre-
lerve its parallelifm to the external pieces DC, which
are fixed at a diftance equal to the length of the ruler,
and have their edges placed in fuch a manner as.to
form with the parallellines which they interfeft a ratio,
which by compofition is ; which in the prefent cafe
requires them to be at right angles to the length. The
piece DE is applied to the edge EG of the ruler. The
edges or borders H, I, K, L, are more conveniently
made of tranfparent horn, or tortoife-fhell, than of any
opaque matter.
In ufing this ruler, apply the edge of either B or
C to the confequent, and Aide the piece A to the an¬
tecedent ; obferving the difference between the num¬
bers on the pieces denoting the lines they are found
on : then, applying the fame edge of A to any other
antecedent, the other piece B or C will interfeft a con-
fequent in the fame ratio upon that line, having the
fame fituation with regard to the antecedent that the
line of the former confequent had to its antecedent.
But if B be the confequent piece, and fall without the
ruler, the piece C will Ihow the confequent one line
lower 5 or if C, in like manner, fall without the ruler,
then B wdll fhow the confequent one line higher.—
“ It might be convenient (fays Mr Nicholfon) for the
purpofe of computation, to make inftruments of this
kind with one hundred or more lines : but in the pre¬
fent inftrument, the numbers on the pieces will anlwer
the fame purpofe } for if a confequent fall upon a line
at any given number of intervals without the iuier, it
will be found on that line of the arrangement which
occupies the fame number of intervals reckoned inwards
from the oppofite edge of the ruler/’
Tig. 9. is an inftrument on the plan of a Gunter’s
fcale of 284- inches long, invented by . Mr Robert-
fon. There is a moveable piece AB in the Aider
GH, acrofs which is drawn a fine line :.the Aider ha¬
ving alfo lines CD, EF, drawn acrofs it at diftances
from each other equal to the length of the ruler AB.
In ufing the inftrument, the line CD or EF is to be
placed at the confequent, ax;d the line in AB at the
30 ] Jj O G
antecedent : then, if the piece AB be placed at any Logaritlu
other antecedent, the fame line CD or EF will indicate .mx
its confequent in the fame ratio taken the fame way :
that is, if the antecedent and confequent lie on the
fame fide of the Aider, all other antecedents and confe-
quents in that ratio will be in the fame manner; and
the contrary if they do not. But if the confequent line
fall without the ruler, the other fixed line on the Aider
will (how the confequent, but on the contrary fide of
the Aider to that where it would elle have been feen by
means of the firft confequent line.
Fig. 10- is a circular inftrument equivalent to the
former j confifting of three concentric circles engraved
and graduated upon a plate of an inch and a half dia¬
meter. Two legs A and B proceed from the centre,
having right-lined edges in the direction of radii j and
are moveable either fingly or together. In ufing the
inftrument, place one of the edges at the antecedent
and the other at the confequent, and fix them at the
angle. Move the two legs then together ; and having
placed the antecedent leg at any other number, the
other will give the coniequent one in the like po-
fition on the lines. If the line CD happen to lie be¬
tween the legs, and B be the confequent leg, the num¬
ber fought will be found one line farther from the cen¬
tre than it would otherwife have been j and on the con¬
trary, it will be found one line nearer in the like cafe,
if A be the confequent lag. “ This inftrument (fays
Mr Nicholfon), differing from that reprefented fig.. 7.
only in its circular form, and the advantages refulting
from that form, the lines muft be taken to fucceed each
other in the fame manner laterally $ fo that numbers
which fall either within or without the arrangement of
circles, will be found on fuch lines of the arrangement
as would have occupied the vacant places if the fuccef-
fion of lines had been indefinitely repeated fidewife.
“ I approve of this conftru&ion as fuperior to every
other which has yet occurred to me, not only in point
of convenience, but likewife in the probability of be¬
ing better executed 5 becaufe fmall arcs may be gra¬
duated with very great accuracy, by divifions transfer*
red from a larger original. The inftrument, fig. 7. may
be contained conveniently in a circle of about four
inches and a half diameter*
“ The circular inftrument is a combination of the
Gunter’s line and the fedor, with the improvements
here pointed out. The property of the fe&or may be
ufeful in magnifying the differences of the logarithms
in the upper parts of the line of fines, the middle of th.e
tangents, and the beginning of the verfed fines.. It is
even poflible, as mathematicians will eafily conceive, to
draw fpirals, on which graduations of parts, everywhere
equal to each other, will ftiow the ratios, of thofe lines
by moveable radii, fimilar to thofe in this inftrument,’'
LOGIC.
IOGIC is the art of thinking and reafoning juftly •,
or, it may be defined the fcience or hiftory of the
human mind, inafmuch as it traces the progrefs of our
knowledge from our firft and moft fimple conceptions
through all their different combinations, and sll thofe
4 '
numerous dedu&ions that refult from varioufiy com¬
paring them one with another.
The preeife bufinefs of logic therefore is, To explain
the nature of the human mind, and the proper manner
of conducing its feveral powers, in order to the attain¬
ment
Parti. L O (
Of ment of tfUth and knowledge. It lays open thofe errors
Perception. an(j miftakes we are apt, through inattention, to run
*—-v-—•' int0 j and teaches us how to diftinguith between truth,
and what only carries the appearance of it. By theie
means we grow acquainted with the nature and force
of the underftanding •, fee what things lie within its
I C. .
reach } where we may attain certainty and denionfitra-
tion } and when we mult be contented with probability. ,  ,
This fcience is generally divided into four parts,
viz. Perception, Judgment, Reafoning, and Method. This
divilion comprehends the whole hiltory of the fenfations
and operations of the human mind.
PART I. OF PERCEPTION.
WE find ourfelves furrounded with a variety of ob¬
jects, which acting differently upon our fenfes, con¬
vey-diftinft impreflions into the mind, and thereby
roufe the attention and notice of the underftanding.
• By refletting too on what pafles within us, we become
fenfible of the operations of our own minds, and at¬
tend to them as a new fet of impreflions. But in all
this there is only bare confcioufnefs. ihe mind, with¬
out proceeding any farther, takes notice of the im-
preffions that are made upon it, and views things in
order, as they prefent themfelves one after another.
This attention of the underftanding to the objeft aft-
ing upon it, whereby it becomes fenfible of the im-
preffions they make, is called by logicians perception ;
and the notices themfelves, as they exift in the mind,
and are there treafured up to be the materials of think¬
ing and knowledge, are diftinguifhed by the name of
ideas. In the article Metaphysics it ftiali be ftiown
at large, how the mind, being furnilhed with ideas,
contrives to diverfify and enlarge its ftock : we have
liere chiefly to confider the means of making known our
thoughts to others *, that we may not only underftand
how knowledge is acquired, but alfo in what manner
it may be communicated with the greateft certainty and
advantage.
Chap. I. Of Words, conjidered as the Jig ns of our Ideas.
Words fur ®UR ^eas> manifold and various, are ne-
tiinTtheJl"” verthelefs all within our own breads, invifible to o-
meansof thers, nor can of themfelves be made appear. But
recording God, defigning us for fociety, and to have fellowlhip
our own Gf our kind, has provided us with organs
thoughts; £Ue(j t0 frarne articulate founds, and given us alfo a
capacity of ufing thofe founds as figns of internal con¬
ceptions. Hence fpring wmrds and language : for,
having once pitched upon any found to ftand as the
mark of an idea in the mind, cuftom by degrees efta-
blilhes fuch a connexion between them, that the_ap¬
pearance of the idea in the underftanding always brings
to our remembrance the found or name by which it
is expreffed j as in like manner the hearing of the
found never fails to excite the idea for which it is made
to ftand. And thus it is eafy to conceive how’ a man
may record his own thoughts, and bring them again
into view in any fucceeding period of life. For this
connexion being once fettled, as the fame founds will
always ferve to excite the fame ideas *, if he can but
contrive to regifter his words in the order and difpo-
fition in which the prefent train of his thoughts pre¬
fent themfelves to his imagination, it is evident he will
be able to recal thefe thoughts at pleafure, and that too
in the very manner of their firft appearance. Ac¬
cordingly we find, that the inventions of writing and
printing, by enabling us to fix and perpetuate fuch
perilhable things as founds, have alio furnilhed us with
the means of giving a kind of permanency to the trarsf-
adtions of the mind, infomuch that they may be in the
fame manner lubjedled to our review as any other ob¬
jects of nature. . 2
II. But befides the ability of recording our own and of the
thoughts, there is this farther advantage in the ufe of mutual
external figns, that they enable us to communicate ^™uonfl-
our thoughts to others, and alfo to receive information knowledge
of what paflfes in their breafts. For any number of men, from one
having agreed to eftablifti the fame founds as figns of man to
the fame ideas, it is apparent, that the repetition ofanolher.
thefe founds muft excite the like perceptions in each,
and create a perfett correfpondence of thoughts.
When, for inftance, any train of ideas fucceed one
another in my mind, if the names by which I am
wont to exprefs them have been annexed by thofe
with whom I converfe to the very fame fet of ideas,
nothing is more evident, than that, by repeating thofe
names according to the tenor of my prefent concep¬
tions, I {ball raife in their minds the fame courfe of
thought as has taken poffeflion of my own. For by
barely attending to what paffes within themfelves
upon hearing the founds which I repeat, they will al¬
fo become acquainted with the ideas in my under¬
ftanding, and have them in a manner laid before their
view'. So that we here clearly perceive how a man
may communicate his fentiments, knowledge, and dif-
coveries to others, if the language in which he con-
verfes be extenfive enough to mark all the ideas and
tranfaifions of his mind. But as this is not always
the cafe, and men are often obliged to invent terms
of their own to exprefs new views and concep¬
tions of things •, it may be alked, how in thefe circum-
ftances we can become acquainted with the thoughts
of another, when he makes ufe of words, to which
we have never annexed any ideas, and that of courle
can raife no perceptions in our minds ? In order to un¬
veil this myftery, and give fome little infight into the
foundation, growth, and improvement of language, the
following obiervations will be found of confiderable mo¬
ment. 3
III. Firft, That no word can be to any man the Simple
fign of an idea, till that idea comes to have a real ex- ldei« can*
iftence in his mind. For names, being only fo far in- ^ede£°*“
telligible as they denote known internal conceptions ; m\n&
where they have none fuch to anfwer them, there by words,
they are plainly founds without fignification, and ofor ade-
courfe convey no inftruftion or knowledge. But no fcriPtl0I,J
fooner are the ideas to which they belong raifed in the
underftanding, than, finding it eafy to conneft them
with the eftablilhed names, we can join in any agree¬
ment of this kind made by others, and thereby enjoy the
R 2 benefit
LOG
benefit of their diiCoveries. The firit thing therefore to
be confidered is, how thefe ideas may be conveyed in¬
to the mind j that being there, we may learn to con¬
nect them with their appropriated founds, and fo be¬
come capableof underftanding others when they make
ufe of thefe founds in laying open and communicating
their thoughts. Now, to comprehend this diftinflly,
it will be necefi'ary to attend to the divifion of our
ideas into fimple and complex, (fee Metaphysics).
And fir ft, as for our fimple ideas ; they can find no
admiffion into the mind, but by the two original
fountains of knowledge, fenfation and refledlion. If
therefore any of thefe have as yet no being in the un¬
derftanding, it is impoflible by words or a defeription
to excite them there. A man who had never felt the
fenfation of heat, could not be brought to comprehend
that fenfation by any thing we might fay to explain
it. If we would really produce the idea in him, it
muft be by applying the proper objedt to his fenfes,
and bringing him within the influence of a hot body.
When this is done, and experience has taught him
the perception to which men have annexed the name
heat, it then becomes to him the ftgn of that idea,
and he thenceforth underftands the meaning of the
term, which, before, all the words in this world would
not have been fufticient to convey into his mind. The
cafe is the fame in refpedl of light and colours. A
man born blind, and thereby deprived of the only con¬
veyance for the ideas of this clafs1, can never be brought
to underftand the names by which they are exprefled.
The reafon is plain : they ftand for ideas that have no
exiftence in his mind j and as the organ appropriated
to their reception is wanting, all other contrivances
are vain, nor can they by any force or defeription be
raifed in his imagination. But it is quite otherwife
in our complex notions. For thefe being no more
than certain combinations of fimple ideas, put toge¬
ther in various forms ; if the original ideas out of which
the collections are made have already got admiflion
into the underftanding, and the names ferving to ex-
prefsthem are known ; it will beeafy, by enumerating
the feveral ideas concerned in the compofition, and
marking the order and manner in which they are unit¬
ed, to raife any complex conception in the mind. Thus
the idea anfwering to the word rainbow may be readily
excited in the imagination of another who has never
feen the appearance ilfelf, by barely deferibing the
figure, largenefs, pofition, and order of colours j if we
fuppofe thefe feveral fimple ideas, with, their names,
ftfficiently known to him.
IV. And this leads to a fecond obfervation upon this
fubjeCt, namely. That words Handing for complex
ideas are all definable, but thofe by which we denote
able; thofe fimpie ideas are not •, for fimple ideas being fecondary
hLafnot perceptions, which have no other entrance into the
mind than by fenfation or refleftion, can only be got
by experience, from the feveral objedfs of nature, pro¬
per to produce thofe perceptions in us. Words indeed
may very well ferve to remind us of them, if they have
already found admiflion into the underftanding, and
their connexion with the eftabliftied names is known j
but they can never give them their original being and
exiftence there. And hence it is, that when any one
aiks the meaning of a w'ord denoting a fimple idea,
we pretend, not. to explain it. to him by a definition,
The names
of complex
ideas dt-fin-
I C. Part I,
well knowing that to be impoflible •, but, fuppofing Of
him already acquainted with the idea, and only igno-Perception,
rant of the name by which it is called, we either men- v~—>
tion it to him by fome other name with which we pre¬
fume he knows its connexion, or appeal to the objeft
where the idea itfelf is found. Thus, were any one
to alk the meaning of the word white, we ftiould tell
him it flood for the fame idea as albus in Latin, or
b/anc in French ; or, if we thought him a ftranger to
thefe languages, we might appeal to an objeft produ¬
cing the idea, by faying it denoted the colour we ob-
ferve in /now or milk. But this is by no means a de¬
finition of the word, exciting a new idea in his under¬
ftanding ; but merely a contrivance to remind him of a
known idea, and teach him its connexion with the efta¬
bliftied name. For if the ideas after which he inquires
have never yet been raiftd in his mind ; as fuppofe
one who had feen no other colours than black and white,
Ihould afk the meaning of the word fcavlet; it is eafy
to perceive, that it would be no more poflible to make
him comprehend it by words, or a definition, than to
introduce the fame*perception into the imagination of
a man born blind. The only method in this cafe is,
to prefent fome objeft, by looking at which the percep¬
tion itfelf may be excited ; and thus he will learn both
the name and the idea together.
V. But how comes it to pafs that men agree in the £Xper;ence.
names of their fimple ideas, feeing they cannot view and obfer-
the perceptions in one another’s minds, nor make known vad°n bring
theie perceptions by words to others? The effedt is111611^^
produced by experience and obfervation. Thus find-
ing, for inftance, that the name of heat is annexed tonamesof
that fenfation which men feel when they approach thefvnple
fire, I make it alfo the fign of the fenfation excited inlc^eas'
me by fuch an approach,, nor have any doubt but it
denotes the fame perception in my mind as in theirs.
For we are naturally led to imagine, that the fame ob-
jedts operate alike upon the organs of the human bo¬
dy, and produce an uniformity of fenlations. No man
fancies, that the idea raifed in him by the tafie of fu-
gar, and wfoich he calls fweetnefs, differs from that ex¬
cited in another by the like means) or that worm¬
wood, to whofe relifti he has given the epithet bitter,
produces in another the fenfation which he denotes by
the word fweet. Prefuming therefore upon this con¬
formity of perceptions, when they arife from the fame
objeds, we eafily agree as to the names of our fimple
ideas : and if at any time, by a more narrow ferutiny
into things, new ideas of this clafs come in our way,
which we choofe to exprefs by terms of our own inven¬
tion ; thefe names are explained, not by a definition,
but by referring to the objeds whence the ideas them-
felves may be obtained. g
VI. Being in this manner furniftied with fimple The con- ^
ideas, and the names by which they are expnffed j the w)ar|ce
meaning of terms that Hand for complex ideas is ea" cl?-
fily got, becaufe the ideas themfelves anfwering to fin tjoriS( a
thefe terms may be conveyed into the mind by defi • wife contri-
nitions. For our complex notions are only certain vance inna-
combinations of fimple ideas. When therefore thefeture ’
are enumerated, and the manner in which they are
united into one conception explained, nothing more
is wanting to raife that conception in the underftand¬
ing ; and thus the term denoting it conus of courfe to
be underftood. And here it is worth while to refled
a. a.*
Parti. L O
Of a little upon the wife contrivance of nature, In thus
Perception. furni(hing us with the very apteft means of commu-
nicating our thoughts. For were it not fo ordered,
that we could thus convey our complex ideas from
one to another by definitions, it would in many cafes
be impoflible to make them known at all. This is
apparent in thofe ideas which are the proper work of
the mind. For as they exilt only in the underftand-
ing, and have no real objefts in nature in conformity
to which they are framed ; if we could not make them
known by defcription, they mult lie for ever hid with¬
in our own breads, and be confined to the narrow
acquaintance of a fingle mind. All the fine icenes
that arife from time to time in the poet’s fancy, and
by his lively painting give fuch entertainment to his
readers, were he deftitute of this faculty of laying
them open to the view of others by words and de¬
fcription, could not extend their influence beyond his
own imagination, or give joy to any but the original
7 inventor.
and of VII. There is this farther advantage in the ability
great avail we enjoy of communicating our complex notions by
towards the definitions 5 that as thefe make by far the largeft clafs
ment°of" of our ideas> and moft frequently °ccur in the progrefs
knowledge, and improvement of knowledge, fo they are by thefe
means imparted with the greateft readinefs, than
which nothing would tend more to the increafe and
fpreading of fcience : for a definition is foon perufed ;
and if the terms of it are well underftood, the idea
itfelf finds an eafy admiflion into the mind. Whereas,
in fimple perceptions, where we are referred to the
objects producing them, if thefe cannot be come at, as
is fometimes the cafe, the names by which they are
expreffed mull remain empty founds. But new ideas
of this clafs occurring very rarely in the Iciences, they
feldom create any great obflru6tion. It is otherwife
with our complex notions •, for every ftep we take
leading us into new combinations and views of things,
it becomes neceflary to explain tbefe to others, before
they can be made acquainted with our difcoveries :
and as the manner of definitions is eafy, requiring no
apparatus but that of words, which are always ready,
and at hand 5 hence we can with lefs difficulty re¬
move fuch obftacles as might arife from terms of our
own invention, when they are made to Hand for new
complex ideas fuggefted to the mind by fome prefent
train of thinking. And thus at lafl: we are let into
the myftery hinted at in the beginning of this chapter,
viz. how we may become acquainted with the thoughts
of another, when he makes ufe of words to which we
have as yet joined no ideas. The anfwer is obvious
from what has been already faid. If the terms denote
fimple perceptions, he mull: refer us to thele objefts of
nature whence the perceptions themfelves are to be
obtained ; but, if they ftand for complex ideas* their
meaning may be explained by a definition.
Chap. II. Ofi D efinition.
I. A Definition is the unfolding of fome conception
of the mind, anfwering to the word or term made ufe of
as the fign of it. Now as, in exhibiting any idea to ano¬
ther, it is neceflary that the defcription be luch as may
excite that precife idea in his mind } hence it is plain
that definitions, properly fpeaking, are not arbitrary, but
G I C. 133
confined to the reprefenting of certain determinate
fettled notions, fuch namely as are annexed by the _erLe|l|°!J.
fpeaker or writer to the words he ufes. As never-
thelefs it is univerfally allowed that the fignification of
words is perfectly voluntary, and not the eflfeft of any
natural and neceflary connexion between them and
the ideas for which they ftand j fome may perhaps
wonder why definitions are not fo too. In order
therefore to unravel this difficulty, and ffiow diftinftly
what is and what is not arbitrary in fpeech, we muft
carefully diftinguifti between the connexion of our
words and ideas, and the unfolding of the ideas them¬
felves. 9
II. Firft, as to the connexion of our words and ideas j The con-
this, it is plain, is a purely arbitrary inftitution. When,nexion te-
BeSnition
lined.
far inftance, we have in our minds the idea oi any words and
particular fpecies of metals, the calling it by the name^eaSj apEr .
go/d is an effetft of the voluntary choice of men fpeak- fedtly vo-
ing the fame language, and not of any peculiar aptnefs iUnta'_y e~
in that found to exprefs that idea. Other nations we^^1 ‘
find make ufe of different founds, and with the fameir‘
effedft. Thus aurum denotes that idea in Latin, and
or in French ; and even the word gold itfelf would
have as well ferved to exprefs the idea of that metal
which we call fiver, had cuftom in the beginning efta-
bliftied it. _ . 10
III. But although we are thus entirely at liberty in The de-
conne&ing any idea with any found, yet it is quite [er,Ptlon G/
otherwife in unfolding the ideas themfelves. For every
idea having a precife appearance of its own, by which e£j t0 the
it is diftinguilhed from every other idea \ it is mani-reprefenta-
feft, that in laying it open to others, we muft ftudy non of that
fuch a defcription as ffiall exhibit that peculiar ap-
pearance. When we have formed to ourfelves the ^hkh th A
idea of a figure bounded by four equal fides, joined Hre diftin-
together at right angles, we are at liberty to exprefs gmlhed a-
that idea by any found, and call it either, a fquare or ^
triangle. But whichever of thele names we ule, fo ‘e1*'
long as the idea is the fame, the defcription by'which
we would fignify it to another muft be fo too. Let it
be called fquare or triangle, it is ftill a figure having
four equal fides, and all its angles right ones. Hence
we clearly fee what is and what is not arbitrary in the
ufe of words. The eftablifhing any found as the mark
of fome determinate idea in the mind, is the effe6l of
free choice, and a voluntary combination among men :
and as different nations make ufe of different founds
to denote the fame ideas, hence proceed all that va¬
riety of languages which we meet with in the world.
But when a connexion between our ideas and words
is once fettled, the unfolding of the idea anfwering to
any word, which properly conftitutes a definition, is
by no means an arbitrary thing : for here we are bound
to exhibit that precife conception which either the ufe
of language, or our own particular choice, hath an¬
nexed to the term we ufe. „
IV. And thus it appears, that definitions, confidered CauTesof
as deferiptions of ideas in the mind, are fteady and in- the obfeuri-
variable, being bounded to the reprefentation of thefe
precife ideas. But then, in the application of defitii-
tions to particular names, we are altogether left to our the theory-
own free choice. Becaufe as the connecting of any of defini-
idea with any found is a perfeftly arbitrary inftitu-tl0r,s*
tion, the applying the defcription of that idea to that
found muft be fo too,. When therefore logicians tell
13s! LOG! C. . . Part I,
us tWt tlie defiintiun of tlie name is arbitrary, they
Percept or. rnejin no more than this j that as different ideas may
w—connect'd with any term, according to the good
pleafure of him that ufes it ; in like manner may dif¬
ferent deferiptions be applied to the term, fuitabie to
the ideas fo connected. But this connexion being
fettled, and the term confidered as the fign of fome
fixed idea in the underftanding, we are no longer left
to arbitrary explications, but muft ftudy fuch a deferip-
tion as cerrefponds with that precife idea. Now this
alone, according to what has been before laid down,
ought to be accounted a definition. What feems to
have occafioned no fmall confufion in this matter, is,
that many explanations of words, where no idea is
unfolded, but merely the connexion between fome
word and idea afferted, have yet been dignified with
the name of definitions. Thus, when we fay that
a clock is an injlrument by ■which we meafure time ;
that is by fome called a definition j and yet it is plain
that we are beforehand fuppofed to have an idea of
this inftrument, and only taught that the word clock
ferves in common language to denote that idea. By
this rule all explications of words in our diftionaries
will be definitions, nay, the names of even fimple ideas
may be thus defined. IV/iite, we may fay, is the co¬
lour we obferve in fnow or milk ; heat the fenfation
produced by approaching the fire; and fo in innumera¬
ble other inflances. But thefe, and all others of the
like kind, are by no means definitions, exciting ne,w
ideas in the underftanding, but merely contrivances to
remind us of known ideas, and teach their connexion
rj with the eftablifhed names.
Complex V. But now in definitions properly fo called, we
ideas alone firft confider the term we ufe, as the fign of fome in-
c®Pa'’le ot ward conception, either annexed to it by cuftom, or
deferipdon our own ^ree c^°ice : an^ then the bufinefs of the de-
whieh goes finition is to unfold and explicate that idea. As there¬
by the name fore the whole art lies in giving juft and true copies
of a detini- 0f our ideas j a definition is then faid to be made per¬
fect, when it ferves diftin&ly to excite the idea de-
feribed in the mind of another, even fuppofing him
before wholly unacquainted with it. This point fet¬
tled, let us next inquire what thofe ideas are which
are capable of being thus unfolded ? and in the firft
place it is evident, that all our fimple ideas are necef-
farily excluded. We have feen already that expe¬
rience alone is to be confulted here, infomuch that if
either the objedls whence they are derived come not
in our way, or the avenues appointed by nature for
their reception are wanting, no defeription is fufficient
to convey them into the mind. But where the un¬
derftanding is already fupplied with thefe original and
primitive conceptions, as they may be united together
in an infinity of different forms; fo may all their fe-
veral combinations be diftinftly laid open, by enume¬
rating the fimple ideas concerned in the various col-
le&ions, and tracing the order and manner in which
they are linked one to another. Now thefe combi¬
nations of fimple notices conftitute what we call our
complex notions, whence it is evident, that complex
ideas, and thofe alone, admit of that kind of deferip¬
tion which goes by the name of a definition.
VI. Definitions, then, are pictures or reprefenta-
tions of our ideas; and as thefe reprefentations are
then only poftible when the ideas themfelves are
complex, it is obvious to remark, that definitions Of
cannot have place, but where we make ufe of terms Perception,
ftanding for fuch complex ideas. But our complex “
ideas being, as we have laid, nothing more than dif¬
ferent combinations of fimple ideas ; we then know and
comprehend them perfeftly, when we know the feveral
fimple ideas of which they confift, andean fo put them
together in our minds as may be neceflary towards the
framing of that peculiar connexion which gives every
idea its diftinft and proper appearance. j3
VII. Two things are therefore required in every Two thin^
definition : firft, That all the original ideas, out ofreclu|ietlin
which the complex one is formed, be diftinftly enu-
merated ; and, fecondly, That the order and manner ra!:e t]ie^'
of combining them into one conception be clearly ex-ideas and
plained. Where a definition has thefe requifites, no-exPla>nthe
thing is wanting to its perfeftion ; becaufe every one^annero!
who reads it and underftands the terms, feeing at once imuuu!™"
what ideas he is to join together, and alio in what
manner, can at pleafure form in his own mind the
complex conception anfwering to the term defined.
Let us, for inftance, fuppofe the word fquare to ftand
for that idea by which we reprefent to ourfelves a
figure whofe fides fubtend quadrants of a circumfcribed
circle. The parts of this idea are the fides bounding
the figure. Thefe muft be four in number, and all
equal among themfelves, becaufe they are each to fub¬
tend a fourth part of the fame circle. But, befides
thefe component parts, we muft alfo take notice of
the manner of putting them together, if we would ex¬
hibit the precife idea for which the word fquare here
ftands. For four equal right lines, anyhow joined,
will not fubtend quadrants of a circumfcribed circle.
A figure with this property muft have its fides ftand¬
ing alfo at right angles. Taking in therefore this laft
confideration refpefting the manner of combining the
parts, the idea is fully deferibed, and the definition
thereby rendered complete. For a figure bounded by
four equal fides, joined together at right angles, has
the property required ; and is moreover the only right-
lined figure to which that property belongs.
VIII. It will now be obvious to every one, in whatHow^c
manner we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at juft are to pro-
and adequate definitions. Firft, We are to take an cfe^ t0,ar*
exadf view of the idea to be deferibed, trace it to its!^,} ade
original principles, and mark the feveral fimple per-qUate {jeg,
ceptions that enter into the compofition of it. Second-nitions.
ly, We are to confider the particular manner in which
thefe elementary ideas are combined, in order to the
forming of that precife conception for which the term
we make ufe of ftands. When this is done, and the
idea wholly unravelled, we have nothing more to do
than fairly tranferibe the appearance it makes to our
own minds. Such a defeription, by diftinftly exhibit¬
ing the order and number of our primitive conceptions,
cannot fail to excite at the fame time in the mind of
every one that reads it, the complex idea refulting from
them ; and therefore attains the true and proper end of
a definition.
Chap. III. Of the Compofuion and Refolutions of our
Ideas, and the Rules of Definition thence arifing.
I. The rule laid down in the foregoing chapter is
general, extending to all poftible cafes ; and is indeed
that
Part L LOG
Of that to which alone we can have recourfe, where any
perception, doubt or difficulty arifes. It is not, however, neceffary
 'r~~J that we ffiould praftife it in every particular inftance.
[n corn- Many of our ideas are extremely complicated, info¬
pounding much that to enumerate all the fimple perceptions out
[nir ideas, 0f which they are formed, would be a very trouble-
K-e proceed pome ancj tedious work. For this reafon logicians
five3 rada-'have eftablifhed certain compendious rules of defining,
t'ion.8 of which it may not be amifs here to give fome ac¬
count. But in order to the better underitanding of
what follows, it will be necelfary to obferve, that
there is a certain gradation in the compofition of our
ideas. The mind of man is very limited in its views,
and cannot take in a great number of objefts at once.
We are therefore fain to proceed by fteps, and make
our firft advances fubfervient to thofe which follow.
Thus, in forming our complex notions, we begin at
firft with but a few fimple ideas, fuch as we can ma¬
nage with eafe, and unite them together into one con¬
ception. When we are provided with a fufficient
ftock of thefe, and have by habit and ufe rendered
them familiar to our minds, they become the compo¬
nent parts of other ideas ftill more complicated, and
form what we may call a fecond order of compound
notions. This procefs, as is evident, may be continued
to any degree of compofition we pleafe, mounting from
one ftage to another, and enlarging the number of com-
,6 binations.
Hence ideas II. But now' in a feries of this kind, whoever would
of this clifs acquaint himfelf perfe£lly with the laft and higheft
^cT- order of ideas, finds it much the moft expedient me-
whenlve ’ thod to proceed gradually through all the interme-
advance diate fteps. For, were he to take any very compound
gradually idea to pieces, and, without regard to the feveral
through all daffes Qf fimple perceptions that have already been
irL sVera f°rniecI into diftindt combinations, break it at once in¬
to its original principles, the number would be fo great
as perfeftly to confound the imagination, and over¬
come the utmoft reach and capacity of the mind.
When we fee a prodigious multitude of men jumbled
together in crowds, without order or any regular pofi-
tion, we find it impoffible to arrive at an exa6t know¬
ledge of their number. But if they are formed into
feparate battalions, and fo ftationed as to fall within
the leifure furvey of the eye \ by viewing them fuccef-
fively and in order, we come to an eafy and certain de¬
termination. It is the fame in our complex ideas.
When the original perceptions, out of which they are
framed, are very numerous, it is not enough that we
take a view of them in loofe and fcattered bodies 5 we
muft form them into diftindft claffes, and unite thefe
claffes in a juft and orderly manner, before we can ar¬
rive at a true knowledge of the compound notices re-
lulting from them.
III. This gradual progrefs of the mind to its com-
tions Ihould pound notions, through a variety of intermediate fteps,
keep pace plainly points out the manner of conducing the defi-
ideas °and n‘t‘ons ^y which thefe notions are conveyed into the
obferve a minds of others. For as the feries begins with fimple
like grada- and eafy combinations, and advances through a fuc-
ceffion of different orders, rifing one above another in
the degree of compofition, it is evident, that, in a train
of definitions expreffing thefe ideas, a like gradation
is to be obferved. Thus the complex ideas of the
low-eft order can no otherwife be deferibed than by
J7
Our defini¬
tion.
1 C. _ _ . i.S5
enumerating the fimple ideas out of which they are °f
made, and explaining the manner of their union. But fercel:iUon,i
then in the fecond, or any other fucceeding order, as ' v
they are formed out of thofe gradual combinations, and
conftitute the inferior claffes, it is not neceffary, in de-
feribing them, to mention one by one all the fimple
ideas of which they confift. They may be more diftindl-
ly and briefly unfolded, by enumerating the compound
ideas of a lower order, from whofe union they refult,
and which are all fuppofed to be already known in con-
fequence of previous definitions. Here then it is that
the logical method of defining takes place j which, that
it may be the better underftood, wre ftiall explain fome-
what more particularly the feveral fteps and gradations
of the mind in compounding its ideas, and thence de¬
duce that peculiar form of a definition which logicians
have thought fit to eftablifh. iS
IV. All the ideas we receive from the feveral ob- fteps
je&s of nature that furround us, reprefent diftinff in-
dividuals. Thefe individuals, when compared toge- procee(is
ther, are found in certain particulars to referable each from parti-
other. Hence, by collecting the refembling particulars cular to ge-
into one conception, we form the notion of a fpecies. neral iu-as»
And here let it be obferved, that this laft idea is lefs
complicated than that by which we reprefent any of
the particular objeCts contained under it. For the idea
of the fpecies excludes the peculiarities of the feveral
individuals, and retains only fuch properties as are
common to them all. Again, By cofiaparing feveral
fpecies together, and obferving their refemblance, we
form the idea of a genus ; where, in the fame manner ♦
as before, the eompolition is leffened, beeaufe we
leave out what is peculiar to the feveral fpecies com¬
pared, and retain only the particulars wherein they
agree. It is eafy to conceive the mind proceeding
thus from one ftep to another, and advancing through
its feveral claffes of general notions, until at laft it
comes to the higheft genus of all, denoted by the word
being, where the bare idea of exiftence is only con¬
cerned.
V. In this procedure we fee the mind unravelling a The con-
complex idea, and tracing it in the aleending fcale,diuft of the
from greater or lefs degrees of compofition, until it n‘lr,d 111 .
. . r 1 .• rr . i compound-
termmates in one umple perception, it now we takejn^jls
the feries the contrary way, and, beginning with the Kieas, as it
laft or higheft genus, carry our view downwards, advances
through all the inferior genera and fpecies, quite to thnnigh
the individuals, w'e fhall thereby arrive at a diftinft ^
apprehenfion of the conduct of the underftanding in 0f peicey-
compounding its ideas. For, in the feveral claffts oft on.
our perceptions, the higheft in the fcale is for the
moft part made up of but a few fimple ideas, fuch as
the mind can take in and furvey with eafe. This firft
general notion, when branched out into the different
fubdivifions contained under it, has in every one of
them fomething peculiar, by which they are diftin-
guiffied among themfelves j infomuch that, in de¬
fending from the genus to the fpecies, we always
fuperadd fome new idea, and thereby increafe the
degree of compofition. Thus the idea denoted by the
word figure is of a very general nature, and compo-
fed of but few fimple perceptions, as implying no
more than fpace everywhere bounded. But if we
defeend farther, and confider the boundaries of this
^pace, as that they may be either lines or furface, we
fall
136 LOG
Of fall Into the feveral fpecies of figure. For where the
Perception. ppace js bounded by one or morofurfaces, we give it the
name of a folidfigure; but where the boundaries are
ao lines, it is called a plain figure {k).
The idea of \rI. In this view of things it is evident, that the
the fpecies {pec}es js formed by fuperadding a new idea to the
taper ad- genus. Here, for inftance, the genus is circumfcrib-
dmg the ed fpace. If now to this we fuperadd the idea of a
fpecific dif- circumfcription by lines, we frame the notion of that
lerence to fpecies 0f figures which are called plain ; but if we
i e genus. concejve ^jie circumfcription to be by furfaces, we
I C. Part I.
have the fpecies of folid figures. This fuperadded Of
idea is called the fipecfic difference, not only as it ferves f’ercePt>on*
to divide the fpecies from the genus, but becaufe,' v“—
being different in all the feveral fubdivifions, we there¬
by alio diftinguifh the fpecies one from another. And
as it is likewife that conception, which, by being
joined to the general idea, completes the notion of
the fpecies : hence it is plain, that the genus and fpe¬
cific difference are to be confidered as the proper and
conllituent parts of the fpecies. If we trace the pro-
grefs of the mind ilill farther, and obferve it advancing
through
(a) This account of the compofition and refolution of our ideas is agreeable to the common dodtrine of lo¬
gicians on the fubjeft. Into the truth of the doddrine itfelf we (hall inquire afterwards under the article
Metaphysics: but to prevent miftakes, it may be proper to obferve here, that though every writer of logic
has treated largely of general and fipecific ideas, there is in reality nothing general in the matter but the terms of
language. When we utter, for inftance, the word triangle, that general term does not, as has been often faid,
fuggeft to the mind the general idea of a triangle, which is neither oblique nor rettang/e, neither equilateral nor
fcalenon, &c. for fiuch a triangle, as it cannot exifi in nature, cannot be conceived m idea. In like manner, the
general term Virtue does not excite a general idea of virtue, which is neither prudence, nor temperance, nor fortitude,
nor jufiice, nor charity, &c. for that which is difiinSl from all thefie is not virtue. What then is the import of
fuch general terms $ The anfwer is obvious: they denote of objedls; and are never ufed w ithout fome
word of limitation, but when fomething has no dependence upon the particular qualities, which diftinguirti
the individuals from each other, is affirmed or denied of the whole clafs. Thus we may affirm, that the three
angles of a plain triangle are equal to two right angles : and this proportion is demonftrably true, not of a triangle,
which is neither oblique nor reflangle, neither equilateral nor fcalenon, for fuch a triangle never was conceived j
but oi allthefe triangles equally, as the truth of the propofition and the progrefs of the demonftration has no
dependence upon the peculiarities which difiinguifh thefe triangles from one another. Again, When we fay
that a man of virtue will be rewarded by God, we do not mean by the wrord virtue a general idea making part
of each of the complex and more particular ideas of prudence, fortitude, jofiice, &c. and at the fame time dif¬
ferent from them all $ but wre affirm, that the man who pradlifes any or all of thefe virtues, according as he has
opportunity, will be rewarded by God.
The hiftory of our ideas is fliortly thus :—That aft of the mind, if it may be called an aB, which makes
known an external objeB, is termed perception. That aft of the mind which makes know n an internal ob-
jeB, is termed consciousness. Objefts once perceived may be recalled to the mind by the power of me¬
mory ; and when they are fo recalled, wre have a perception of them in all refpefts fimilar to the original per¬
ception, only lefs diftinft •, we fancy ourfelves in the fame place, and the objeB perceived attended by the fame
circumfances. Thi'imfaft.m&.fecondaryperception ot an objeft is termed an IDEA*, and therefore the precife
and accurate definition of an idea, in contradiftin&ion to an original perception, is “ that perception of a real ob-
ie£t which is raifed in the mind by the power of memory.” Now all our original perceptions being of par¬
ticular objeBs, it is obvious that our ideas, which are only thofe perceptions recalled, muft be of particular ob-
jeBs likewife, and that no man can have an idea of a thing of which the real exifience is contradictory and im-
poffible. But the general and fpecific ideas of logicians, are ideas of nothing which exifs, or which can pofibhy
cxif. They are acquired, we are told, by abfiraBion, in the following manner. Among a number of indivi¬
duals we perceive certain qualities the fame in all, whilft in each individual there are other qualities which
have nothing fimilar to them in any other individual: now the mind, it is faid, has a power of abftrtffting
the particular qualities of each individual from thofe which are common to the whole, and of thefe laft forming a
general idea of the whole clafs. Thus all men have nearly the fame form; and they have each fomefature and
fame colour, though there are not perhaps two individuals who have precife/y the fame fature and the fame colour.
Nowr, fay the advocates for general ideas, if we abfiraB what is peculiar to each individual, and retain what is
common to the whole race, we have the general idea fignified by the word man. That is, if we conceive a being
in human ihape, which is of fature and colour, but neither tall nor Jhort, neither white nor black, nor red nor
broivn, nor any other colour which we ever faw, we have the general idea of humanity, and underftand the mean¬
ing of the word man ! Surely no perfon who is not the flave of prejudice w ill pretend that he can frame fuch an
idea as this—the idea of an objeft which cannot poffibly exift in nature.
By this we do not mean to affirm, that we cannot frame ideas of fuch objeCls as have no rffl/exiftence *, for it
is as eafy to imagine a man with ten headsns with one, becaufe there is nothing contradictory between ten heads
and one body. But y%//re, which is faid to be fpace bounded neither by lines nor fvperfcies ; colour, w hich is nei¬
ther red nor white, nor blue nor black, &c. ; and animal, which is neither man, beafi, bird, nor infeB; are im-
poffible in nature, and inconceivable in idea. There is, however, no harm in ftill retaining the fixate general
idea, provided he who ufes it takes care to let it he known, that by thefe words he means not any abflraB and
oontradiBcry idea, but merely a c/afs of real objeBs. The phrafe may at times prevent much circumlocution } for
which reafon we have retained the ufe of it in the text.
the neareft
genus.
Part I. L O
Of through the inferior fpecies, we (hall find its manner
Perception. nf proceeding to be always the'fame. For every lower
* fpecies is formed by fuperadding fome new idea to the
fpecies next above it j infomuch that in this defend¬
ing fcale of our perceptions, the underftanding paffes
through different orders of complex notions, which
become more and more complicated at every ftep it
takes. Let us refume here, for inftance, the fpecies of
plain figures. They imply no more than fpace bounded
by lines. But if we take in an additional confideration
of the nature of thefe lines, as whether they are rig/it
or curves, we fall into the fubdivifions of plain figure,
diflinguifiied by the names of re&ilinear, curvilinear,
2f and mixtihnear.
And in all VII. And here we are to obferve, that though
the inferior plain figures, when confidered as one of thofe branches
fpecies by come uncler the notions of figure in general, take
(tinhe t^ie name a fpecies j yet compared with the claffes
fpecific dif- °f curvilinear, re&ilinear, and mixtilinear, into which
ference to they themfelves may be divided, they really become
a genus, of which the before-mentioned fubdivifions
conftitute the feveral fpecies. Thefe fpecies, in the
fame manner as in the cafe of plane and folid figures,
confift of the genus and fpecific difference as their
conftituent parts. For in the curvilinear kind, the
curvity of the lines bounding the figure makes what is
called the Specific difference; to which if we join the
genus, which here is a plain figure or fpace circum-
fcribed by lines, we have all that is neceffary towards
completing the notion of this fpecies. We are only
to take notice, that this laff fubdivifion, having two
genera above it, viz. plain figure, and figure in gene¬
ral j the genus joined with the fpecific difference, in
order to conffitute the fpecies of curvilinears, is that
which lies nearell to the faid fpecies. It is the no¬
tion of plain figure, and not of figure in general, that,
joined with the idea of curvity, makes up the complex
conception of curve-lined figures. For in this de-
fcending fcale of our ideas, figure in general, plain
figures, curve-lined figures, the two firft are confider¬
ed as genera in refpe& of the third ; and the fecond
in order, or that which Hands next to the third, is
called the neareji genus. But now as it is this fecond
idea, which, joined with the notion of curvity, forms
the fpecies «f curve-lined figures j it is plain, that the
third or laft idea in the feries is made up of the near-
eft genus and fpecific difference. This rule holds in¬
variably, however far the feries is continued j becaufe,
in a train of ideas thus fucceeding one another, all
that precede the laft are confidered as fo many genera
in refpe& of that laft j and the laft itfelf is always
formed by fuperadding the fpecific difference to the
12 genus next it.
The idea of VIII. Here then we have an univerfal defcription,
any mdivi- applicable to all our ideas of whatever kind, from the
^ofeluf"’ genus t0 th® lowed fpecies. For, taking them
the^oweft in order <I0VVnwards ^rom the laid general idea, they
fpecies and everywhere confift of the genus proximum and dif.
numeric ferentia fpecifica, as logicians love to exprefs them¬
felves. But when we come to the loweft fpecies of
all, comprehending under it only individuals, the fu-
peradded idea, by which thefe individuals are diftin-
guilhed one from another, no longer takes the name
of the fpecific difference. For here it ferves not to
denote diftin& fpecies, but merely a variety of indivi-
Vol. XII. Part I,
difference.
G I C. 137
duals, each of which, having a particular exiftence of 0f
its o\Yn, is therefore numerically different from every f>ercePt‘on,i
other of the fame kind. And hence it is, that in this J "
laft cafe, logicians choofe to call the fuperadded idea
by the name of the numerical difference; infomuch
that, as the idea of a fpecies is made up of the neareft
genus and fpecific difference, fo the idea of an indivi¬
dual confifts of the loweft fpecies and numeric differ¬
ence. Thus the circle is a fpecies of curve-lined fi¬
gures, and what we call the lowejlfpecies, as compre¬
hending under it only individuals. Circles in parti¬
cular are diltinguilhed from one another by the length
and pofition of their diameters. The length therefore
and pofition of the diameter of a circle form what logi¬
cians call the numerical difference ; becaufe, thefe being
given, the circle itfelf may be defcribed, and an indi¬
vidual thereby conftituted. ^
IX. Thus the mind, in compounding its ideas, be- Definitions
gins, we fee, •with the moft general notions, which,10 fol!ow
confifting of but a few fimple notices, are eafily com-one anot^er
bined and brought together into one conception. an/p^
Thence it proceeds to the fpecies comprehended under through the
this general idea $ and thefe are formed by joining lame tuc-
together the genus and fpecific difference. And as it ^eflive Rra-
often happens, that thefe fpecies may be ftill farther pu^om-3
fubdivided, and run on in a long feries of continued poundideas.
gradations, producing various orders of compound
perceptions •, fo all thefe feveral orders are regularly
and fucceflxvely formed by annexing in every ftep the
fpecific difference to the neareft genus. When by
this method of procedure we are come to the loweft or¬
der of all, by joining the fpecies and numeric differ¬
ence, we frame the ideas of individuals. And here
the feries neceffarily terminates, becaufe it is impof-
fible any farther to bound or limit cur conceptions.
This view of the compofition of our ideas, reprefent-
ing their conftituent parts in every ftep of the pro-
greflion, naturally points out the true and genuine
form of a definition. For as definitions are no more
than defcriptions of the ideas for which the terms de¬
fined fland : and as ideas are then defcribed, when
we enumerate diftin&ly and in order the parts of
which they confift j it is plain, that by making our
definitions follow one another according to the natural
train of ouFconceptions, they will be fubjeft to the
fame rules, and keep pace with the ideas they de-
fcribe. 24
X. As therefore the firft order of our compoundT1,e form.
notions, or the ideas that conftitute the higheft ge-°.f a
nera in the different fcales of perception, are formed by the"various
uniting together a certain number of fimple notices ; orders of
fo the terms ex prefling thefe genera are defined ^conception.
enumerating the fmple notices fo combined. And as the
fpecies comprehended under any genus, or the com¬
plex ideas of the fecond order, arife from fuperadding
the fpecific difference to the faid general idea ; fo the
definition of the names of the fpecies is abfolved, in a
detail of the ideas of the fpecifie difference, conne&ed
with the term of the genus. For the genus having
been before defined, the term by which it is expref-
fed ftands for a known idea, and may therefore be
introduced into all fubfequent definitions, in the fame
manner as the names of fimple perceptions. It will
now be fufficiently obvious, that the definitions of all
the fucceeding orders of compound notions will every-
S where
i38 L O
Of where confift of the term of the neared genu?, joined
Judgment, an enumeration of the ideas that conftitute the
fpecific difference j and that the definition of indivi¬
duals unites the name of the loweft fpecies with the
terms by which we exprefs the ideas of the numeric
difference.
G I c. Part II.
XL Here then we have the true and proper form Of
of a definition, in all the various orders of conception. Judgment.
This is that method of defining which is commonly J
called logical, and wrhich we fee is perfect in its kind, in-
afmuch as it prefents a full and adequate defcription or
the idea for which the term defined Hands.
PART II. OF JUDGMENT.
Chap. I. Of the Grounds of Human Judgment.
Intu tion THE mind being furnilhed with ideas, its next ftep
refpecfls the Jn the way to knowledge is, the comparing thefe ideas
relations together, in order to judge of their agreement or dif-
agreement. In this joint view of our ideas, if the re-
wheTthey lation is fuch as to be immediately difcoverable by the
are imme- bare infpeftion of the mind, the judgments thence ob-
diately per- tained are called intuitive, from a word that denotes to
cexvable. ^ ^ for Jn this cafe, a mere attention to the ideas
compared fuffiees to let us fee how far they ajre con¬
nected or disjointed. rl hus, that the Whole is greater
than any of its Parts, is an intuitive judgment j no¬
thing more being required to convince us of its truth,
than an attention to the ideas of vshole part. And
this too is the reafon why we call the a£t of the mind
forming thefe judgments intuition ; as it is indeed no
more than an immediate perception of the agreement
g or difagreement of any two ideas.
Experience IL But here it is to be obferved, that our know-
aod tefti- ledge of this kind refpefts only our ideas, and the re-
mony the Jations between them •, and therefore can ferve only
?Tnd of as a foundation to fuch reafonings as. are employed in
to fads.' inveftigating thofe relations. Now it fo happens, that
many of our judgments are converfant aoout fafts, and
the real exiffence of things which cannot be traced
by the bare contemplation of our ideas. It does
not follow, becaufe I have the idea of a circle in my
mind, that therefore a figure anfwering to that idea
has a real exiftence in nature. I can form to myielf
the notion of a centaur or golden mountain, but never
imagine on that account that either of them exifts.
What then are the grounds of our judgment in rela¬
tion to fa£!s ? experience and tefimony. By experience
we are informed of the exiftence of the feveral ob¬
jects which furround us, and operate upon our fenfes.
Teftimony is of a wider extent, and reaches not on¬
ly to objeifts beyond the prefent fphere of our obfer-
vation, but alfo to fadts and tranfadlions,. which being
now pad, and having no longer any exiftence, could
not without this conveyance have fallen under our cog-
2- nizance.
Three foun- III. Here we have three foundations of human
dations of judgment, from which the whole fyftem of our know'-
hOman ledge may with eafe and advantage be derived. Firft,
v^rTn- Intuition, which refpedis our ideas themfelves, and
tuition, the their relations-, and is the foundation of that fpecies
ground of of reafoning which we call demonf ration. For what-
fcientifipl ever is deduced from our intuitive perceptions, by a
knowledge. cleaJ. and conne&ed feries of proofs, is faid to be
demonftrated, and produces abfolute certainty in the
mind. Hence the knowledge obtained in this man¬
ner is what we properly tzrmfcience ; becaufe in every
ftep of the procedure it carries its own evidence along
with it, and leaves no room for doubt or hefitation.
And what is highly worthy of notice as the truths
of this clafs exprefs the relations between our ideas,
and the fame relations muft ever and invariably fublift
between the fame ideas, cur deduftions in the way of
feience conftitute what we call eternal, necejfary, and
immutable truths. If it be true that the whole is equal
to all its parts, it muft be fo unchangeably ; becaufe
the relation of equality being attached to the ideas
themfelves, muft ever intervene where the fame ideas
are compared. Of this nature are all the truths of natu¬
ral religion, morality, and mathematics, and in general
whatever may be gathered from the bare view and con-
fideration of our ideas. _ a8
IV. The fecond ground of human judgment is ex- 2. Experi-
perience; from which we infer the exiftence of thofe eBCe»
objefts that furround us, and fall under the immediate
notice of our fenfes. When we fee the fun, or call jetige 0f
our eyes towards a building, we not only have per-the powers
cepticns of thefe objefts within ourfelves, but aferibe and quah-
to them a real exiftence out of the mind. It is alfo ^•ees3>°
by the information of the fenfes that we judge of the
qualities of bodies j as when we fay thaty«<sio is white,
fire hot, or fieel hard. For as we are wholly unac¬
quainted with the internal ftrufture and conftitution of
the bodies that produce thefe fenfations in us, nay, and
are unable to trace any connexion between that ftruc-
ture and the fenfations themfelves, it is evident, that
we build our judgments altogether upon obfervation,
aferibing to bodies fuch qualities as are anfwerable to
the perceptions they excite in us. Not that we ever
fuppofe the qualities of bodies to be things of the fame
nature with our perceptions ; for there is nothing m
fire fimilar to our fenfation of heat, or in a fw'ord fimi-
lar to pain : but that when different bodies excite in
our minds limilar perceptions, wre neceffarily aferibe
to thefe bodies not only an exifter.ee independent of
us, but likewife fimilar qualities, of which it is the
nature to produce fimilar perceptions in the human
mind. But this is not the only advantage derived
from experience 5 for to that too we are indebted for
all our knowledge regarding the co-exiftence of fen-
fible qualities in objefls, and the operations of bodies
one upon another. Ivory, for inftance, is hard and
elaftic ; this we know by experience, and indeed by
that alone. For, being altogether ftrangers to the true
nature both of elafticity and hardnefs, we cannot by
the bare contemplation of our ideas determine how
far the one neceffarily implies the other, or whether
there may not be a repugnance between them. But
when we obferve them to exift both in the fame ob¬
ject, we are then affured from experience that they
are not incompatible ; and when we alfo find, that a
ft one is hard and not elaftic, and that air though ela-
Part II. L 0
Of flic is not hard, we alfo conclude upon the fame f»un-
Judgment dation, that the ideas are not neceffarily conjoined,
but may exift feparately in different obje£ls. In like
manner, with regard to the operations of bodies one
upon another, it is evident, that our knowledge this
way is all derived from obfervation. Aqua regia dif-
folves gold, as has been found by frequent trial, nor
is there any other way of arriving at the difcovery.
Naturalifts may tell us, if they pleafe, that the parts
of aqua regia are of a texture apt to infinuate between
the corpufcles of gold, and thereby loofen and (hake
them afunder. If this is a true account of the matter,
it will notwithstanding be allowed, that our conjefture
in regard to the conformation of thefe bodies is de¬
duced from the experiment, and not the experiment
from the conjecture. It was not from any previous
knowledge of the intimate ftruclure of aqua regia and
go/d, and the aptnefs of their parts to a£t or to be a£t-
ed upon, that we came by the conclufion above men¬
tioned. The internal constitution of bodies is in a
manner wholly unknown to us: and could we even
furmount this difficulty, yet as the feparation of the
parts of gold implies fomething like an aftive force in
the menjiruum, and we are unable to conceive how it
comes to be poffeffed of this adivity, the effect mult
be owned to be altogether beyond our comprehenfion.
But when repeated trials had once confirmed it, in-
fomuch that it was admitted as an eftablifhed truth
in natural knowledge, it was then eafy for men to
fpin out theories of their own invention, and con¬
trive fuch a ftruCture of parts, both for gold and aqua
regia, as would belt ferve to explain the phenomenon
upon the principles of that fyftem of philofophy they
had adopted.
V. From what has been faid it is evident, that as
intuition is the foundation of what we call fcientifical
knowledge, fo is experience of natural. For this laft
being wholly taken up with objeCts of fenfe, or thofe
bodies that conftitute the natural world ; and their
properties, as far as we can difcover them, being to be
traced only by a long and painful feries of obfervations ;
it is apparent, that, in order to improve this branch of
knowledge, we muft betake ourfelves to the method of
trial and experiment.
VI. But though experience is what we may term
the immediate foundation of natural knowledge, yet
with refpect to particular perfons its influence is very
narrow and confined. The bodies that furround us
are numerous, many of them lie at a great diftance,
and fome quite beyond our reach. Life is fo fhort,
and fo crowded with cares, that but little time is left
for any iingle man to employ himfelf in unfolding the
myfteries of nature. Hence it is neceffary to admit
many things upon the leftimony of others, which by
this means becomes the foundation of a great part of
our knowledge of body. No man doubts of the power
of aqua regia to diffolve gold, though perhaps he ne¬
ver himfelf made the experiment. In thefe therefore
and fuch like cafes we judge of the fadts and opera¬
tions of nature upon the mere ground of teflimony.
However, as we can always have recourfe to expe¬
rience where any doubt or fcruple arifes, this is juftly
confidered as the true foundation of natural phiiofo-
phy ; being indeed the ultimate fupport upon which
G I C.
our affent reils, and whereto we appeal when the high-
eft degree of evidence is required.
VII. But there are many fadts that will not allow
of an appeal to the fenfes j and in this cafe teftimony 3, Teltimo-
is the true and only foundation of our judgments. Alloy, the
human adtions of whatever kind, when confidered as j^unc* ^
already paft, are of the nature here defcribed : becaufe j „
having now no longer any exittence, both the ladts
themfelves, and the circumftances attending them, can
be known only from the relations of fuch as had fuffi-
cient opportunities of arriving at the truth. TeJiimonij
therefore is juftly accounted a third ground of human
judgment j and as from the other two we have deduced
fcientifical and natural knowledge, fo we may from this
derive hi/lorical; by which we mean, not merely a
knowledge of the civil tranfadtions of ftates and king¬
doms, but of all fadts whatfoever, where teftimony is
the ultimate foundation of our belief.
Chap. II. Of Affirmative and Negative Prcpofitions.
30
I. While the comparing of our ideas is confidered The fubjeA
merely as an adt of the mind, affembling them toge-and predi¬
ther, and joining or disjoining them according to the cate °! a
refult of its perceptions, we call it judgment; but when pXpia;neci
our judgments are put into words, they then bear the
name of propofitions. A propofition therefore is a fen-
tence expreffing fome judgment of the mind, whereby
two or more ideas are affirmed to agree or difagree.
Now, as our judgments include at leaft two ideas, one
of which is affirmed or denied of the other, fo muft a
propofition have terms anfwering to thefe ideas. The
idea of which we affirm or deny, and of courfe the
term expreffing that idea, is called the fubjedi of the
propofition. The idea affirmed or denied, as alfo the
term anfwering it, is called the predicate. Thus in the
propofition, God is omnipotent: God is the fubjedt, it be¬
ing of him that we affirm omnipotence j and omnipotent
is the predicate, becaufe we affirm the idea expreffed
by that word to belong to God.
II. But as, in propofitions, ideas are either joined The copu-
or disjoined; it is not enough to have terms expref-la, See.
ling thofe ideas, unlefs we have alfo fome words to
denote their agreement or difagreement. That word
in a propofition, which connedts two ideas together,
is called the copula ; and if a negative particle be an¬
nexed, we thereby underftand that the ideas are dif-
joined. The fubflnntive verb is commonly made ufe
of for the copula : as in the above-mentioned propofi-
liar\, God fir omnipotent; where is repreients the co¬
pula, and fignifies the agreement of the ideas of God
and omnipotence. But if we mean to fi parate two
ideas ; then, befides the fubfiantive verb, we muft alfo
ufe fome particle of negation, to exprefs this repug¬
nance. The propofition, man is not perfcB, may ferve
as an example of this kind ; where the notion of per-
fediion being removed from the idea of man, the ne¬
gative particle not is inferted after the copula, to lig-
nify the difagreement between the fubjedt and predi¬
cate.
III. Every propofition neceffarily confifts of thefe Propofi-
three parts ; but then it is not alike needful that they li°ns fome-
be all feverally expreffed in words; becaufe the copula tim®s' F1’"
is often included in the term of the predicate, as when ^rpln^leby
S 2 we word.
33
Affirmativi
and nega¬
tive propo-
fuions.
34
When the
negative
particle
ferves to
disjoin
ideas.
LOGIC.
we fay, he fits ; which imports the fame as he is fitting.
In the Latin language, a fingle word has often the
force of a whole ientence. Thus ambulat is the fame
as Hie efi ambu/ans ; amo, as ego Jum amans ; and fo in
innumerable other inftances: by which it appears,
that we are not fo much to regard the number of words
in a fentence, as the ideas they reprefent, and the man¬
ner in which they are put together. For wherever
two ideas are joined or disjoined in an expreflion, though
of but a fingle word j it is evident that we have a fub-
jeci, predicate, and copula, and of confequence a com¬
plete propofition.
; IV. When the mind joins two ideas, we call it an
affirmative judgment $ when it feparates them, a ne¬
gative; and as any two ideas compared together muft
necelfarily either agree or not agree, it is evident that
all our judgments fall under thefe two divifions. Hence
like wife the propofitions exprefling thefe judgments
are all either affirmative or negative. An affirmative
propofition connefts the predicate with the fubjedl, as
afione is heavy ; a negative propofition feparates them,
as God is not the author of evil. Affirmation therefore
is the fame as joining two ideas together j and this is
done by means of the cupola. Negation, on the con¬
trary, marks the repugnance between the ideas com¬
pared j in which cafe a negative particle muft be call¬
ed in, to ftiow' that the connexion included in the
copula does not take place.
V. Hence we fee the reafon of the rule commonly
laid down by logicians, That in all negative propofi-
ticns the negation ought to affe£l the copula. For as
the copula, when placed by itfelf, betw een the fubjeft
and the predicate, manifeftly binds them together $ it
is evident, that in order to render a propofition ne¬
gative, the particles of negation muft enter it in fuch
a manner as to deftroy this union. In a word, then
only are two ideas disjoined in a propofition, when the
negative particle may be fo referred to the copula, as
to break the affirmation included in it, and undo that
connexion it would otherwife eftabliffi. When we
fay, for inftance, No man is perfeB; take away the
negation, and the copula of itfelf plainly unites the
ideas in the propofition. But as this is the very reverfe
of what is intended, a negative mark is added, to (how
that this union does not here take place. The nega¬
tion, therefore, by deftroying the effeft of the copula,
changes the very nature of the propofition, infomuch
that, inftead of binding two ideas together, it denotes
their feparation. On the contrary, in this fentence.
The man who departs not from an upright behaviour is
beloved of God, the predicate beloved of God is evidently
affirmed of the fubjeft an upright man ; fo that, not-
•withftanding the negative particle, the propofition is
ftill affirmative. The reafon is plain : the negation
here affefts not the copula j but, making properly a
part of the fubjeft, ferves, with other terms in the fen¬
tence, to form one complex idea, of which the predi¬
cate beloved of God is diredtly affirmed.
Chap. III. Of Univerfal and Particular Propofitions.
Part II.
Of
Judgment.
35
I. The next confiderable divifion of propofitions isDivifionof
into univerfal and particular. Our ideas, according toPrGI)0*i-
, tions into
univerfat
what has been already obferved in the Firft Part,
all Angular as they enter the mind, and reprefent in-anc5 partj_
dividual objedts. But as by abftradtion we can render cular.
them univerfal, fo as to comprehend a whole clafs of
things, and fometimes feveral claiies at once *, hence
the terms exprefling thefe ideas muft be in like man¬
ner univerfal. If, therefore, we fuppofe any general
term to become the fubjedt of a propofition, it is evi¬
dent, that whatever is affirmed of the abftradt idea
belonging to that term, may be affirmed of all the in¬
dividuals to which that idea extends. Thus, when we
fay, Men are mortali w'e confider mortality, not as
confined to one or any number of particular men, but
as what may be affirmed without reftriction of the
whole fpecies. By this means the propofition becomes
as general as the idea which makes the fubjedt of it j
and indeed derives its univerfality entirely from that
idea, being more or lefs fo according as this may be
extended to more or fewer individuals. But it is fur¬
ther to be obferved of thefe general terms, that they
fometimes enter a propofition in their full latitude, as in
the example given above } and fometimes appear with
a mark of limitation. In this laft cafe we are given to
underftand, that the predicate agrees not to the whole
univerfal idea, but only to a part of it j as in the pro¬
pofition, Some men are wifie : For here w ifdom is not
affirmed of every particular man, but reftrained to a
few of the human fpecies (b). -
II. Now from this different appearance of the ge- Propofitloia
neral idea that conftitutes the fubjedt of any judge-univerfal
ment, arifes the divifion of propofitions into univerfial where the
and particular. An univerfal propofition is that where-
in the fubjedl is fome general term taken in its full la- a ’mark of I
titude ; infomuch that the predicate agrees to all the reRri<ftion.
individuals comprehended under it, if it denotes a
proper fpecies j and to all the feveral fpecies, and
their individuals, if it marks an idea of a higher order.
The words all, every, no, none, &c. are the proper
figns of this univerfality 5 and as they feldom fail to
accompany general truths, fo they are the moft obvi¬
ous criterion whereby to diftinguifti them. All ani¬
mals have a power of beginning motion. This is an
univerfal propofition j as we know from the word all
prefixed to the fubjedt animals, which denotes that it
muft be taken in its full extent. Hence- the power of
beginning motion may be affirmed of all the feveral
fpecies of animals. 37
III. A particular propofition has in like manner Propofition
fome general term for its fubjedt $ but with a mark of particular
limitation where
umvertal
   fubjedt
appears
(b) See the preceding note, where it is demonftrated that the terms alone, and not the ideas, are in reality with amar
general. The term man is equally applicable to every individual of the human race j and therefore, what is af-
firmed or denied of men in general, is affirmed or denied of all the individuals, without regard to their difcrimi-
nating qualities. Some is a definitive word (fee Grammar), which, prefixed to the word man, limits the
fignification of that general term; and therefore what is affirmed of fome men, is affirmed only of part of the
race, but that part itfelf is not afcertained.
Part II.
LOGIC.
Of
Judgment.
38
Singular
limitation added, to denote, that the predicate agrees
only to feme of the individuals comprehended under a
fpecies, or to one or more of the fpecies belonging to
any genus, and not to the whole univerfal idea. Thus,
Some Jlones are heavier than iron ; Some men have an
uncommon (hare of prudence. In the laft of thefe propo-
fitions, the fubjefiyowe men implies only a certain num¬
ber of individuals, comprehended under a fingle fpecies.
In the former, where the fubjetl is a genus that ex¬
tends to a great variety of diftinft claffes, yozweyi’owj
may not only imply any number of particular ftones,
but alfo feveral whole fpecies of Hones, inafmuch as
there may be not a few with the property there de-
fcribed. Hence we fee, that a propolition does not
ceafe to be particular by the predicate’s agreeing to a
whole fpecies, unlefs that fpecies, fingly and diftinft-
ly confidered, makes alfo the fubjeft of which we af¬
firm or deny.
IV. There is flill one fpecies of propofitions that
propofitions remains to be defcribed, and which the more deferves
^d^'the °Ur no^ce’ as **- *s not 7^ agreed among logicians to
head of which of the two clafies mentioned above they ought
particulars, to be referred j namely, Jingular propofitions, or thofe
w here the fubjeft is an individual. Of this nature are
the following : Sir Ifaac Newton was the inventor of
fluxions ,* This book contains many ufeful truths. What
occafions fome difficulty as to the proper rank of thefe
propofitions is, that, the fubjeft being taken according
to the whole of its extenfion, they fometimes have
the fame effeft in reafoning as univerfals. But if it
be confidered that they are in truth the moft limited
kind of particular propofitions, and that no propofition
can with any propriety be called univerfal but where
the fubje£t is fome univerfal idea *, we (hall not be long
in determining to which clafs they ought to be refer¬
red. When we fay, Some books contain ufeful truths ;
the propofition is particular, becaufe the general term
appears with a mark of reftriftion. If therefore we
fay, This book contains ufeful truths ; it is evident that
the propofition muft be ftill more particular, as the li¬
mitation implied in the word this, is of a more confined
nature than in the former cafe.
V. We fee, therefore, that all propofitions are either
affirmative or negative; nor is it lefs evident, that in
both cafes they may be univerfal or particular. Hence
arifes that celebrated fourfold divifion of them into
univerfal affirmative and univerfal negative, particu¬
lar affirmative and particular negative, which compre¬
hends indeed all their varieties. The ufe of this
method of diftinguifhing them Avill appear more fully
afterwards, when we came to treat, of reafoning and
fyllogifm.
Chap. IV. Of Abfolute~ and Conditional Propofltions.
, Ao
Diftm&ion I. The objefts about which we are chiefly conver-
intoeffe *e* ^"ant *n wor^» are a nature liable to change,
tial and ac-may affirmed of them at one time, cannot
eideataf. often at another 5 and it makes no fmall part of our
knowledge to diftinguifh rightly thefe variations, and
trace the reafons upon which they depend. For it is
obfervable, that amidft all the viciffitudes of nature,
fome things remain conftant and invariable; nor even
are the changes, to which we fee others liable, effeft-
ed but in confequence of uniform and Heady laws,
3.
39
The four¬
fold divi¬
fion of pro-
pofuions
141
which, when known, are fufficient to direfl us in our
judgments about them. Hence philofophers, in di- Ju ftmen *t
ftinguifhing the objefts of our perception into various
clafies, have been very careful to note, that fome
properties belong effentially to the general idea, fo as
not to be feparable from it but by deflroying its very
nature j while others are only accidental, and may be
affirmed or denied of it in different circumftances.
Thus folidity, a yellow colour, and great weight, are
confidered as effential qualities of gold : but whether
it fhall exifl as an uniform conjoined mafs, is not alike
neceffary. We fee that by a proper menftruum it
may be reduced to a fine powder, and that an intenfe
heat will bring it into a flate of fufion. 41
II. From this diverfity in the feveral qualities of Bence a
things arifes a confiderable difference as to the man-
ner of our judging about them. For all fuch proper j-Uy jn our*
ties as are infeparable from objects when confidered manner of
as belonging to any genus or fpecies, are affirmed ab-judging.
folutely and without referve of that general idea.
Thus wre fay, Gold is very weighty ; A flone is hard;
Animals have a power offef-motion. But in the cafe
of mutual or accidental qualities, as they depend up¬
on fome other confideration diftinft from the general
idea •, that alfo muff be taken into the account, in or¬
der to form an accurate judgment. Should we affirm,
for inflance, of fome ftones, that they are very fuf-
ceptible of a rolling motion j the propofition, while it
remains in this general form, cannot with any advan¬
tage be introduced into our reafonings. An aptnefs
to receive that mode of motion flows from the figure
of the ftone ; which, as it may vary infinitely, our
judgment then only becomes applicable and determi¬
nate, when the particular figure, of which volubility is
a confequence, is alfo taken into the account. Let us
then bring in this other confideration, and the propo¬
fition will run as follows : Slones of a fpherical form are
eaflly put into a rolling motion. Here we fee the con¬
dition upon which the predicate is affirmed, and there¬
fore know in what particular.cafes the propofition may
be applied. _ _ 42
III. This confideration of propofitions refpe&ing the Which
manner in which the predicate is affirmed of the fub-£,ves rife,
jedt gives rife to the divifion of them into abfolute
conditional. Abfolute propofitions are thofe wherein pofitlonsTn-.
we affirm fome property infeparable from the idea of to abfolute
the fubjedl, and which therefore belongs to it in all and condi-.
poffible cafes-: as, God is infinitely wife; Virtue tendstlonz^’
to the ultimate happinefs of man. But where the predi¬
cate is not neceffarily connected with the idea of the
fubjedf, unlefs upon fome confideration diftindf from
that idea, there the propofition is called conditional.
The reafon of the name is taken from the fuppofition
annexed, which is of the nature of a condition, and may
be expreffed as fuch, thus : If a flone is expofed to the
rays of the fun, it will contrail fome degree of heat ; If
a river runs in a very declining channel, its rapidity will
conflantly increafe. 43 •
IV. There is not any thing of greater importance The great
in philofophy than a due attention to this divifion ''fthi^div'6
propofitions. If we are careful never to affirm things£lon 1as<i'^I“
abfolutely but where the ideas are infeparably con-renders
joined j and if in our other judgments we diftindlly propofi-
mark the conditions which determine the predicate to t*ons ^eter“
belong to the fubjedl j we fliall be the lefs liable tominate*
miftake
44
And redu¬
ces them
from par¬
ticulars to
jrenerals.
. .45
Bivifion of
propofi-
tions into
fimple and
compound.
L O
miftake in applying genefal truths to the particular
concerns of human life. It is owing to the exa£t ob-
fervance of this rule that mathematicians have been fo
happy in their difcoveries, and that what they demon-
ftrate of magnitude in general may be applied with
eafe in all obvious occurrences.
V. The truth of it is, particular propolitions are
then known to be true, when we can trace their con¬
nexion with univerfals 5 and it is accordingly the great
bufinefs of fcience to find out general truths that may
be applied with fafety in all obvious inftances. Now
the great advantage arifing from determining with
care the conditions upon which one idea may be af¬
firmed or denied of another is this j that thereby par¬
ticular propofitions really become univerfal, may be
introduced with certainty into our reafonings, and
ferve as ftandards to conduft and regulate our judge¬
ments. To illuftrate this by a familiar inftance : if we
fay, Some water ails very forcibly; the propofition is
particular : and as the conditions on which this for¬
cible aftion depends are not mentioned, it is as yet un¬
certain in what cafes it may be applied. Let us then
fupply thefe conditions, and the propofition will run
thus : Water conveyed in fujficient quantity along a Jleep
defcent a£ls very forcibly. Here we have an univerfal
judgment, inafmuch as the predicate forcible aElion
may be afcribed to all water under the circumftances
mentioned. Nor is it lefs evident that the propofitien
in this new form is of eafy application j and in fa£t we
find that men do apply it in inftances where the forci¬
ble a£lion of water is required 5 as in corn-mills and
many other vrorks of art.
Chap. V. Of Simple and Compound Propojitions.
I. Hitherto we have treated of propofitions, where
only two ideas are compared together. Thefe are in
the general called Jtmple ; becaufe, having but one fub-
jeft and one predicate, they are the effeft of a fimple
judgment that admits of no fubdivifion. But if it fo
happens that feveral ideas offer themfelves to our
thoughts at once, whereby v-e are led to affirm the
fame thing of different objefts, or different things of
the fame objeft ; the propofitions expreffing thefe
judgments are called compound: becaufe they may be
refolved into as many others as there are fubjedts or
predicates in the whole complex determination on the
mind. Thus, God is infinitely wife and infinitely power¬
ful. Here there are two predicates, infinite wifdom and
infinite power, both affirmed of the fame fubject •, and
accordingly the propofition may be refolved into two
others 5 affirming thefe predicates feverally. In like
manner in the propofition, Neither kings nor people are
exempt from death ; the predicate is denied of both fub-
jedts; and may therefore be feparated from them in dif-
tindt propofitions. Nor is it lefs evident, that if a com¬
plex judgment confifts of feveral fubjedts and predi¬
cates, it may be refolved into as many fimple propefi-
tions as are the number of different ideas compared
together. Riches and honours are apt to elate the mind,
and increafe the number of our defires. In this judge¬
ment there are two fubjedls and two predicates, and it
is at the fame time apparent that it may be refolved
Into four diftindt propofitions. Riches are apt to elate
1 ...
G I C. Part II.
the mind. Riches are apt to increafe the number of our Of
defires. And fo of honours. Judgment,
II. Logicians have divided thefe compound propo- ' ^ '
fitions into a great many different clafles j but, in our rhe proper
opinion, not with a due regard to their proper defi-notion of a
nition. Thus, conditionals, caufals, relatives, &e. arecomPound
mentioned as fo many diftindt fpecies of this kind,^”P°^°"
though in fadt they are no more than fimple propo- v (l>
fitions. To give an inftance of a conditional ; if a
fione is expofed to the rays of the fun, it will contraB
fame degree of heat. Here w'e have but one fubjedl
and one predicate •, for the complex expreffion, A
fione expofed to the rays of the fun, conftitutes the pro¬
per fubjedt of this propofition, and is no more than
one determined idea. The lame thing happens in
caufals. Rehoboam was unhappy becaufe he followed evil
counfel. There is here an appearance of two propo¬
fitions arifing from the complexity of the expreffion •,
but when we come to confider the matter more near¬
ly, it is evident that we have but a fingle fubjedt and
predicate. The purfuit of evil counfel brought mifery
upon Rehoboam. It is not enough, therefore, to render
a propofition compound, that the fubjedt and predicate
are complex notions, requiring fometimes a whole fen-
tence to exprefs them : for in this cafe the comparifon
is ftill confined to two ideas, and conftitutes what we
call a fimple judgment. But where there are feveral
fubjedts or predicates, or both, as the affirmation or
negation may be alike extended to them all, the pro¬
pofition expreffing fuch a judgment is truly a colledtion
of as many fimple ones as there are different ideas com¬
pared. Confining ourfelves, therefore, to this more
ftridt and juft notion of compound propofitions, they
are all reducible to two kinds, viz. copulatives and dif-
JunBives. 47
HI. h. copulative propofition is, where the fubjedls Compound
and predicates are fo linked together, that they may P_roP°fi-
be all feverally affirmed or denied one of another. Of^opuia^ive^
this nature are the examples of compound propofitions
given above. Riches and honours are apt to elate the
mind, and increafe the numbers of our defires. Neither
kings nor people are exempt from death. In the firft of
thefe the two predicates may be affirmed feverally of
each fubjedl, whence we have four diftindl propofitions.
The other furnilhes an example of the negative kind,
where the fame predicate, being disjoined from both
fubjedls, may be alfo denied of them in feparate propo¬
fitions. 48
IV. The other fpecies of compound propofitions are or Chsjunc"
thofe called disjunctives j in which, comparing feveraltlve’
predicates with the fame fubjedt, we affirm that one
of them neceffarily belongs to it, but leave the parti¬
cular predicate undetermined. If any one, for example,
fays, This world either exifts of ifelfi or is the work of
fame all-wife and powerful caufe, it is evident that one
of the two predicates muft belong to the world j but
as the propofition determines not which, it is therefore
of the kind w’e call dijunBive. Such too are the fol¬
lowing : The fun either moves round the earth, or is the
centre about which the earth revolves. Friendjhip finds
men equal, or makes them fo. It is the nature of all pro¬
pofitions of this clafs, fuppofing them to be exadt in
point of form, that upon determining the particular
predicate, the reft are of courfe to be removed : or if
all
to feIf-evi¬
dent and
deraonltra-
bie.
Part II. L O
Of all tlte predicates but one are removed, that one necef-
Judgment. farily takes place. Thus, in the example given above j
 * if we allow the world to be the work of fome wife and
powerful caufe, we of courfe deny it to be felf-exift-
ent 5 or if we deny it to be felf-exiftent, we muft ne-
ceflarily admit that it was produced by fome wife and
powerful caufe. Now this particular manner of link¬
ing the predicates together, fo that the eftabliihing one
difplaces all the reft j or the excluding all but one ne-
ceflarily eftabliihes that one *, cannot otherwife be ef¬
fected than by means of disjunEiive particles. And
hence it is that propofitions of this clafs take their
names from thefe particles which make fo neceftary a
part of them, and indeed conftitute their very nature
confidered as a diftinCt fpecies.
Chap. VI. Of the Divijion of Propofitions into Self-evi¬
dent and Demonjirab/e.
Propofitiotis I. When any propofition is offered to the view of
divided in- the mind, if the terms in which it is expreffed be
underftood ; upon comparing the ideas together, the
agreement or difagreement afferted is either immedi¬
ately perceived, or found to lie beyond the prefent
reach of the underftanding. In the firft cafe the pro¬
pofition is faid to be felf-evident, and admits not of
any proof, becaufe a bare attention to the ideas them-
felves produces full conviction and certainty j nor is
it poflible to call in any thing more evident by way of
confirmation. But where the connexion or repug¬
nance comes not fo readily under the infpeCtion of the
mind, there we muft have recourfe to reafoning j
and if by a clear feries of proofs we can make out the
truth propofed, infomuch that felf-evidence (hall ac¬
company every ftep of the procedure, we are then
able to demonftrate what we affert, and the propofi¬
tion itfelf is faid to be demonfrable. When we affirm,
for infiance, that it is impojfible for the fame thing to be
and not to be; whoever underftands the terms made
ufe of perceives at firft glance the truth of what is af¬
ferted, nor can he by any efforts bring himfelf to be¬
lieve the contrary. The propofition therefore is felf-
evident, and fuch that it is impoffible by reafoning to
make it plainer •, becaufe there is no truth more ob¬
vious or better known, from which as a confequence
it may be deduced. But if we fay, This world had a
beginning; the affertion is indeed equally true, but
ffiines not forth with the fame degree of evidence.
We find great difficulty in conceiving how the world
could be made out of nothing : and are not brought
to a free and full confent, until by reafoning we ar¬
rive at a clear view of the abfurdity involved in the
contrary fuppofition. Hence this propofition is of the
kind we call demonjlrabfe, inafmuch as its truth is not
immediately perceived by the mind, but yet may be
made appear by means of others more known and
obvious, whence it follows as an unavoidable confe¬
quence.
II. From what has been faid, it appears, that reafon-
tlent truths ing is employed only about demonftrable propofitions,
the firft anj our jntuJtjve ancj felf-evident perceptions are
°f reafon- ^'Ie u^t^rnate foundation on which it refts.
ing. III. Self-evident propofitions furniffi the firft prin¬
ciples of reafoning j and it is certain, that if in our
So
Self-evi-
G I G. i43
refearches we employ only fuch principles as have
this character of felf-evidence, and apply them accord- ^’-dgraent.
ing to the rules to be afterwards explained, we {hall
be in no danger of error in advancing from ene dif-
covery to another. For this we may appeal to the
writings of the mathematicians, which being conduct¬
ed by the exprefs model here mentioned, are an incon-
teftable proof of the firmnefs and {lability of human
knowledge, when built upon fo fure a foundation. For
not only have the propofitions of this fcience flood the
teft of ages j but are found attended with that invinci¬
ble evidence, as forces the affent of all who duly con-
fider the proofs upon which they are eftabliffied. Since
the mathematicians are univerfally allowed to have hit
upon the right method of arriving at unknown truths,
fince they have been the happieft in the choice as well
as the application of their principles, it may not be
amifs to explain here their method of ftating felf-evi¬
dent propofitions, and applying them to the purpofes of
demonftration. ^
IV. Firft then it is to be obferved, that they have Definitions
been very careful in afcertaining their ideas, and fix-a great
ing the fignification of their terms. For this purpofe ^,elP t0.
they begin with definitions, in which the meaning of^^1*
their words is fo diftinCtly explained, that they can-^ence jn
not fail to excite in the mind of an attentive reader knowledge*
the very fame ideas as are annexed to them by the
writer. And indeed the clearnefs and irrefiftible evi¬
dence of mathematical knowledge is owing to nothing
fo much as this care in laying the foundation. Where
the relation between any two ideas is accurately and
juftly traced, it will not be difficult for another to com¬
prehend that relation, if in fetting himfelf to difcover
it he brings the very fame ideas into comparifon. But
if, on the contrary, he affixes to his words ideas dif¬
ferent from thofe that were in the mind of him who
firft advanced the demonftration : it is evident that as
the fame ideas are not compared, the fame relation
cannot fubfift, infomuch that a propofition will be re¬
jected as falfe, which, had the terms been rightly un¬
derftood, muft have appeared inconteftably true. A
fquare, for inftance, is a figure bounded by four equal
right lines, joined together at right angles. Here the
nature of the angles make no lefs a part of the idea
than the equality of the fides : and many properties
demonftrated of the fquare flow entirely from its being
a reCtangular figure. If therefore we fuppofe a man,
who has formed a partial notion of a fquare, compre¬
hending only the equality of its fides, without regard
to the angles, reading fome demonftration that implies
alfo this latter confideration ; it is plain he would re-
jeCt it as not univerfally true, inafmuch as it could not
be applied where the fides were joined together at
equal angles. For this laft figure, anfwering ftill to his
idea of a fquare, would be yet found without the pro¬
perty affigned to it in the propofition. But if he
comes afterwards to correct his notion, and render his
idea complete, he will then readily own the truth and 52
juftnefs of the demonftration. Mathema-
V. We fee, therefore, that nothing contributes foj!Cians’. ^
much to the improvement and certainty of human wilHhem
knowledge, as the having determinate ideas, and procure a
keeping them fteady and invariable in all our dif-re3C'y re-
courfes and reafonings about them. And on this ac-cePUor t0
count it is, that mathematicians, as was before obferved,
always vance.
si
The efta-
bliflaing of
principles,
the fecond
144 L O
Of always begin by defining their terms, and diftin&Iy un-
Judgment. folding the notions they are intended to exprefs.
v ' Hence fuch as apply themfelves to thefe ftudies have
exactly the fame views of things ; and, bringing al¬
ways the very fame ideas into comparifon, readily dif-
cern the relations between them. It is likewife of
importance, in every demonftration, to exprefs the fame
idea invariably by the fame word. From this pradlice
mathematicians never deviate j and if it be neceffary in
their demonftrations, where the reader’s comprehenfion
is aided hy a diagram, it is much more fo in all reafon-
ings about moral or intelleftual truths where the ideas
cannot be reprefented by a diagram. The obfervation
of this rule may fometimes be produftive of ill-found¬
ing periods j but when truth is the objedl, found ought
to be defpifed.
VI. When the mathematicians have taken this firft
ftep, and made known the ideas whofe relations they
intend to inveftigate, their next care is, to lay down
ftep m ma- f°me felf-evident truths, which may ferve as a founda-
thematical tion for their future reafonings. And here indeed
knowledge, they proceed with remarkable circumfpeftion, admit¬
ting no principles but what How immediately from
their definitions, and neceffarily force themfelves upon
a mind in any degree attentive to its ideas. Thus a
circle is a figure formed by a right line moving round
fome fixed point in the fame plane. The fixed point
round which the line is fuppofed to move, and where
one of its extremities terminates, is called the centre of
the circle. The other extremity, which is conceived
to be carried round until it returns to the point whence
it firft fet out, defcribes a curve running into itfelf, and
termed the circumference. All right lines drawn from
the centre to the circumference are called radii. From
thefe definitions compared, geometricians derive this
felf-evident truth j that the radii of the fame circle are
all equal to one another.
Propofitions VII. We now obferve, that in all propofitions we
divided into either affirm or deny fome property of the idea that
fpeculative conftitutes the fubjeft of our judgment, or we maintain
cal' ^ra * that fomething may be done or effefted. The firft fort
are called fpeculative propofitions, as in the example
mentioned above, the radii of the fame circle are all
equal one to another. The others are called praBical, for
a reafon too obvious to be mentioned j thus, that a right
line may be drawn from one point to another is a pra£li-
cal propofition j inafmuch as it expreffed that fomething
may be done.
VIII. From this twofold confideralion of propofi-
thematical tions arifes the twofold divifion of mathematical prin-
principles cjpies jnt0 axioms and poftulates. By an axiom they
ecHnto^aja unc!erftand any felf-evident fpeculative truth j as, That
oms and*1 the whole is greater than its parts : That things equal to
poftulates; one and the fame thing are equal to one another. But a
felf-evident pradlical propofition is what they call a
pojlulate. Such are thofe of Euclid ; that a fnite right
line may be continued direBly forwards ; that a circle
may be defcribed about any centre with any di/lance.
And here we are to obferve, that as in an axiom the
agreement or difagreement between the fubjeft and pre¬
55
Hence ma-
G I C. - Part II.
dicate muft come under the immediate infpe&ion of the Of
mind j fo in a poftulate, not only the poffibility of the JudSment<
thing afferted muft be evident at firft view, but alfo v"
the manner in which it may be effedled. For where
this manner is not of itfelf apparent, the propofition
comes under the notion of the demonftrable kind, and
is treated as fuch by geometrical writers. Thus, to
draw a right line from one point to another, is affumed
by Euclid as a poftulate, becaufe the manner of doing
it is fo obvious, as to require no previous teaching.
But then it is not equally evident, how we are to con-
ftrudl an equilateral triangle. For this reafon he ad¬
vances it as a deraonftruble propofition, lays down rules
for the exaft performance, and at the fame time proves,
that if thefe rules are followed, the figure will be juftly
defcribed. 55
IX. This leads us to take notice, that as felf-evident and demon,
truths are diftinguifhed into different kinds, according ftr£>;lenf,1?‘
as they are fpeculative or praflical j fo is it alfo withj^ t},eore^j
demonftrable propofitions. A demonftrable fpecula-and pro-
live propofition is by mathematicians called a Meomw. blems.
Such is the famous 47th propofition of the firft book
of the Elements, knowm by the name of the Pythago~
ric theorem, from its fuppofed inventor Pythagoras,
viz. “ that in every right-angled triangle, the fquare
defcribed upon the fide fubtending the right angle is
equal to both the fquares defcribed upon the fides con¬
taining the right angle.” On the other hand, a de¬
monftrable practical propofition is called a problem ; as
where Euclid teaches us to defcribe a fquare upon a
given right line.
X. It may not be amifs to add, that, befides the Corollaries
four kinds of propofitions already mentioned, mathe-are obvious
maticians have alfo a fifth, knowm by the name ofclecJu<^*ons
corollaries. Thefe are ufually fubjoined to theorems or t^e0*
problems, and differ from them only in this : that theyprobjem&
flow from what is there demonftrated in fo obvious a
manner as to difcover their dependence upon the pro¬
pofition whence they are deduced, almoft as foon as
propofed. Thus Euclid having demonftrated, “ that
in every right-lined triangle all the three angles taken
together are equal to tw’o right angles j” adds by way
of corollary, “ that all the three angles of any one tri¬
angle taken together are equal to all the three angles
of any other triangle taken together:” which is evident
at firft fight} becaufe in all cafes they are equal to two
right ones, and things equal to one and the fame thing
are equal to one another. ^
XI. The fcholia of mathematicians are indifferently Scholia
annexed to definitions, propofitions, or corollaries 5 and ferve the
anfwer the fame purpofes as annotations upon a cIafficP’'rP°^e'
author. For in them occafion is taken to explain what-'*""0’**'0115
• • 1 1 or <1 com®
ever may appear intricate and oblcure m a train ot rea-ment>
foning •, to anfwer ohjeftions j to teach the application
and ufes of propofitions j to lay open the original and
hiftory of the feveral difcoveries made in the fcience $
and, in a word, to acquaint us with all fuch particulars
as deferve to be known, whether confidered as points of
curiolity or profit.
PARI*
logic,
Part III
Of
Reafoning.
t
PART III. OF REASONING.
HS
°f
Reafoning.
Chap. I. Of Reafoning in general, and the Parts of
which it conffis.
IT often happens in comparing ideas together, that
their agreement or difagreement cannot be difcerned
at firft view, efpecially if they are of fuch a nature as
^ not to admit of an exadl application one to another.
Remote re- When, for inftance, we compare two figures of a dif-
lations dif- ferent make, in order to judge of their equality or in-
covered by equality^ it is plain, that by barely confidering the fi-
interme gures themfelves, we cannot arrive at an exafl deter-
diate ideas, mination •, becaufe, by reafon of their difagreeing forms,
it is impoffiale fo to put them together, as that their
feveral parts {hall mutually coincide. Here then it be¬
comes neceflary to look out for fome third idea that
will admit of fuch an application as the prefent cafe
requires j wherein if we fucceed, all difficulties vanilh,
and the relation we are in queft of may be traced with
eafe. Thus, right-lined figures are all reduced to
fquares, by means of which we can meafure their areas,
and determine exadlly their agreement or difagreement
go in point of magnitude.
This m.m- II. But how can any third idea ferve to difcover a
nerofarri- relation between two others ? The anfwer is, By be-
trufh^erm ’n£ cwlT1Pared feverally with thefe others j for fuch a
edrea- comparifon enables us to fee how far the ideas with
foiling. which this third is compared are connected or disjoin¬
ed between themfelves. In the example mentioned
above of two right-lined figures, if we compare each of
them with fome fquare whofe area is known, and find
the one exaftly equal to it, and the other lefs by a
fquare inch, we immediately conclude that the area of
the firft figure is a fquare inch greater than that of the
fecond. This manner of determining the relation be¬
tween any two ideas, by the intervention of fome
third with which they may be compared, is that which
we call reafoning ; and is indeed the chief inftrument
by which we puffi on our difeoveries, and enlarge our
knowledge. The great art lies in finding out fuch in¬
termediate ideas, as when compared with the others in
the queftion, will furniffi evident and known truths j
becaufe, as will afterwards appear, it is only by means
of them that we arrive at the knowledge of what is
5, hidden and remote.
The parts III. Hence it appears, that every aft of reafoning
thatconfti- neeeflarily includes three diftinft judgments; two
ofreafon^ wherein the ideas whofe relation we want to difcover
ing and a are Severally compared with the middle idea, and a
fyllogitm. third wherein they are themfelves connefted or disjoin¬
ed, according to the refult of that comparifon. Now,
as in the fecond part of logic, our judgments, when put
into words, were called propofitions, fo here in the
third part the expreffions of our reafonings are termed
fyUogifms. And hence it follows, that as every a£I of
reafoning implies three feveral judgments, fo every fyl-
logifm muft include three diftinfl propofitions. When
a reafoning is thus put into words, and appears in form
of a fyllogifm, the intermediate idea made ufe of, to
difcover the agreement or difagreement we fearch for,
VOL. XII. Part I.
is called the middle term; and the two ideas themfelves
with which this third is compared, go by the name of
the extremes. 62
VI. But as thefe things are beft illuftrated by ex-Inftance,
amples ; let us, for inftance, fet ourfelves to inquire111:111 and
whether men are accountable for their actions. As the
relation between the ideas of man and accountablenefs,
comes not within the immediate view of the mind,
our firft care muft be to find out fome third idea that
will enable us the more eafily to difcover and trace it.
A very fmall meafure of refleftion is fufficient to in¬
form us, that no creature can be accountable for his
aftions, unlefs we fuppofe him capable of diftinguifli-
ing the good from the bad; that is, unlefs we fuppofe
him poffeffed of reafon. Nor is this alone fufficient.
For what would it avail him to know good from bad
adtions, if he had no freedom of choice, nor could
avoid the one and purfue the other ? hence it becomes
neceffary to take in both coniiderations in the prefent
cafe. It is at the fame time equally apparent, that
wherever there is ability of diftinguifliing good from
bad aftions, and of purfuing the one and avoiding the
other, there alfo a creature is accountable. We have
then got a third idea, with which accountablenefs is
infeparably connected, viz. reafon and liberty; which
are here to be confidered as making up one complex
conception. Let us now take this middle idea, and
compare it with the other term in the queftion, viz.
man, and we all know by experience that it may be
affirmed of him. Having thus by means of the inter¬
mediate idea formed two feveral judgments, viz. that
man is poffeffed of reafon and liberty; and that reafon
and liberty imply accountablenefs ; a third obvioufty and
neceffarily follows, viz. that man is accountable for his
options. Here then we have a complete a6t of reafon¬
ing, in which, according to what has been already ob-
ferved, there are three diftinft judgments : two that
may be ftyled previous, inafmuch as they lead to the
other, and arife from comparing the middle idea with
the two ideas in the queftion : the third is a confe-
quence of thefe previous a£ts, and flows from combin¬
ing the extreme ideas between themfelves. If now
we put this reafoning into w'ords, it exhibits what logi¬
cians term a fyllogifm ; and, when propofed in due
form, runs thus:
“ Every creature poffefled of reafon and liberty is
“ accountable for hfe a£tions.
“ Man is a creature poffeffed of reafon and liberty :
“ Therefore man is accountable for his adtions.”
V. In this fyllogifm we may obferve, that there are premife$
three feveral propofitions exprefling the three judge-conclufion,
ments implied in the ait of reafoning ; and fo dilpoled, extiemes,
as to reprefent diftinftly what paffes within the mind in
tracing the more diftant relations of its ideas. The twoteim*
firft propofitions anfwer the two previous judgments
in reafoning, and are called the premfes, becaufe they
are placed before the other. The third is termed the
conclujion, as being gained in confequence of what was
afferted in the premifes. We are alfo to remember,
T that
.64
Major and
minor term
major and
minor pro-
poliuon.
65
In a fingle
aifl of rea-
foning the
premifes
mu ft be in
tuitive
truths.
LOG
that the terms exprefling the two ideas whofe rela¬
tions we inquire after, as here man and accountable-
r.efs, are in general called the extremes^ and that the in¬
termediate idea, by means of which the relation is tra¬
ced, viz. a creature pojfejfed of reafon and liberty, takes
the name of the middle term. Hence it follows, that by
the premifes of a fyllogifm we are always to underftand
the two propofitions where the middle term is feverally
compared with the extremes; for thele conllitute the
previous judgments, whence the truth we are in quell
of is by reafoning deduced. The conclufon is that other
propolition, in which the extremes themfelves are joined
or feparated agreeably to what appears upon the above
com pari Con.
VI. The conclufion is made up of the extreme terms
, of the fyllogifm : and the extreme, which ferves as the
predicate ot the conclulion, goes by the name of the
major term : the other extreme, which makes the i'ub-
joft in the fame propolition, h* called the minor term.
From this diltiniiion of the extremes arifes alfo a di-
11 in61 ion between the premifes, where thefe extremes
are feverally compared with the middle term. That
propolition which compares the greater extreme, or
the predicate of the conclufion, with the middle term,
is called the major proportion : the other, wherein the
fame middle term is compared with the fubjeft of the
conclufion or leffer extreme, is called the minor propofi-
tion. All this is obvious from the fyllogifm already
given, where the conclufion is, Alan is accountable for
his aPlions. For here the predicate accountable for his
aBions being conne6led with the middle term in the
fir ft of the two premifes, every creature pojfejfed of rea¬
fon and liberty is accountable far his aBions, gives what
we call the major propojition. In the fecond of the
premifes, man is a creature pojfejftd of reafon and liberty,
we find the leffer extreme, or fubje6l of the conclu¬
fion, viz. man, conne6led with the fame middle term,
whence it is known to be the minor propqftwn. When
a fyllogifm is propofed in due form, the major propofi-
tion is always placed firft, the minor next, and the con¬
clufion laft.
VII. Thefe things premifed, we may in the gene¬
ral define reafoning to be an a6l or operation of the
mind, deducing feme unknown propofition from other
previous ones that are evident and known. Thefe
previous propofitions, in a fimple a6l of reafoning, are
only two in number 5 and it is always required that
they be of themfelves apparent to the underftanding,
infomuch that we affent to and perceive the truth of
them as foon as propofed. In the fyllogifm given
above, the premifes are fuppoled to be lelf-evident
truths ; otherwife the conclufion could not be inferred
by a fingle a6l of reafoning. If, for inftance, in the
major, every creature pojfejfed of reafon and liberty is ac¬
countable for h s aBions, the connexion between the
fubjc6l and predicate could not be perceived by a bare
attention to the ideas themfclves; it is evident that
ihis propofition would no lefs require a proof than the
conclufion deduced from it. In this cafe a new middle
term muft be fought for, to trace the connexion here
fuppofed 5 and this of courfe furnifties another fyllo¬
gifm, by which having eftabhlhed the propofitton in
queftion, we are then, and not before, at liberty to
ufe it in any fucceeding train of reafoning. And
fhould it fo happen, that in this fecond effay there was
I C. Part Ilk
ftill fome previous propofition whofe truth did not ap- Of
pear at firft fight, we muft then have recourfe to a ^-eafcnuig,
third fyllogifm, in order to lay open that truth to the * ^
mind : becaufe fo long as the premifes remain uncer¬
tain, the conclufion built upon them muft be fo too.
When, by condufting our thoughts in this manner,
we at laft arrive at fome fyllogifm where the previous
propofitions are intuitive truths •, the mind then refts in
full fecurity, as perceiving that the feveral conclufions it
has paffed through Hand upon the immoveable founda¬
tion of felf-evidence, and when traced to their fource
terminate in it. _ ^
VIII. We fee, therefore, that in order to infer aReafonin(r
conclufion by a fingle a6l of reafoning, the premifes in the high’,
muft be. intuitive propofitions. Where they are not,eft exercife
previous fyllogiims are required j in which cafe rea-of Il:> onlJ'a
foning becomes a complicated a6l, taking in a variety
of fucceffive fteps. This frequently happens in tra-iogifmJ !
cing the more remote relation of our ideas *, where,
many middle terms being called in, the conclufion can¬
not be made out but in confequence of a feries of fyl-
logifms following one another in train. But although
in this concatenation of propofitions, thofe that form
the premifes of the laft fyliogifm are often confider-
ably removed from felf-evidence j yet if we trace the
reafoning backw ards, w e {hall find them the conclufions
of previous fyllogifms, whofe premifes approach nearer
and nearer to intuition in proportion as we advance,
and are found at laft to terminate in it. And if, af¬
ter having thus unravelled a demonftration, we take it
the contrary way ; and obferve how the mind, fetting
out with intuitive perceptions, couples them together
to form a conclufion : how, by introducing this con¬
clufion into another fyllogifm, it ftill advances one
ftep farther ; and fo proceeds, making every new dif-
covery fubfervient to its future progrefs ; we {hall
then perceive clearly, that reafoning, in the higheft
Tenfe of that faculty, is no more than an orderly com¬
bination of thofe fimple a£ls which we have already fo
fully explained. . _ -
IX. Thus we fee, that reafoning, beginning with Requ,7res
firft principles, rifes gradually from one judgment to intuitive
another, and connedls them in fuch manner, that every certainty ir
ft age of the progreflion brings intuitive certainty along^jr ftep
with it. And now at length we may clearly under-
{land the definition given above of this diftinguifhing
faculty of the human mind. Reafon, we have faid, is
the ability of deducing unknown truths from principles
or propofitions that are already known. This evi¬
dently appears by the foregoing account, where we
fee that no propofition is admitted into a fyllogifm, to
ferve as one of the previous judgments on which the
conclufion refts, unlefs it is itfelf a known and efta-
blilhed truth, whofe connexion with felf-evident prin¬
ciples has been already traced.
Chap. II. Of the feveral kinds of Reafoning : and frfl,
of that by which we determine the Genera and Species
oj Things.
68
I. Alt. the aims of human reafon may in the general Rea{-on;ng,
be reduced to thefe two: 1. To rank things under twofold, s
thofe univerfal ideas to which they truly belong ; and,
2. To aferibe to them their feveral attributes and pro¬
perties in confequence of that diftribution.
XL One
Part III.
LOGIC.
Of II. One great aim of human reafon is to determine
Reafoning. genera and fpecies of things. We have feen in
* the Firft Part of this treatife, how the mind proceeds
in framing general ideas*. We have alfo feen in the
Second Part, how by means of thefe general ideas we
come by univerfal propofitions. Now as in thefe uni-
verfal propofitions we affirm fome property of a genus
or fpecies, it is plain that we cannot apply this proper-
69
The firft
I kind re-
| gards the
I genera and
I fpecies of
things
70
The fteps
by whkh
we arrive
at conclu
* See Foot ty to particular objefls till we have firft determined
; note. whether they are comprehended under that general
| p idea of which the property is affirmed. Thus there are
certain properties belonging to all even numbers, which
neverthelefs cannot be applied to any particular num¬
ber, until we have firft difcovered it to be of the fpecies
exprefied by that natural name. Hence reafoning be¬
gins with referring things to their feveral divifions and
clafles in the fcale of our ideas j and as thefe divifions
are all difiinguiffied by particular names, we hereby
learn to apply the terms expreffing general conceptions
to fuch particular objects as come under our immediate
obfervation.
III. Now, in order to arrive at thefe conclufions, by
which the feveral objedts of perception are brought un¬
der general names, two things are manifeftly neceflary.
fions of this Firft, That we take a view of the idea itfelf denoted
| fart. by that general name, and carefully attend, to the dif-
tinguiftiing marks which ferve to charadterize it. Se¬
condly, That we compare this idea with the objedt
under confideration, obferving diligently wherein they
agree or differ. If the idea is found to correfpond with
the particular objedt, we then without hefitation apply
the general name j but if no fuch correfpondence in¬
tervenes, the conclufion muft neceffarily take a contra¬
ry turn. Let us, for inftance, take the number eight,
and confider by what fteps we are led to pronounce it
an even number. Firft then, we call to mind the idea
fignified by the expreffion an even number, viz. that it
is a number divifible into two equal parts. We then
compare this idea with the number eight, and finding
them manifeftly to agree, fee at once the neceffily of
^admitting the conclufion. Thefe feveral judgments
therefore transferred into language, and reduced to the
form of a fyllogifm, appear thus :
“ Every number that may be divided into two equal
“ parts is an even number :
“ The number eight may be divided into two equal
. “ parts }
“ Therefore the number eight is an even number.”
IV. Here it may be obferved, that wffiere the ge¬
neral idea, to which particular objtdls are referred, is
very familiar to the mind, and frequently in view ;
this reference, and the application of the general
name-, feem to be made without any apparatus of rea¬
foning. When we fee a horfe in the fields, or a dog
in the ftreet, -we readily apply the name of the fpe¬
cies •, habit, and a familiar acquaintance with the ge¬
neral idea, fuggefting it inftantaneoufly to the mind.
We are not however to imagine on this account that
the underftanding departs from the ufual rules of juft
thinking. A frequent repetition of afts begets a ha¬
bit j and habits are attended with a certain prompt-
nefs of execution, that prevents our obferving the fe¬
veral fteps and gradations by which any courfe of ac-
Ition is accomplilhed. But in other inftances, where
7t
Thofe fteps
always
followed,
I though in
i familiar
cafes we do
not always
attend to
; them.
147
we judge not by precontrafled habits, as when the
general idea is very complex, or lefs familiar to the Rewniing.^
mind, we always proceed according to the form of
reafoning eftabliffied above. A goldfmith, for inftance,
who is in doubt as to any piece of metal, whether it be
of the fpecies called go/d, firft examines its proper¬
ties, and then comparing them with the general idea
fignified by that name, if he finds a perfed correfpond¬
ence, no longer hefitates under what clafs of metals to
rank it.
V. Nor let it be imagined that our refearches here. The great
becaufe in appearance bounded to the impofing of ge- importance
neral names upon particular objeds, are therefore tl"i* brancr of
vial and of little confequence. Some of the moft con- rcafomiig .
fiderable debates among mankind, and fuch too as
nearly regard their lives, intereft, and happinefs, turn
wholly upon this article. Is it not the chief employ¬
ment of our feveral courts of judicature to determine
in particular inftances, what is law, juftice, and equity ?
Of what importance is it ‘in many cafes to decide
aright whether an adion fhall be termed murder or
rnanjlaughter? We fee then that no lefs than the lives
and fortunes of men depend often upon thefe decifions.
The reafon is plain. Adions, when once referred to
a general idea, draw after them all that may be affirm¬
ed of that idea ; infomuch that the determining the
fpecies of adions is all one with determining what pro¬
portion of praife or difpraife, commendation or blame,
&c. ought to follow them. For as it is allowed that
murder deferves death ; by bringing any particular
adion under the head of murder, we of courfe decide
the puniftiment due to it. v 73
VI. But the great importance of this branch of rea-and theex-
foning, and the neceffity of care and circumfpedion
in referring particular objeds to general ideas, is ftill by
farther evident from the pradice of the mathemati- mathemati¬
cians. Every one who has read Euclid, knows, that clans,
he frequently requires us to draw lines through certain
points, and according to fuch and fuch diredions.
The figures thence refulting are often fquares, paral¬
lelograms, or redangles. Yet Euclid never fuppofes
this from their bare appearance, but always demon-
ftrates it upon the ftrideft principles of geometry.
Nor is the method he takes in any thing different from
that defcribed above. Thus, for inftance, having de¬
fined a fquare to be a figure bounded by four equal
fides joined together at right angles-, when fuch a fi¬
gure arifes in any conftruflion previous to the deroon-
ftration of a propofition, yet he never calls it by that
name until he has ffiown that its fides are equal, and
all its angles right ones. Now this is apparently the
fame form of reafoning we have before exhibited in
proving eight to be an even number. ^
VII. Having thus explained the rules by which we Fixed and
are to condud ourfelves in ranking particular objeds,nv’ar^ab!e
under general ideas, and ftiown their conformity to u^as>wllb
the pradice and manner of the mathematicians : it re- piicTtio/of
mains only to obferve, that the true way of render-names, ren-
ing this part of knowledge both eafy and certain is,deis tbis
by habituating ourielves to clear and determinate ideas, Part
and keeping them fteadily annexed to their refpediveboth »afy£
names. For as all our aim is to apply general words arid certain,
aright, if thefe words ftand for invariable ideas that
are perfedly known to the mind, and can be readily
diftinguiffied upon occafion, there will be little danger
T s of
148 LOG
Of of miftake or error in our reafonings. Let us fuppofe
Reafoivng. by examining any objeft, and carrying our at-
Sl’r y tention fucceflively from orie part to another, we have
acquainted ourfelves with the feveral particulars ob-
fervable in it. If among thefe ie find fuch as confti-
tute fome general idea, framed and fettled before¬
hand by the underftanding, and diftinguiihed by a par¬
ticular name, the refemblance thus known and perceiv¬
ed neceffarily determines the fpecies of the objedt,
and thereby gives it a right to the name by which
that fpecies is called. Thus four equal fides, joined
together at right angles, make up the notion of a
fjuare. As this is a fixed and invariable idea, with¬
out which the general name cannot be applied $ we ne¬
ver call any particular figure a fquare until it appears
to have thefe feveral conditions $ and contrarily,
wherever a figure is found with thefe conditions, it
neceffarily takes the name of a fquare. The fame
will be found to hold in all our other reafonings of this
kind, w here nothing can create any difficulty but the
want of fettled ideas. If, for inftance, we have not
determined within ourfelves the precife notion denot¬
ed by the word manjlaughter, it will be impoffible for
us to decide whether any particular adtion ought to
bear that name : becaufe, however nicely we examine
the adtion itfelf, yet, being llrangers to the general
idea with which it is to be compared, we are utterly
unable to judge of their agreement or difagreement.
But if we take care to remove this obfiacle, and di-
ftindlly trace the two ideas under contideratron, all
difficulties vaniffi, and the refolution becomes both eafy
and certain.
VIII. Thus w'e fee of what importance it is torvards
the improvement and certainty of human knowledge,
that we accuftom ourfelves to clear and determinate
ideas, and a fteady application of words.
Ghap. III. Of Reafoning, as it regards the Powers and
Properties of Things, and the Relations of our general
Ideas.
Theuiftinc- L We now come to the fecond great end which
tion of rea men have in view in their reafonings j namel)', the
foning, as it difcovering and afcribins to things their feveral attri-
iciences * butes and properties. And here it will be neceffary
and as it to diftinguiffi between reafoning, as it regards the
concerns fciences, and as it concerns common life. In the fci-
common ences, our reafon is employed chiefly about univer-
fal truths, it being by them alone that the bounds of
human knowledge are enlarged. Hence the divifion
of things into various clafles, called otherwife genera
and fpecies. For thefe univerfal ideas being fet up as
the reprefentatives of many particular things, whatever
“ is affirmed of them may be alfo affirmed of all the in¬
dividuals to which they belong. Murder, for inftance,
is a general idea, reprefenting a certain fpecies of hu¬
man actions. Reafon tells us that the puniffiment due
to it is death. Hence every particular aftion, coming
under the notion of murder, has the puniftiment of
death allotted to it. Here then we apply the general
truth to fome obvious inftance ; and this is what pro¬
perly conftitutes the reafoning of common life. For
men, in their ordinary tranfaftions anjl intercourfe
one with another, have, for the moft part, to do on¬
ly with particular objedls. Our friends and relations,
4
I G. Part III,
their characters and behaviour, the conftitution of the Of
feveral bodies that furround us, and the ufes to which Reaf°ning. j
they may be applied, are what chiefly engage our at- p
tention. In all thefe, we reafon about particular
things j and the whole refult of our reafoning is, the
applying the general truths of the fciences in the or¬
dinary tranfaftions of human life. When we fee a
viper, we avoid it. Wherever we have occafion for
the forcible aition of water to move a body that makes
confiderable refiftance, we take care to convey it in
fueh a manner that it {hall fall upon the objeft with
impetuofity. Now all this happens in confequence of
our familiar and ready application of thefe two gene¬
ral truths. The bite of a viper is mortal. Water fall¬
ing upon a body with impetuofty, aBs very forcibly to¬
wards fetting it in motion. In like manner, if we fet
ourfelves to confider any particular charadler, in order
to determine the {hare of praife or difpraife that be¬
longs to it, our great concern is to afeertain exaClly
the proportion of virtue and vice. The reafon is ob¬
vious. A juft determination, in all cafes of this kind,
depends entirely upon an application of thefe general
maxims of morality : Virtuous aBions deferve prafe ; vi¬
cious aBions deferve blame. ^
II. Hence it appears that reafoning, as it regards The fteps
common life, is no more than the aferibing the ge-by which |
neral properties of things to thofe feveral objeCls withwe Procee<l
which we are more immediately concerned, according
as they are found to be of that particular divifion orconunoa
clafs to which the properties belong. The fteps then life,
by which we proceed are manifeftly thefe. Firft, We
refer the obje£l under confideration to fome general
idea or clafs of things. We then recolleft the feveral
attributes of that general idea. And, laftly, Aferibe
all thofe attributes to the prefent objedt. Thus, in
confidering the ehara&er of Scmpronius, if we find it
to be of the kind called virtuous, when we at the fame
time reflect that a virtuous character is deferving of
efteem, it naturally and obvioufly follows that Sem-
pronius is fo too. Thefe thoughts put into a fyllo-
gfm, in order to exhibit the form of reafoning here re¬
quired, run thus :
“ Every virtuous man is worthy of efteem.
“ Sempronius is a virtuous man :
“ Therefore Sempronius is worthy of efteem.”
77
III. By this fjllogifm it appears, that before we af- The cpn-
firm any thing of a particular object, that obje£t miaft nexl0I\an<^
be referred to fome general idea. Sempronius is Pr°-of the two!
nounced worthy of efteem only in confequence of his graBtj
being a virtuous man, or coming under that general branches c|
notion. Hence w'e fee the neceffary connexion of the reafoninS
various parts of reafoning, and the dependence they°^t^°n j
have one upon another. The determining the genera
and fpecies of things is, as we have faid, one exercife
of human reafon j and here we find that this exercife
is the firft in order, and previous to the other, which
confifts in aferibing to them their powers, properties,
and relations. But when we have taken this previous
ftep, and brought particular objefts under general
names ; as the properties we aferibe to them are no
other than thofe of the general idea, it is plain that,
in order to a fuccefsful progrefs in this part of know¬
ledge, we muft thoroughly acquaint ourfelves with the
feveral relations and attributes of thefe our general
ideas.
nake a
;ood re a
oner.
Part HI. LOG
Of ideas. When this is done, the other part will be eafy,
leafunmg. anci requires fcaree any labour or thought, as being no
» iTiore than an application of the general form of rea-
foning reprefented in the foregoing fyllogifm. Now,
as we have already fufficiently ftiown how we are to
proceed in determining the genera and fpecies of
things, which, as we have faid, is the previous Hep
to this fecond branch of human knowledge j all that
is farther wanting towards a due explanation of it is,
to offer fome confiderations as to the manner of in-
veftigating the general relations of our ideas. This is
the highelt exercife of the powers of the underftand-
ing, and that by means whereof we arrive at the dif-
covery of univerfal truths j infomuch that our deduc¬
tions in this way conftitute that particular fpecies of
reafoning which we have before faid regards principally
>3 the fciences.
Fwo tilings IV. But that we may conduft our thoughts with
equired to fome order and method, vre (hall begin with obferv-
ing, that the relations of our general ideas are of two
kinds : either fuch as immediately difcover themfelves,
upon comparing the ideas one with another ; or fuch
as, being more remote and diftant, require art and
contrivance to bring them into view-. The relations
of the firll kind furnilh us with intuitive and felf-evi-
dent truths : thofe of the fecond are traced by reafon¬
ing, and a due application of intermediate ideas. It
is of this laft kind that we are to fpeak here, having
defpatched what was neceffary with regard to the
other in the Second Part. As, therefore, in tracing the
more diftant relations of things, we muft always have
recourfe to intervening ideas, and are more or lefs
fuccefsful in our refearches according to our acquaint¬
ance with thefe ideas, and ability of applying them j
and it is evident, that to make a good reafoner, two
things are principally required. An extenfive
knowledge of thofe intermediate ideas, by means of
which things may be compared one with another.
Secondly, The Ikill and talent of applying them hap¬
pily in all particular inftances that come under confi-
deration.
V. In order to our fuccefsful progrefs in reafoning,
we muft have an extenfive knowledge of thofe inter-
(LintermT mec^at-e ideas by means of which things may be com-
iiateIdeas'. Parecl one with another. For as it is not every idea
that will anfwer the purpofe of our inquiries, but fuch
only as are peculiarly related to the obje&s about
which we reafon, fo as, by a comparifon with them
to furnifh evident and known truths *, nothing is more
apparent than that the greater variety of conceptions
we can call into view, the more likely we are to find
fome among them that will help us to the truths here
required. And, indeed, it is found to hold in experi¬
ence, that in proportion as we enlarge our views of
things, and grow acquainted with a multitude of dif¬
ferent objedls, the reafoning faculty gathers ftrength :
for, by extending our fphere of knowledge, the mind
acquires a certain force and penetration, as being ac-
cuftomed to examine the feveral appearances of its
ideas, and obferve what light they caft one upon ano¬
ther.
VI. This is the reafon why, in order to excel re¬
markably in any one branch of learning, it is necelfa-
ry to have at leaft a general acquaintance with the
whole circle of arts and fciences. The truth of it is,
79
Firft, An
extenfive
I C. ' H9
all the various divilions of human knowledge are very
nearly related among themfelves, and, in innumerable ea ^n'n^>*
inftances, ferve to illuftrate and fet off each other. 8o
And although it is not to be denied that, by an ob-To excel in
ftinate application to one branch of ftudy, a man may any one
make confiderable progrefs, and acquire fome degree j,raI^ 0
of eminence in it ; yet his views will be always nar- we niuft be
row and contracted, and he will want that mafterly in general
difcernment which not only enables us to purfue our acquainted
difcoveries with eafe, but alfo, in laying them opeH^iththe^
to others, to fpread a certain brightnefs around thern.^J°fe.ut"
But when our reafoning regards a particular fcience, an(^ fcien.
it is farther neceffary that we more nearly acquaint ces.
durfelves with whatever relates to that fcience. A
general knowledge is a good preparation, and enables
us to proceed with eafe and expedition in whatever
branch of learning we apply to. But then, in the
minute and intricate queftions of any fcience, we are
by no means qualified to reafon with advantage until
we have perfeftly maftered the fcience to which they
belong. 81
VII. We come now to the fecond thing requlr-Secondly,
ed, in order to a fuccefsful progrefs in reafoning j
namely, the fkill and talent of applying hitermediatea^mye'^fa[e"
ideas happily in all-particular inftances that come un-ideas hap-
der confideration. And here, rules and precepts are pily in par-
of little fervice. Ufe and experience are the bell bcul21 in-
inftruclors. For, whatever logicians may boaft 0fftar'ceb'
being able to form perfeft reafoners by book and rule,
we find by experience, that the ftudy of their pre¬
cepts does not always add any great degree of ftrength
to the underftanding. In ftiort, it is the habit alone
of reafoning that makes a reafoner. And therefore
the true way to acquire this talent is, by being much
converfant in thofe fciences where the art of reafen-
ing is allowed to reign in the greateft perfeftion.
Hence it was that the ancients, who fo well under-
ftood the manner of forming the mind, always began
with mathematics, as the foundation of their philo-
fophical ftudies. Here the underftanding is by de¬
grees habituated to truth, contra£ts infenfibly a cer¬
tain fondnefs for it, and learns never to yield its af-
fent to any propofition but vdiere the evidence is
fufficient to produce full convidlion. For this reafon
Plato has called mathematical demonfirations the ca¬
thartics or purgatives of the foul, as being the pro¬
per means to cleanfe it from error, and reftore that
natural exercife ©f its faculties in which juft thinking
confifts. g3
VIII. If therefore we would form our minds to a The ftudy
habit of reafoning clofely and in train, we cannot take of mathe- -
any more certain method than the exercifing ourfelves rnadcal ^e_
in mathematical demonftrations, fo as to contrail a kind ’
of familiarity with them. Not that we look upon itaSgreat avail
neceffary that all men ftiould be deep mathematicians j in this re¬
but that, having got the way of reafoning which thatfp6^'
ftudy neceffarily brings the mind to, they may be 83
able to transfer it to other parts of knowledge, as they As alfo of
Ihall have occafion. fut^ au_
IX. But although the ftudy of mathematics be of another fub
others the moft ufeful to form the mind and give it as are
an early relifh of truth, yet ought not other parts ofdiftinguilh-
philofophy to be negle£led. For there alfo we meetec*Ior
with many opportunities of exercifing the powefs °fan^uftnefs
the underftanding j and the variety of fubje&s natu-ofreafoninr
rally
:i5° ' L O
Of rally leads us to obferve all thofe different turns of
. ea^nwS- thinking that are peculiarly adapted to the feveral
ideas we examine, and the truth \re fearch after. A
rnirid thus trained acquires a certain maftery over its
own thoughts, infomuoh that it can range and model
them at pleafure, and call fuch into view as belt fuit
its prefent deligns. Now in this the whole art of rea-
foning confifts; from among a great variety of differ¬
ent ideas to fingle out thofe that are moft proper for
the bufinefs in hand, and to lay them together in fuch
order, that from plain and eafy beginnings, by gentle
degrees, and a continued train of evident truths, we
may be infenlibly led on to fuch difcoveries, as at our
firft fetting out appeared beyond the reach of human
underftanding. For this purpofe, befides the ftudy of
mathematics before recommended, we ought to apply
"•ourfelves diligently to the reading of fuch authors as
have diftinguilhed themfelves for ftrength of reafoning,
and a juft and accurate manner of thinking. For it is
obfervable, that a mind exercifed and feafoned to
truth, feldom refts fatisfied in a bare contemplation of
the arguments offered by others; but will be frequent¬
ly affaying its own ftrength, and purfuing its dilcove-
ries upon the plan it is moft accuftomed to. Thus ve
infenfibly contrail a habit of tracing truth from one
ftage to another, and of inveftigating thofe general
relations and properties which we afterwards afcribe to
particular things, according as we find them compre¬
hended under the abftraft ideas to which the proper¬
ties belong.
Chap. IV. Q/*the Forms of Syllogifms.
84
The figures I. Hitherto we have contented ourfelves with a
dffyllo- general notion of fyllogifms, and of the parts of which
gifms. they confift. It is now time to enter a little more
particularly into the fubjeft, to examine their various
forms, and lay open the rules of argumentation pro¬
per to.each. In the fyllogifms-mentioned in the fore¬
going chapters, we may obferve, that the middle term
is the fubjeft of the major propofition, and the predi¬
cate of the minor. This difpofition, • though the moft;
natural and obvious, is not however neceffary ; it fre¬
quently happening, that the middle term is the fub-
je£t in both the premifes, or the predicate in both ;
and fometimes, direftly contrary to its difpofition in
the foregoing chapters, the predicate in the major,
and the fubjeft in the minor. Hence the diftin&ion
of fyllogifms into various kinds, calledby logi¬
cians. For figure, according to their ufe of the word,
is nothing elfe but the order and difpofition of the
middle term in any fyllogifm. And as this difpofition
is, we fee, fourfold, fo the figures of fyllogifms thence
arifing are four in number* When the middle term is
the fubjedt of the major propofition, and the predicate
of the minor, we have what is called the fiijl figure;
As,
“ No work of Gfod is bad :
“ The natural paflions and appetites of men are
“ the work of God :
Therefore none of them is bad.”
If, on the other hand, it is the predicate of both the
premifes, the fyllogifm is faid to be the fecond figure:
^As,
GIG.. Part III I
“ Whatever is bad is not the work of God : Of
“ All the natural paffions and appetites of men R-eafoning.
“ are the work of God : v—j 1
“ Therefore the natural paflions and appetites of
“ men are not bad.”
Again, In the thirdfigure, the middle term is the fub-
ject of the two premifes : As,
“ All Africans are black :
“ All Africans are men :
“ Therefore fome men are black.”
And laftly, By making it the predicate of the major,
and fubjedt of the minor, we obtain fyllogifms in the
fourth figure : As,
“ The only Being who ought to be worftiipped is
“ the Creator and Governor of the world :
“ The Creator and Governor of the world is
“ God :
“ Therefore God is the only Being who ought to
“ be worftiipped.”
85 ' I
II. But, befides this fourfold diftindiion of fyllo-The moods f
gifms, there is alfo a farther fubdivifion of them in °[ ty110*
every figure, arifing from the quantity and quality, as&in's'
they are called, of the propofitions. By quantity we
mean the confideration of propofitions, as univerfal or
particular; by quality, as affirmative or negative.
“Now as, in all the feveral difpofitions of the middle
term, the propofitions of which a fyllogifm confifts
may be either univerfal or particular, affirmative or
negative ; the due determination of thefe, and fo put¬
ting them together as the laws of argumentation re¬
quire, conftitute what logicians call the moods of fyllo¬
gifms. Of thefe moods there is a determinate num¬
ber to every figure, including all the poflible ways in
which propofitions differing in quantity or quality can
be combined, according to any difpofition of the mid¬
dle term, in order to arrive at a juft conclufion.
The firft figure has only four legitimate moods.
The major propofition in this figure muft be univerfal,
and the minor affirmative ; and it has this property,
that it yields conclufions of all kinds, affirmative and
negative, univerfal and particular.
The fecond figure has alfo four legitimate moods.
Its major propofition muft be univerfal, and one of the
premifes muft be negative. It yields conclufions both
univerfal and particular, but all negative.
The third figure has fix legitimate moods. Its mi¬
nor muft always be affirmative; and it yields conclu¬
fions both affirmative and negative, but all particular.
  Thefe are all the figures which were admitted by
the inventor of fyllogifms, and of which, fo far as we
know, the number of legitimate moods has been af-
certained, and feverally demonftrated. In every figure
it will be found upon trial, that there are fixty-four dif¬
ferent moods of fyllogifm ; and he who thinks it worth
while to ccnftruft fo many in the fourth figure, always
remembering that the middle term in each muft be the
predicate of the major and the fiuljeB of the minor pro¬
pofition, will eafily difcern what number of thefe moods
are legitimate, and give true conclufions.
Befides the rules that are proper to each figure,
Ariftotle has given fome that are common to all, by
which the legitimacy of fyllogifms may be tried.
Thefe
Part IIL L o
Of Thefe may be reduced to five : 1. There muft be
Reafoning. on]y three terms in a fyllogifm : As each term occurs
v ""1 in two of the propofitions, it muft be precifely the
fame in both ; if it be not, the fyllogifm is faid to have
four terms, which makes a vicious fyllogifm. 2. The
middle term muft be taken univerfally in one of the pre-
mifes. 3. Both premifes muft not be particular propo¬
fitions, nor both negative. 4. The conclufon muft be
particular, if either of the premifes be particular ; and
negative, if either of the premifes be negative. 5. No
term can be taken univerfally in the conclufon, if it be
not taken univerfally in the premifes.
For underftanding the fecond and ffth of thefe rules,
it is neceffafy to obferve, that a term is faid to be ta¬
ken univerfally, not only when it is t\\e fubjeB of a uni-
verfal propofition, but alfo when it is the predicate of
a negative propofition. On the other hand, a term is
faid to be taken particularly, when it is either the fub-
jeEl of a particular or the predicate of an affirmative pro-
pofition.
Foundation III. The divifion of fyllogifms according to mood
hf the other and figure-refpedls thofe efpecially which are known
|hvifion of by t]ie name 0f p]ain fimple lyllogilms } that is, which
'' rn“. are bounded to three propofitions, all fimple, and
where the extremes and middle term are connected,
according to the rules laid down above. But as the
mind is not tied down to any one precife form of rea-
foning, but fometimes makes ufe of more, fometimes
of fewer premifes, and often takes in compound and
conditional propofitions, it may not be amifs to take
notice of the different forms derived from this fource,
!and explain the rules by which the mind conducts it-
felf in the ufe of them.
Conditional IV. When in any fyllogifm the major is a condition-
yllogifms. al propofition, the fyllogifm itfelf is termed conditional.
Thus :
“ If there is a God, he ought to be worfliipped :
“ But there is a God :
“ Therefore he ought to be worfliipped.”
In this example, the major, or firft propofition, is,
we fee, conditional, and therefore the fyllogifm itfelf
is alfo of the kind called by that name. And here we
are to obferve, that all conditional propofitions are
made of two diftimft parts: one exprefling the condi¬
tion upon which the predicate agrees or difagrees with
the fubjedl, as in this now before us, if there is a God;
the other joining or disjoining the faid predicate and
fubjecl, as .here, he ought to be worfhipped. The firft
of thefe parts, or that which implies the condition, is
called the antecedent; the fecond, where we join or dif-
join Uie predicate and fubjeft, has the name of the con-
ss fequent.
Ground of V. In all propofitions of this kind, fuppofing them
illation in to be exaft in point of form, the relation between the
conditional antecedent and confequent muft ever be true and real j
s * that is, the antecedent muft always contain fume cer¬
tain and genuine condition, which neceffarily implies
the confequent; for otherwife the propofition itfelf
■will be falfe, and therefore ought not to be admitted
into our reafonings. Hence it follows, that when any
conditional propofition is affumed, if we admit the
antecedent of that propofition, we muft at the fame
time neceffarily admit the confequent •, bpt if we re-
jefl the confequent, we are in like manner bound to
G I C. 151
rejeft the antecedent. For as the antecedent always °f.
expreffes fome condition which neceffarily implies the ^ea^onin^“.
truth of the confequent ; by admitting the antecedent,
we allow of that condition, and therefore ought alfo
to admit the confequent. In like manner, if it appears
that the confequent ought to be rejected, the antece¬
dent evidently muft be fo too : becaufe, as was juft
now demonftrated, the admitting of the antecedent
would neceffarily imply the admiflion alfo of the confe¬
quent. 89
VI. There are two ways of arguing in hypothetical^^
fyllogifms, w hich lead to a certain and unavoidable con-rnoo,dt°f ,
cluhon. for as the major is always a conditional pro-fyiiogifms-•
pofition, confifting of an antecedent and a confequent j
if the minor admits the antecedent, it is plain that the
conclufion muft admit the confequent. This is called
arguing from the admiflion of the antecedent to the
admiflion of the confequent, and conftitutes that mood
or fpecies of hypothetical fyllogifms which is diftin-
guifhed in the fchools by the name of the modus ponens,
inafmuch as by it the whole conditional propofition,
both antecedent and confequent, is eftabliftied. Thus:
“ If God is infinitely wife, and afts with perfeft free-
“ dom, he does nothing but what is beft :
“ But God is infinitely wife, and afts with perfe£t
“ freedom :
“ Therefore he does nothing but what is beft.”
Here we fee the antecedent or firft part of the con¬
ditional propofition is eftabliftied in the minor, and the
confequent or fecond part in the conclufion j whence
the fyllogifm itfelf is an example of the modus ponens.
But if now we on the contrary fuppofe that the mi¬
nor rejedt the confequent, then it is apparent that the
conclufion muft; alfo rejedl the antecedent. In this
cafe we are faid Jto argue from the removal of the con¬
fequent to the removal of the antecedent, and the par¬
ticular mood or fpecies of fyllogifms thence arifing is
called by logicians the modus tollens ; becaufe in it both
antecedent and confequent are rejedted or taken away,
as appears by the following example :
“ If God were not a Being of infinite goodnefs* nei-
“ ther would he confult the happinefs of his crea-
“ tures :
“ But God does confult the happinefs of his crea--
“ tures:
“ Therefore he is a Being of infinite goodnefs.
VII. Thefe two fpecies take in the whole clafs of-j']iey°n.
conditional fyllogifms, and include all the poflible ways luck all
of arguing that lead to a legitimate conclufion 5 be-1'16
caufe we cannot here proceed by a contrary procefs n^e w.^y3
of reafoning, that is, from the removal of the antece-ai^U!n^‘
dent to the removal of the confequent, or from the
eftabliftiing of the confequent to the eftablift.ing of the
antecedent. For although the antecedent always ex-
preffes fome real condition, which, once admitted,
neceffarily implies the confequent, yet it does not fol¬
low that there is therefore no other condition ; and if
fo, then, after removing the antecedent, the confe-
quer.t may ftill hold, becaufe of fome other determi¬
nation that infers it. When w>e fay, If a ft one is ex-
pofed fotne time to the rays of the fun, it will contraB a
certain degree of heat; the propofition is certainly
true ; and, admitting the antecedent, we mud alfo
admit
9*
The man¬
ner of ar-
pvtine in
disjundliTe
fyliogifms.
logic
admit tlie confequent. But as there are other ways
by which a ftone may gather heat, it will not follow,
from the ceafing of the before-mentioned condition,
that therefore the confequent cannot take place. In
other words, we cannot argue : But the Jione has not
been expofed to the rays of the fun ; therefore neither has
it any degree of heat: Inafmuch as there are a great
many other w’ays by which heat might have been
communicated to it. And if we cannot argue from
the removal of the antecedent to the removal oi the
confequent, no more can we from the admiffion of
the confequent to the admiffion ot the antecedent :
becaufe, as the confequent may flow from a great va¬
riety of different fuppolitions, the allowing of it does
not determine the precife fuppofition, but only that
feme one of them muff take place. I hus in the fore¬
going propolition, If a fane is expofed fame time to the
rays 'of the fun, it will contraB a certain degree of heat ;
admitting the confequent, viz. that it has controlled a
certain degfee of heat, we are not therefore bound to
admit the antecedent, that it has been fame time expofed
to the rays of the fun : becaufe there are many other
caufes whence that heat may have proceeded. Thefe
two- ways of arguing, therefore, hold not in conditional
fyliogifms.
VIII. As from the major’s being a conditional pro-
pofition, we obtain the fpeeifcs of conditional fylio¬
gifms : fo, where it is a disjunctive propofition, the
fyllogifm to which it belongs is alfo called disjunctive,
as in the following example :
“ The world is either felf-exiftent, or the work of
“ fome finite, or of fome infinite Being :
“ But it is not felf exiftent, nor the work of a finite
“ being :
“ Therefore it is the work of an infinite Being.”
Now, a disjunctive propofition is that, where of fe-
veral predicates, w'e affirm one neceffarily to belong
to the fubjeCt, to the exclufion of all the reft, but
leave that particular one undetermined. Hence it
follows, that as foon as we determine the particular
predicate, all the reft are of courfe to be rejeCted ; or
if we rejeCt all the predicates but one, that one necef¬
farily takes place. When, therefore, in a disjunctive
fyllogifm, the feveral predicates are enumerated in the
major 5 if the minor eftabliffies any one of thefe pre¬
dicates, the conclufion ought to remove all the reft }
or if, in the minor, all the predicates but one are re¬
moved, the conclufion mult neceffarily eftabliffi that
one. Thus, in the disjunftive fyllogifm given above,
the major affirms one of the three predicates to be¬
long to the earth, viz. felf-exifence, or that it is the
work of a finite, or that it is the work of an infinite Be-
in*. Two of thefe predicates are removed in the
minor, viz. felf-exifience, and the work of a finite be¬
ing. Hence the conclufion neceffarily aferibes to it the
third predicate, and affirms that it is the work of an
infinite Being. If now we give the fyllogifm another
turn, infomqch that the minor may eftablifti one of the
predicates, by affirming the earth to be the produBion
of an infinite Being : then the conclufion muft remove
the other two, afferting it to be neither felficxifient,
nor the work of a finite being. Thefe are the forms of
reafoning in thefe fpecies of fyliogifms, the juftnefs of
which appears at firft fight: and that there can be no
Part III,
other, is evident from the very nature of a disjunCUve Of
propofition. Reasoning,
IX. In the feveral kinds of fyliogifms hitherto men- ^
tioned, we may obferve that the parts are complete j {mperfedt I
that is, the three propofitions of which they confift are or mutilj.
reprefented in form. But it often happens, that fome fy^0-
one of the premifes is not only an evident truth, but^Ums*
alfo familiar and in the minds of all men 5 in which
cafe it is ufually omitted, whereby we have an imper-
feCl fyllogifm, that feems to be made up of only two
propofitions. Should we, for inftance, argue in this
manner :
“ Every man is mortal:
“ Therefore every king is mortal
the fyllogifm appears to be imperfeCt, as confifting but
of two propofitions. Yet it is really complete-, only
the minor [every king is a man'] is omitted, and left to
the reader to fupply, as being a propofition fo familiar
and evident that it cannot efcape him. .
X. Thefe feemingly imperfeCt fyliogifms are called Enthyrae.
enthymemes; and occur very frequently in reafoning,mes.
efpecially where it makes a part of common conver-
fation. Nay, there is a particular elegance in them,
becaufe, not difplaying the argument in all its parts,
they leave fomewhat to the exercife and invention of
the mind. By this means we are put upon exerting
ourfelves, and feem to (hare in the difeovery of what
is propoled to us. Now this is the great fecret of
fine writing, fo to frame and put together our thoughts,
as to give full play to the reader’s imagination, and
draw him infenfibly into our very views and courfe
of reafoning. This gives a pleafure not unlike to that
which the author himfelf feels in compofing. It befides
ffiortens difeourfe, and adds a certain force and liveii-
nefs to our arguments, when the words in which they
are conveyed favour the natural quicknefs of the mind
in its operations, and a fingle expreffion is left to exhi¬
bit a whole train of thoughts. .
XI. But there is another fpecies of reafoning. with Groiind 0 j
two propofitions, which feems to be complete in itfelf, reafoning j
and where we admit the conclufion without fuppofing m irome-
any tacit or fuppreffed judgment in the mind, from
which it follows fyllogiftically. This happens between H
propofitions, where the connexion is fuch, that the ad¬
miffion of the one neceffarily and at the firft fight im¬
plies the admiffion alfo of the other. For if it fo falls
out, that the propofition on which the other depends is
felf-evident, we content ourfelves with barely affirm¬
ing it, and infer that other by a direft ccnclufion.
Thus, by admitting an univerfal propofition, we are
forced alio to admit of all the particular propofitions
comprehended under it, this being the very condition
that conftitutes a propofition univerfal. If then that
univerfal propofition chances to be felf-evident, the
particular ones follow of courfe, without any farther
train of reafoning. Whoever allows, for inftance,
that things equal to one and the fame thing are equal to
one another, muft at the fame time allow, that two
triangles, each equal to a fquare whofe fide is three inches%
are alfo equal between themfielves. This argument,
therefore,
“ Things equal to one and the fame thing, are equal
“ to one another :
“ Therefore,
Part Ilf.
LOGIC.
J53
Of
Reafon'ng.
95 .
All reduci¬
ble to fyl-
logifuis of
fome one
form or
other.
96
Aforite&of
plain fimple
Qrllogifms.
t( Therefore thefe two triangles, each equal to the
“ fquare of a line of three inches, are equal be-
“ tween themfelves”—
is complete in its kind, and contains all that is necef-
fary towards a juft and legitimate conclufion. For the
firft or univerfal propofttion is felf-evident, and there¬
fore requires no farther proof. And as the truth of
the particular is inseparably connected with that of the
univerfal, it follows from it by an obvious and unavoid¬
able confequence.
XII. Now, in all cafes of this kind, where propofi-
tions are deduced one from another, on account of a
known and evident connexion, wre are faid to reafon
by immediate confequence. Such a coherence of pro-
pnfitions manifeft at hrft fight, and forcing itfelf upon
the mind, frequently occurs in reafoning. Logicians
have explained at fome length the feveral fuppofitions
upon which it takes place, and allow of all immediate
confequences that follow in conformity to them. It is
however obfervable, that thefe arguments, though
feemingly complete, becaufe the conclufion follows ne-
ceflarily from the fingle propofition that goes before,
may yet be confidered as real enthymemes, wdiofe ma¬
jor, which is a conditional propofition, is w-anting. The
fyllogifm but juft mentioned, when reprefented accord¬
ing to this view, will run as follows :
“ If things equal to one and the fame thing, are
“ equal to one another ; thefe two triangles, each
“ equal to a fquare whofe fide is three inches, are
“ alfo equal between themfelves.
“ But things equal to one and the fame thing, are
“ equal to one another:
“ Therefore alfo thefe triangles, &c. are equal be-
“ tween themfelves.”
This obfervation will be found to hold in all imme¬
diate confequences whatfoever, infomuch, that they are
in fa£t no more than enthymemes of hypothetical fyl-
logifms. But then it is particular to them, that the
ground on which the conclufion refts, namely its co¬
herence with the minor, is of itfelf apparent, and
feen immediately to flow from the rules and reafons of
logic.
XIII. The next fpecies of reafoning we fnall take
notice of here is what is commonly known by the name
of a forites. This is a way of arguing, in which a
great number of propofitions are fo linked together,
that the predicate of one becomes continually the fub-
jeft of the next following, until at laft a conclufion is
formed, by bringing together the fubjeft of the firft
propofition, and the predicate of the laft. Of this kind
is the following argument :
“ God is omnipotent:
“ An omnipotent Being can do every thing pof-
u fible :
“ He that can do every thing poffible, can do what-
“ ever involves not a contradiction :
Therefore God can do whatever involves not a
“ contradiction.”
This particular combination of propofitions may be
continued to any length we pleafe without in the leaft
weakening the ground upon which the conclufion refts.
The reafon is, becaufe the forites itfelf may be refolved
Vol. XII. Part I.
into as many Ample fyllogifms as there are middle terms
in it j where this is found univerfally to hold, that when Rea‘^n,ns'’‘
fuch a refolution is made, and the fyllogifms are placed
in train, the conclufion of the laft in the feries is alfo
the conclufion of the forites. This kind of argument,
therefore, as it ferves to unite feveral fyllogifms into
one, muft ftand upon the fame foundation with the fyl¬
logifms of which it confifts, and is indeed, properly
fpeaking, no other than a compendious way of reafon¬
ing fyllogiftically. py
XIV. What is here faid of plain fimple propofitions A- forites of
may be as well applied to thofe that are conditional
that is, any number of them may be fo joined together
in a feries, that the confequent of one (hall become®
continually the antecedent of the next following $ in
which cafe, by eftablilhing the antecedent of the firft
propofition, we eftablifti the confequeht of the laft, or
by removing the laft confequent remove alfo the firft
antecedent. This way of reafoning is exemplified in
the following argument:
“ If we love any perfon, all emotions of hatred to-
“ wards him ceafe :
“ If all emotions of hatred towards a perfon ceafe,
“ we cannot rejoice in his misfortunes :
“ If we rejoice not in his misfortunes, we certainly
“ wifix him no injury :
“ Therefore, if we love a perfon, we wifli him no
“ injury.”
It is evident that this forites, as well as the laft, may
be refolved into a feries of diftimft fyllogifms, with this
only difference, that here the fyllogifms are all condi¬
tional. ^ # 9g
XV. The laft fpecies of fyllogifm we flxall take The ground
notice of in this chapter is that commonly diftinguilh-°f argu-
ed by the name of a dilemma. A dilemma is an ar_ t(jjtl0n
gument by which we endeavour to prove the abfur-iemma~
dity or falfehood of fome affertion. In order to this,
we affume a conditional propofition, the antecedent
of which is the affertion to be difproved, and the con¬
fequent a disjunctive propofition, enumerating all the
pofiible fuppofitions upon which that affertion can take
place. If then it appears, that all thefe feveral fup¬
pofitions ought to be rejefted, it is plain, that the an¬
tecedent or affertion itfelf muft be fo too. When
therefore fuch a propofition as that before mentioned
is made the major of any fyllogifm ; if the minor re¬
jects all the fuppofitions contained in the confequent,
it follows neceffarily, that the conclufion ought to re-
jeCt the antecedent, which, as we have faid, is the
very affertion to be difproved. This particular way
of arguing is that which logicians call a dilemma ; and
from the account here given of it, it appears that we
may in the general define it to be a hypothetical fyl¬
logifm, where the confequent of the major is a dif-
junClive propofition, which is wholly taken away or
removed in the minor. Of this kind is the follow¬
ing :
“ If God did not create the world perfeCl in its
“ kind, it muft either proceed from want of incli-
“ nation, or from want of power :
“ But it could not proceed either from want of in-
“ clination, or from want of power :
“ Therefore, he created the world perfeCl in its
U “ kind.”
154-
99
An nniver-
fal defcrip-
tiop of it.
loo
Reafon at
firft em¬
ployed a
bout par¬
ticulars ;
L O
“‘kind.” Or, which is the fame thing : “ It is
“ abfurd to fay that he did not create the world
“ perfeft in its kind.”
XVI. The nature then of a dilemma is univerfally
this. The major is a conditional propofition, whole
confequent contains all the feveral fuppolitions upon
which the antecedent can take place. . As therefore
thefe fuppolitions are wholly removed in tne minor,
it is evident that the antecedent muft be lo too ; info-
much that we here always argue from the removal of
the conlequent to the removal of the antecedent, lhat
is, a dilemma is an argument in the modus tollens of
hypothetical fyllogifms, as logicians love to Ipeak.
Hence it is plain, that if the antecedent of the major
is an affirmative propofition, the conclufion of the di¬
lemma will be negative ; but if it is a negative propofi¬
tion, the conclufion will be affirmative.
Chap. V. Of InduSiion.
I. All reafoning proceeds ultimately from full
truths, either felf-evident or taken for granted j and the
firit truths of fyllogiftic reafonings are general propofi-
tions. But except in the mathematics, and luch other
fciences as, being converfant about mere ideas, have
no immediate relation to things without the mind, we
cannot affume as truths propofitions which are general.
The mathematician indeed may be confidered as taking
his ideas from the beginning \n general form.
Every propofition compofed of fuch ideas is therefore ge¬
neral ; and thofe which are theoretic are reducible to
two parts or terms, a predicate and a fuhjecl, with a
copula generally affirmative. If the agreement or the
relation between the two terms be not immediate and
felf-evident, he has recourfe to an axiom, which is. a
propofition ftill more general, and which fupplies him
with a third or middle term. This he compares firft
with the predicate, and then with the fubjeSl, or vice
verfa. Thefe tw'o comparifons, when drawn out in
form, make two propofitions, which are called the/>n?-
mifes ; and if they happen to be immediate •&x\& felf-evi¬
dent, the conclufton, confifting of the terms of the quef-
G I C. Parl: HI.
tion propofed, is faid to be demonftrated. This method Of
of reafoning is conduaed exaftly in the fyllogiftic form ,kea1^
explained in the preceding chapter.
II. But in Iciences which treat of things external
to the mind, w e cannot aflume as firf principles the
moft general propofitions, and from them infer others
lefs and lefs general till we defeend to particulars. The
reafon is obvious. Every thing in the univerfe, whe¬
ther of mind or body, prefents itfelf to our obfervation
in its individual ftate ; fo that perception and judgment
employed in the inveftigation of truth, whether physi¬
cal, metaphysical, moral, or hifloncal, have in the firft
place to encounter with particulars. “ With thefe
reafon begins, or ftiould begin, ifs operations. It ob-
ferves, tries, canvaffes, examines, and compares thf in
together, and judges of them by fome of thofe native
evidences and original lights, which, as they are the
firft and indifpenfable inlets of knowledge to the mind,
have been called the primary principles of truth.” See
Metaphysics. _ < 101
III. “ By fuch a£Is of obfervation and judgment, di- ^ |
ligently praaifed and frequently repeated, on many
dividuals of the fame elals or of a fimilar. natuie, n°t-alcendsto I
in^ their agreements, marking their differences hew-generalsol
ever minute, and rejedting all inftances which, how’ever axioms,
fimilar in appearance, are not in effedf the fame, rea¬
son, with much labour and attention, extraas fome
general laws refpeaing the powers, properties, qualities,
aftions, paffions, virtues, and relations of real things.
This is no hafty, premature, notional abftraaion of the
mind, by which images and ideas are formed that have
no archetypes in nature: it is a rational, operative, ex¬
perimental procefs, inftituted and executed upon the
conftitution of beings, which in part compere the uni¬
verfe. By this procefs REASON advances from particu¬
lars to generals, from lefs general to more general, till
by a feries of flow' pregreffion, and by regular degiees,
it arrive at the mof general notions, called forms or
formal causes (c). And by affirming or denying a
penns of a fpecies, or an accident of a fubftant e or clals,
of fubftances, through all the ftages of tne gradation,
we form conclujions, which, if logically drawn, aie
AXIOMS (l>)j or general propofitions ranged one above
anntber.
(c) Qui formas novit, is, quae adhuc non fatta funt, qualia nec naturae viciffitudmes, nec experimentales in-
duftrise unquam in aftum produxiffent, nec cogitationem humanam fubiturm fmflent, detegit et educit. tiaeoni
{'D>j The word axiom, literally fignifies dignity: Hence it is ufed metaphorically to denote ss general
truth or maxim, and fometimes any truth that is felf-evident, which is called a dignity on account of its import¬
ance in a procefs of reafoning. The axioms of Euclid are propofitions extremely general •, and lo are tne axioms
of the Newtonian philofophy. But thefe two kinds of axioms have very different origins. I he former appear
true upon a bare contemplation of our ideas •, whereas the latter are the refult of the moft laborious nidudtion-
Lord Bacon therefore ftrenuoufly contends that they (hould never be taken upon conje&ure, or even upon the au¬
thority of the learned ; but that, as they are the general principles and grounds of all learning, they tnoulcl be
canvaffed and examined with the moft fcrupulous attention, “ utaxiomatum corrigatur.imquitas, quae plerumque
in exemplis vulgatis fundamentum habent:” De Augm. Sc. lib. ii. cap. 2. “ Atque ilia ip a putat.\a pnncipia
ad rationes reddendas compellare decrevimus, quoufque plane conftant:” Di/lnb. Opens. Dr J atham makes
a diftinftion between axioms intuitive and axioms felf-evident. Intuitive axioms, according to him, pa s t r°uR *
the firft inlets of knowledge, and ftelh direft convidion on the minds, as external objects do on the itnies, ot ail
men. Other axioms, though not intuitive, may be properly faid to he fe/f evident; becaufe, m their formation,
reafon iudges by Angle comparifons without the help of a third idea or middle term j fothat they have their evi¬
dence in themfelves, and though indudively framed they cannot be fyllogiftically proved. If this diftmdion ta
iurt, and we think it is, only particular truths can be intuitive axioms.
3art HI.
L O
, of another, till they terminate in thofe that are uni-
teafoniog- VERSAL.
IV. “ Thus, for inftance, the evidence of the exter¬
nal fenfes is obvioufly the primary principle from
   which all phyfical knowledge is derived. But, whert-
luftionev- as nature begins with caufes, which, after a variety of
■raplified changes, produce efedls, the fenfes open upon the ef-
npbj’iics- ancj from them, through the flow and painful
road of experiment and obfervation, afcend to caufes.
By experiments and obfervations fkilfully chofen, art¬
fully conducted, and judicioufly applied, the philofopher
advances from one ftage of inquiry to another in the ra-
' tional inveftigation of the general caufes of phyfical
truth. From different experiments and obfervations
nude on the fame individual fubjeft, and from the f^me
experiments and obfervations made on different fubje&s
of the fame kind, by comparing and judging, he difco-
vers fome qualities, caufes, or phenomena, which, after
carefully diftinguilhing and rejedting all contradictory
inftances that occur, he finds common to many. Thus
from many collateral comparifons and judgments form¬
ed upon particulars he afeends to generals; and by a
repetition of the fame induftrious procefs and laborious
Inveftigation, he advances from general to more general,
till at laft he is enabled to form a few of the mojl gene¬
ral, with their attributes and operations, into axioms
or fecondary principles, which are the well-founded laws
enadted and enforced by the God of nature.— This is
-that juft and philofophic method of reafoning which
found logic prefcribes in this as well as in other parts
of learning *, by which, through the flow but certain
road of experiment and obfervation, the mind afeends
from appearances to qualities, from effedls to caufes j
and from experiments upon many particular fubjedls
forms general proportions concerning the powers and
103 properties of phyfical body.
Axioms fo V. “ Axioms fo invefligated and eftablifhed are ap-
•ftablifhed, pl]cable to all parts of learning, and are the indifpen-
e aU^l-r ^aWe» anc^ indeed the wonderful expedients, by which,
a learning. every branch of knowledge, reafon pufhes on its in-
b quiries in the particular purfuit of truth j and the me¬
thod of reafoning by which they are formed, is that of
true and legitimate induction \ which is therefore by
Lord Bacon, the belt and foundeft of logicians, called
the key of interpretation.
VI. “ Inflead of taking his axioms arbitrarily out of
the great families of the categories (fee Category),
and ere£ting them by his own fophiftical invention in¬
to the principles upon which his difputation was to be
employed, had the analytical genius of Ariftotle pre-
fented us with the laws of the true INDUCTIVE LOGIC,
by which axioms are philofophically formed, and had
he with his ufual fagacity given us an example of it
in a fingle branch of fcience j he would have brought
to the temple of truth, an offering more valuable than
he has done by the aggregate of all his logic and phi-
lofophical productions.
VII. “ In all fciences, except the mathematics, it is
only after the inductive procefs has been induftriouf-
ly purified and fuceefsfully performed, that DEFINITION
, may be logically and ufefully introduced, by beginning
with the genus, pafiing through all the graduate and
104
Inclusion
prior to
tldinition,
G I C.
fubordinate ftages, atjtd marking the fpccifc difference as
is defeends, till it arrive at the individual, which is the
fubjeCt of the queftion. And by adding an affirmation
or negation of the attribute of the genus or the fpecies
or individual, or of a general accident on the particular
• fubflance fo defined, making the definition a propofi-
tion, the truth of the queflion will be logically folyed
without any farther procefs. So that inftead of being
the firjl, as employed by the logic in common ufe, de¬
finition may be the lafi aCl ot reafon in the fearch of
truth in general. _ 10.s
VIII. “ Thefe axioms or general propofitions, thusand to lyl-
induBively eftabliflied, become another fpecies of prin- ^ la1‘
CIPLES, which may be properly called secondary,
and which lay the foundation of the fyllogiftic method
©f reafoning. When thefe are formed, but not before,
we may fafely admit the maxim with which logicians
fet out in the exercife of their art, as the great hinge
on which their reafoning and difputation tuyn : from
truths that are already known, to derive others which are
not known. Or, to ftate it more comprehenfively, fo
as to apply to probable as well as to feientific reafon¬
ing—From truths which are better known, to derive
others which are lefis known. Philofophically (peaking,
fyllogiftic reafoning is, under generalpropofitions to re¬
duce others which are lefis general or which are parti¬
cular; for the inferior ones are known to be true, only
as we trace their connexion with the fupenor. Logi¬
cally (peaking, it is, To predicate a genus of z fpecies
or individual comprehended under it, or an accident of
the fiubfiance in which it is inherent. 106
IX. “ Thus INDUCTION and SYLLOGISM are the Induction
two methods of dir eel reafoning correfponding to the
two kinds of principles,andfecondary, on which different,
they are founded, and by which they are reipeftively
condufted. In both methods, indeed, reafon proceeds
by judging and comparing, but the proceis is different
throughout} and though it may have the lanftion of
Ariftotle, an induBivefyllogijm is a folecifm. . 107
X. “ Till general truths are afeertained by indue-Induction
tion, the third or middle terms, by which fyllogilms are ; •
made are nowhere fafely to be found. So that ano*]0^.fm.
ther pofition of the Stagyrite, thatJyliogifm is naturally
prior in order to induBion, is equally unfounded ; ftr
induElion does not only naturally but neceffarily precede
fiyllogifm; and, except in mathematics, is in every re-
fpefit indifpenfable to its exiftence j fince, till generals
are eftablifhed, there can be neither definition, propofi-
tion, nor axiom, and of courfe no fyllogifm. And as
induction is the firft, fo is it the more efifential and fun¬
damental inftiument of reafoning : for as fyllogifm can¬
not produce its own principles, it muft have them from,
induftion 3 and if the general propofitions or fecondary
principles be imperfectly or infirmly eftabliflied, and
much more if they be taken at hazard, upon authority,
or by arbitrary affumpfeton like thofe of Ariftotle, all
the fyllogizing in the world is a vain and ufelels logo¬
machy, only inftrumental to the multiplication of falfe
learning, and to the invention and confirmation of er¬
ror. The truth of fyllogifms depends ultimately on the
truth of axioms, and the truth of axioms on the found-
n«fs of inducVions (e).”—But though induftion is
. U 2 prior
(E) This chapter is almoft wholly taken from Ta thorn's Chart and Scale of Truth; a work which, notwith-
finding
i §6 LOG
Of prior in order, as well as fuperior in utility, to fyllo-
Reafoning. We have thought it expedient to treat of it laft $
s both becaufe fyllogifm is an ealier exercife of the rea-
Why we foning faculty than induction, and becaufc it is the
have treat- method of mathematics, the firft fcience of reafon ui
ed of f>l- which the ftudent is commonly initiated,
logifm firft. J
Chaf. VI. Of Demonjlration.
I. Having difpatched what feemed neceffary to be
faid with regard to the two methods of direft reafon-
ing, indtdiwn fyllogifm ; we now proceed to confi-
der the laws of demonllration. And here it muft be
acknowledged, that in drift demonflration, which re¬
moves from the mind all poffibility of doubt or error,
the induftive method of reafoning can have no place.
When the experiments and obfervations from which
the general conclufion is drawn are numerous and ex-
tenfive, the refult of this mode of reafoning is moral
certainty ; and could the induction be made complete,
it would be abfolute certainty, equally convincing with
mathematical demonftration. But however numerous
and extenlive the obfervations and experiments may
be upon which an induftive conclufion is eftablifhed,
they muft of neceffity come ftrort of the number and
extent of nature j which, in fome cafes, by its im-
menfity, will defeat all poflibility of their co-exten-
fion 5 and in others, by its diftance, lies out ef the
reach of their immediate application. Though truth
does not appear in all other departments of learning
with that bold and refiftlefs conviflion with which it
prefides in the mathematical fcience, it Ihines through
them all, if not interrupted by prejudice or perverted
by error, with a clear and ufeful, though inferior
ftrength. And as it is not neceffary for the general
fafety or convenience of a traveller, that he ftiould al¬
ways enjoy the heat and fplendor of a mid-day fun,
whilft he can with more eafe purfue his journey under
the weaker influence of a morning or an evening ray j
To it is not requifite, for the various concerns and pur-
pofes of life, that men ftiould be led by truth of the
moft redundant brightnefs. Such truth is to be had
only in thofe fciences which are converfant about ideas
and their various relations ; where every thing being
certainly what it appears to be, definitions and axioms
arife from mere intuition. Here fyllogifm takes up the
procefs from the beginning j and by a fublime intellec¬
tual motion advances from the fimpleft axioms to the
moft complicated fpeculations, and exhibits truth
fpringing out of its firft and pureft elements, and fpread-
ing on all fides into a fyftem of fcience. As each ftep
in the progrefs is fyllogiftic, we (hall endeavour to ex¬
plain the ufe and application of fyllogifms in this fpe-
1;09 cies of reafoning.
Gf reafon- We have feen, that in all the different appearances
ing by a they put on, we ftill arrive at a juft and legitimate con-
G^u^on ’ now ^ °ften happens, that the conclufion of
loc'ifms y " one becomes a previous propofition in ano¬
ther j by which means great numbers of them are
fometimes linked together in a feries, and truths are
I c. Part 111,
made to follow one another in a train. And as in fuch Of
a concatenation of fyllogifms all the various ways of Reafoning.
reafoning that are truly conclufive may be with fafety ^
introduced j hence it is plain, that in deducing any
truth from its firft principles, efpecially where it lies
at a confiderable diftance from them, we are at liberty
to combine all the feveral kinds of fyllogifms above ex¬
plained, according as they are found beft to fuit the
end and purpofe of our inquiries. When a propofition
is thus, by means of fyllogifms., colletled from others
more evident and known, it is faid to be proved; fo that
we may in the general define the proof of a propofition
to be a fyllogifm, or feries of fyllogifms, collecting that
propofition from known and evident truths. But more
particularly, if the fyllogifms of which the proofs confift
admit of no premifes but definitions, felf-evident truths,
and propofitions already eftablithed, then is the argu¬
ment fo conftituted called a demonf ration ; whereby it
appears that demonftrations are ultimately founded on
definitions and felf-evident propofitions.
II. All fyllogifms whatfoever, whether
multiform, or defective, are reducible to pi
fyllogifms in fome one of the four figures,
not all. Syllogifms of the firft figure, in particular, ’
admit of all pofiible conclufions : that is, any propofi-gUre.
tions whatfoever, whether an univerfal affirmative or
univerfal negative, a particular affirmative or parti¬
cular negative, which fourfold divifion embraces all
their varieties j any one of thefe may be inferred by
virtue of fome fyllogifm in the firft figure. By this
means it happens that the fyllogifms of all the other
figures are reducible alfo to fyllogifms of the firft fi¬
gure, and may be confidered as ftanding on the fame
foundation with them. We cannot here demonftrate
and explain the manner of this reduction, becaufe it
would too much fwell the bulk of this treatife. It is
enough to take notice that the thing is univerfally
known and allowed among logicians, to whofe writings
we refer fuch as defire farther fatisfaCtion in this matter.
This then being laid down, it is plain that any de¬
monftration whatfoever may be confidered as compofed
of a feries of fyllogifms, all in the firft figure. For,
fince all the fyllogifms that enter the demonftration
are reducible to fyllogifms of fome one of the four
figures; and fince the fyllogifms of all the other fi¬
gures are farther reducible to fyllogifms of the firft
figure^ it is evident that the whole demonftration may
be refolved into a feries of thefe laft fyllogifms. Let
us now, if poflible, difeover the ground upon which
the conclufion lefts in fyllogifms of the firft figure ; be¬
caufe, by fo doing, we rhall come at an univerfal prin¬
ciple of certainty, whence the evidence of all demon¬
ftrations in all their parts may be ultimately derived. MI
III. The rul es then of the firft figure are briefly The grouik
thefe. The middle term is the fubjeft of the majorrf;afon-
propofition, and the predicate of the minor. The™^1" ^
major is always an univerfal propofition and the mi- 1
nor always affirmative. Let us now fee what effeCt
thefe rules will have in reafoning. The major is an
univerfal propofition of which the middle term is the
fubjoCf,
no
compound, AH fyUo-
ain fimple M'lniswhat-
But this isl>v?rre'
ftanding the ruggednefs of its ftyle, has fo much real merit as a fyftem of logic, that it cannot be too diligently
ftudied by the young inquirer who wifties to travel by the ftraight road to the temple of Science.
Fart HI. L O
Of fubjeft, and the predicate of the conclufion the predicate,
deafening, jjence {j, appears, that in the major the predicate of the
ju' "lf conclufion is always affirmed or denied univerfally of the
middle term. Again, The minor is an affirmative pro-
pofition, whereof the fubjeftof the conclufion is the i’ub-
jedt, and the middle term the predicate. Here then the
middle term is affirmed of the fubjedt of the conclufion ;
that is, the fubjedl of the conclufion is affirmed to be
comprehended under, or to make a part of, the middle
term. Thus then we fee what is done in the premifts
of a fyllogifm of the firft figure. The predicate of the
conclufion is univerfally affirmed or denied of fome idea*
The fubjedt of the conclufion is affirmed to be or to
make a part of that idea Hence it naturally and un¬
avoidably follows, that the predicate of the conclufion
ought to be affirmed or denied of the fubjedt. To il-
luftrate this by an example, we (hall refume one of the
fyllogifms of the firft chapter.
“ Every creature pofiefled of reafon and liberty is ac-
“ countable for his adlions :
“ Man is a creature poffefled of reafon and liberty :
“ Therefore man is accountable for his adtions.”
Here, in the firft propofition, the predicate of the
conclufion, accountab/enefs, is affirmed of all creatures
that have reafon and liberty. Again, In the fecond
propofition, man, the fubjedt of the conclufion, is af¬
firmed to be or to make a part of this clafs of crea¬
tures. Hence the conclufion neceflarily and unavoid¬
ably follows, viz. that man is accountable for h» ac¬
tions ; becaufe, if reafon and liberty be that which
conftitutes a creature accountable, and man has reafon
and liberty, it is plain he has that which conftitutes
him accountable. In like manner, where the major
is a negative propofition, or denies the predicate of
the conclufion univerfally of the middle term, as the
minor always afferts the fubjedt of the conclufion t.i
be or make a part of that middle term, it is no lefs
evident that the predicate of the conclufion ought in
this cafe to be denied of the fubjedt. So that the
ground of reafoning, in all fyllogifms of the firft: figure,
is manifeftly this : “ Whatever may be affirmed uni¬
verfally of any idea, may be affirmed of every or any
number of particulars comprehended under that idea.”
And again : “ Whatever may be denied univerfally
of any idea, may be in like manner denied of every or
any number of its individuals.” Thefe two propofitions
are called by logicians the diBum de omni, and diBum
de nullo; and are indeed the great principles of fyl-
logiftic reafoning, inafmuch as all conclufions whatfo-
ever reft immediately upon them, or upon propofitions
deduced from them. But what adds greatly to their
value is, that they are really felf-evident truths, and
fuch as we cannot gainfay without running into an
exprefs contradiction. To affirm, for inftance, that no
man is perfeB, and yet argue that fome men are perfeB ;
or to fay that all men are mortal, and yet that fome men
are not mortal, is to affert a thing to be and not to be at
in the fame time.
Bemonftra- IV. And now we may affirm, that, in all fyllogifms
fallible m" fiSure’ Premifes are true, the conclu¬
de to ^on mu^ nee^s b® true. If it be true that the pre-
truth „nd dicate of the conclufion, whether affirmative or nega-
certainty. live, agree univerfally to fome idea $ and if it be alfo
true that the fubjeCt of the conclufion is a part of or
4
G I C. - 157
comprehended under that idea 5 then it neceffarily
follows, that the predicate of the conclufion agrees alfo R-eafoning.
to the fubjeCt. For to aflert the contrary, would be
to run counter to fome one of the two principles be¬
fore eftabliffied j that is, it would be to maintain an
evident contradiction. And thus we are come at lalt
to the point we have been all along endeavouring to
eftablilh j namely, that every propofition which can
be demonftrated is neceffarily true. For as every de-
monftration may be refolved into a feries of fyllo-
gifms all in the firft figure j and as in any one of thefe
fyllogifms, if the premifes are true, the conclufion
muff: needs be fo too ; it evidently follows, that if all
the feveral premifes are true, all the feveral conclu¬
fions are fo, and confequently the conclufion alfo of
the laft fyllogifm, which is always the propofition to
be demonftrated. Now’ that all the premifes of a de-
monftration are true, will eafily appear from the very
nature and definition of that form of reafoning. A
demonftration, as we have faid, is a feries of fyllo¬
gifms, all whofe premifes are either definitions, felf-
evident truths, or propofitions, already eftabliflied.
Definitions are identical propofitions, wherein we con-
neCt the defeription of an idea with the name by
which we choofe to have that idea called, and there¬
fore as to their truth there can be no difpute. Self-
evident propofitions appear true of themfelves, and
leave no doubt or uncertainty in the mind. Propofi¬
tions, before eftabliffied, are no other than conclufions
gained by one or more fteps from definitions and felf-
evident principles, that is, from true premifes, and
therefore muft needs be true. Whence all the pre¬
vious propofitions of a demonftration being, we fee,
manifeftly true ; the laft conclufion, or propofition to
be demonftrated, muft be fo too. So that demonftra¬
tion not only leads to certain truth, but we have here
alfo a clear view of the ground and foundation of that
certainty. For as, in demonftrating, we may be faid
to do nothing more than combine a feries of fyllogifms
together, all refting on the fame bottom ; it is plain
that one uniform ground of certainty runs through the
whole, and that the conclufions are everywhere built
upon fome one of the two principles before eftabliffied,
as the foundation of all our reafoning. Thefe two
principles are eafily reduced into one, and may be ex-
prefled thus : “ Whatever predicate, whether affirma¬
tive- or negative, agrees univerfally to any idea ; the
fame muft needs agree to every or any number of indi¬
viduals comprehended under that idea.” And thus at
length we have, according to our firft defign, reduced
the certainty of demonftration to one fimple and univer-
fal principle ; which carries its own evidence along with
it, and which is indeed the ultimate foundation of all
fyllogiftic reafoning. t
V. Demonftration therefore ferving as an infallible The rules
guide to truth, and therefore on fo fure and unaltera-of logic fur-
ble a bafis, we may now venture to aflfert, that the a
rules of logic furnifti a fufficient criterion for the dif- Hon'fbr'the
tinguifliing between truth and* falfehood. For fince
every propofition that can be demonftrated is necef-ing bet ween
farily true, he is able to diftinguiffi truth from falfe-truth and
hood who can with certainty judge when a propofi-Ial^00^»
tion is truly demonftrated. Now, a demonftration is,
as we have faid, nothing more than a concatenation
of fyllogifms, all whofe premifes are definitions, felf-
evident-;
H4
and ex¬
tending to
all cafes
where a
certain
knowledge
of truth is
attainable.
”5
The diftinc
tion of de-
mon llra-
tion into
diredl and
indiredl.
L O
evident truth?, or propofitions previoufly eftatlifhed.
To judge therefore of the validity of a demonftration,
we muit be able to diftinguilh whether the definitions
that enter it are genuine, and truly defcriptive of the
ideas they are meant to exhibit : whether the pro¬
pofitions aflumed without proofs as intuitive truths
have really that felf-evidence to which they lay claim :
whether the fyllogifms are drawn up in due form,
and agreeable to the laws of argumentation : in fine,
whether they are combined together in a juft and or¬
derly manner, fo that no demonftrable propofttions
ferve anywhere as premifes unlefs they are conclu-
fions of previous fyllogifms. Now, it is the bufinefs
of logic, in explaining the feveral operations of the
mind, fully to inftruft us in all thefe points. It teaches
the nature and end of definitions, and lays down the
rules by which they ought to be framed. It unfolds
the feveral fpecies of propofitions, and diftinguiflies
the felf-evident from the demonftrable. It delineates
alfo the different forms of fyllogifms, and explains the
laws of argumentation proper to each. In fine, it de-
fcribes the manner of combining fyllogifms, fo as that
they may form a train of reafwning, and lead to the
fucceflive difcovery of truth. 1 he precepts of logic,
therefore, as they enable us to judge with certainty
when a propofition is duly demonrtrated, furnifh a
fure criterion for the diftinguiihing between truth and
falfehood.
VI. Perhaps it may be obje&ed, that demonftra¬
tion is a thing very rare and uncommon, as being the
prerogative of but a few fciences, and therefore the
criterion here given can be of no great ufe. . But
wherever, by the bare contemplation of our ideas,
truth is difcoverable, there alfo demonftration may be
attained. Now that is an abundantly fufficient crite¬
rion which enables us to judge with certainty.in all
cafes where the knowledge of truth comes within our
reach ; for with difcoveries, that lie beyond the li¬
mits of the human mind, we have, properly, no bufi¬
nefs or concernment. When a propofition is demon-
11 rated, we are pertain of its truth. When, on the
contrary, our ideas are fuch as have no vifible connec¬
tion or repugnance, and therefore furnifh not the pro¬
per'means of tracing their agreement or difagreement,
there we are fure that fcientifical knowledge is not
attainable. But where there is fome foundation, of
reafoning, which yet amounts not to the full evidence
of demonftration, there the precepts of logic, by
teaching us to determine aright of the degree of
proof, and of what is ftilPwanting to render it full
and complete, enable us to make a due eftimate of
the meafures of probability, and to proportion our
affent to the grounds on which the propofition Hands.
And this is all we can poflibly arrive at; or even fo
much as hope for, in the exercife of faculties fo im-
perfeft and limited as ours.
VII. Before we conclude this chapter, it may not
be improper to take notice of the diftinftion of demon-
ft rat ion into direB and indireB. A direB demonjlration
is, when, beginning with definitions, felf-evident pro¬
pofitions, or known and allowed truths, we form a
train of fyllog-fms, and combine them in an orderly
manner, continuing the feries through a variety of (uo
ceflive fteps, until at 1ft we arrive at a fyllogifm whofe
conclufion is the propofition to be demonftrated. Proofs
2
G I C. • Part III.
of this kind leave no doubt or uncertainty behind Of
them ; beeaufe, all the feveral premifes being true, the ReafoninS-
conclufions muft be fo too, and of courle the very laft " v~' ^
conclufion or propofition to be proved. I lie other
fpecies of demonftration is the indireB, or, as it is
fometimes called, the apogogical. The manner of pro¬
ceeding here is, by aliuming a propofition vhich di¬
rectly contradicts that we mean to dempnftrate ; and
thence, by a continued train of reafoning, in the way
of a direCt demonftration, deducing fome ablurdity or
manifeft untruth. For hereupon we conclude, that
the propofition affumed was falfe ; and thence again,
by an immediate confequence, that the propofition to
be demonftrated is true. Thus Euclid, in his third
book, being to demonftrate that circles which touch one
another inwardly have not the Janie centre^ aflumes the
direCt contrary to this, viz. that they have the fame cen¬
tre ; and thence, by an evident train of reafoning,
proves that a part is equal to the whole. 1 he fuppofi-
tion therefore leading to this abfurdity he concludes to
be falfe, viz. that circles touching one another inwardly
have the fame centre; and thence again immediately in¬
fers, that they have not the fame centre. . > n6
VIII. Now, becaufe this manner of demonftration is Ground of
accounted by fome not altogether fo clear and fatisfac-reafoning
tory ; we {hall therefore endeavour to ftiow, that itc)e^nfl;ri.
equally with the other leads to truth and certainty.tjons>
Two propofitions are faid to be contradiBory one of
another, when that which is aflerted to be in the one
is affei .ed not to be in the other. Thus the propofi¬
tions, Circles that touch one another inwardly have the
fame centre, and Circles that touch one another inwardly
have not the fame centre, are contradictories, becaufe the
fecond afferts the direCt contrary of what is afferted
in the firft. Now, in all contradictory propofitions,
this holds univerfally, That one of them E neceffarily
true, and the other neceffarily falfe. Xor it it be
true, that circles which touch ene another inwardly
have not the fame centre ; it is unavoidably falfe that
they have the fame centre. On the other hand, if it
be falfe that they have the fame centre, it is neceffarily
true that they have not the fame centre. Since therefore
it is impoflible for them to be both true or both fali.e
at the fame time, it unavoidably follows, that one is
neceffarily true, and the other neceffarily .falfe. . This
then being allowed, which is indeed felf-evident; if any
two contradictory propofitions are aflumed, and one of
them can by a clear train of reafoning be demonftrat¬
ed to be falfe, it neceffarily follows that the other is true.
For as the one is neceffarily true, and the ether necef¬
farily falfe; when we come to difcover which is the falfe
propofition, we thereby alfo know the other to be. true. 117
IX. Now this is precifely the manner of an indireCt Indiredt de-
demonftration, as is evident from the account given of™0^3^
it above. For there we affume a propofition which di-^;^ t0
reCtly contradicts that v'e mean to demonftrate ; and,certainty,
having by a continued feries of proofs fhown it to be
falfe, thence infer that it is contradictory, or the pro¬
pofition to be demonftrated, is true. As, therefore,
this laft conclufion is certain and unavoidable, let us
next inquire after wdiat manner we come to be fatisfied
of the falfehood of the affumed propofition, that fo no
poflible doubt may remain as to the force and validity
of demonftration of this kind. The manner then is
plainly this: Beginning with the affumed propofition,
Part IV. L O
Of Method, we, by the help of definitions, felf evident truths, or
propofitions already eftablifaed, continue a feries of
reafoning, in the way of a direft demonfiration, until
at length we arrive at fome abfurdicy or known falfe-
hood. Thus Euclid, in the example before mention¬
ed, from the fuppofition that circles touching one an¬
other inwardly have the fame centre, deduces that a
part is equal to the whole. Since, therefore, by a due
and orderly procefs of reafoning, we come at lait to a
falfe conclufion j it is manifeft, that all the premifes
cannot be true : for, were all the premifes true, the
lait conclufion mull be fo too, by what has been be¬
fore demonilrated. Now, as to all the other premifes
made ufe of in the courfe of reafoning, they are mani-
fefl: and known truths by fuppofition, as being either
definitions, felf-evident propofitions, or truths previ-
oufly eftablifhed. The afl'umed propofition is that on¬
ly as to which any doubt or uncertainty remains.
That alone, therefore, can be falfe ; and indeed, from
what has been already fhown, mull unavoidably be fo.
And thus we fee, that in indirect demonltrations, two
contradictory propofitions being laid down, one of
which is demonftrated to be falfe, the other, which is
always the propofition to be proved, mult necelTarily
bS true j fo that here, as well as in the direCt way of
proof, we arrive at a clear and fatisfaftory knowledge
tlg of truth.
A particu- X. This is univerfally the method of reafoning in all
hr cafe af apogogical or direft demonftrations. But if any pro-
^e" pofition is affumed, from which, in a direCt train of
reafoning, we can deduce its contradictory j the pro¬
pofition fo aflumed is falfe, and the contradictory one
true. For if we fuppofe the affumed propofition to
be true, then, fince all the other premifes that enter
the demonftration are alfo true, we (hall have a feries
of reafoning cpnfifting wholly of true premifes ; whence
the lalt conclufion or contradictory of ihe affumed pro¬
pofition mult be true likewife \ fo that by this means
we fhould have two contradictory propofitions both
true at the fame time, which is manifeltly impoffible.
The affumed propofition, therefore, whence this abfur-
dity flows, mult neceffarily be falfe ; and confequently
its contradictory, which is here the propofition deduced
from it, mult be true. If then any propofition is pro-
pofed to be demonltrated, and we ajjfume the contra-
diBory of that propofition, and thence direCtly infer
the propofition to be demonfirated ; by this very means
we know that the propofition fo inferred is true. For,
fince from an aflumed. propofition we have deduced its
contradictory, we are thereby certain that the affumed
propofition is falie \ and if fo, then its contradictory,
or that deduced from it, which in this cafe is the
fame with the propblition to be demonltrated, mult be
true.
Hops.
C I C. i59
XI. We have a curious infiance of this in the twelfth Of Method,
propofition of the ninth book of the Elements. Eu-
clid there propofes to demonftrate, that in any feries ^ jue9
of numbers, rijing from unity in geometrical progref- knowledge
Jion, all the prime numbers that meaftre the lajl term of the prin-
in the feries will alfo meafure the next after unity. In CIP1^cf k>-
order to this, he affumes the contradictory of the pro-
pofxtion to be demonltrated ; namely, that fame prime neceffary to
number meafuring the lajl term in the Jenes does not make us
meafure the next after unity; and thence, by a conti- proper
nued train of reafoning, proves that it aCtually does
meafure it. Hereupon he concludes the affumed pro- tion .
pofition to be falfe ; and that which is deduced from
it, or its contradictory, which is the very propofition
he propofed to demonltrate, to be true. Now that this
is a juft and conclufive way of reafoning, is abundant¬
ly manifelt from what we have fo clearly eftablilhed
above. Whence it-appears, how neceffary fome know¬
ledge of the rules of logic is, to enable us to judge of
the force, juitnefs, and validity, of demonftrations. For,
though it is readily allowed, that by the mere ftrength
of our natural faculties we can at once difeern, that of
two contradictory propofitions, the one is neceffarily true,
and the other neceffarily falfe ; yet when they are fo
linked together in a demonfiration, as that the one
ferves as a previous propofition whence the other is de¬
duced, it does not fo immediately appear, without fome
knowledge of the principles of logic, why that alone,
- which is collected by reafoning, ought to be embraced
as true, and the other, whence it is collected, to be re¬
jected as falfe. i2Q
XII. Having thus fufficiently evinced the certainty and of it-
of demonftration in all its branches, and ftiown the rules ‘ell fuffi-
by which we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at a CIem t0 a
juft conclufion, according to the various ways of aitgu-
ing made ufe of; it is needlefs to enter upon a particu- and falfe
lar confideration of thofe feveral fpecies of falfe reafon-reafoning.
ing which logicians diftinguilh by the name of fophifms.
He that thoroughly underltands the form and ftruc-
ture of a good argument, will of himfelf readily dif¬
eern every deviation from it. And although fophifms
have been divided into many claffes, which are all
called by fotmding names, that therefore carry in them
much appearance of learning ; yet are the errors
themfelves fo very palpable and obvious, that it would
be loit labour Co write for a man capable of being mif-
led by them. Here, therefore, we choofe to conclude
this part of logic : and (hall in the next give fome ac¬
count of Method, which, though infeparable from rea¬
foning, is neverthelefs always confidered by logicians
as a diftinft operation of the mind ; becaufe its influ¬
ence is not confined to the mere exercife of the reafon¬
ing faculty, but extends in fome degree to all the
tranfaftions of the underltanding.
PART IV. OF METHOD,
711
The under- WE have now done with the three firft operations of
Handing the mind, whofe office it is to fearch after truth, and
ern^lo'ecT en^arSe ^ie hounds of human knowledge. There is
inputting yet a*fourth, which regards the difpofal and arrange-
together . merit of our thoughts, when we endeavour fo to put
known them together as that their mutual connexion and de-
tiuths; °
pendence may be clearly feen. This is what logicians
called Method, and place always the laft in order in ex¬
plaining the powers of the underftanding j becaufe it
neceffarily fuppofes a previous exercife of our other fa¬
culties, and fome progrefs made in knowledge before
we can exert it in any extenfive degree, •
II. In
illuftrated
160 LOG
Of Method. II, Jn this view, it is plain that we muft be before
hand well acquainted with the truths we are to combine
together j otherwife, how could we difcern their feveral
connexions and relations, or fo difpofe of them as
their mutual dependence may require ? But it often
happens, that the underftanding is employed, not in
the arrangement and compofition of known truths,
but in the fearch and difcovery of fuch as are un¬
known. And here the manner of proceeding is very
different. We affemble at once our whole flock of
knowledge relating to any fubjeX, and, after a ge¬
neral furvey of things, begin with examining them fe*
parately and by parts. Hence it comes to pafs, that
whereas, at our firfl fetting out, we were acquainted
only with fome of the grand flrokes and outlines of
truth ; by thus purfuing her through her feveral wind-
ings and receffes, we gradually difcover thofe more
inward and finer touches whence fire derives all her
ftrength, fymmetry, and beauty. And here it is, that
when, by a narrow fcrutiny into things, we have un¬
ravelled any part of knowledge, and traced it to its
firfl and original principles, infomuch that the whole
frame and contexture of it lies open to the view of the
mind j here it is, that, taking it the contrary way,.and
beginning with thefe principles, we can fo adjull and
put together the parts as the order and method of fcience
requires.
III. But as thefe things are bell underflood when il-
kv the fimi-luflrated by examples, let us fuppofe any machine, for
litude of a inflance a w atch, prefented to us, whofe flruXure and
watch‘ compofition we are as yet unacquainted with, but
want, if poflible, to difcover. The manner of pro¬
ceeding, in this cafe, is, by taking the whole to pieces,
and examining the parts feparately, one after another.
When, by fuch a fcrutiny, we have thoroughly in¬
formed ourfelves of the frame and contexture of each,
we then compare them together, in order to judge of
their mutual aXion and influence. By this means we
gradually trace out the inward make and compofition
of the whole, and come at length to difcern how parts
of fuch a form, and fo put together as we found in
unravelling and taking them afunder, conftitute that
particular machine called a watch, and contribute to
all the feveral motions and phenomena obfervable in
it. This difcovery being made, we can take things
the contrary way, and, beginning with the parts, fo
difpofe and conneX them as their feveral ufes and ftruc-
tures require, until at length we arrive at the whole
itfelf, from the unravelling of which thofe parts re-
124 fulted.
Ground of IV. And as it is in tracing and examining the works
the analytic of art • fo is it, in a great meafure, in unfolding any
and fynthe- part u£ human knowledge : for the relations and mu-
iicmethods. tuaj habitudes of things do not always immediately ap-,
pear upon comparing them one with another. Hence
we have recourfe to intermediate ideas ; and, by means
of them, are furniflied with thofe previous propofitions
that lead to the conclufion we are in quell of. And
if it fo happens that the previous propofitions them-
felves are not fufficiently evident, we endeavour, by new
middle terms, to afcertain their truth } Hill tracing
things backward, in a continual feries, until at length
we arrive at fome fyllogifm where the premifes are firft
and felf-evident principles. This done, we become
perfeXly fatisfied as to the truth of all the conclafions
I c.
Part IV.
inafmuch as they are now Of Methed.
we have paffed through,
feen to Hand upon the firm and immoveable founda
tion of our intuitive perceptions. And as we arrived
at this certainty by tracing things backward to the
original principles whence they flow ; fo may we at
any time renew it by a direX contrary procefs, if, be¬
ginning with thefe principles, we carry the train of
our thoughts forward until they lead us, by a con-
neXed chain of proofs, to the very laft conclufion of
the feries. ' .125
V. Hence it appears, that, in difpofing and putting Divifion of
together our thoughts, either for our own ufe, that the method in.
difcoveries we have, made may at all times lie open to^nfalytic
the review of the mind, or where we mean to commu-ynthe'
nicate and unfold the difcoveries to others, there are
two ways of proceeding equally within our choice :
for we may fo propofe the truths relating to any part
of knowledge, as they prefented themfelves to the mind
in the manner of inveiligation j carrying on the feries
of proofs, in a reverfe order, until they at lall termi¬
nate in firll principles : or, beginning with thefe prin¬
ciples, we may take the eontrary way, and from them
deduce, by a direX train of reafoning, all the feveral
propofitions we want to eftablifli. This diverfity in the
manner of arranging our thoughts gives rife to the
twofold divifion of method etlablilhed among logi¬
cians : for method, according to their ufe of the word,
is nothing elfe but the order and difpofition of our
thoughts relating to any fubjeX. When truths are fo
propofed and put together as they were or might have
been difcovered, this is called the analytic method, or the
method of refolution; inafmuch as it traces things back¬
ward to their fource, and refolves knowledge into its
firlt and original principles. When, on the other hand,
they are deduced from thefe principles, and conneXed
according to their mutual dependence, infomuch that
the truths firft in order tend always to the demonftra-
tion of thofe that follow 5 this conftitutes what we call
the fynthetic method or method of compoftion. For here
we proceed by gathering together the feveral fcatter-
ed parts of knowledge, and combining them into one
whole or fyftem, in fuch manner that the underftand-
ing is enabled diftinXly to follow^ truth through all her
different ftages and gradations. I2(j
VI. There is this farther to be taken notice of, in(]a}iedo-
relation to thefe two fpecies of method ; that the firft therwife
has alfo obtained the name of the method of invention,the method
becaufe it obferves the order in which our thoughts
fucceed one another in the invention or difcovery of the method
truth. The other, again, is often denominated the0ffcience.
method of doSirine or mfrvBion ; inafmuch as, in laying
our thoughts before others, w’e generally choole to
proceed in the fynthetic manner, deducing them from
their firft principles. For w’e are to obferve, that al¬
though there is great pleafure in purfuing truth in the
method of inveftigation, becaufe it places us in the
condition of the inventor, and (hows the particular
train and procefs of thinking by which he arrived at
his difcoveries j yet it is not fo well accommodated to
the purpofes of evidence and conviXion. For, at our
firft fetting out, we are commonly unable to divine
where the analyfis will lead us ; infomuch that our re-
fearches are for fome time little better than a mere
groping in the dark. And even after light begins to
break in upon us, .we are ftill obliged to many reviews,
atid
^artlV. LOGIC. 161
)f Method, and a frequent comparifon of the feveral fteps of the
—inveftigation among themfelves. Nay, when we have
unravelled the whole, and reached the very foundation
on which our difcoveries Hand, all our certainty, in re¬
gard to their truth, will be found in a great meafure to
arife from that connexion we are now able to difcern
between them and firft principles, taken in the order of
compofkion. But in the fynthetic manner of difpo-
» ling our thoughts, the cafe is quite different: for as
we here begin with the intuitive truths, and advance
by regular deductions from them, every ftep of the
procedure brings evidence and conviction along with
it j fo that, in our progrefs from one part of know¬
ledge to another, we have always a clear perception of
the ground on which our affent refts. In communi¬
cating therefore our difcoveries to others, this method
is apparently to be chofen, as it wonderfully improves
and enlightens the underitanding, and leads to an im¬
mediate perception of truth.
VII. The logic which for fo many ages kept pof-
feflian of the fchools, and was deemed the moll im¬
portant of the fciences, has long been condemned as a
mere art of wrangling, of very little ufe in the purfuit
of truth. Attempts have been made to reftore it to
credit, but without fuccefs j and of late years little or
no attention whatever has been paid to the art of rea-
fonivg in the courfe of what is called a liberal education.
As both extremes may be faulty, it Ihould feem that
we cannot conclude this Ihort treatife more properly
than -with the following
Reflections on the Utility of Logic.
If Ariftotle was not the inventor of logic, he was
certainly the prince of logicians. The whole theory
of fyllogifms he claims as his own, and as the fruit of
much time and labour ; and it is univerfally known,
that the later writers on the art have borrowed their
materials almoft entirely from his Organon and Por¬
phyry’s Introdu£tion. But after men had laboured
near 2000 years in fearch of truth by the help of fyl¬
logifms, Lord Bacon propofed the method of induc¬
tion, as a more effeflual engine for that purpofe j and
fince his days the art. of logic has gradually fallen in¬
to difrepute.
To this confequence many caufes contributed. The
art of fyllogifm is admirably calculated for wrangling j
and by the fchoolmen it was employed wdth too much
fuecefs, to keep in countenance the abfurdities of the
Romilh church. Under their management it pro¬
duced numberlefs difputes, and numberlefs fefls, who
fought againft each other with much animofity with¬
out gaining or lofing ground ; but it did nothing con-
fi ierable for the benefit of human life, w hilft the me¬
thod of induflion has improved arts and increafed
knowledge. It is no wonder, therefore, that the ex-
ceffive admiration of Ariftotle, which continued for fo
many ages, (hould end in an undue contempt : and
that the high efteem of logic, as the grand engine of
fcience, ftiould at laft make way for too unfavourable
an opinion, which feems now prevalent, of its being
unworthy of a place in a liberal education. Men rare¬
ly leave one extreme without running into the contrary :
Thofe who think according to the faftiion, will be as
prone to go into the prefent extreme as their grand-
tathers were to go into the former 5 and even thev who
Vol. XII. Part I.
in general think for themfelves, when they are offend- Of Method,
ed at the abufe of any thing, are too apt to entertain —v—'
prejudices againft the thing itfelf “ In praftice (fays
the learned Warburton *), logic is more a trick than * jntrociUc
a fcience, formed rather to amufe than to inftruft. tion t0 yJ(~
And in fome fort we may apply to the art of fyllogifm Han, &.c,
what a man of wit fays of rhetoric, that it only
tells us howr to name thofe tools which nature had be¬
fore put into our hands. In the fervice of chicane, in¬
deed, it is a mere juggler’s knot, now faft, now loofe j
and the fchools where this legerdemain was exercifed
in great perfection are full of the ftories of its wonders.”
The authority of Warburton is great 5 but it may be
counterbalanced by another, which, on fubjeCts of this
nature, is confeffedly greater.
“ Laying afi.de prejudice, whether faftvionable or
unfaftiionable, let us confider (fays Dr Reid f) whe- f Appendix
ther logic is or may be made fubfervient to any goodfo Lord
purpofe. Its profeffed end is, to teach men to think, Karnes's
to judge, and to reafon, with precifion and accuracy.
JNo man will lay this is a matter or little importance • piesan^
the only thing therefore that can admit of doubt is, Progrefs of
whether it can be taught ? Reafon.
“ To refolve this doubt, it may be obferved, that
our rational faculty is the gift of God, given to
men in very different meafures : Some have a larga
portion, fome a lefs j and w here there is a remarkable
defeft of the natural power, it cannot be fupplied by
any culture. But this natural power, even where it
is the ftrongeft, may lie dead for want of the means of
improvement. Many a favage may have been bom
with as good faculties as a Newton, a Bacon, or an
Arifotle; but their talents were buried by having never
been put to ufe, whilft; thofe of the philofophers were
cultivated to the beft advantage. It may likewife be
obferved, that the chief mean of improving our ration¬
al power, is the vigorous exercife of it in various ways
and on different fubjects, by which the habit is ac¬
quired of exercifing it properly. Without fuch ex¬
ercife, and good fenfe over and above, a man who has
ftudied logic all his life may be only a petulant wrang¬
ler, without true judgment or Ikill of reafoning in any
fcience.”
This muft have been Locke’s meaning, when in his
Thoughts on Education, he fays, “ If you w ould have
your fon to reafon w'ell, let him read Chillingworth.”
The ftate of things is much altered fince Locke wrote :
Logic has been much improved chiefly by his writings $
and yet much lefs ftrefs is laid upon it, and lefs time
confumed in its ftudy. His council, therefore, was ju¬
dicious and feafonable; to wit, That the improvement
of our reafoning power is to be expected much more
from an intimate acquaintance with the authors who
reafon beft, than from ftudying voluminous fyftems of
fchool logic. But if he had meant, that the ftudy of
logic was of no ufe, nor deferved any attention, ho
furely would not have taken the pains to make fo con-
fiderable an addition to it, by his EJfay on the Human
Underfunding, and by his Thoughts on the conduB of the
Underfunding; nor w'ould he have remitted his pupil
to Chillingworth, the acuteft logician as well as the beft
reafoner of his age.”
There is' no ftudy better fitted to exercife and
ftrengthen the reafoning powers than that of the ma¬
thematical fciences j becaufe there is no other branch
X «f '
162 / ^® ^
Of Method, of fcience whlcli gives fucli fcope to long and accurate
  trains of reafoning, or in which there is fo little room
for authority or prejudice of any kind to give a falfe
bias to the judgment. When a youth of moderate
parts begins to ftudy Euclid, every thing is new to him :
His apprehenfion is unfteady j his judgment is feeb e j
and refts partly "upon the evidence of the thing, and
partly upon the authority of his teacher. But every time
he goes over the definitions, the axioms, the elementary
propofitions, more light breaks in upon him *, and as he
advances, the road of demonftration becomes fmooth
and eafy •, he can walk in it firmly, and take wider
Heps, till at laft he acquires the habit not only of un¬
der ftanding a demonftration, but of difcovering and
demonftrating mathematical truths.
It muft indeed be confeffed, that a man ■without the
rules of logic may acquire a habit of reafoning juftly
in mathematics, and perhaps in any other fcience.
Good fenfe, good examples, and afliduous exercife,
may bring a man to reafon juftly and acutely in his
own profeflion without rules. But whoever thinks,
that from this conceflion he may infer the inutility of
logic, betrays by this inference a great want of that
*rt; for he might as well infer, becaufe a man may go
from Edinburgh to London by the way of Paris, that
therefore any other road is ufelefs. #
There is perhaps no art which may not be acquired,
in a very confiderable degree, by example and prac¬
tice, without reducing it to rules. But praftice joined
with rules may carry a man forward in his art far¬
ther and more quickly than practice without rules.—-
Every ingenious artift knows the utility of having his
art reduced to rules, and thereby made a fcience. By-
rules he is enlightened in his practice, and^ works with
more aflurance. They enable him fometimes to cor-
re£t his own errors, and often to deleft the eriors of
others ; and he finds them of great ufe to confirm his
judgment, to juftify what is right, and to condemn
what is wrong. Now mathematics are the noble ft
of logic. Through them we may perceive how the fta-
ted forms of fyllogifm are exemplified in one fubjeft,
namely the predicament of quantity and by marking
the force of thefe forms, as they are there applied, we
may be enabled to apply them of ourfelves elfewhere.
Whoever, therefore, will ftudy mathematics with this
view, will become not only by mathematics a more ex¬
pert logician, and by logic a more rational mathematician,
but a wifer philofopher, and an acuter reafoner, in. ail
the poflible fubjefts either of fcience or deliberation.
But when mathematics, inftead of being applied to
this excellent purpofe, are ufed not to exemplify logic,
but to fupply its place, no wonder if logic fall into
contempt ", and if mathematics, inftead of furthering
fcience, become in faff an obftacle. For when men,
knowing nothing of that reafoning which is univerfal,
come to attach themfelves for years to s. ftngle fpecies,
a fpecies wholly involved in lines and numbers, the
mind becomes incapacitated for reafoning at large, and
efpecially in the feareh of moral truth. The objedt of
mathematics is demonjlration ,■ and whatever in that
fcience is not demonftration, is nothing, or at leaft be¬
low the fublime inquirer’s regard. Probability, through
its almoft infinite degrees, from fimple ignorance up
to abfolute certainty, is the terra incognita of the ma¬
thematician. And yet here it is that the great bufinefs
I C Part IV.
of the human mind Is carried on in the fearch and Of Method,
difeovery of all the important truths which concern us *
as reafonable beings. And here too it is that all its
vigour is exerted: for to proportion the affent to the
probability accompanying every varying degree of
moral evidence, requires the moft enlarged and fove-
reign exercife of reafon.
In reafonings of this kind, will any man pretend
that it is of no ufe to be well acquainted with the va¬
rious powers of the mind by which we realon ? Is it
of no ufe to refolve the various kinds of reafoning in¬
to their fimple elements j and to difeover, as far as we
are able, the rules by which thefe elements are com¬
bined in judging and in reafoning ? Is it of no ufe to
mark the various fallacies in reafoning, by which even
the moft ingenious men have been led into error ?. It
muft furely betray great want of underftanding to think
thefe things ufelefs or unimportant. Now thefe are
the things which logicians have attempted \ and which
they have executed—not indeed fo completely as to
leave no room for improvement, but in iuch a manner as
to give very confiderable aid to our reafoning powers.
That the principles they have laid down with regard
to definition anddivifion, with regard to the converfion
and oppofition of propofitions, and the general rules of
reafoning, are not without uie, is fufficiently apparent
from the blunders committed daily by thofe who dif-
dain any acquaintance with them.
Although the art of categorical fyllogifm is confef-
fedly little fitted for the difeovery of unknown truth,
it may yet be employed to excellent purpofes, as it is
perhaps the moft compendious method of dete&ing a
fallacy. A man in queft of unknown truths muft ge¬
nerally proceed by the way of indudlion, from effefts
to caufes ; but he who as a teacher is to inculcate any
fyftem upon others, begins with one or more felf-evi-
dent truths, and proceeds in the way of demonftration,
to the conclufion which he wifties to eftablifti. Now
every demonftration, as has been already obferved, may
be refolved into a feries of fyllogifms, of which the
conclufion of the precedixg always enters into the pe-
mifes of that which follows : and if the firft principles
be clear and evident, and every fyllogifm in fome le¬
gitimate mode and figure, the conclufion of the whole
muft infallibly be admitted. But when the demon¬
ftration is thus broken into parts if we find that the
conclufion of one fyllogifm will not, without altering
the meaning of the terms, enter legitimately into the
premifes of that which ftvould immediately follow j or,
fuppofing it to make one of the premifes of a new fyl¬
logifm, if we find that the conclufion refulting from
the whole feries thus obtained, is different from that
of the demonftration *, we may, in either of thefe cafes,
reft affured that the author’s reafoning is fallacious,
and leads to error j and that if it carried an appear¬
ance of conviction before it was thus refolved into its
elementary parts, it muft have been owing to the ina¬
bility of the mind to comprehend at once a long train
of arguments. Whoever wifties to fee the fy llogiftic
art employed for this purpofe, and to be convinced of
the truth of what we have faid.refpetfting its utility,
may confult the excellent writer recommended by
Locke, who, in places innumerable of his Incompar¬
able book, has, without pedantry, even in that pe¬
dantic age, made the happieft application of the rules
of
Part IV. L O
)f Method, of logic for unravelling the fophiftry of his Jefuitical
— vantagonift.
Upon the whole, then, though we readily acknow¬
ledge that much time was wafted by our forefathers
in fyllogiftic wrangling, and what might with little
G I C. 163
impropriety be termed the mechanical part of logic j Of Method.
yet the art of forming and examining arguments is cer- ‘-“-"Y"”—'
tainly an attainment not unworthy the ambition of that
being whofe higheft honour is to be endued with rea-
fon.
Logiftse,
hologra¬
phy-
LOG
LOGISTiE, certain officers at Athens, in number
ten, whofe bufmefs confifted in receiving and paffing the
accounts of magiftrates when they went out of office.
The logijlce w-ere ele£ted by lot, and had ten euthyni or
auditors of accounts under them.
LOGOGRAPHY, a new method of printing, in
which the types, inftead of anfwering only to Angle let¬
ters, are made to correfpond to whole words.
This method, though feemingly a retrograde procef-
fion in the printing art, has lately obtained the fanc-
tion of his majefty’s patent, and hasforfome time been
aftually put in execution in the way of trade, apparent¬
ly with advantage to the proprietors. In the year 1783,
a treatife upon this fubjeft appeared by Henry Johnfon,
in which the origin as well as the utility of the art are
fully laid down, and the matter fet forth infuch a light
as can fcarce allow us to doubt that it is an improve¬
ment in the art. Mr Johnfon informs us, that about
five years before, viz. in the year 1778, intending to
publifh a daily lift of blanks and prizes in the lottery
numerically arranged, he found it could not be accom-
pliihed in time by the ordinary way of printing. On
this account he procured types of two, three, or more
figures as was neceffary for his purpofe j and thus any
entire number might as readily be taken up as if it had
been a Angle type. His next attempt was in forming
fome large mercantile tables of pounds, (hillings, pence,
and farthings. For thefe he procured types expreffive of
any fum of money ready compofed and united, “ by
which (fays he) every fpecies of Agure-printing could
be performed- for the tenth part of the coft, printers
always charging it double the price of letter-print¬
ing.” Having thus fucceeded to his wiffi in his two
Arft attempts, he next began to conAder if the me¬
thod could not be applied to words ; and in this alfo
the fuccefs was equal.
The properties of the logographic art, according to
our author, are, 1. That the compoAtor (hall have lefs
charged upon his memory than in the common way.
2. It is much lefs liable to error. 3. The type of each
word is as eaAly laid hold of as that of a Angle letter.
4. The decompoAtion is much more readily performed,
even by the mereft novices, than they now decompofe
letters. 5. No extraordinary expence nor greater num¬
ber of types is required in the lagographic than in the
common method of printing.
The Arft of thefe pofttions is proved by our author
in the following manner. In the common method,
the compoAtor has 150 diviAons to which there is no
reference, and the printing offices are not agreed with
refpedl to the mode of placing their boxes j “ but
under this improvement he has only to know the
letters of the alphabet, and is affifted with an index
LOG
of them, infomuch that the Amplicity of the latte* Logogra-
apparatus enables him, by a little praftice, to lay his i Pfy*
Anger almoft blindfold on the word required 5 and the v
meaneft capacity is equal to this mental _ exercife,
having little more to do than knowing by infpeftion
the difference between words under three and thofe
above three fyllables j and all the apparatus being
within a compafs not a great deal more extended than
common printing, for thefe reafons he is as foon pof-
feffed of his type of a word as they are of a Angle
letter.”
Thus the Arft and third poAtions may be faid to
be proved $ but in his proof of the fecond, our author
himfelf (hows that his art is not infallible, by fubftitut-
ing the word third inftead of fecond. Subftitutions of
this kind, he owns, may readily take place ; but fuch
errors are much more confpicuous than literal ones,
though they may be correfted with equal eafe 5 “ for
the erroneous fubftitution cannot fail of being nearly
equal in length to the word required ; although, even
otherwife. it would not be attended with greater difad-
vantage tiian in the common way, and it would be rec-
tifted with greater facility.”
The eafe with which the compoQtion is performedr
(hows that there muft be an equal eafe in performing
the decompoAtion j “ from whence (fays Mr Johnfon)
it is further demonftrable, that any work can be com¬
pofed by this method nearly as foon as it can be deli¬
berately read; and as to the Afth poAtion, that it (hall
not require a greater expence of types, it is anfwered,
that it is impeffible for more types of letters to be want¬
ed for this method than by any other printer according
to the equal quantity of bufmefs to be performed,
every office having certain known quantities of each
letter called a fount. A printer’s fount contains about
92,500 letters, and our want is not more j nay, nearer
the truth, the prefent quantity for a fount containing
much more of (bme letters than neceffary, and fewer
of others } which arifes from the calculation of the
quantity of each letter wanted being adhered to Ance
the old fpelling.”
Our author now proceeds to demonftrate that the
number of types muft neceffarily decreafe as they are
combined in fyllables, and much more when formed
into words. The whole art of arranging the words
conftfts in placing them under as few diviAons as pcf-
Able, and (till fewer fubdiviftons 3 which is attained by
the following procefs.
1. A collection of words, with the addition of
tenfes, plurals, and degrees of comparifon, amounting
to more than 100,000, was made from the beft Englifti
dictionaries:
2. Collections were made from the mifcellaneous part
X 2 cff
Log off ra-
phy.
LOG [i
of 20 newfpapers, the Speftator, and Common Prayer-
book. The method was, by procuring duplicates of
every fheet, lb that each alternate fide might be palled
over with white paper, in order to leave the whole of
the words on both fides perfeft $ and thus the whole
might be touched with lefs danger of injury than other-
wife could have been done. The confufion arifing
from the parts of other words being feen from the
oppc lite fide was likewife prevented,
v 3. The words, being feparately cut out, were then
put into a cafe marked with the divifions from one to
16, according to the number of letters contained in
each word. Thus feveral letters were diftindily col-
ledled ; and then each feparate parcel forted in a cafe
containing 26 divifions, marked with the letters of
the alphabet, according to the commencing letter of
the word $ and thus all the words were ranged alpha¬
betically, confifting of two, three, four, or five letters,
in feparate parcels.
4. The fame words were then placed together, and
polled into an alphabet, with the number of times
marked to each that had occurred on the whole; that
in this manner a proportion might be determined how
many times particular words ought to be repeated for
the printing of one Iheet, and alfo to know what
words are in general ufe : There are likewife a num¬
ber of technical terms, and favourite phrafes, a great
number of times repeated almoft by every author ; but
though thefe occur throughout the whole book in
great proportion to the reft, no more of them will be
neceffary than what fuffice for a fingle fheet.
5. The whole of the above might be done without
the trouble juft mentioned, by polling every word at
once into a triformed alphabet j becaufe the fubdivi-
fions of the fecond and third commencing letter of
each word for references are now obtained, and thus
can eafily be placed in its proper divifion, and may be
marked as often as it occurs, ivithout repeating the
fame word ; whence we plainly fee the cafe and expe¬
dition of it, from the facility and expedition of polling
every word from a leaf in any book. Before fuch fub-
divifions were known, they could only have been pla¬
ced under the firft commencing letter of the word j
which would caufe fuch a multiplicity of "repetitions,
that it would take up more time, be far more liable
to error, and require more fubordinate pollings to
bring them into arrangement •, fo that they may be
found more eafily than by the above proceedings.
Thus alfo a colleflion will be obtained of fingle and
double w’ords, which are conftantly required from 20 to
400 or 500 times in the printing one Iheet of any work
whatever; and Avhich alone would abridge the compofi-
tor’s w'ork near one-third. This fecond procefs like-
wife enabled the author to rejefl, out of the firft col-
le6lion, obfolete words, technical terms, &c. which re¬
duces the original colle£lion to one-fifth paid.
6. By proceeding in this manner, feveral fpecies of
words are omitted in the founts. 1. Obfolete words ;
becaufe they occur fo feldom, that the difference of
time loft in compofing them in the ordinary method
Avould be imperceptible. 2. Technical terms, names
of places, animals, &c, ; though, for any particular
work, the terms peculiar to it may be added to the
fount in a biformed alphabet apart. 3. Real com¬
pounds,^ or Avoids that may be compounded of others,
1
64 ] L O (J
are alfo rejected ; becaufe we aftually haAre the Arords Logogra.
already, and they may be joined Avith fufficiefit expe- i
dition, though the fpaces are annexed to each, by
being conftru£led accordingly. 4. Thofe of the fame
fpelling are likewife omitted, though they bear differ¬
ent fignifications, for obvious reafons.
7. The variation of tenfes, degrees of comparifon,
and numerous words in the Englilh language, having
in general, the fame terminations, fuch as ED, ing, LY,
MENT, ness, &.c. an alphabet may be formed of fuch
a kind as is capable of being annexed to the abfo-
lute words or radices, as expeditioully as the Avhole
word could be found in the fount, from its being
thereby fo much lefs extended. Thuc, by dividing fe¬
veral w'ords into their radices and terminations, many
other words may be formed from their radix by the ad¬
dition of various terminations, and each termination
may be added to other radices to Avhich they are ap¬
plicable.
8. Some radices are imperfeft, viz. fuch as end with
the vowel e, which mull therefore be added in the ufual
Avay of compofition. Thus, in the Avord adore, the ra¬
dix is ador, to which the terminations ex, cd, eji, eth.,
er, irg, may be added occaftonally.
9. By rejecting alfo the words which come under this
laft denomination, the number neceffary for a fount is
reduced to one-tenth of what it Avould othenvife be, as
Avill appear evident from the following confiderations :
I. There are at leaft 42 verbs, the infinitive of which
ends in ify ; as qualify, Jignify ; the radices of Avhich
are qualfjign ; the terminations are, ifics, ified, fying,
&c. And Mr Johnfon informs us, that by applying
thefe radices to other terminations, he was enabled to
difpenfe Avith more than 500 w'ords which would other-
Avife have been neceffary. 2. For all regular verbs, no
more than fix terminations are neceffary, viz. x, ejl, eth,
ed, cs, ing. There are but few irregular ones in the
Englifh language ; Avhence it happens that 12 or 14
Avords may. be formed from one fingle perfedl verb as a
radix, and many imperfect ones fave double that num¬
ber.
jo. By ufing only the fet of terminations which
may be contained in a box of tw'o feet fquare, the
common operation of printing would be fhortened near¬
ly one half; and in order to find out thofe which are
rnoft in ufe, and fitteft to retain, our author digefted
them alphabetically, with the radices, Avords, or fyl-
lables, which make complete Avords annexed to them.
Thus,
tam
 ed
j abs—apper—afeer
de—dis—con
cer—cap—cur
in^ . I enter—main—re—fus, &c.
n. Thus it will be found, that out of more than
100,000 words of which the Englifh language confifts,
there will not be wanted much above 3500 for a com¬
plete fount. This will be very evident to any perfon
Avho confults a dictionary. He will there find, that a
vaft number of words require an explanation ; Avhereas
in any mifcellaneous werk, there are none but what
can he underftood moft readily either together or apart.
Newfpapers retain more of the uncommon kind of w ords
than any others. 4‘ The vocabulary (fays our author)
ox
LOG [i
Itogogra- or alphabet as it is called, of the Chintfe, confills of
phy. above 8d,000 letters or cbaradlers j yet he is admitted
a mafter of the language who knows about 4000 of
them, no more being in general ufe.”
The expedition with which the logographie method
of printing can be accompliihed, depends effentially on
their arrangement; which, from great numbers of ex¬
periments, our author found to be beft accomplifhed
in the following manner : 1. Words of one, two, or
three fyllables, are alphabetically placed by themfelves,
including all poflfible commencing fyllables, by which
the compofitor cannot fail of finding the word either
in whole or in part, let it be what it will ; and when
the whole cannot be found at once, the remainder may
eafily be found in fingle or double fyllables among the
terminations. 2. All words above three fyllables have
the fame alphabetical arrangement j the terminations
being the fame at the bottom of each. Experience
fhows, that by a very few leffons, the meaneft capacity
may determine the number of fyllables, and refer to
the particular cafe containing words of that number,
there being confpicuous references to each ; and by
thus equalizing them, any perfon may poffefs himfelf
very expeditioufly of what he wants. Even boys who
Icarcely knew more than the letters of the alphabet,
were hardly a fortnight employed in this method, when
they could at the firft glance tell the number of letters
contained in any word.
By this fimplicity of arrangement, any intelligent
perfon, who never compofed in his life, by being pla-
ed in a room with the apparatus, could compofe and
print, without other previous initruftion than defiring
him to remember that the words under three fyllables,
and thofe above three, are placed in fcparate alphabets;
and that whenever he wants a word, the firft letter is
feen in capitals of two inches on the walls, the fecond
in letters of one inch in right lines; and where it is ne-
ceffary to have more columns than one for fuch fecond
letter, the third is given in red down the column, com¬
prehending about 1 2 divifions, to contain the types of
the word corning under fuch reference.
To exemplify this method as far as it can be done
without actually feeing the apparatus, our author inilan-
ces the two words Above and Unfortunately. In
looking for the former, the firfi letter, A, is feen upon
the wall as already mentioned : the fecond, B, is on
the cafe under it, and down that column is OVE,
oppofite to the cell containing the types of the whole
word ; which would be only three references inftead
of five with fpace?, as in the common method. The
other word, viz. Unfortunately, may be found by the
fame references, though it contains 13 letters; but
“ admitting that prattice will give the word as foon
as a fingle letter, the average will be found eight for
one.”—Our author’s explanation of the method in
which this wrord might be compofed, however, feems
by no means intelligible.—“ For this dillinftion in the
cafes (fays he), the alphabet, or rathfr marks of firft
reference in large characters on the wall, is divided into
two clalTes, not as vowels and confonants, but as fol¬
lows, viz. A, Con, Dif, E, In, O, P, S, Un, com¬
mencing references, the fecond or fubfequent letters of
the words being in a right line from left to right, and
down each column is found the remainder of the refe¬
rence to the words, diftinguiftiing always the third let-
5 ] L o h
ter in red. The fecond diftinction is that for all other Log°Sra'
commencing letters, the fecond letter of reference is in
a column down, and the third letter in lines from left L0h0ch.
to right in red. u——y——
Thefe are the directions given by our author for
forming a fount of words; the next requifite is a fount
of fyllables, formed in the following method: 1. A
complete fet of two letters was obtained in all their
poffible combinations, amounting to 676. 2. Having
next obtained the poflible combination of thefe letters, -
viz. 17576, by retaining only all poffible fyllables, and
words of three letters, it is reduced to the 30th part,
which anfwer all the purpofes of compofmg with fylla-
bles of two and three letters, for Latin, French, Eng-
liih, and all names of perfons, places, and things, every
poffible fyllable being comprehended among them.
Hence it forms an univerfal triformed alphabet, where
Engliffi characters are ufed ; from whence all partial
biformed and triformed alphabets in the arrangement of
Englifti, French, Latin, and all technical matters, are
drawn. Though combinations of four letters are
again 26 times the number of thofe of three letters,
and five letters increafe in the fame ratio; yet as much
as all poffible combinations increafe in quantity pro¬
portionate to the number of letters combined, fo they
decreafe in the aftual number of fyllables included
among them, infomuch, that all the fyllables of four,
five, fix, and feven letters together, are confiderably
fewer than the fyllables of three letters only.—Befides
the two founts already mentioned, a third was found ne-
ceffary for fuch terminations as are moft commonly fol¬
lowed by particular punftuations ; but, after fome con-
fideration, this was judged unneceflary.
Our author now proceeds to obviate fome objedions
which muft naturally occur to one who firft hears of his
invention. Thefe are,
1. A fingle letter damaged in a word renders the
whole ufelefs.
This is not denied by Mr Johnfon ; but be contends,
that the quantity of metal loft in this manner is quite
trifling.
2. How are the blanks or fpaces in a line to be ma¬
naged, as thefe are by no means equal ?
To this our author replies, that, at the time of writ¬
ing the pamphlet, he was undetermined whether it be
moft eligible to have fpaces caft along with the begin¬
nings of words, or to fpace them in the common man¬
ner. The former would be more expeditious; and
where a greater diftance is required, other fpaces may
be introduced in the ordinary method.
3. How is a long word at the end of a line to be
divided ?
This may be eafily accompliftied by means of the fyl-
labic fount already mentioned.
4. How is the error of fubftitutlng one word for
another to be reClified.
The anfwer to this is, that an error of the kind fpe-
eified may be corre&ed in the very fame manner as is
done in common printing. Long words may be divided
by means of the fyllabic fount already mentioned, and
the intervals between the words may be filled up with
fpaces as ufual.
LOGWOOD. See Htematoxylon, Bctaky and
Dyeing Index.
LOHOCH, or Loch, in Pharmacy, a compofition
of
Lollards.
L O L [
Lohoeh of a middle confiftence between a foft eleftuary and
fyrup, principally ufed in diforders of the lungs.
LOINS, in Anatomy, the two lateral parts of the
umbilical region of the abdomen.
LOIRE, the largell river in France, rifes in the
mountains of the Cevennes, and, after running a courie
of about 500 miles, falls into the bay of Bifcay.
LOKE, in Mythology, the name of one of the dei¬
ties of the northern nations, anfwering to the Arima-
ilius among the Perfians, whom they reprefent as at en¬
mity both with gods and men, and the author of all the
evils which defolate the univerfe. Loke is defcribed in
the Edda as producing the great ferpent which encircles
the world j which feems to have been intended as an
emblem of corruption or lin : he alfo gives birth to
Hela or-tleath, the queen of the infernal regions 5 and
alfo to the wolf Fenris, that monfter who is to encoun¬
ter the gods and deftroy the world.
LOKMAN the Wise, an eminent philofopher a-
mong the Eafterns. The Arabians fay he was the fon
of Baura, the fon or grandfon of a lifter or aunt of Job.
He was an Ethiopian, and a Have for fome time. It is
related that he was born in the time of David, and lived
till the age of the prophet Jonas. Some fuppofe him
to have been the fame with Aifop the mythologift : and
indeed we find in the parables or apologues of Lok-
man in Arabic, many particulars that are feen in Al-
fop’s fables 5 fo that it is not eafy to determine whether
the Greek or the Arabian are the originals He is faid
to have been deformed in his perfon ; but that this de¬
feat was fufficiently made up by the perfeftions of his
mind. Some pieces of his are extant; and he was look¬
ed upon as fo excellent a perfon, that Mahomet has in-
ferted a chapter of the Koran, called after his name, in
which he introduces God as faying, “ We heretofore
bellowed wifdom on Lokman.”—It is related that he
got his liberty on the following occafion. His mailer
having given him a bitter melon to eat, he ate it all.
His matter, furprifed at his exaft obedience, alked,
How it was poffible for him to eat fuch a naufeous
fruit ? He anfwered, “ I have received fo many favours
from you, that it is no wonder I Ihould once in my life
eat a bitter melon from your hand.” This generous
anfwer of the Have ftruck the mailer to fuch a degree,
that he immediately gave him his liberty. M. Galland
tranllated all the fables of Lokman, and Bidpai or Pil-
pay, a bramin philofopher, which were publilhed at
Paris in 1724.
LOLIUM, Darnel Grass ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the triandria clafs j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 4th order, Gramina. See Bo¬
tany Index.
LOLLARDS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a religious
fe61, differing in many religious points from the church
of Rome, which arofe in Germany about the begin¬
ning of the 14th century, fo called, as many writers
have imagined, from Walter Lollard, who began to
dogmatize in 1315, and was burnt at Cologn : though
others think that Lollard wras no furname, but mere¬
ly a term of reproach applied to all heretics who con¬
cealed the poifon of error under the appearance of
piety.
The monk of Canterbury derives the origin of the
word Lollard among us, from lolinm, “ tareas if
the Lollards were the tares fown in Chrift’s vineyard.
3
166 J L O L
Abelly fays, that the word Lollard fignifies “ praifing Lollards.
God,” from the German loben, “ to praife,” and herr,v ■■ v—
“ Lord 5” becaufe the Lollards employed themfelves
in travelling about from place to place, finging pfalms
and hymns.
Others, much to the fame purpofe, derive Icllhard,
lull hard, or lollert, lullert, as it was written by the an¬
cient Germans, from the old German word lullen, lol-
len, or lallen, and the termination hard, with which
many of the High Dutch words end. Lollcn fignifies
“ to fing with a low voice,” and therefore Lollard
is a finger, or one who frequently fings j and in the
vulgar tongue of the Germans it denotes a perfon who
is continually praifing God with a fong, or finging
hymns to his honour. The Alexians or Cellites were
called Lollards, becaufe they were public fingers who
made it their bufinefs to inter the bodies of thofe who
died of the plague, and fang a dirge over them in a
mournful and indiftindt tone as they carried them to the
grave. The name was afterwards affumed by perfons
that difhonoured it j for we find, among thofe Lollards
who made extraordinary pretences to piety and religion,
and fpent the greateft part of their time in meditation,
prayer, and fuch afts of piety, there were many abo¬
minable hypocrites, w ho entertained the moft ridiculous
opinions and concealed the moft enormous vices under
the fpecious mark of this extraordinary profefiion. And
many injurious afperfions were propagated againft thofe
who affumed this name by the priefts and monks j fo
that, by degrees, any perfon who covered herefies or
crimes under the appearance of piety, was called a Lol¬
lard. Thus the name was ufed not to denote any one
particular feft, but was formerly common to all perfons
and all fefts who were fuppofed to be guilty of impiety
towards God or the church, under an external profef-
fion of extraordinary piety. However, many focieties
confifting both of men and women under the name of
Lollards, were formed in moft parts of Germany and
Flanders, and were fupported partly by their manual la¬
bours, and partly by the charitable donations of pious
perfons. The magiflrates and inhabitants of the towns
where thefe brethren and fitters refided, gave them
particular marks of favour and protedlion, on account
of their great ufefulnefs to the fick and needy. They
were thus fupported againft their malignant rivals, and
obtained many papal conftitutions by which their in-
ftitute was confirmed, their perfons exempted from
the cognizance of the inquifitors, and fubjefted en¬
tirely to the jurifdidlion of the biftiops \ but as thefe
meafures were infufticient to fecure them from mo-
leftation, Charles duke of Burgundy, in the year
1472, obtained a folemn bull from Pope Sixtus IV.
ordering that the Cellites or Lollards Ihould be rank¬
ed among the religious orders, and delivered from the
jurifdidlion of the biftiops j and Pope Julius II. grant¬
ed them yet greater privileges in the year 1506. Mo-
ftieim informs us that many focieties of this kind are
ftill fubfifting at Cologn, and in the cities of Flanders,
though they have evidently departed from their ancient
rules.
Lollard and his followers rejefled the facrifice of
the mafs, extreme unftion, and penances for fin \ ar¬
guing, that Chrift’s fufferings were fufficient. He is
likewife faid to have fet afide baptifm, as a thing of
no efteft 5 and repentance, as not abfolutely neceffary,
&e.
L O M
[
Lollards See.—In England, the followers of Witkliffe were
|| called, by way of reproach, Lollards, from fome affinity
Lombards. tjjere was between fome of their tenets j though others
^     are 0f 0pinion that the Engliffi Lollards came from
Germany.
They were folemnly condemned by the archbiffiop of
Canterbury and the council of Oxford.
LOMBARD, Peter, well known by the title of
Majler of the Sentences, was born at Novara in Lom¬
bardy j but being bred at Paris, he diilinguiffied him-
felf fo much at that univerfity, that, he firil had the
canonry of Chartres conferred on him, was fome time
tutor to Philip fon of Louis le Gros, and laftly obtained
the fee of Paris. He died in 1064. His work of the
Sentences is looked on as the fource of the feholaftic
theology of the Latin church. He wrote alfo Commen¬
taries on the Pfalms, and on St Paul’s Epiftles.
LOMBARDS, a Scandinavian nation, who former¬
ly fettled in Italy, and for fome time made a confider-
t able figure.
Etymology Their name of Lombards, or Longobards, is by fome
of the derived from the word lack, or lac he, fignifying in the
aarae. German tongue winter; becaufe the Lombards, while
in Scandinavia, lived in marffies, or near the fea. Others
think that it comes from the two German words langen
harden, or helleborden, that is, from the long halberts
they were fuppofed to ufe in war. But Paulus Dia-
conus their hiftbrian, and who was himfelf a Lombard,
tells us that they were called Longobards from the
length of their beards. A nation called the Lombards
is mentioned by Tacitus, Strabo, and Ptolemy ; but
thefe are different from the Lombards who afterwards
fettled in Italy, and are reckoned to be the fame with
the Gepidae, whom the Italian Lombards almoft ex¬
terminated. The Lombards who fettled in Italy are
fir ft mentioned by Profper Aquitanus, biffiop of Rhe-
Vandalsde-gkim jn the year 379. That writer tells us, that
eated by about this time the Lombards, abandoning the moft
the Lom- diftant coafts of the ocean, and their native country
bards. Scandinavia, and feeking for new fettlements, as they
were overftocked with people at home, firft attacked
and overcame the Vandals in Germany. They were
then headed by two chiefs, Iboreus and Aion ; who,
dying about the year 389, were fucceeded by Agil-
mund, who is commonly reckoned the firft king of the
Lombards.
They fettle Before the time of Odoacer, the Lombard hiftory
in the coun-affords nothing remarkable $ in his time, however,
try of the they fettled on the Danube, in the country of the
RuSians* Rugians, whom Odoacer had almoft totally extermi¬
nated or carried into captivity. During their ftay in
this country, they rendered themfelves formidable to
the neighbouring nations, and carried on fuccefsful
wars with the Heruli and Gepidae. In 526, they
were allowed by the emperor Juftinian to fettle in
Pannonia •, and here they made war a fecond time
Deftroy thevvith the Gepidae. Alboinus, the Lombard king, kill-
Gspidae. ed the king of the Gepidae with his own hand, put his
army to the rout, and cut fuch numbers of them in
pieces, that they ceafed from that time to b# a nation.
Having caufed the deceafed king’s head to be cut off,
he made a cup of his ikull, called in the language of
the Lombards fchnla, which he made ufe of in all public
entertainments. However, having taken, among many
«ther captives of great diftindlion, the laft king’s
67 ] L O M
daughter, by name Rofamunda, he married her after Lombauh.
the death of his former wife Clodifvinta, the daughter '
of Clotaire king of France.
By this viftory Alboinus gained fuch reputation
that his friendfhip was courted by Juftinian 5 and, in
confequence of the emperor’s application, a body of
6000 Lombards were fent to the affiftance of Narfes
' againft the Goths. The fuccefs of the Romans in
this expedition, the invafion of Italy by the Lombards,
and their fucceffes in that country, have been taken ^
notice of under the article Italy, N° 28—32. At Alboinus
laft Alboinus, having made himfelf mafter of Venetia,king ofthe
Liguria, TEmilia, Hetruria, and Umbria, was flain by L^arfpsd
the treachery of his wife, in the year 375, the fourthatath'enfnftl,
of his reign. This princefs was the daughter of thegationof
king of the Gepidae, whom Alboinus had killed in his wife,
battle, and made a cup of his fkull, as above related.
As he was one day feafting at Verona, with his chief
favourites and principal officers, in the height of his
mirth he fent for the queen, and, filling the detefted
cup, commanded her to drink merrily with her father.
Rofamund, ftruck with horror, hurried out of the
room ; and highly incenfed againft her huffiand far
thus barbaroufty triumphing over the misfortunes of
her family, refolved, at all events, to make him pay
dear for fuch an inhuman and affronting condutt.
Accordingly, ffie difcovered her intention to Helmi-
child the king’s (hield-bearer, a youth of great bold-
nefs and intrepidity. Helmichild peremptorily refufed
to imbrue his hands in the blood of his fovereign, or
to be any w ay acceffory to his death j and in this re-
folution he perfifted, till he was, by a ffiameful ftrata-
gem, forced by the queen to a compliance : for ftie,
knowing that he carried on an intrigue with one of
her ladies, placed herfelf one night in her bed, and
receiving the youth, indulged him as if the had betn
his own miftrefs in his amorous defires ", which ffie had
no fooner done, than difcovering herfelf to the deceived
lover, ffie told him that he muft now either put the
king to death, or be put to death by him. Helmi¬
child, well apprifed, that, after what he had done, his
fafety depended upon the death of the king, engaged
in the treafon, which he otherwife abhorred. One day,
therefore, while Alboinus was repofing in his chamber
after dinner, Helmichild, with fome others whom he
had made privy to his defign, breaking in unexpe&edly
fell upon the king with their daggers. Alboinus ftart-
ing up at their firft coming in, laid hold of his fword,
which he had always by him ; but having in vain at¬
tempted to draw it, the queen having before-hand faf-
tened it in the fcabbard, he defended himfelf for fome
time with a footftool; but was in the end overpowered,
and defpatched with many wounds.
Rofamund had promifed to Helmichild, that, as
foon as he had defpatched the king, ffie would marry
him, and, with her perfon, beftow upon him the king¬
dom of the Lombards. The firft j)art of her promife
ffie immediately performed ; but was fo far from being
able to beftow the crown upon him, that both of them
were obliged to fave themfelves by flight. They fled
to Longinus the exarch of Ravenna, taking with them
all the jewels and treafure of the late king. Longinus
received her with the greateft marks of friendffiip and
kindnefs, and affured her of his proteftion. She had
not been long in Ravenna, however, before the exarch,
judging
L O M
[ 168 ]
7
Monarchy
aboliflied.
Lombards, judging that a favourable opportunity now offered of
making himfelf king of Italy by her means, imparted
his defign to her, and declared his intention to marry
her, provided, by fome meafts or other, the defpatched
Helmichild.i—Rofamund, highly pleafed with the pro-
pofal, refolved to fatisfy her ambition by getting rid
of the perfon whom (lie had married in order to gra¬
tify her revenge. Accordingly, having prepared a
ftrong poifon, (lie mixed it with wine, and gave it to
her hufband as he came out of the bath, and called for
drink, according to his cuftom. Helmichild had not
half emptied the cup, when, by the fudden and ftrange
6 operation which he felt in his bowels, he concluded
Her death, was • and^ with his fword pointed at the queen’s
breaft, compelled her to drink the reft. '1 he poifon
had the fame effe£t on both $ for they died in a few
hours. Longinus, on the death of the queen, laid
alide all thoughts of making himfelf king of Italy,
and font the king’s treafure to Conftantinople, together
with Albifoinda, the daughter of Alboinus by Rofa¬
mund, whom the had brought along with her.
After the death of Alboinus, the Lombards chofe
Clephis, one of the nobility, for their king. He was
murdered after a fhort reign of 18 months’, upon which
enfued an interregnum of to years, as related under
the article Italy, N° 32. During this time, they
extended their conquefts in that country j but at lait
the Romans, jealous of their progrefs, refolved to put
a flop to their vi&ories, and, if poilible, to drive them
quite out. For this purpofe, they defigned not only
to employ their own force, but entered into alliance
with the Franks; which fo alarmed the Lombards
that' they re-eftabliftied the monarchical form of go¬
vernment among themfelves, and chofe Autharis the
Reftored. fon of Clephis for their king. This monarch, confi-
dering that the power of the dukes, who had governed
Lombardy for the fpace of 10 years, was during that
length of time very much eftablithed, and that they
would not probably be willing to part with the au¬
thority which they had fo long enjoyed, allowed them
to continue in their government; but obliged them to
contribute one moiety of their revenues towards the
maintenance and fupport of his royal dignity, fuffer-
ing them to difpofe of the other as they thought pro¬
per. He referved to himfelf the fupreme dominion
and authority j and took an oath of the dukes, that
in time of war, they would readily affift him to the
utmoll of their power. Though he could remove the
dukes at pleafure, yet he deprived none of them of
their dukedoms, except in cafes of treafon ; nor gave
them to others, except when their male iflue failed.
Having fettled matters in this manner with the dukes,
he ena&ed feveral wholefome laws againft theft, ra-
\ pine, murder, adultery, and other vices which prevailed
among his fubjefts, and was the firft of the Lombard
kings who embraced Chriftianity. Moft of his fubjefls
followed the example of their monarch •, but as they
were all inftrufted by Arian biftiops, they continued
long infe&ed with that herefy j which occafioned great
difputes between them and the orthodox biihops of the
9 cities fubjedl to them.
Written From the re-eftabli(hment of the monarchy under
laws when Autharis, to the reign of Rotharis in 636, the hiftory
firft intro- o£ ^ Lombar3s affords nothing memorable. This
period is remarkable for the introduftion of written
8
duced.
L O M
laws among thefe people. Before his time they had Lombards, |
been governed only by tradition : but Rotharis, in imi- —y—-j
tation of the Romans and Goths, undertook the pub-
lilbing of written laws ; and to thofe which he enafted,
many were added by the iucceeding princes. Grotius
prefers the method which the Lombards followed in
making laws, to that which was praftifed by the Ro¬
mans themfelves. Among the latter the emperor was
the foie lawgiver j fo that whatever pleafed him had
the force of a law. But the Lombard kings did not
affume that power to themfelves, fince their laws were
enabled in public affemblies, convened for that purpofe,
after they had been maturely examined and approved
of by all the lords of the kingdom. From thefe affem¬
blies were excluded the ecclefiaftic order, and the peo¬
ple : fo that the legiflative power was lodged in the
king and nobles alone.
The reign of Rotharis is remarkable, not only for
his introducing written laws among his fubje£Is, but
for the conquefts he made, and the fuccefsful wars
carried on with the exarch of Ravenna, whom he
totally defeated in feveral engagements, and made
himfelf matter of fome part of his territories. This
monarch died in 652 j and the affairs of the Lombards
went on profperoully, till the ambition of Luitprand
laid the foundation of the total ruin of his kingdom. Jo
He afeended the throne of Lombardy in 711, and Luitprand’s I
watched all opportunities of enlarging his dominions at ambition,
the expence of the emperor’s. Of this, a fair oppor¬
tunity offered in 7x6 : for the emperor Leo Ifauricus,
who at that time reigned in the eaft, having, by his
famous edift, forbidden the woriliip of images, and
ordered them to be everywhere pulled down, the
people were fo provoked at that innovation, that, in
feveral places, they openly revolted, and, falling up¬
on the emperor’s officers, drove them out of the cities.
In the eaft, Germanus, patriarch of Conftantinople,
oppofed the emperor’s defign with great warmth j but
Leo caufed him to be dtpofed, and Anaftafius to be
raifed to that fee in his room, ordering at the fame
time all the images in the imperial city to be pulled
down and publicly burnt. He ftri£lly enjoined his
officers in the weft, efpecially the exarch oi Ravenna,
to fee his edi£l pun£tua!ly obeyed in their refpetlive
governments. In compliance with thefe orders, Scho-
lafticus, then exarch, began to pull down the images
in all the churches and public places in Ravenna -7
which incenfed the fuperftitious multitude to fuch a I
degree, that taking arms, they openly declared they
would rather renounce their allegiance to the emperor
than the worlhip of images.
Thus a kind of civil war being kindled in the city,
Luitprand thought he had now a favourable opportu¬
nity of making himfelf matter of the feat of the exarch,
not doubting but the conqueft of fuch an important
place would be followed by that of the whole ex- It
archate. Having therefore drawn toge ther all his He befiegel
forces, he unexpeftediy appeared before Ravenna, and and at laftj
clofely befieged it. The exarch little expected fuch atal,;esR-a’
furprife, as a friendly correfpondence had been main-venna*
tained for many years between the exarchs and the
Lombard kings. However, he defended the place
with fuch courage and refolution, that Luitprand,
defpairing of fuceefs, broke up the fiege and led his
army againft Claffis, atafmall diftance from Ravenna,
which.
1
L O M f i
Lombards, which he took, plundered, and levelled with the
—ground. The lofs of this place, and the fevere treat¬
ment the inhabitants met with from the king, threw
the citizens of Ravenna into the utmoft confternation j
which Luitprand being informed of, he refolved to
take advantage of their fears, and, returning before
Ravenna while the inhabitants were thus dilheartened,
to attempt once more the redutlion of that place.
Accordingly he led his whole army againft it, and,
by frequent attacks, tired the inhabitants and garri-
fon to fuch a degree, that the exarch, finding they
could hold out no longer, and defpairing of relief,
privately withdrew. Luitprand, informed of his re¬
treat, attacked the town with more violence than ever j
and, having carried it by ftorm, gave it to be plunder¬
ed by his foldiers, who found in it an immenie booty,
as it had been for a long time the feat of the Roman
emperors, of the Gothic kings, and the exarchs. The
king ftripped it of moll of its valuable monuments of
antiquity, and caufed, amongft the reft, an equeftrian
ftatue of an emperor, of wonderful workmanlhip, to be
conveyed to Pavia, where it is to be feen to this day.
The reduction of Ravenna was followed by the furrend-
I2 er of feveral cities of the exarchate, which Luitprand
I Reduces reduced to a dukedom j appointing Hildebrand his
I'he exarch-grandfon to govern it with the title of duke : and giving
t(i a him, as he was yet an infant, Peredeus duke of Vicenza
dukedom. r ^
tor his guardian.
The conqueft of Ravenna and the greater part of
the exarchate did not a little alarm Gregory II. bi-
thop of Rome. He was then at variance with the
emperor, whofe edi6t againft the worftiipping of ima¬
ges he had oppofed with all his might, and by that
means provoked Leo to fuch a degree, that he had
threatened to drive him from the fee, and fend him in¬
to exile. However, the pope, no lefs jealous of the
power of the Lombards than all his predeceffors had
been, refolved, by fome means or other, to put a ftop
to their conquefts. The only prince in Italy to whom
he could have recourfe was Urfus duke of Venice,
the Venetians making already no inconfiderable figure.
The exarch To him accordingly, he wrote a very piefling letter j
conjuring him to aflift his worthy fon the exarch, and,
for the love of the holy faith, to attempt with him
the recovery of the exarchate, which the wicked na¬
tion of the Lombards had unjuftly taken from his fons
Leo and Conftantine emperors. Urfus and the Ve¬
netians, moved with the pope’s letter, and at the fame
time greatly alarmed at the growth of fo powerful a
neighbour, promifed to aflift the exarch with the whole
ftrength of their republic j and accordingly fitted out
a confiderable fleet, pretending it was defigned for the
fervice of the emperor againft the Saracens. At the
fame time the exarch, who had taken refuge in Ve¬
nice, abandoning that place, as it were in defpair of
bringing the duke over to his party, railed, in the
places ftill fubiefr to the emperor, what forces he was
able ; and having got together a confiderable body,
he marched with them towards Imola, giving out that
he defigned to befiege that city ; but turning on a
hidden towards Ravenna, as had been agreed on be¬
tween him and the Venetians, he laid fiege to it by
land, while they invefted it almoft at the lame inftant
by fea. Peredeus defended the town for feme time
with great courage and refolution : obliging all thofs
Vol. XII. Part I.
13
affifted by
the Vene¬
tians ;
69 ] L O M
who were able to bear arms to repair to the walls. But Lombards^
the Venetians having, in fpite of all oppofition, forced ^ t
open one of the gates on the fide of the fea, the city w^0 retake
was taken, and Peredeus llain, while he was attempt-Ravenna,
ing, at the head of a choice body, to drive the enemy
from the polls they had leized. As for Hildebrand,
he fell into the hands of the Venetians •, who, having
thus recovered Ravenna to the emperor, returned home,
leaving the exarch in poffelfion of the city. Luitprand
was then at Pavia j but the town was taken before he
could aflemble his troops to relieve it.
And now Gregory bilhop of Rome, to whom the
recovery of Ravenna was chiefly owing, perfuading
himfelf, that the emperor would, out of gratitude,
give ear to his remonftrances and admonitions, began
to folicit him with more preffing letters than ever to
revoke his edidt againft the worlhip of images : but
Leo, well apprifed that the bilhop, in all the mea-
fures he had taken, had been more influenced by a re¬
gard to his own intereft than to that of the empire,
inftead of hearkening to his remonftrances, was ftill
more provoked againft him for thus obftinately oppof-
ing the execution of his edidt. Being, therefore, re¬
folved at all events to have it obferved in Rome itfelf,
and, on the other hand, not doubting but the pope
would oppofe it to the laft with all his might •, in order
to remove all obftacles, he fent three officers to Rome,
with private orders, either to difpatch the pope, or to
take him prifoner and convey him to Conftantinople.
At the fame time, he wrote to Mauritius duke of
Rome, fecretly enjoining him to aflift his three officers
in their undertaking : but no favourable opportunity
offering to put their defign in execution, the emperor,
in the year 725 recalled Scholafticus, and fent Paul
a patrician into Italy, to govern in his room, with pri¬
vate inftrudlions to encourage the above-mentioned of¬
ficers with the promife of great rewards, and to affure
them of his protedlion.
But, in the mean time, the plot was difeovered, and
two of the confpirators w ere apprehended by the citizens
of Rome, and put to death : the third having eicaped
into a monaftery, where he took the monaftic habit
and ended his days. Hereupon the exarch, in com¬
pliance with the emperor’s orders, refolved to proceed
no longer by fecret plots, but by open force. Accord¬
ingly, he drew together a confiderable body of troops,
and fet out at the head of them on his march to Rome,
with a defign to feize on the pope, and fend him, as he
had engaged to do, in chains to Conftantinople. But, Luhprand
on this occafion, Luitprand, though highly provokedaffifts the
againft Gregory for having ftirred up the VenetiansP°Pe &-
againft him, yet refolved to alfift him and the citizens
of Rome againft the exarch, in order to keep the ba¬
lance even between them, and by aflifting fometimes
the one and fometimes the other, weaken both. Pur-
fuant to this refolution, he ordered the Lombards of
Tufcany, and thofe of the dukedom of Spoletto, to join
the pope and the inhabitants of Rome j who, being
by this reinforcement far fuperior in ftrength and num¬
ber to the exarch, obliged him to return to Ravenna,
and give over all thoughts of any further attempt on
the perfon of the pope.
In the mean time, Leo, perfifting in his former re
filiation of fupprefling throughout his dominions the
worlhip of images, fent frefh orders to the. exarch
Y ’ Paul,
L O M [ 170 1 L 0 M
LrniturJj. Paul, ftriftly enjoining him to caufe his aiict to be put both him and his fon to pieces, and likenife put to Lombsra..
^ v   in execution in all the cities of Italy under his empire, death one of his chief officers, who had compoled a VT——'
efpecially in Rome. At the fame time, he wrote to the libel againft the pope. Luitprarffi, and Gregory at
pope, promifing him his favour and proteffion if he that time duke of Rcnevento, laying hold of fo fa-
complied with the edift •, and declaring him, if he con- vourable an opportunity to make themfelves mafters
tinued to oppofe it, a rebel, and no longer veiled with of the dukedom of Naples, did all that lay m their
the papal dignity. But Gregory was fo far from power to perfuade the Neapolitans to iubmit to them,
yielding to the emperor’s threats, or promifes, that, on But the Neapolitans, bearing an irreconcilable ba¬
the contrary, he folemnly excommunicated the exarch tred to the Lombards, with whom they had been con¬
fer attempting to put the imperial edidt in execution : ftantly at variance, rejedled every overture of that na-
and at the fame time wrote circular letters to the Ve- ture with the utmoft indignation •, and continuing
netians, to King Luitprand, to the Lombard dukes, ftedfaft in their allegiance to Leo, received from Gotl¬
and to* all the chief cities of the empire, exhorting ftantinople one Peter, who was fent to govern them m
them to continue ftedfaft in the Catholic faith, and to the room of Exhilaratus. Some writers^ fuppofe the
oppofe with all their might fuch a deteftable innova- Neapolitans, in this general revolt of the cities of Italy,
tion. Thefe letters made fuch an impreflion on the to have ffiaken oft the yoke with the reft, and to have
minds of the people in Italy, that though of different appointed magiftrates of their own ele&ion to govern
interefts, and often at war with one another, they all them, in the room of the officers hitherto fent from
united •, * protefting they would defend the Catholic Conllantinople, or named by the exarch : but they
faith, and the life of the pope, in fo glorious a caufe, are certainly miftaken j it being manifeft fromhiftory,
at the expence of their own ^ tbe citizens of that Peter fucceeded Exhilaratus in that dukedom,
Rome, and the inhabitants of Pentapolis, now Marca and that the Neapolitans continued to live under the
d’Ancona, not contenting themfelves with fuch a pro- emperors, till they were conquered many years after
teftation, openly revolted from the emperor j and, by the Normans.
pulling down his ftatues, they elefted, by their own In the mean time, Leo hearing of the murder of the
authority, magiftrates to govern them during the in- exarch, and the general revolt of the cities, and not
terregnum. We are even told, that, tranfported with doubting but the pope was the chief author of fo much
a blind zeal, they were for choofing a new emperor, mifchief, fent the eunuch Eutychius into Italy, w-ith
and conducing him to Conftantinople, not doubting the title and authority of exarch, ftrisftly enjoining
but the people would everywhere join them. But the him to get the pope defpatched by feme means or
pope, thinking this refolution unfeafonable, and not to other, fince his death was abfolutely neceffary for the
be eafily put in execution, oppofed it; fo that it did tranquillity of Italy.. The exarch fpared no pains to
not take place. get the pope into his power : but a meffenger, whom
In the mean time the exarch Paul, having gained he had fent to Rome, being apprehended by the citi-
a confiderable party in Ravenna, began, purfuant to zens, and an order from the emperor being found up-
the repeated orders from the emperor, to remove the on him to all his officers in that city, commanding
images, as fo many idols, out of the churches. Here- them to put the pope to death at all events, the pope’s
upon the adverfe party, fupported and encouraged by friends thenceforth guarded him with fuch care, that
Advil war the pope, flew to arms; and, falling upon the icono- the exarch’s emiffaries could never afterwards find an
in Ravenna. claJis, or image-breakers, as they ftyled them, gave rife opportunity of executing their defign. As for the mef-
to a civil war within the walls of Ravenna. Great num- fenger, the Romans were for putting him to death;
bers were killed on both fides : but thofe who were for but the pope interpofed, contenting himlelf with ex-
the worfhip of images prevailed in the end, a dread- communicating the exarch. I?
ful flaughter was made of the oppofite party ; and, And now the Romans, provoked more than ever The Ro-
among the reft, the exarch himfelf was murdered, againft Leo, and, on the other hand, unwilling to mars re-
However, the city of Ravenna continued faithful to live under the Lombards, refolved to revolt from theV0lU
the emperor ; but moft of the citizens of Romagna be- emperor, and appoint their own magiftrates, keeping
longing to the exarchate, and all thofe of Pentapolis themfelves united under the pope, not yet as their
or La Marca d’Ancona, abhorring the emperor as an prince, but only as their head. This they did ac-
heretic fubmitted to Luitprand king of the Lombards ; cordingly ; and from thefe {lender beginnings the io-
who, pretending a zeal for the Catholic religion, took vereignty of the popes in Italy took its rile, though
care to improve the difeontent of the people to his they did not then, as is commonly fuppofed by hiito-
advantage, by reprefenting to them, that they could rians, but many years after, become fovereign lords
never maintain their religious rights under a prince, of Rome.
who was not only an heretic, but a perfecutor of the Eutychius failed in his defign upon the life of the
orthodox. P°Pe > but having brought with him from Conftantin-
In Naples, Exhilaratus, duke of that city, having. ople a good number of troops, he eafily quelled the re¬
received peremptory orders from the emperor to caufe bellion in Ravenna, and feverely puniffied the authors
his edit! to be put in execution, did all that lay in his of the late difturbances. As for the rebellious Ro-
power to perfuade the people to receive it ; but find- mans, he was well apprifed he could never reduce them,
ing all his endeavours thwarted by the biftiop of Rome, fo long as they were fupported by the king of the Lom-
for whom the Neapolitans had a great veneration, he bards; and therefore he employed all his art and po-
hired affaffins to murder him. But the plot being dif- licy to take off that prince from the party of the Re¬
covered, though carried on with great fecrecy, the mans, and bring him over to his own.
Neapolitan?, highly provoked againft the duke, tore Luitprand,. for feme time, withftood all his offers ;
but
vith the
xarch.
19
The pope
fubmits to
Luitprand,
L O M [17
Lerahards. but Thrafiraund duke of Spoletto revolting at this very
---v—"'juncture, the exarch, laying hold of that opportuni-
. lS ty, offered to a [lift the king with all his ftrength a-
>U'rfudes gam ft the rebellious duke, provided he would, in like
^alliance manner, affift him againft the pope, and the Romans.
With this propofal Luitprand readily clofed j and a
league being concluded upon thefe terms between him
and the exarch, the two armies joined, and began
their march towards Spoletto. At their approach, the
duke, defpairing of being able to refift two fuch
powers, came out with a fmall attendance to meet
them, and, throwing himfelf at the king’s feet, fued,
in that humble pofture, for pardon ; which Luitprand
not only granted him, but confirmed him in the duke¬
dom, after he had obliged him to take a new oath of
allegiance, and give hoftages for his fidelity in time
to come. From Spoletto, the two armies marched,
in purfaance of the treaty, to Rome ; and encamped
in the meadows of Nero, between the Tiber and the
Vatican.
Gregory had caufed the city of Rome to be fortified
in the bed; manner he could *, but being fenfible that
the Romans alone could not long hold out againft two
fuch armies, and reflefting on the kind treatment the
duke of Spoletto had met with upon his fubmitting to
the king, he refolved to follow his example : and ac¬
cordingly, taking with him fome.of the clergy, and
the principal inhabitants of the city, he went to wait
on the king in his camp *, and there, with a pathetic
fpeech, as he was a great mafter of eloquence, foften-
ed Luitprand to fuch a degree, that, throwing him¬
felf at his feet in the prefence of the whole army, he
begged pardon for entering into an alliance againft
him : and, affuring him of his protection for the fu¬
ture, he went with them to the church of St Peter ;
and there, difarming himfelf in the prefence of his
chief officers, he laid his girdle, his fword, and his
gauntlet, with his royal mantle, his crown of gold, and
crofs of filver, on the apoftle’s fepulchre. After this,
he reconciled the pope with the exarch, who was
thereupon received into the city, where he continued
for fome time, maintaining a friendly correfpondence
Avith the pope. At this time an impoftor, taking the
name of Tiberius, and pretending to be defcended from
the emperors, feduced a great many people in Tuf-
cany, and was by them proclaimed emperor. The
exarch refolved to march againft him ; but as he had
not fufficient forces to oppofe the rebels, Gregory, who
let no opportunity Hip of obliging Leo, perfuaded the
Romans to attend the exarch in this expedition ; by
which means the ufurper being taken in a caftle, his
head was fent to the emperor, and the rebellion utter¬
ly fuppreffed. But the emperor ftill infifting upon his
edidft againft the images being received in Rome, the
Romans, at the inftigation of the pope, publicly re¬
nounced their allegiance to Leo, paid him no more
tribute, and withdrew for ever their obedience to the
emperors of the Eaft.
Leo, informed of this revolt, and not queftioning
. but the pope was the author of it, immediately caufed
nions°of tht aH th® patrimonies of the church of Rome in Sicily,
pope. Calabria, and his other dominions, to be confifcated.
At the fame time, he ordered a powerful army to be
raifed, with a defign to recover the towns that had re¬
volted 5 to chaftife the Romans for their rebellion j and,
20
The empe
ror feizes
the domi
i ] L O M
above all, to be revenged on the pope, who had raif- Lombard?..
ed all thefe difturbances, by himfelf oppofing, and ' v
perfuading others to oppofe, the execution of his e-
di£L Gregory, alarmed at the warlike preparations
that were carrying on throughout the empire, and
well apprifed that they were chiefly defigned againft
him and the Romans, refolved to recur to the pro-
teftion of the French, the only nation at that time
capable of coping with the emperor, and on whom,
on account of their zeal for religion, he thought he
might depend. The Lombards -were then very power¬
ful j but, as they wanted to be mafters of Rome,
he did not think it advifable to truft them. The Ve¬
netians, though zealous in the defence of the pope,
were not yet in a condition to withftand the power of
the emperor j and, befides, were jealous of the Lom¬
bards, who watched all opportunities of enlarging
their dominions at the expence of their neighbours.
As for Spain, it was then in a moft deplorable condi¬
tion, being overrun, and almoft wholly ruined, by the
Saracens. 21
The French nation was at this time governed byWhoap-
the celebrated Charles Martel, who had diftinguilhed pl'es ^
himfelf in a moft . eminent manner in the wars of renc ‘
France and Germany ; and had, not long before,
gained a fignal vi&ory over the Saracens in the neigh¬
bourhood of Tours ; whence he was generally reput¬
ed the beft commander, and the greateft hero, of his
time. To him, therefore, Gregory fent a folemn em-
bafly, with a great number of relics, earneftly en¬
treating him to take the Romans, and the church, un¬
der his protection, and defend them againft the at¬
tempts of Leo. The ambafladors were received with
extraordinary marks of honour *, and a treaty was foon
concluded betw-een them and Charles, who engaged to
march into Italy in perfon, at the head of a power¬
ful army, in defence of the Romans and the church,
if they ffiould be attacked either by the emperor or the
Lombards. On the other hand, the Romans were to
acknowledge him for their protedor, and confer on
him the honour of the confulftiip, as it had been for¬
merly conferred on Clovis by the emperor Anaftafius,
after that prince had defeated the Vifigoths. The am-
baffadors returned from France loaded with rich pre-
fents. But Gregory did not long enjoy the fruit of
their negociations 5 for he died the fame year 73r»
and w'as fucceeded by Gregory III. in whofe time fome
place the above-mentioned embalfy. 22
The French nation was at this time juft recovered End of the
from its diftreffed fituation under the defendants of Lombard
Clovis •, and by the bravery and conduCt of Charlesmonarc y‘
Martel, had become the moft powerful kingdom in
the weft. His fucceffor Pepin was no lefs wife and
powerful than his father had been ; and as the ambi¬
tion of the Lombard princes would be fatisfied with
nothing lefs than the entire conqueft of Italy, the
French monarch, Charlemagne, under colour of affift-
ing the pope, at laft put an end to the empire of
Lombardy, as related under the article France,
N° 21, 22. 23
The Lombards were at firft a cruel and barbarous character,
nation j but diverting themfelves by degrees of their !kc. of the
native fiercenefs and barbarity, efpecially after they Lombar(b-
had embraced the Chriftian religion, they governed
with fuch equity and moderation, that moft other na-
Y 2 tions
L O M [ i*
Lombards tlons envied the happinefs of thofe who lived under
^ them. Under the government of the Lombards (fays
Loire rid Pauius Diaconus) no violence was committed, no one
——y—/ unjuftly difpuffefled of his property, none oppreffed
with taxes 5 theft, robberies, murder, and adultery,
were feldom heard of : every one went, without the
leaft apprehenfion, wherever he pleafed. Their laws
were fo juft and equitable, that they were retained in
Italy, and obferved there feme ages after their king¬
dom was at an end.—According to Paulus Diaconus,
alfo, their drefs was loore, and for the moft part of
linen, fuch as the Anglo-Saxons wore, being inter-
woven w ith various colours ; that their (hoes were
open to the end of their foot, and that they ufed to
button or lace them. From fome ancient paintings,
it appears, that they lhaved the back part of their
heads, but that their hair was long before •, their
locks being parted, and laid on each ftde their fore¬
heads.
LOME ART, or Lombard, Peter, an engraver
of confiderable eminence, who flouriftied about the
year 1660. He was a native of Paris, where he learn¬
ed the art of engraving. It appears that he came to
England before the revolution, becaufe fome of his
plates for Englifti publications are dated prior to that
event. He executed a vaft variety of plates, as well
hiftorieal as emblematical j w'hich, however, were
chiefly for books. But his beft works are portraits;
and of thefe he produced a confiderable number, which
are efteemed. They are moftly after Vandyck.—He
alfo engraved hblorical fubjefts, from Pouffin, Ra¬
phael, Annibal Carracci, Guido, and other mailers.
LOMENTACEiE, in Botany, (from lementum, a
colour ufed by painters), the name of the 33d order
in Linnceus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, con-
fifting of the following genera, many of which furniih
beautiful timftures that are ufed in dyeing, viz. ade-
nanthera, bauhinia, caefalpina, caffia, ceratonia, cercis,
gleditfia, guilandina, hsematoxylon, hymensea, mimofa,
parkinfonia, poinciana, polygama. See Botany.
Loch-LOMOND, a large lake of Dunbarton or
Lennox-fhire in Scotland, of which Mr Pennant gives
the following defeription. “ Loch Lomond, the laft,
the moft beautiful of the Caledonian lakes. The firft
view of it from Tarbet prefents an extenfive ferpentine
winding amidft lofty hills ; on the north, barren,
black, and rocky, which darken with their {hade that
eontrahfed part of the water. On the rveft fide, the
mountains are clothed near the bottoms with woods
of oak quite to the water edge ; their fummits lofty,
naked, and craggy. On the eaft fide, the mountains
are equally high ; but the tops form a more even ridge
parallel to the lake, except where Benlomond, like
Saul amidft his companions, overtops the reft. The
upper parts were black and barren ; the lower had
great marks of fertility, or at leaft of induftry, for the
yellow corn was finely contrafted with the verdure of
the groves intermixed with it.
“ This eaftern boundary is part of the Grampian
hills, which extend from hence through the counties of
Perth, Angus, Mearns, and Aberdeen. The road runs
fomelimes through woods; at others is expofed and
naked ; in fome, fo fteep as to require the fupport of
a wall; the whole the work of the foldiery : bleffed
exchange of inftrumeuts of deftruftion for thofe that
J
2 ] < L O M
give fafety to the traveller, and polifti to |he once Locfc-
inacceffible native ! Two great headlands covered with ^Lomcnd, l
trees feparate the firft feene from one totally different ; 0,-i0110z^- I
the laft is called the Point of Firkin. On pafling this
cape an expanfe of water burfts at once on your eye,
varied with all the fofter beauties of nature. Imme¬
diately beneath is a flat covered w ith wood and corn :
beyond, the headlands ftretch far into the water, and
confift of gentle rifings; many have their furfaces co¬
vered with wood, others adorned w ith trees loofely fcat-
tered either over a fine verdure or the purple bloom
of the heath. Numbers of iflands are Ailperled over
the lake, of the fame elevated form as the little capes,
and wooded in the fame manner; others juft peep
above the furface, and are tufted with trees ; and num¬
bers are fo difpofed as to form magnificent viftos be¬
tween.
“ Oppofite Lufs, at a fmall diftance from fliore, is a
mountainous ifle almoft covered with wood; it is near
half a mile long, and has a moft fine effeft. 1 could
not count the number of iflands, but was told there
are 28 ; the largeft two miles long, and flocked with
deer.
“ The length of this charming lake is 24 miles;
its greateft breadth 8 ; its greateft depth, which is be¬
tween the point of Firkin and Benlomond, is 12c fa¬
thoms. Befides the fifn common to the lochs are gui-
niads, called here p' am.
“ The furface of Loch Lomond has for feveral years
paft been obferved gradually to increafe, and invade
the adjacent fhore : and there is reafon to fuppofe that
churches, houfes, and other buildings, have been loft
in the water. Near Lufs is a large heap of ftones at
a diftance from the ftiore, known by the name of the
old church ; and about a mile to the fouth of that, in
the middle of a large bay, between Camftraddan and
the ifle Inch-tavanack, is another heap, laid to have
been the ruins of a houfe. To confirm this, it is
evident by a paflage in Camden’s Atlas Britanmca,
that an ifland, exilling in his time, is now loft ; for
he fpeaks of the ifle of Camftraddan, placed between
the lands of the fame name and Inch-tavanack, in
which, adds he, was an houfe and orchard. Beftdes
this proof, large trees with their branches flill ad¬
hering are frequently found in the mud near the fhore,
overwhelmed in former times by the increafe of water.
This is fuppofed to be oceafioned by the vaft quanti-.
ties of ftone and gravel that are continually brought
down by the mountain rivers, and by the falls of the
banks of the Leven ; the firft filling the bed of the
lake, the laft impeding its difeharge through the bed
of the river.”
LOMONOZOF, a celebrated Ruffian poet, the
great refiner of his native tongue, was the fon of a
dealer in fifti at Kolmogori: he was born in 1711, and
was fortunately taught to read ; a rare circumftance
at that time for a perfon of his ftation in Ruflia. His
natural genius for poetry was firft kindled by the pe-
rufal of the Song of Solomon, done into verfe by Po-
lotfki, whole rude compofitions, perhaps fcarcely fu-
perior to our verfion of the pfalms by Sternhold and
Hopkins, infpired him with fuch an irrefillible paffion
for the mufes, that he fled from his father, who was
defirous of compelling him to marry, and took refuge
in the Kaikonoipafki monaftery at Mofcow ; there he
had
L O M [ 173 3 LON
of. had an opportunity of indulging his taiio for letters,
and of ftudying the Greek and Latin languages. In
this ferninary he made fo confiderable progrels in po¬
lite literature, as to be noticed and employed by the
Imperial Academy of Sciences. In 1736 he was fent
at the expence of that fociety, to the univerfity of
Marpurg in Hefle Caffel, where he became a fcholar
of the celebrated Chriftian Wolf, under whom he ftudi-
ed univerfal grammar, rhetoric, and philofophy. He
continued at Marpurg four years, during which time
he applied himfelf with indefatigable diligence to che-
miftry, which he afterwards purfued with {till greater
fuccefs, under the famous Henckel at Freyberg in
Saxony. In 1741 he returned into Ruffra ; wa^ cho-
i'en in 1742 adjunct to the Imperial Academy j and in
the enfuing year member of that fociety and profeffor
of chemiitry. In 1760 he was appointed infpe&or of
the feminary then annexed to the academy •, in 1764
he was gratified by the late emprefs with the title of
counfeilor of Hate, and died April 4th that year, in
the 54th year of his age. Lomonozof excelled in va¬
rious kinds of compofition : but his chief merit, by
which he bears the iirlt rank among the Ruffian writ¬
ers, is derived from his poetical compofitions, the
fineit of which are his odes. The firit was written in
1739, while he ftudied in Germany, upon the taking
of Kotfchin, a fortrefs in Grim Tartary, by Marlhal
Munich. The odes of Lomonozof are greatly ad¬
mired for originality ot invention, fublimity of fenti-
ment, and energy of language j and compenfate for the
turgid ttyle which, in fome inftances, has been im¬
puted to them, by that fpirit and fire which are the
principal charafterifties in this fpecies of compofition.
Pindar was his great model ; and if we may give cre¬
dit to a perfon well verfed in the Ruffian tongue, he
has fucceeded in this daring attempt to imitate the
Theban bard, without incurring the cenfure of Ho¬
race. In this, as well as feveral other fpecies of com-
polition, he enriched his native language with various
kinds of metre, and feems to have merited the appel¬
lation bellowed upon him of the Father of RitJJian Poe¬
try, A brief recapitulation of the principal works of
Lomonozof, wfoich were printed in three volumes oc¬
tavo, will ferve to (how the verfatility of his genius,
and his extenfive knowledge in various branches of li¬
terature. The firft volume, befides a Preface on the
advantages derived to the Ruffian tongue from the ec-
clefialtical writings, contains ten facred and nineteen
panegyric odes, and feveral occafional pieces of poetry.
The fecond comprifes An Effay in Profe on the Rules
for R-.{fian Poetry ; Tranllation of a German Ode 5
Idylls j Tamira and Selim, a tragedy ; Demophoon, a
tragedy ; Poetical Epidle on the Utility of Glafs j twm
cantos of an epic poem, entitled, Peter the Great j A
Congratulatory Copy of Verfes ; An Ode ; Tranflation
of Saptift Rouffeau’s Ode Sur le Bonheur ; Heads of a
Courfe of Lectures on Natural Philofophy •, certain
paffages tranilated in verfe and profe, according to the
original, from Cicero, Erafmus, Lucian, /Elian. Am-
mianus Marcellinus, Quintus Curtius, Homer, Virgil,
Martial, Ovid, Horace, and Seneca, which Ruffian
tranflations were brought as examples in his Lectures
upon Rhetoric j laftly, Defcription of the Comet which
appeared in 1744. The third volume confifts chiefly
«f Speeches and Treat ifes read before the Academy j
Panegyric on the Emprefs Elizabeth ; on Peter the Lomonozofr
Great 5 Treatife on the Advantages of Chemiftry j on . '0I^ on‘ ,
the Phenomena of the Air occafioned by the Electri¬
cal Fire, with a Latin tranflation of the fame •, on the
Origin of Light as a new Theory of Colours 5 Me¬
thods to determine with precifion the courfe of a Vtffel;
on the origin of Metals by the means of Earthquakes j,
Latin Differtation on Solidity and Fluidity 3 on the
Tranfit of Yenus in 2761, with a German tranflation.
Befides thefe various fubjeds, Lomonozof made no in-
confiderable figure in hiftory, having publiflied two
fmall works relative to that of his own country. The
firft, ftyled Annals of the Ruffian Sovereigns, is a ffiort
chronology of the Ruffian monarchs 3 and the fecond
is, the Ancient Hiftory of Ruffia, from the Origin of
that Nation to the Death of the Great Duke Yaro-
flaf I. in 10543 a performance of great merit, as it il-
luftrates the moft difficult and obfeure period in the
annals of this country.
LONDON, a large city of Middlefex in England,
the metropolis of Great Britain, and one of the moft:
wealthy and populous cities in the world, is fituated
on the river Thames, in 510 31' north latitude, 400
miles fouth of Edinburgh, and 270 fouth-eaft of Dub¬
lin 3 180 miles well of Amfterdam, 210 north-weft of
Paris, 500 fouth weft of Copenhagen, 600 north-weft
of Vienna, 790 fouth-weft of Stockholm, 800 north-eaft
of Madrid, 820 north weft of Rome, 850 north-eaft of
Lifbon, 1360 north-weft of Conftantinople, and 1414
fouth-weft of Mofoow. t
This city was by the Romans firft called Londiniumlts differenfs
or Lundinum, as w-e find it in Tacitus, Ptolemy, An-names,
toninus, and Ammianus. That name was afterwards
changed into Augufa ; in honour, as fome fay, of He¬
lena Augufta, the mother of Conftantine the Great 3
while others think it more probable that it had this
name from the fecond legion, whofe peculiar title was
Augujla ; and fome imagine that the honourable ap¬
pellation of Augujla was conferred upon this city by
the Romans, as upon other principal cities of their em¬
pire, on account of its being grown up to be the ca¬
pital of their Britiffi province. How’ long the name
of Augufa prevailed, is not now certainly known 3 but
after the eftabliffiment of the Saxons we find no more
mention of Augufta. It was then called Caer Lun-
dain, Lumhun Byrig, Linden Ceafer, Lunden-wyer
Lundenne, Lunden berh or Lundenburg; fince the con-
queft the records call it Lordinia,. Lundovia, Londine,
Londres; and, for feveral ages paft, it has been call¬
ed London, a manifeft corruption from Tacitus’s Lon-
dinium. The moft probable derivation of thefe names
appears to be, either from the Britifli words Ihong, “ a
{hip,” and din, “ a town,” i. e. a town or harbour for
ffiips 3 or from Llin, “ a lake,” i. e. IJin din, “ the
town upon the lake,” the Surry fide being fuppofed,
upon very probable grounds, to have been anciently a
great expanfe of water. „
Londiniunt, however, was not the primitive name of When
this famous place, which exifted before the invaiion of founded,
the Romans 3 being, at the time of Ctefar’s arrival in
the ifland, the capital of the Trinobantes or Trinou-
antes. J'he name of this nation, as appears from Bax-
ter’s Britiflr Gloffary *, was derived from the three is p, 23Cj
following Britifli words, tri, non, hunt, which fignify
the “ inhabitants of the new city.” This name, it is
fuppofed, •
Loudon.
Henry's
Hill. vol. i.
p. 171.
3
When ta¬
ken poflef-
Cion of by
the Ro¬
mans.
LON [1
Fuppofed, might have been given them by their neigh¬
bour?, on account of their having newly come from
the continent into Britain, and having there founded
a city called tn-nov), or the “ new' city the mod an¬
cient name of the renowned metropolis of Britain. I he
Trinobantes had come fo lately from Belgium, that
they feem fcarcely to have been firmly eftabliflied in
Britain at the time of the firlt Roman invafion : For
their new city, which foon after became fo famous, was
then fo inconfiderable, that it is not mentioned by Cae-
far, though he muft have been within fight of the place
where it was fituated. His filence about this place, in¬
deed, is brought as a proof that he did not crofs the
Thames ; while Norden by the fir minima civitas of the
Trinobantes underftands the city in queftion, the Tri¬
nobantes themfelves having been among the firfl; of the
Britilh Hates who fubmitted to that conqueror.
By Ptolemy, and fome other ancient writers of good
authority, indeed, Londinium is placed in Cantium,
or Cent, on the fouth fide of the Thames •, and it is
the opinion of fome moderns, that the Romans pro¬
bably had a ftation there, to fecure their conquefts on
that fide of the river, before they reduced the Trino¬
bantes. The place fixed upon for this ftation is St
George’s Fields, a large plat of ground fituated be¬
tween Lambeth and Southwark, where many Roman
coins, bricks, and checquered pavements, have been
found. Three Roman ways from Kent, Surry, and
Middlefex, interfered each other in this place ; this
therefore is fuppofed to be the original Londinium,
which it is thought became negleded after the Ro¬
mans reduced the Trinobantes, and fettled on the other
fide of the Thames} and the name was transferred to
the new city.
The fituation of this city, as Mr Pennant obferves,
was juft fuch as the people would feleft according to
the rule eftablilhed among the Britons. An immenfe
foreft originally extended to the river fide, and even as
late as the reign of Henry II. covered the northern
neighbourhood of the city, and was filled with various
Ipecies of beafts of chafe. It was defended naturally
by foifes *, one formed by the creek which run along
Fleet-ditch, the other afterwards known by that of
Wall brook 5 the fouth fide was guarded by the Thames •,
the north they might think fufficiently protected by the
adjacent foreft.
The Romans poffeffed themfelves of London, on
■ their fecond invafion in the reign of Claudius, about
105 years after their firft under Csefar. They had be¬
gun with Camelodunum, the prefent Maldon in Effex 5
and having taken it, planted there a colony confifting
of veterans of the 14th legion. London and Verulam
were next taken pofleflion of about one and the fame
time. Camelodunum was made a coloma or place go¬
verned entirely by Roman laws and cuftoms ■, Verulam
(on the fite of which St Alban’s now' Hands), a muni-
cipium, in which the natives were honoured with the
privileges of Roman citizens, and enjoyed their own
laws and conftitutions 5 and Londinium only a prafec-
tura, the inhabitants, a mixture of Romans and Britons,
being fuffered to enjoy no more than the name of citi¬
zens of Rome, being governed by prtefefts fent annu¬
ally from thence, without having either their own laws
or magiftrates. “ It was even then of fuch coneourfe
(fays Mr Pennant), and fuch vaft trade, that the wife
London.
74 ] LON
conquerors did not think fit to truft the inhabitants
with the fame privileges as other places of which they v -
had lefs reafon to be jealous.” But others obferve, that
this is a miftake •, and that the Romans, in order to
fecure their conqueft, and to gain the affections of thofe
Britons who had already fubmitted to their authority,
made London equally a municipium or free city with
Verulamium, as may be feen by referring to Aulus
Gellius, lib. xvi. c. 13. and to Spanhem. orbis Roman,
tom ii. p. 37, 38. _ . 4
It is difficult to fay what were the particular articles Ancient
of commerce exported from and imported into the port commerce
of London at this period. The imports and exports ofot London,
the ifland in general w;e know : Strabo fays, “ Britain
produceth corn, cattle, gold, filver, iron \ befides which,
Ikins, flaves, and dogs, naturally excellent hunters, are
exported from that illand.” It is probable that the
two firft and three laft articles were exported from
London ; and perhaps, too, the gagates or jet-ftone
mentioned by Solinus as one of the productions of Bri¬
tain,- together with horfes, were exported from thence.
The imports were at firft fait, earthen ware, and works
in brafs, polifhed bits of bones emulating ivory, horfe
collars, toys of amber, glaffes, and other articles of the
fame material.
In the reign of Nero, as Tacitus informs us, London
was become a city highly famous for the great conflux
of merchants, her extenfive commerce, and plenty of
all things. No fewer than feven of the fourteen itinera
of Antoninus begin or end at London *, which tends to
corroborate the many proofs which might be adduced,
that this city was the capital of Britain in the Roman
times. _ . 5
At firft London had no walls or other fortifications When firft
to defend it, and was therefore expofed to the attacks fur rounded
of every enemy : and thus it fuffered feverely about thewith W£l lS
vear 64, being burnt by the Britons under Boadicea,
and all the inhabitants maffacred. But it was foon re-
ftored by the Romans •, and increafed fo much, that in
the reign of the emperor Severus it is called by Hero-
dian a great and wealthy city. It continued, however,
in a defencelefs ftate for more than a century after this
laft period ; when at laft a wall of hewn Hone and Bri-
tifli bricks was erefted around it.
London at this time extended in length from Lud-
gate-hill to a fpot a little beyond the Tower. The
breadth was not half equal to the length, and at eacli
end grew confiderably narrower. Maitland aferibes
the building of the walls to Theodofius governor of
Britain in 369. Dr Woodward, with more probabi¬
lity, fuppofes them to have been founded under the
aufpices of Conftantine the Great ; and this feems to
be confirmed by the numbers of coins of that empe¬
ror’s mother Helena, which have been difeqvered un¬
der them, placed there by him in compliment to her.
The fame emperor made it a biftiop’s fee •, for it ap¬
peal's that the bithops of London and York, and ano¬
ther Englifli bilhop, were at the council of Arles in the
year 314 : he alfo fettled a mint in it, as is plain from 5
fome of his coins. The ancient courfe of the w all Their anJ
was as follows : It began with a fort near the prefentc,cnt
fite of the Tower, was continued along the Minories,coul e>
and the back of Houndfditch, acrols Bifliopfgate-
ftreet, in a ftraight line by London-wall to Cripple-
gate j then returned feuthward by Crowder’s Well
alley
LON [ 175 3 LON
; London, alley (where feveral remnants of lofty towers were
lately to be feen), to Alderfgate, thence along the
back of Bull-and-Mouth-ftreet to Newgate, and again
along the back of the houfes in the Old Bailey to
Ludgate j foon after which, it probably finifhed with
another fort, where the houfe, late the king’s print¬
ing houfe, in Black Friars, now ftands : from hence
another wall ran near the river fide, along Thames-
ftreet, quite to the fort on the eaftern extremity. The
walls were three miles a hundred and lixty-five feet in
circumference, guarded at proper diftances on the land
fide with fifteen lofty towers ; fotne of them were re¬
maining within thefe few years, and poflibly may ftill.
Maitland mentions one twenty-fix feet high, near Gra¬
vel-lane, on the weft fide of Houndfditch ; another,
about eighty paces fouth-eaft towards Aldgat$ ; and
the bafes of another, fupporting a modern houfe, at
the lower end of the ftreet called the Vinegar-yard,
fouth of Aldgate. The walls, when perfeft, are fup-
pofed to have been twenty-two feet high, the towers
forty. Thefe, with the remnants of the wall, proved
the Roman ftrufture, by the titles and difpofition of
the mafonry. London-wall, near Moorfields, is now
the moft entire part left of that ancient precindl. The
gates which received the great military roads, were
four. The Praetorian way, the Saxon Watling-ftreet,
palTed under one, on the fite of the late Newgate j
veftiges having been difcovered of the road in digging
above Holburn-bridge : it turned down to Dowgate,
or more properly Dwr-gate or Water-gate, where
there is a traje&us or ferry, to join it to the Watling-
ftreet, which was continued to Dover. The Hermin-
ftreet paffed under Cripplegate ; and a vicinal way
went under Aldgate by Bethnal-green, towards Old-
ford, a pafs over the river Lee to Duroleiton, the mo-
7 dern Leiton in Effex.
London After the Romans deferted Britain, a new and fierce
fubmits to race fUCCeeded. The Saxons, under their leaders
the Saxons. j£engjfj. an(j Horfa, landed in 448, having been in¬
vited over by the provincials as auxiliaries againft the
Scots and Pifts ; but quarrelling with their friends,
they found means to eftablilh themfelves in the illand,
and in procefs of time entirely fubdued them, as re¬
lated under the article England, N3 31—44. Lon¬
don fell into the hands of thefe invaders about the
year 457 ; and became the chief city of the Saxon
kingdom in EiTex. It fuffered much in the wars car¬
ried on between the Britons and Saxons : but it foon
recovered ; fo that Bede calls it a princely mart tovjn,
under the government of a chief magiftrate, whole
title of portgrave or portreve, (for we find him called
by both names), conveys a grand idea of the mercan¬
tile ftate of London in thofe early ages, that required
a governor, or guardian of the port. During the ci¬
vil wars of the Saxons with each other, the London¬
ers had always the addrefs to keep themfelves neuter j
and about the year 819, when all the feven Saxon
kingdoms fell under the power of Egbert, London
became the metropolis of England, which it has ever
8 fihce continued.
Plundered During the invafions of the Danes, London fuffered
by the greatly. In 849, thefe invaders entered the Thames
Lanes. with 250 (hips, plundered and burnt the city, and rnaf-
facred the inhabitants j and two years after they re¬
turned with a fleet of 350 fail, fully determined to de-
rf ‘ • 3:
ftroy every thing that had efcaped their barbarity in London.
the former expedition. At this time, however, they *  v 1
were difappointed j moft of their troops being cut in
pieces by King Ethelwolf and his fon Athelbald j yet
fuch w’as the deftruftion made by thofe barbarians at
London, that it fuffered more from thefe two incur-
fions than ever it had done before. 9
In the reign of King Alfred the Great, London be- Recovers
gan to recover from its former ruinous ftate. He re-”11^^"
built its walls, drove out the Danilh inhabitants who
had fettled there, reftored the city to its former liberties
and beauty, and committed the care of it to his fon-
in-law, Ethelred duke of Mercia, in hopes that this
might always be a place of fecure retreat within its
ftrong walls, whatever might happen from a foreign or
domeftic enemy. In 893, however, he had the mor- Jq
tification to fee his capital totally reduced to allies by Rftiuceci to
an accidental fire, which could not be extinguiftied, as allies,
the houfes at that time were all built of wood. The
w’alls, hpwever, being conftrufled of incombuftible ma¬
terials, continued to afford the fame protedlion as be¬
fore ; the houfes w'ere quickly rebuilt, and the city di¬
vided into wards and precinfts, for its better order and
government. This king alfo inftituted the office of ir
fheriff, the nature of which office made it neceffary to its govern-
have it alfo in London ; fo that here we have the glim-ment feu
merings of the order of magiftrates afterwards fettled
in the city of London : in the perfon of the portreve,
or portgrave, or governor of the city, as fupreme ma¬
giftrate } in the fheriff, and in the officer or fubordi-
nate magiftrate by what name foever then diftinguifh-
ed, which, being placed at the head of each ward or
precimft, were analogous to the more modern title of
aldermen and common-council men. I3
Alfred having fettled the affairs of England in the Erick and
moft prudent manner, diredted his attention to the or-Hone
namenting, as much as poffible, the city of London
For this purpofe, he fpirited up the Englifti to an emu¬
lation in building their houfes of ftronger and more
durable materials than formerly. At that time their
houfes were moftly of wood j and a houfe built of
any other materials was looked upon as a kind of won¬
der. But Alfred having begun to raife his palaces'of
ftone and brick, the opulent Londoners, and the no¬
bility refident in and about London, followed the ex¬
ample, though the cuftom did not come into general
ufe till fome ages after. 13
In IC15, a foreign enemy again appeared before Befieged by
London. Canute king of Denmark having invadedCanute-
and plundered the counties of Dorfet, Somerfet, and
Wilts, failed up the Thames with 200 (hips, and laid
fiege to the city. The citizens continued faithful, not-
withftanding the defedtion of the greateft part of the
kingdom j and made fuch a brave refiftance, that Ca¬
nute thought fit to withdraw his army, leaving only,
his fleet to blockade the city by water, that when he
found a fair opportunity he might renew the fiege with
better fuccefs. At laft, however, being defeated in
feveral battles by Edmund Ironfide, he was obliged
to call off his (hips to cover his own army in cafe of
neceflity. In the compromife, however, which wras
afterwards made between Edmund and Canute, the city,
of London was given to the latter, and owned him for
its lawful fovereign. We have a ftrong proof of the
opulence of London even at this time, from the tax laid
upon
LON [ 176 3 ^ ° ^.
London- upon it by Canute in order to pay his army ; this be- for their ufe, or elfe they would throw it into toe tirej Lotwon, i
‘ v  ing no lefs than 10,500b while the reft of the nation and, at their going off, they frequently wafhed their v—'
was at the fame time taxed only at 72,000b horfes heels with the drink, and ftaved the calks con-
Sendste- In 1046, we have the firft inftance of the London- taining the remainder. King Henry refolved to put
prefenta- ers fending reprefentatives to parliament. This hap- a flop to thefe exceffes and favage cuftoms; and there-
tives to par-pened on fettling the fucceflion to the throne after Ca- fore publilhed a proclamation at London commanding
lament. nute,s dealh< The in general declared for Ed- , that thenceforward all perfons who Ihould be conviaed
ward, fon of King Ethelred 5 or, if that could not be of fuch barbarities ftiould have their eyes pulled out,
carried, for Hardicanute, fon of Canute by Queen or their hands or feet cut off as the mimfters of juftice
Emma, and then abfent on a tour to Denmark. The Ihould think fit. This effeaually checked the inlo-
city of London efpoufed the claim and intereft of Ha- lence of the Normans, and the city continued to flou-
rold Harefoot, fon alfo of Canute, by Queen Elgiva rifii throughout the reigns of Henry I. and Stephen,
of Northampton. Edward’s party foon declined ; and The attachment of the citizens to Stephen, however,
the Londoners agreed, for the peace of the realm, that was a crime which never could be forgiven by Henry IT.
the two brothers ihould divide the kingdom between and, of confequence, he made them (enfible of his dii-
thcm ; but as Hardicanute did not return in proper pleafure, by making frequent demands of money from
time to England, a wittena-gemote was held at Ox- them. About this time, indeed, the Londoners wereofth/
ford, where Earl Leofric, and moil of the thanes on arrived at fuch a pitch of licentloufnefs, that their pro-Lond0ners, j
the north of the Thames; with the pilots of London, Ipenty feerned a cuiie rather than a bitfling, ihe
chofe Harold for their king. Here, by pilots we are Tons of the moft eminent and wealthy citizens entered
to underitand the directors, magiftrates, or leading into a confederacy to commit burglaries, and to rob
men of the city : and this manifeftly fhow’s, that Lon- and murder all that came in tneii way in the night-
don was then of fuch confequence, that no important time. I he king took an opportunity from them irre-
national affair was tranfafled without the confent of gularities to enrich himfelf. He demanded feveral
the inhabitants j for the Saxon annals affure us, that loans and free gifts -, till at laft the Lonuoners,^ to
none were admitted into this aflembly of election but prevent further inquiries into their conduct, paid into
the nobility and the pilots of London. the exchequer 5000b in three years, ihefe diforders,
_ *5 Qn invafion of the Normans under William I. however, were at laft flopped by the execution of John
greatly by London fubmitted as well as the reft of the kingdom j Senexj who, thougn a very rich and reputable citizen,
tires, hurri- and received two charters from that prince, confirm- had engaged in thele enterprifes. He offered 5001b.
canes, Sec. {ng au privileges they had under the Saxon kings, weight of filver, a prodigious fum in thofe days, for
and adding feveral new ones. But while the citizens his pardon, but was refufed. The tving, however, ftill
were promifing themfelves all -manner of fecurity and continued to drain the citizens of their money by free
tranquillity under the new government, it was almoff gifts5 and at laft fined every feparate guild, fraternity,
entirely reduced to afhes by an accidental fire in I077* or company, that had prefumed to aT as oodies corpo-
It had fcarce recovered from this calamity, when it rate without the royal letters-patent.
was vifited by another of the fame kind in 1086, which On the death of Henry II. the title of the firft ma-
began at Ludgate, and deftroyed the beft and moft gifirate of London w'as changed from pottgreve to that
opulent part of the city; confuming, among other build- of bailiff; and in 1189 claimed and afted in the office ^
ings, the cathedral of St Paul’s; which, however, was of the chief butler at the coronation of Richard I. In-j^ office
foon rebuilt more magnificently than before. Under 1191 this monarch permitted the bailiff, named of mayor j
the reign ofWTlliam Rufus, London fuffered confider- Fit%-Alwine, to aflume the title of mayor, F01, in when firft
ably by fires, hurricanes, and inundations, and feems 119^ we hnd certain orders of tne mayor and alder-
to have been depreffed by the tyranny of that prince; men to prevent fires ; whereby it was ordained, that
but Henry I. granted large immunities to the city, all houfes thereafter to be erefted in London and
which again revived its trade, and was favourable to the liberties thereof, ftiould be built of ftone, with,
the progrefs of the arts. The king, however, ftill re- party-w’alls of the fame ; and covered either with ilates
tained the privilege of appointing the portreve, or or tiles, to prevent thofe dreadful calamities by fire,
chief magiftrate ; but the immunities grai f -d to the which wrere frequently and chiefly occafioned by houfes
Londoners fecured their affe£tions, and tended much built of w'ood, and thatched with ftraw or reeds,
to fecure him on the throne. At the fame time, there And for this purpofe, it was alfo provided by the dif-
was fuch a plenty of all kinds of provifions, that as creeter men of the city, “ that 12 aldermen of the
much corn was fold for is. as w:ould fuffice 100 people city ftiould be chofen in full huftings, and there fworn
for a day ; 4d. would purchafe as much hay and corn to aflift the mayor in appeafing contentions that might
as would maintain 20 hoxfes for a day ; and a flieep arife among neighbours in the city upon enclofure be-
,5 Could be bought for a groat. twixt land and land, and to regulate the dimenfions of
Monftrous Henry thought proper alfo to check the licentious party-walls, which were to be of flone, 16 feet high
licentiouf- behaviour of the Normans, which} by the favour and three feet thick ; and to give direftions about
nefs of the fbowed tbem under the two Williams, had carried girders, windows, gutters, and wells.” Such confi-
JNormaiis. Jnto the niop. barbarous praftices. Thofe who dence alfo did Richard put in the wifdom and faith-
followed William Rufus in his excurfions, harafled fulnefs of the city of London, that when it was re-
and plundered the country at difcretion. Many of folved to fix a fiandard for weights and meafures for
them were fo extravagant in their barbarity, that what the whole realm, his majefty committed the execution
they could not eat or drink in their quarters, they ei- thereof to the ftierifts of London and Middlefex, whom
£her obliged the people to carry to market and fell he commanded to provide meafures, gallons, iron rods.
London.
19
Favours
j granted to
: [he city by
SUng John.
London op-
preffed by
| Henry III.
LO N- |[ 1
and weights, for ftandards, to be fent to the feveral
counties of England. This happened in 1198, at
which time corn was advanced to the enormous price
of 18s. 4,d. per quarter.
The city of London was much favoured by King
John, who granted them three charters foon after his
acceffion. The firft was a recital and confirmation of
thofe granted by Henry I. and II. with the farther
privilege of being free from toll and every other duty
or cuftom in his majefty’s foreign dominions j for
which they paid the fum of 3000 merks. The fecond
was a confirmation of one granted by King Richard.
By this the citizens of London had the jurifdiftion
and confervancy of the river Thames; with a claufe to
extend that jurifdi&ion, and the powers therewith
granted, to the river Medway j and with another
claufe to enable the faid city, as confervators of the
rivers Thames and Medway, to inflift a penalty of 10I.
upon any perfon that Ihould prefume t© ere£t a wear
in either of thefe rivers. The third charter contains
a fee-farm-rent of the Iheriffwicks of London and
Middlefex at the ancient rent, of which they had been
deprived by Queen Maud •, granting them alfo the ad¬
ditional power of choofing their own fheriffs. This
charter was given by way of conveyance from the
crown to the citizens for a valuable confideration, by
which the fheriffwick became their freehold j and this
is the firft covenant or conveyance we find on record
with the legal terms of to have and to hold, which are
at this time accounted an effential part in all convey¬
ances of property.
During the reign of Henry III. the city of London
was opprefled in many different ways. In 1218, he
exa&ed a fine of 40 marks for felling a fort of cloth
not two yards within the lifts ; and a 15th of the citi¬
zens perfonal eftates for the enjoyment of their ancient
rights and privileges. In X2?i, he commanded by
proclamation all the foreign merchants to depart the
city, which drew 30 marks from the Hanfeatic com¬
pany of the Steelyard, to have feifin of their guild or
hall in Thames-ftreet. But it was the wreftling match
at St Giles’s in the fields that brought on their great-
eft burden. In the year 1221, on St James’s day,
the citizens of London having carried off the victory
from the people of Weftminfter and other neighbour¬
ing villages, the fteward of the abbot of Weftminfter,
meditating revenge againft the Londoners, propofed
another wreftling match with them, and gave a ram for
the prize. The citizens reforted to the place at the
time appointed ; but were unexpectedly affaulted by a
great number of armed men, who killed and wounded
many, and difperfed the reft. This raifed a great
commotion in the city. The populace breathed re¬
venge ; and, by the inftigation of Conftantine Fitz-
Arnulph, a great favourer of the French party during
the troubles in King John’s reign, they proceeded to
Weftminfter, and pulled down the houfes both of the
fteward and abbot. Hearing afterwards that the ab¬
bot was come into the city with his complaint to
Pnilip d’Aubney the king’s counfel, they purfued him,
beat his fervants cruelly, took away 12 of his horfes,
and would have murdered himfelf, had he not efcaped
by a back door. Upon this tumult, Hubert de Bury,
then chief jufticiary, fummoned the mayor and many of
the principal citizens to attend him in the tower of
Vol. XII. Part I.
77 li LON
London j and inquiring for the authors of the riot, London,
Conftantine, the ringleader boldly anfwered, that “ he ——y"~“
was one j that they had done no more than they
ought ; and that they were refolved to avow what
they had done, let the confequence be what it would.”
In this he was feconded by his nephew and one Geof¬
frey : but the jufticiary, having difmiffed all the reft,
detained thefe three, and ordered them to be hang¬
ed next morning, though Conftantine offered 15,000
marks for his pardon. Hubert then coming into the
city with a ftrong guard, caufed the hands and feet of
moft of the principal rioters he could feize to be cut
off: all which was executed without any legal pro¬
ceedings or form of trial. After thefe arbitrary cruel¬
ties, he degraded the mayor and all the magiftrates 5
placed a cujlos over the city, and obliged 30 perfons
of his own choofing to become fecurities for the good
behaviour of the whole city. Several thoufand marks
were alfo exacted by the king, before he would confent
to a reconciliation.
This arbitrary condudt alarmed the whole nation.
The parliament of 1224 began to be uneafy for them-
felves, and addreffed his majefty that he would be plea-
fed to confirm the charter of liberties which he had
fworn to obferve 5 and the confequence of this applica¬
tion was a confirmation of the magna charta in the full
parliament at Weftminfter in the year 1225. At this
time, alfo, the rights and privileges of the citizens
were confirmed. They were exempted from profecu-
tion for burels, i. e. lifted cloth j and were granted the
right of having a common feal. The neceffitous cir-
cumftances of this monarch, however, made him often
exa£t money arbitrarily as long as he lived.
Under the fucceeding reigns, as the liberty of the
people in general was augmented, fo the liberty, opu¬
lence, and power of the citizens of London increafed,
until they became a kind of balance to the power of the
crown itfelf, which in feme meafure they ftill continue
to be. Riots indeed, for which they generally fuffered,
were by no means unfrequent 5 the city often fuffered
by fires and plagues. Nothing, however, happened
w’hich materially affe&ed the welfare of the city, till 2x
the reign of Charles II. in 1665.—This year London Dieadful
was ravaged by the moft violent plague ever known in ’^a§ue *n
Britain. The whole fummer had been remarkably ftill i663‘
and warm, fo that the weather w'as fometimes fuffoeating
even to people in perfeft health ; and by this unufual
heat and fultry atmofphere, people were undoubtedly
prepared for receiving the infedion, which appeared
with violence in the months of July, Auguft, and
September. A violent plague had raged in Holland
in the year 1663 j on which account the importation
of merchandife from that country was prohibited by
the.Britfth legiflature in 1644. Nptwithftanding this
prohibition, however, it feems the plague had actually
been imported ; for in the clofe of the year 1664, two
or three perfons died fuddenly in Weftminfter, with
marks of the plague on their bodies. Some of their
neighbours, terrified at the thoughts of their danger,
removed into the city 5 but their removal proved too
late for themfelves, and fatal to thofe among whom
they came to refide. They foon died of the plague ;
and communicated the infection to fo many others)
that it became impoffible to extinguiftr the feeds of it,
by feparating thofe that were infefted from fuch as
Z were
London.
LON [ i
It was confined, however, through a hard
78 1
LON
were not.   , . ~ .
frofty winter, till the middle of February, when it
again appeared in the parilh of St Giles’s, to which it
had been originally brought j and, after another long
reft till April, fliowed its malignant force afrefh,_ as
foon as the warmth of the fpring gave it opportunity.
 At firft, it took off one here and there, without any
certain proof of their having infected each other, and
houfes began to be ftmt up, with a defign to_ prevent
its fpreading. But it was now too late j the infection
gained ground every day, and the ihutting up of
houfes only made the diieafe fpread wider. People,
afraid of being fliut up, and fequeftered from all com¬
munication with fociety, concealed their illnefs, or
found means to efcape from their places of confinement j
while numbers expired in the greateft torments, defti-
tute of every afliftance j and many died both of the
plague and other difeafes, who would in all probabi¬
lity have recovered, had they been allowed their
liberty, with proper exercife and air.—A houfe was
fliut up on account of a maid-fervant, who had only
fpots, and not the gangrenous plague-blotches, upon
her, fo that her diftemper was probably a petechial
fever. She recovered 5 but the people of the houfe
obtained no liberty to ftir, either for air or exercife, for
40 days. The bad air, fear, anger, and vexation at¬
tending this injurious treatment, caft the miftrefs of
the family into a fever. The Vifitors appointed to
fearch the houfe, faid it was the plague, though the
phyficians were of a different opinion : the family,
however, were obliged to begin their quarantine anew
though it bad been almoft expired before ; and this
fecond confinement affedted them fo much, that uioft
of the family fell fick, fome of one diftemper and fome
of another. Every illnefs that appeared in the family
produced a frefh prolongation of their confinement j
till at laft the plague was actually brought in by fome
of thofe who came to inquire into the health of the
family, and almoft every perfon in the houfe died.—-
Many examples of a fimilar kind happened, and this
was one of'the worft confequences of ftiutting up
houfes. All means of putting a flop to the mfeaion
were evidently ineffedtual. Multitudes fled into the
country j many merchants, owners of ftiips, kzc. {hut
themfelves up, on board their veffels, being fupphed
with provifions from Greenwich, Woolwich, and Angle
farm houfes on the Kentifli fide. Here, however,
they were fafe •, for the infeaion never reached below
Deptford, though the people went frequently on ftiore
to the country towns, villages, and farm houfes, to
buy frefli provifions. As the violence of the plague
increafed, the (hips which had families on board re¬
moved farther off; fome went quite out to fea, and
then put into fueh harbours and roads as they could
beft get at. . , „
In the mean time, the diftemper made the molt ra¬
pid advances within the city. In the laft week of
July the number of burials amounted to 2010 j but
the firft week of Auguft it rofe to 3817 j thence to
3880 •, then to 4237 •, the next week, to 6102 5 and at
laft to 7000 and 8000 weekly. In the laft week of
September, however, the fury of the difeafe began
to abate •, though vaft numbers were fick, yet the
number of burials decreafed from 7155105538-, the-
j^Kjt week there was a farther decreafe to 4929, then
3
to 4327, next to 2665, then to 1421, and the next London,
week to 1031. v ~ J
All this while, the poor people had been reduced
to the greateft diftreffes, by reafon of the ftagnation
of trade, and the fickneffes to which they were pe¬
culiarly liable on account of their manner of living.
The rich, however, contributed to their fubfiftence in
a moft liberal manner. Uhe fums colledled on. this
occafion are indeed almoft incredible j being faid to
amount to 100,000!. per week. Ihe king is report¬
ed to have contributed 1000I. weekly ; and in the pa-
rifli of Cripplegate alone, 17,000!. was dittributed
weekly among the poor inhabitants.—By the vigilance
alfo of the magiftrates, provilions continued remark¬
ably cheap throughout the whole time of tnis dreadful
calamity, lo that all riots and tumults on that account
were prevented j and at laft, on the ceffalion of the
difeafe in the winter of 1665, the inhabitants who bad
fled returned to their habitations, and i_.«iidon to ap¬
pearance became as populous as ever, though it was
computed that 100,000 perfons had been carried off
by the plague. _ 22
The city was fcarcely recovered from the defolation .Accountof
occafioned by the plague, when it was aknoft totally
laid in afties by a moft dreadful fire. I his broke, out
in a baker’s {hop in Pudding-lane, on Saturday night,
September 2. 1666. In a few hours Billingfgate ward
was entirely burnt down j and before morning the fire
had croffed Thames-ftreet, and deftroyed the church of
St Magnus. From thence it proceeded to the bridge,
and confumed a great pile of buildings there ; but.
was flopped by the want of any thing more to de-
ftroy. The flames, however, being fcattered by a
ftrong call wind, continued their devaftations in other
quarters. All efforts to ftop it proved unfuccefsful
throughout the Sunday. That day it proceeded up.as
far as Garlick-hithe j and deftroying Canon-flreet, in¬
vaded Cornhill and the Exchange. On. Pvlonday, the
flames having proceeded eaftward againft the wind
through Thames-ftreet, invaded Tower-ftreet, Grace-
church-ftreet, Fenchurch-ftreet, Dowgate, Old Fifh-
ftreet, Watling-ftreet, Threadneedle-ftreet, and feveral
others, from ail which it broke at once into Cheapfide.
In a few hours Cheapfide was all in flames, the fire
having reached it from fo many places at once. The
fire then continuing its courfe from the river on one
fide, and from Cheapfide on the other, furrounded the
cathedral of St Paul’s. This building flood by itfelf
at fome diftance from any houfes j yet fuch was the
violence of the flames, and the heat of the atmoiphere
occafioned by them, that the cathedral took fire at
top. The great beams and maffy ftones broke through
into Faith-church underneath, which was quickly let
on fire -, after which, the flames invaded Pater-nofter-
row, Newgate-ftreet, the Old Bailey, Ludgate-hill,
Fleet-ftreet, Ironmonger-lane, Old Jewry, Laurence-
lane, Milk-ftreet, Wood-ftreet, Gutter-lane, Fofter-
lane, Lothbury, Cateatori-ftreet; and, having deftroy¬
ed Chrift-church, burnt furioufly through St Martin’s
le Grand towards Alderfgate.
The fire had now attained its greateft extent, and
was feveral miles in compafs. The vaft clouds of fmoke
obfcured the fun fo, that he either could not be feen
at all, or appeared through it as red as blood. The
flames reached an immenfe way up into the air, and
theiv
London.
*3 .
Calculation
of the da-
tsatje done.
LON [i
their reflexion from the fmoke, which in the night¬
time feemed alfo like flame, made the appearance ftill
more terrible. The atmofphere was illuminated to a
great extent, and this illumination is faid to have been
vifible as far as Jedburgh in Scotland. Some of the
lio-ht allies alfo are faid to have been carried to the
diflance of 16 miles. Guildhall exhibited a Angular
appearance. X he oak with which it was built was lo
folid, that it would not flame, but burnt like charcoal,
fo that the building appeared for feveral hours like an
enchanted palace of gold or burnilhed brafs.
At lafl, on Wednefday morning, when every one
expedled that the fuburbs as well as the city were to
have been burnt, the fire began of itfelf to abate by
reafon of the wind having ceafed, and fome other
changes no doubt taken place in the atmofphere. It
was checked by the great building in Leadenhall-
ftreet, and in other ftreets by the blowing up feveral
houfes with gun-powder ■, and on Xhurfday the flames
were quite extinguilhed.— Ihe following is a calcula¬
tion of the damage done by this extraordinary confla¬
gration.
Thirteen thoufand tw^o hundred houfes,
at 12 years purehafe, luppoling the
rent of each 25I. llerling, L.3,960,000
Eighty-feven parifli churches, at 8000I. 696,000
Six confecrated chapels, at 2000I. 12,000
The royal exchange - - 50,000
The ciiftomhoufe _ _ - 10,000
Fifty-two halls of companies, at 1500I.
each - - - - 78,000
Three city gates, at 3000I. each 9000
Jail of Newgate ... 15,000
Four Hone bridges - - 6000
Seflions houfe - - - 7000
Guildhall, with the courts and offices
belonging to it - - 40,000
Blackwell-hall - - - 3000
Bridewell - _ . - 5000
Poultry compter - - - 5000
Woodftreet compter - - 3000
St Paul’s church . _ - 2,000,000
Wares, houfehold fluff, money, and
moveable goods loft or fpoiled 2,000,000
Hire of porters, carts, waggons, barges,
boats, &c. for removing goods 200,000
Printed books and paper in Ihops and
warehoufes - - - 150,000
Wine, tobacco, fugar, &c. of which
the town was at that time very
full ... - 1,500,000
L.10,689,000
It was never certainly known whether this fire was
accidental or defigned. A fufpicion fell upon the Pa-
pifts 5 and this gained fuch general credit, that it is
afferted for a truth on the monument which is erefted
in memory of the conflagration. Of the truth of this
affertion, however, though there was not fufficient
proof, it had the efteift of making the Papifts moft
violently fufpedled and abhorred by the Proteftants,
which fome time after proved very prejudicial to the
city itfelf.
London.
24
79 ] LON
From this calamity, great as it was, London foon
recovered itfelf, and became much more magnificent
than before ; the ftreets, which were formerly crooked
and narrow, being now built v'ide and fpacious 3 and
the induftry of its inhabitants repaired the Ioffes they
had fuftained. In 1679, ^ c*ty was again alarmed
by the difeovery of a defign to deftroy it by fire a fe-
Cond time. Elizabeth Oxly, fervant to one Rind in
Fetter-lane, having fet her mafter’s houfe on fire, was A cuign
apprehended on fufpicion, and confeffed, that ffie had*° *^lt
been hired to do it by one Stubbs a Papift, for a
ward of 5I. Stubbs being taken into cuftody, ac¬
knowledged that he had perfuaded her to it} and
that he himfelf had been prevailed upon by one Father
Gifford his ccnfeffor, who had affured him, that by
burning the houfes of heretics he would do a great fer-
vice to the church. He alfo owned that he had feveral
conferences with Gifford and two Irilhmen on the affair.
The maid and Stubbs alfo agreed in declaring, that the
Papifts intended to rife in London, expefting to be
powerfully fupported by a French army. In confe-
quence of this difeovery, the Papifts were baniffied from
the city, and five miles round, and five Jefuits were
hanged for the above-mentioned plot.
The Papifts thought to revenge themfelves by for¬
ging what was called the meal-tub plot, in which the
Prefbyterians were fuppofed to hatch treacherous de- 25
figns againft the life of the king. Sir Edmondbury
Godfrey alfo, who had been very aftive in his pro-^ontoa
ceedings againft the Papifts, w'as murdered by fome quarrel
unknown perfons 5 and this murder, together with with the
their difeovering the falfehood of the meal-tub plot,court*
fo exafperated the Londoners, that they refolved to
ffiow' their deteftation of Popery, by an extraordinary
exhibition on the 17th of November, Queen Eliza¬
beth’s acceffion to the throne, on which day they had
nfually burnt the pope in effigy. The proceffion be¬
gan with a perfon on horfeback perfonating Sir Ed-
mondbury Godfrey, attended by a bellman proclaim¬
ing his execrable murder. He was followed by a per¬
fon carrying a large filver crofs, with priefts in copes,
Carmelites, and Gray-friars, followed by fix Jefuits :
then proceeded divers waiters, and after them fome
bilhops wuth lawn fleeves, and others with copes and
mitres. Six cardinals preceded the pope, enthroned in
a ftately pageant, attended by divers boys with pots of
incenfe, and the devil whifpering in his ear. In this
order they marched from Biftiopfgate to Fleet-ftreet j
and there, amidft a great multitude of fpe&ators, com¬
mitted his holinefs to the flames.
This proceffion gave great offence to the court, at
which the duke of York, afterwards James II. had a
great influence. The breach was farther widened by
the choice of Iheriffs for that year. The candidates
fet up by the court were rejected by a majority of al-
moft two to one j but this did not deter their party
from demanding a poll in their behalf, upon which a
tumult enfued. This was reprefented by the Popilh
party in fuch colours to the kffig, that he iffued out a
commiffion that fame evening for trying the rioters j
which, however, was fo far from intimidating the reft,
that they grew more and more determined, not only to
oppofe the Popifli party, but to exclude the duke of
York from his fucceflion to the crown.
Z 2 ’ Ir
LON
[ iSo ]
LON
London.
a5
A ^uo
Warranto
granted
againft the
city.
In the mean time, the king prorogued the parlia¬
ment, to prevent them from proceeding in their in¬
quiry concerning the Popifh plot, and the exclufion-
bill. Upon this the lord-mayor, aldermen, and com¬
mon-council, prefented a petition to his majefty, in
tvhich they requefted, that he would permit the
parliament to fit in order to complete their falutary
meafures and councils. This petition was highly re¬
lented by the king j who, inftead of granting it, dif-
lolved the parliament, and could never afterwards be
reconciled to the city. From this time it was deter¬
mined to feize their charter $ and frefli provocations
having been given about the ele&ion of Iheriffs, a quo
warranto was at laft produced by the attorney-gene¬
ral, in order to overthrow their charter, and thereby
to deprive the citizens of the power to choofe Iheriffs.
This information fet forth, That “ the mayor and
commonalty and citizens of the city of London, by
the fpace of a month then laft part and more, ufed,
and yet do claim to have and ufe, without any lawful
warrant or legal grant, within the city of London
aforefaid, and the liberties and privileges of the fame
city, the liberties and privileges following, viz. I. To
be of themfelves a body corporate and politic, by the
name of mayor and commonalty and citizens of the city
of London. 2. To have ftieriffs civitat. et. com. London,
et com. Midd/efex, and to name, make, and eleft, and
conftitute them. 3. That the mayor and aldermen of
the faid city ftrould be juftices of the peace, and hold
feffions of the peace. All which liberties, privileges,
and franchifes, the faid mayor and commonalty, and
citizens of London, upon the king did by the fpace
aforefaid ufurp, and yet do ufurp.”
Though nothing could be more unjuft than this
profecution, the miniftry were determined at all events
to crufti the Londoners j rightly judging, that it would
be an eafy matter to make all other corporations
furrender their charters into the king’s hands, and
that they had no other body in the nation to fear.
Accordingly they difplaced fuch judges as would not
approve of their proceedings j and, on the 12th of
June 1683, Juftice Jones pronounced the following
fentence : “ That a city might forfeit its charter 5
that the malverfations of the common-council were
afts of the whole city ; and that the points fet forth in
the pleadings were juft grounds for the forfeiting of a
charter.”
Notwithftanding this fentence, however, the attor-
ney-general, contrary to the ufual cuftom in fuch cafes,
was diredled to move that the judgment might not be
recorded : being afraid of the confequences. Yet it
was judged that the king might feize the liberties of
the city. A common-council was immediately fum-
moned to deliberate on this exigency. The country
party moved to have the judgment entered •, but they
were overruled by the court party, who infifted upon
an abfolute fubmiflion to the king before judgment
was entered *, and though this was in effedt a voluntary
furrender of the city-liberties, and deprived them¬
felves of the means of getting the judgment reverfed,
the adt of fubmiflion was carried by a great majority :
and. in a petition from the lord mayor, aldermen, and
common-council, they “ acknowledged their own mif-
government, and his majefty’s lenity ; begged his par-
4
don, and promifed conftant loyalty and obedience j and t&ndon,
humbly begged his majefty’s commands and diredlions.”
To this his majefty ani’wered, that he would not rejedt
their fuit, if they would agree upon the following par- condmons
titulars. 1. That no lord mayor, IherifF, recorder, of reconci-
common ferjeant, town clerk, or coroner, of the city of Nation be-
London, or fteward of the borough of Southwark, ^wten tl,e
fhall be capable of, or admitted to, the exercife of their aiu*
refpediive offices before his majefty lhall have appro¬
ved of them under his fign manual. 2. That if his
majefty {hall difapprove the choice of any perfen to be
lord mayor, and fignify the fame under his fign-manual
to the lord mayor, or in default of a lord mayor, to the
recorder or fenior alderman, the citizens fhall, within
one week, proceed to a new choice and if his majefty
(hall in like manner difapprove the fecond choice, his
majefty may, if he pleafes, nominate a perfon to be lord
mayor for the year enfuing. 3. If his majefty fhall, in
like manner, difapprove the perfons chofen to be Iheriffs,
or either of them, his majeity may appoint ftieriffs for
the year enfuing. 4. That the lord mayor and court
of aldermen may, with the leave of his majefty, difplace
any alderman, recorder, &c. 5. Upon the eledlion of
an alderman, if the court of aldermen Ihall judge and
declare the perfon prefented to be unfit, the ward {hall
choofe again ; and upon a difapproval of a fecond
choice, the court may appoint another in his room.
6. That the juftices of the peace fliould be by the king’s
commiflion ; and the fettling of thofe matters to be left
to his majefty’s attorney-general and counfel learned
in the law.”
To thefe the lord-keeper added, in the king’s name,
“ That thefe regulations being made, his majefty would
not only pardon this profecution, but would confirm
their charter in fuch a manner as ftiould be confiftent
with them j concluding thus : “ My lord mayor, the
term draws towards an end, and Midfummer-day is at
hand, when fome of the officers ufed to be chofen
whereof his majefty will referve the approbation. There¬
fore, it is his majefty’s pleafure, that you return to the
city, and confult the common-council, that he may
fpeedily know your refolutions thereupon, and accord-
ingly give his directions. That you may fee the king
is in earneft, and the matter is not capable of delay, I
am commanded to let you know he hath given orders
to his attorney-general to enter upon judgment on Sa¬
turday next 5 unltfs you prevent it by your compliance
in all thefe particulars.”
A common-council was fummoned, when the friends
of liberty treated thofe flavifti conditions as they de-
ferved j and even declared, that they were ready to fa-
crifice all that was near or dear to them, rather than
fubmit to fuch arbitrary impofitions : but when it was
put to the vote, there appeared a majority of 18 for
fubmiffion.
Thus the king got the government of the city into
his own hands, though he and his brothers entirely loft
the affeftions of the Londoners. But, not content with king
their fubmiflion, his majefty departed from his promife ; breaks hi:
commanded the judgment upon the quo warranto to promife.
be entered ; and commiflioned Sir William Pritchard,
the lord mayor, to hold the fame office during his ma¬
jefty’s pleafure. In the fame manner he appointed or
difplaced the other magiftrates as he thought proper j
after
LON [ 181 J LON
London, after which the miniftry, having nothing to fear, pro-
.—v  ceeded in the moft arbitrary manner.
29 In this fubjedtion to the will of the court, the city
"the c^ty L°ndon continued till the Revolution ; but, in 1689,
'ftored. the immediate reftoration of the Londoners to their
franchifes was ordered j and in fuch a manner and form,
as to put it out of the powers of an arbitrary miniftry
and a corrupt judge and jury to deprive them of their
chartered liberties for the time to come. Accordingly
a bill was brought into parliament, and paffed, for re-
verfing the judgment of the quo warranto againft the
city of London, and for reftoring the fame to its ancient
rights and privileges. Since that time the city of Lon¬
don hath enjoyed tranquillity j its commerce hath been
carried to the higheft pitch ; and for the politenefs,
riches, and number of its inhabitants, as well as
its extent and the magnificence of its buildings, is
inferior to no city in Europe, if not fuperior to every
one.
Defcription That part of this immenfe capital which is diftin-
jf the city, guithed by the name of The City, ftands on the north
Ihore of the river, from the Tower to the Temple, oc¬
cupying only that fpace formerly encempafled by the
w7all, which in circumference meafures but three miles
and 165 feet. In this wall there were feven gates by
land, viz. Ludgate, Aldgate, Cripplegate, Alderfgat^,
Moorgate, Biftiopfgate, which were all taken down
in September 17605 and Newgate, the county gaol,
which was alfo taken down in 1776, and a miffive
building erefted a little fouth of it, which by the riot¬
ers in 1780 received damage to the amount of 8o,oool.
On the fide of the water there were Dowgate and
Billingfgate, long fince demoliihed, as well as the
poftern-gate near the Tower. In the year 1670, there
wTas a gate ere&ed called Temple-Bar, which termi¬
nates the bounds of the city weftward. The liberties,
or thofe parts of this great city which are fubjeft to
its jurifdiclion, and lie without the walls of London,
are bounded on the eaft, in Whitechapel, the Mino-
ries, and Bifhopfgate, by bars, which were formerly
pofts and chains, that were frequently taken away by
arbitrary power, when it was thought proper to feize
the franchifes of the city of London: on the north,
they are bounded in the fame manner in Pickaxe-
ftreet, at the end of Fan-alley, and in St John’s-ftreet :
on the weft, by bars in Holborn : at the eaft end of
Middle Row, and at the weft end of Fleet-llreet, by
the gate called Temple-Bar, already mentioned : on the
fouth, we may include the jurifdidlion which the city
holds on the river Thames, and over the borough of
Southwark.
The city, including the borough, is at prefent divid-
31 ed into 26 wards.
Divifionin- 1. Alderfgate ward takes its name from a city-gate
towards, which lately flood in the neighbourhood. It is bound¬
ed on the eaft by Cripplegate ward 5 on the weft, by
Farringdon ward within and without 5 and on the
fouth, by Farringdon ward within. It is very large,
and is divided into Alderfgate-within and Alderfgate-
without. Each of thefe divifions confifts of four pre-
cinfts, under one alderman, eight common-council men,
of whom two are the alderman’s deputies, eight con-
ftables, fourteen inqueft-men, eight fcavengers, and a
beadle j exclufive of the officers belonging to the li¬
berty of St Martin’s le Grand, which contains 168 London,
houfes. v
2. Aldgate takes its name alfo from a gate, which
Was of great antiquity, being mentioned in King Ed¬
gar’s charter to the knights of the Knighton Guild
about the year 967 5 and was probably of a much
more ancient foundation, for it was the gate through
which the Roman vicinal way lay to the ferry at Old-
ford. In the time of the wars betwixt King John
and his barons, the latter entered the city through this
gate, and committed great devaftations among the
houfes of the religious. Aldgate was rebuilt by the
leaders of the party after the Roman manner. They
made ufe of ftone which they brought from Caen, and
a fmall brick called the Flanders tile, which Mr Pen¬
nant thinks has been often miftaken for Roman. The
new gate was very ftrong, and had a deep well within
it. In 1471, this gate was affaulted by the Baftard of
Falconbridge, who got pofleflion of it for a few hours 5
but the portcullis being drawn up, the troops which
had entered were all cut off, and the citizens, headed
by the alderman of the ward and recorder, having
made a fally, defeated the remainder w ith great flaugh-
ter. In 1606, Aldgate was taken down and rebuilt j
and many Roman coins were found in digging the
foundations.—The ward of Aldgate is bounded on
the eaft by the city wall, which divides it from Port-
foken ward 5 on the north, by Biftiopfgate ward 5 on
the weft, by Lime-ftreet and Langbourn wards 5 and
on the fouth, by Tower-ftreet ward. It is governed by
an alderman, fix common-council men, fix conftables,
twenty inqueft-men, feven fcavengers, and a beadle 3
befides the officers belonging to St James’s, Duke’s
Place.—It is divided into feven precindts.
3. BaJJifhazv or Bajinghatl ward, is bounded on the
eaft and fouth by Coleman-ftreet ward, on the north
by part of Cripplegate, and on the weft by part of
the wards of Cheap and Cripplegate. On the fouth,
it begins at Blackwell-hall; and runs northward to
London-wall, pulled down fome time ago to make
way for new buildings in Fore-Jlreet, and fpreads 88
feet eaft, and 54 feet weft againft; the place where that
wall flood. This is a very fmall ward, and confifts
only of two precindls : the upper precinbt contains no
more than 66, and the lower only 76 houfes. It is
governed by an alderman, four common-council men,
of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, three con¬
ftables, feventeen inqueft-men, three fcavengers, and
a beadle. It has its name from Bafinghall, the man-
fion-houfe of the family of Bajings, which wras the
principal houfe in it, and flood in the place of Blacks
well-hall.
4. Billingfgate ward is bounded on the eaft by
Tower-ftreet ward 5 on the north, by Langbourn
ward 3 on the weft, by the ward of Bridge-within j
and on the fouth, by the river Thames. There have
been many conjectures concerning the origin of the
name of Bil/ingfgate, none of which feems to be very
w'ell authenticated. It is, for inftance, fuppofed to
have derived its name from a Britiffi king named Beli-
nus, faid to have been an affiftant of Brennus king of
the Gauls at the taking of Rome, and is the fame with
the Beli-Maur mentioned in the Welffi genealogies.
The name of Ludgate is laid to be derived from his fon
Lud.
LON [ 182 ] LON
London.
Lud.—It is divided into 12 precin&s $ and is governed
by an alderman, xo common-council men, one of whom
is the alderman’s deputy, 11 conltables, 14 inqueft-men,
lix fcavengers, and a beadle. The fituation of Billingf-
gate, on the river, gives it great advantages with re-
fpeft to trade and merchandife j fo that it is well in¬
habited, and is in a continual hurry of bulinefs at the fe-
veral wharfs or quays. ,
5. Rifbopfgale ward is bounded on the eaft by Aid-
gate ward, Portfoken ward, and part of the Tower-
liberty, or Norton-falgate 5 on the well, by Broad-ftreet
ward and Moorfields ; and on the fouth, by Langbourn^
ward. It is very large, and divided into Bilhopfgate-
within and Bilhopfgate-without. The firlt contains all
that part of the ward within the city-wall and gate,
and is divided into five precindls •, the fecond lies
without the wall, and is divided into four precinffs.
Bilhopfgate-without expends to Shoreditch, taking its
name from one Sir John de Sorditch, an eminent law¬
yer much in favour with King Edward III. both on
account of his knowledge in the law, and of his
perfonal valour. In the time of Henry VIII. one
Barlo, a citizen and inhabitant of this place, was
named duke of Shoreditch, on account of his Ikill in
archery ; and, for a number of years after, the title
belonged to the captain of the London archers. This
Avard is governed by an alderman, tAvo deputies, one
Avithrn and the other without, 12 common-council men,
feven conlfables, 13 inqueft~men, nine fcavengers, and
two beadles. It took its name from the gate, Avhieh
has been pulled down to make that part of the city
more airy and commodious. This gate was built by
Erkenwald bilhop of London in 675 j and it is faid
to have been repaired by William the Conqueror foon
after the Norman conqueit. In the time of Henry III.
the Hanfe merchants had certain privileges confirmed
to them, in return for which theyAvere to fupport this
gate *, and in confequence of this they rebuilt it ele¬
gantly in 1479. There were two ftatues of bilhops, in
memory of the founder and firft repairer •, other tw’o
were alfo put up, which are fuppofed to have been de-
figned for Alfred and iEldred earl of Mercia to whofe
care the gate had been committed.
6. Breadfireet ward is encompaffed on the north
and north-Aveft, by the ward of Farringdon-Avlthin j on
the eaft, by Cordwainers Avard j on the fouth by
Queenhithe ward 5 and on the weft, by Caftle-Bay-
nard w ard. It is divided into 13 precindls j and is
governed by an alderman, 12 common-council men, of
whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 13 conftables, 13
inqueft-men, 13 fcavengers, and a beadle 5 and yet
contains no more than 331 houfes. It fakes its name
from the ancient bread-market, Avhich Avas kept in the
place now called Bread-Jireet; the bakers being obliged
to fell their bread only in the open market and not in
ihops.
7. Bridge-ward-within is bounded on the fouth by
the river Thames and Southxvark ; on the north, by
Langbourn and Biihopfgate ward 5 on the eaft, by
Billingfgate ; and on the Aveft, by Candlexvick and
Dowgate wards. It is divided into 14 precirxfb, three
of which were on London bridge ; and is governed by
an alderman, 15 common-council men, one of whom is
the alderman’s deputy, 14 conftables, 15 inqueft-men,
14 fcaArengers, and a beadle. It takes its name from London,
its connexion with London bridge. y—
8. Broad-freet ward is bounded, on the north and
eaft, by Bilhopfgate Avard j on the louth, by Cornhill
and W allbrook Avard ; and on the weft by Coleman-
ftreet AA’ard. It is divided into 10 precinfls j and go¬
verned by an alderman, 10 common-council men, one
of Avhom is the alderman’s deputy, 10 conftables, 13
inqueft men, eight fcavengers, and a beadle. It has
its name from that part of it now diftinguilhed by the
name of Old Broadf reel; and which, before the fire
of 1666, was accounted one of the broadeft ftreets in
London.
9. Candlewick ward, Candlewick-Jlreet, or Candle-
wrightfreet ward as it is called in fome ancient re¬
cords, is bounded on the eaft by Bridge ward $ on the
fouth, by Dowgate and part of Bridge ward •, on the
Aveft, by Dowgate and Wallbrook 3 and on the north,
by Langbourn A\ard, It is but a fmall ward, confin¬
ing of about 286 houfes ; yet it is divided into fev'en
precindts. It is governed by an alderman, eight
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman’s
deputy, feven conftables, 13 inqueft-men, feven fca*
vengers, and a beadle. It has its name from a ftreet,
formerly inhabited chiefly by candle aa'rights or candle-
makers, both in tallow and Avax : a very profitable bu-
finefs in the times of Popery, when incredible quanti¬
ties of wax candles were conlumed in the churches.
That ftreet, however, or at leaft its name, Candlewitk,
is loft fince the great conflagration, for Avhich the
name Canon-freet is fubftituted, the candle w rights be¬
ing at that time burnt out and drlperfed through the
city.
10. Cajlle-Boynard ward is bounded by Queen¬
hithe and Brcad-ftreet wards on the eaft 3 on the fouth,
by the Thames 3 and on the Aveft and north by the
Avard of Farringdon-within. It is divided into 10 pre-
cindls, under the government of an alderman, 10 com¬
mon-council men, one of Avhom is the alderman’s de¬
puty, nine conftables, 14 inqueft men, feven fcavengers,
and a beadle. It takes its name from a caftle built
on the bank of the river by one Baynard, a foldier of
fortune, AA hocame in with William the Conqueror, and
was by that monarch raifed to great honours and au¬
thority.
11. Cheap ward is bounded on the eaft by Broad-
ftreet and Wallbrook wards 3 on the north, by Cole-
man-ftreet, BafliftiaAv, and Cripplegate 3 and on the
fouth, by Cordwainers ward. It is divided into nine
precinfts 3 and is governed by an alderman, 1 2 common-
council men, of Avbom one is the alderman’s deputy,
11 conftables, 13 inqueft-men, nine fcavengers, and a
beadle. It has its name from the Saxon word chepe,
which fignifies a market, kept in this divifion of the
city, now called Cheapfde : but then knoAvn by the
name of Wef cheap, to diftinguilh it from the market
then alfo kept in Eaftcheap, betAveen Canon or Candle-
wick-ftreet and Tower-ftreet.
1 2. Coleman-freet ward is bounded on the eaft by
Bilhopfgate, Broad-ftreet, and Cheap Avards 3 on the
north, by Cripplegate Avard, Middle Moorfields, and
Bilhopfgate 3 on the fouth, by Cheap ward 3 and on the
weft, by BaflifhaAV Avard. It is divided into fix pre-
cinfts 3 and is governed by an alderman, fix common-
council
LON [ r
/melon, council men, one of whom is the alderman’s deputy,
--v ^ fix conftables, 13 inqueft-men, fix fcavengers, and a
beadle. The origin of the name is not certainly
known.
13. Cordwainers ward is bounded on the eaft by
Wallbrook, on the fouth by Vintry ward, on the weft
by Bread-ftreet, and on the north by Cheap ward. It
is divided into eight precinfts ; and is governed by an
alderman, eight common-council men, one of whom
is the alderman’s deputy, eight conftables, 14 inqueft-
men, eight fcavengers, and a beadle. Its proper
name is Cordwainers-Jlreet ward; which it has from
Cordwainers-ftreet, now Bow-lane, formerly occupied
chiefly by Ihoemakers and others that dealt or worked
in leather.
14. Cornhill ward is but of fmall extent. It is
bounded on the eaft by Bithopfgate, on the north by
Broad-ftreet, on the weft by Cheap ward, and on the
fouth by tangbourn ward. It is divided into four
precinfts, which are governed by one alderman, fix
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman’s
deputy, four conftables, 16 inqueft-men, four fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It takes its name from the prin¬
cipal ftreet in it, known from the earlieft ages by the
name of Cornhill, becaufe the corn-market was kept
there. ,
15. Cripplegate ward is bounded on the eaft by
Moorfields, Coleman-ftreet ward, Baflrlhaw ward, and
Cheap ward} on the north by the parilh of St Luke’s,
Old-ftreet; on the weft, by Alderfgate ward •, and on
the fouth, by Cheap ward. It is divided into 13 pre¬
cincts, nine within and four without the wall j and is
governed by an alderman, 12 common-council men,
of w'hom two are the alderman’s deputies, 13 conftables,
34 inqueft-men, 16 fcavengers, and three beadles. It
takes its name from Cripplegate, which flood on the
north-weft part of the city wall. It was an old plain
ftruCture, void of all ornament, with one poftern ; but
had more the appearance of a fortification than any of
the other gates. It w-as removed in order to widen the
entrance into Wood-ftreet, which, by the narrownefs
of the gateway, was too much contracted and rendered
dangerous for paflengers and great waggons.
16. Dowqate ward is bounded on the eaft by Candle-
wdek and Bridge wards, on the north by \Vallbrook
ward, on the weft by Vintry ward, and on the fouth
by the Thames. It is divided inio eight precinCts,
under the government of an alderman, eight common
council men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy,
eight conftables, 15 inqueft men, five fcavengers, and
a beadle. It has its name from the ancient water gate,
called Daurgate, which was made in the original wall
that ran along the north fide of the T hames, for the
fecurity of the city agamft all attempts to invade it by
water.
1 Yarringdon ward within is bounded on the eaft
by Cheap ward and Baynard-caftle ward ; on the north,
by Alderfgate and Cripplegate wards, and the liberty
of St Martin’s le Grand 5 on the weft by Farringdon-
without \ and on the fouth by Baynard-caftle ward
and the river Thames. It is divided into 18 precinCts j
and governed by one alderman, common-council
men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 19 con¬
ftables, 17 inqueft-men, 19 fcavengers, and two
beadles. It takes its name from William Faningdon
83 ] LON
citizen and goldfmith of London, who, in 1279, pur-
chafed all the aldermanry with the appurtenances, ^
within the city of London and fuburbs of the fame,
between Ludgate and Newgate, and alfo without thefe
gates.
18. Farringdon ward without is bounded on the eaft
by Farringdon within, the precinCt of the late priory
of St Bartholomew near Smithfield, and the ward of
Alderfgate ; on the north, by the Charter-houfe, the
pariih of St John’s Clerkenwell, and part of St An¬
drew’s parifh without the freedom 5 on the weft, by
High Holborn and St Clement’s parilh in the Strand j
and on the fouth by the river Thames. It is governed
by one alderman, 16 common-council men, of whom
two are the alderman’s deputies, 23 conftables, 48 in¬
queft-men, 24 fcavengers, and four beadles. It takes
its name from the fame goldfmith who gave name to
Farringdon within.
19. Langbourn ward is bounded on the eaft by Aid-
gate ward ; on the north, by part of the fame, and
Lime-ftreet ward 5 on the fouth, by Tower-ftreet, Bil-
lingfgate, Bridge, and Candlewdck wards; and on the
weft by Wallbrook. It is divided into 12 precinCts.
It had its name from a rivulet or long bourn of frelh
water, which anciently flowed from a fpring near
Magpye alley adjoining to St Catherine Coleman’s
church.
20. Limcftreet voard is bounded on the eaft and
north by Aldgate ward, on the weft by Bilhopfgate 5
and on the fouth by Langbourn ward, it is divided
into four precinCts j and governed by an alderman, four
common-council men, one of whom is the alderman’s
deputy, four conftables, 13 inqueft-men, four fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It is very fmall 5 and has its name
from feme lime kilns that were formerly built in or
near Lime-ftreet.
21. Portfoken ward is bounded on the eaft by the
parilhes of Spitalfields, Stepney, and St George’s in
the eaft ; on the fouth, by Tower-hill ; on the north,
by Bifhopfgate ward, and on the weft by Aldgate
ward. It is divided into five precinCts ; and is go¬
verned by an alderman, five common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, five conftables, 19
inqueft-men, five fcavengers, and a beadle. Its name
fignifies the franchife of the liberty gate. I Iris Portfoken
was for fome time a guild \ and had its beginning in
King Edgar, when 13 knights, “ well beloved of the
king and realm, for fervices by them done,” requefted
to have a certain portion of land on the eaft part of the
city left defolate and forfaken of the inhabitants by
reafon of too much fervitude. They befought the king
to have this land, with the liberty of a guild for ever.
The king granted their requeft on the following condi¬
tions, viz. that each of them thould viClorioufly accom-
plifh three combats, one above the ground, one under
ground, and the third in the water : and after this, at
a certain day, in Eaft Smithfield, they fhould run with
fpears againft all comers. All this was glorioufly per¬
formed •, upon which the king named it Knighten
Guild, and extended it from Aldgate to the places
where the bars now are on the eaft, and to the Thames
on the fouth, and as far into the water as an horfeman
could ride at low w'ater and throw his fpear.
22. dpueen-hithe ward is bounded on the eaft by
Dowgate, on the north by Bread-ftreet and Cord-
wainers
London.
LON
Lcalon.
[ 184 ]
LON
3*
Govern¬
ment of
London*
33
Eccieliafti
cal.
wainers wards, on the fouth by the Thames, and on the
weft by Caftle-Baynard ward. It is divided into nine
precimfts j and is governed by one alderman, fix com¬
mon-council men, one of whom is the alderman’s depu¬
ty, and nine conftables. It has its name from the hithey
or harbour for large boats, barges, and lighters ; for
which, and even for (hips, it was the anchoring place,
and the quay for loading and unloading veffels almoft of
any burden ufed in ancient times. It has the name of
queen, becaufe the queens of England ufually poffelTed
the tolls and cuftoms of veffels that unloaded goods at
this hithe, which were very confiderable.
23. Tower ward, or Tower Jireet ward, is bounded
on the fouth by the river Thames, on the eaft by
Tower-hill and Aldgate ward, on the north by Lang-
bourn ward, and on the weft by Billingfgate ward. It
is governed by one alderman, 12 common-council men,
of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 12 conftables,
13 inqueft-men, 12 fcavengers, and one beadle. It
takes its name from Tower-Jireet, fo called becaufe it
leads out of the city in a direft line to the principal
entrance of the Tower of London.
24. Vintry ward is bounded on the eaft by Dow-
gate, on the fouth by the Thames, on the weft by
Queenhithe ward, and on the north by Cordwainers
ward. It is a fmall ward, containing only 418 houfes j
but is divided into nine precinfts, and governed by an
alderman, nine common-council men, one of whom is
the alderman’s deputy, nine conftables, 13 inqueft-men,
three fcavengers, and a beadle. It takes its name from
the vintners or wine-merchants of Bourdeaux, who for¬
merly dwelt in this part of the city, were obliged to
land their wines on this fpot, and to fell them in 40
days, till the 28-th of Edward I.
25. IVallbrook ward is bounded on the eaft by.
Langbourn, on the fouth by Dowgate ward, on the
weft by Cordwainers ward, and on the north by
Cheap ward. It is fmall, containing only 306 houfes j
but is divided into feven precinfts, and governed by an
alderman, eight common-council men, of whom one
is the alderman’s deputy, feven conftables, 13 inqueft-
men, fix fcavengers, and a beadle. It has its name
from the rivulet Wall-brook, that ran down the ftreet
of this name into the river Thames near Dowgate j
but in procefs of time it was fo loft by covering it with
bridges, and buildings upon thofe bridges, that its chan¬
nel became a common fewer.
26. The ward of Bridge-without includes the borough
of Southwark, and the parilhes of Rotherhithe, Newing¬
ton, and Lambeth. It has its name from London
bridge, with the addition of the word without, becaufe
the bridge mult be paffed in order to come at it. Wejl-
minfler is generally reckoned a part of London, though
under a diftinft government; and has long been famous
for the palaces of our kings, the feat of our law tri¬
bunals, and of the high court of parliament j all which
lhall be defcribed in their order.
The city and liberties of London are under an eccle-
fiaftical, a civil, and a military government.
As to its ecclefiajiical government, London is a bi-
ftiop’s fee, the diocefe of which comprehends not only
Middlefex, Effex, and part of Hertfordfliire, but the
Brilifti plantations in America. The bifhop of Lon¬
don takes pre< edency next to the archbilhops of Can¬
terbury and York j but the following pariflies of this
London,
35
city are exempt from his jurifdi&ion, being peculiars
under the immediate government of the archbilhop of
Canterbury •, viz. All-hallows in Bread-ftreet, All¬
hallows, Lombard-ftreet •, St Dionys Back-church,
St Dunftan in the Eaft, St John Baptift, St Leonard
Eaftcheap, St Mary Aldermary, St Mary Bothaw,
St Mary le Bow, St Michael Crooked-lane, St Mi¬
chael Royal, St Pancras Soper-lane, and St Vedaft
Fofter-lane.
The civil government of London divides it into wards
and precin&s, under a lord mayor, aldermen, and com¬
mon-council.
The mayor, or lord mayor, is the fupreme magi- Lord
ftrate, chofen annually by the citizens, purfuant to a Mayor*
charter of King John. The prefent manner of elect¬
ing a lord mayor is by the liverymen of the feveral
companies, affembled in Guildhall annually on Michael-
mas-day, according to an aft of common council in
A. D. 1476, where, and when, the liverymen choofe,
or rather nominate, two aldermen below the chair,
who have ferved the office of flieriff, to be returned to
the court of aldermen, who may choofe either of the
two j but generally declare the fenior of the two, fo
returned, to be lord mayor eleft. The ekftion be¬
ing over, the lord mayor cleft, accompanied by the
recorder and divers aldermen, is foon after prefented to
the lord chancellor (as his majefty’s reprefentative in
the city of London) for his approbation ; and on the
9th of November following is fworn into the office of
mayor at Guildhall j and on the day after, before the
barons of the exchequer at Weftminfter; the procef-
fion on which occalion is exceedingly grand and mag¬
nificent.
The lord mayor fits every morning at the manfion-
houfe, or place where he keeps his mayoralty, to de¬
termine any difference that may happen among the
citizens, and to do other bufinefs incident to the office
of a chief magiftrate. Once in fix weeks, or eight
times in the year, he fits as chief judge of oyer and
terminer, or gaol-delivery of Newgate for London and
the county of Middlefex. His jurifdiftion extends all
over the city and fuburbs, except fome places that are
exempt. It extends alfo from Colneyditch, above
Staines-bridge in the weft, to Yeudale, or Yenllete,
and the mouth of the river Medway, and up that river
to Upnor-caftle, in the eaft : by which he exercifes the
power of puniffiing or correfling all fperfons that ffiall
annoy the ftreams, banks, or fiffi. For which purpoie his
lordffiip holds feveral courts of confervancy in the coun¬
ties adjacent to the faid river, for its confervation, and
for the puniffiment of offenders. See the article May¬
or’s-Cowr/. ^
The title of dignity, alderman, is of Saxon original, Aidermeij
and of the greateft honour, anfwering to that of earl j
though now it is nowhere to be found but in charter¬
ed focieties. And from hence we may account for the
reafon why the aldermen and commonalty of London
were called barons after the conqueft. Thefe magi-
ftrates are properly the fubordinate governors of their
refpe&ive wards under the lord mayor’s jurildidtion •,
and they originally held their aldermanries either by
inheritance or purchafe •, at which time the alderman-t
ries or wards changed their names as often as their
governors or aldermen. The oppteffions, to which the
citizens were fubjeil from fuch a government, put them
upon
LON [ 18
London, upon means to aboliih the perpetuity of that office; and
v ■ - - they brought it to an a&ual election. But that man¬
ner of eleftion being attended with many inconvenien¬
ces and becoming a continual bone of contention
among the citizens, the parliament, 17 Richard II.
A. D. 1394, enafted, that the aldermen of London
(hould continue in their feveral offices during life or
good behaviour. And fo it ftill continues: though
the manner of ele&ing has feveral times varied. At
prefent it is regulated by an aft of parliament, paffed
in the year 1724-5 : and the perfon fo elefted is to be
returned by the lord mayor (or other returning officer
in his Head, duly qualified to hold a court of wardmote)
to the court of lord mayor and aldermen, by whom the
perfon fo returned muft be admitted and fworn into the
office of alderman before he can aft. If the perfon
chofen refufeth to ferve the office of alderman, he is
finable 500I.
Thefe high officers conftitute a fecond part of the
city legiilature when affembled in a corporate capacity,
and exercifc an executive power in their refpeftive wards.
The aldermen who have paffed the chair, or ferved the
high office of lord mayor, are jufiices of the quorum ;
and all the other aldermen are not only juftices of the
peace, but by the ftatute of 43 Eliz. entitled, An a£i
for the relief of the poor, “ every alderman of the city
of London, within his ward, ffiall and may do and
execute, in every refpeft, fo much as is appointed and
allowed by the faid aft to be done or executed by one
or two juftices of peace of any county within this
realm.” They every one keep their wardmote, or
court, for choofing ward officers and fettling the affairs
of the ward, to redrefs grievances, and to prefent all
defaults found within their refpeftive wards.
Gommon- The next branch of the legiflative. power in this
council. city is the common-council. The many inconveniences
that attended popular affemblies, which were called
folkmote, determined the commonalty of London to
choofe reprefentatives to aft in their name and for
their intereft, with the lord mayor and aldermen, in all
affairs relating to the city. At firft thefe reprefenta¬
tives were chofen out of the feveral companies : but
that not being found fatisfaftory, nor properly the re¬
prefentatives of the whole body of the inhabitants, it
was agreed to choofe a certain number of difereet men
out of each ward : which number has from time to
time increafed according to the dimenfions of each
ward : and at prefent the 25 wards, into which Lon¬
don is divided, being fubdivided into 236 precinfts,
each precinft fends a reprefentative to the common-
council, who are elefted after the fame manner as an
alderman, only with this difference, that as the lord
mayor prefides in the wardmote, and is judge of the
poll at the eleftion of an alderman, fo the alderman
of each ward is judge of the poll at the eleftion of a
common-council man.
Thus the lord mayor, aldermen, and common-
council, when affembled, may be deemed the city par¬
liament, refembiing the great council of the nation.
For it confifts of two houfes ; one for the lord mayor
and aldermen, or the upper houfe ; another for the
commoners or reprefentatives of the people, commonly
called the common-council men. And they have power
in their incorporate capacity to make and repeal bye¬
laws ; and the citizens are- bound to obey or fubmit to
Vol. XII. Part I.
5 ] LON
thofe laws. When they meet in their incorporate ca- London. ^
pacity, they wear deep blue filk gowns : and their af¬
femblies are called the court of common-council, and their
ordinances adls of common-council. No aft can be per¬
formed in the name of the city of London without
their concurrence. But they cannot affemble without a
fummons from the lord mayor; who, neverthelefs, is
obliged to call a common-council, whenever it ffiall be
demanded, upon extraordinary occalions, by fix re¬
putable citizens and members of that court.
This corporation is affifted by two iheriffs and a re-Sheriffs,
corder. The Iheriffs are chartered officers, to perform
certain fuits and fervices, in the king’s name, within
the city of London and county of Middlefex, chofen
by the liverymen of the feveral companies on Midfum-
mer day. Their office, according to Camden, in ge¬
neral, is to colleft the public revenues within their fe¬
veral jurifdiftions j to gather into the exchequer all
fines belonging to the crown ■, to ferve, the king’s writs
of procefs j to attend the judges, and execute their or¬
ders ; to impannel juries j to compel headftrong and
obftinate men by \\wpoffe comitatus to lubmit to the de-
cifions of the law ; and to take care that all condemn¬
ed criminals be duly puniffied and executed. In par¬
ticular, in London, they are to execute the orders of
the common-council, when they have refolved to ad-
drefs his majefty, or to petition parliament.
The Iheriffs, by virtue of their office, hold a court at
Guildhall every Wednefday and Friday, for aftions
entered at Wood-ftreet Compterand on Thurfdays,
and Saturdays, for thofe entered at the Poultry Comp¬
ter : of which the ffieriffs being judges, each has his
affiftant, or deputy, who are called the judges of thofe
courts $ before whom are tried aftions of debt, tref-
pafs, covenant, &c. and where the teftimony of any
abfent witneis in writing is allowed to be good evi¬
dence. To each of thefe courts belong four attornies,
w-ho, upon their being admitted by the court of aider-
men, have an oath adminiftered to them.
To each of thefe courts likewife belong a fecondary,
a clerk of the papers, a prothonotary, and four clerks-
fitters. The fecondary’s office is to allow- and return
all w-rits brought to remove clerks out of the faid
courts •, the clerk of the papers files and copies all
declarations upon aftions j the prothonotary draws and
engroffes- all declarations ; the clerk-fitters enter ac¬
tions and attachments, and take bail and verdifts. To
each of the compters, or prifons belonging to thefe
courts, appertain 16 ferjeants at mace, with a yeo¬
man to each, befides inferior officers, and the prifon-
keeper.
In the ftieriffs court may be tried aftions of debt,
cafe, trefpafs, account, covenant, and all perlonal ac¬
tions, attachments, and fequeftrations. When an er¬
roneous judgment is given in either of the fheriffs
courts of the city, the writ of error to reverie this
judgment muft be brought in the court of buffings be¬
fore the lord mayor ; for that is the fuperior court.
The fheriffs of London may make arrefts and ferve
executions on the river l hames. ^
We do not read of a recorder till the 1304, who, Recorder,
by the nature of his office, feems to have been intended
as an affjftant to, or affeffor with, the lord mayor, in
the execut ion of his high office, in matters of juft ice
and law-. He is chofen by the lord mayor and alder-
A a men
LON [ ^86 ] LON
tonilen. men only •, and takes place in all courts, and in the
common-council, before any one that hath not been
mayor. Of whom we have the following defcription
in one of the books of the chamber : “ He lhall be,
as is wont to be, one of the molt Ikilful and virtuous
apprentices of the law of the whole kingdom j whofe
office is always to fit on the right hand of the mayor,
in recording pleas, and palling judgments 5 and by
whom records and proceffes, had before the lord mayor
and aldermen at Great St Martin’s, ought to be re¬
corded by word of mouth before the judges affigned
there to corredt errors. The mayor and aldermen have
therefore ufed commonly to fet forth all other bufi-
neffes, touching the city, before the king and his
council, as alfo in certain of the king’s courts, by Mr
Recorder, as a chief man, endued with wifdom, and
eminent for eloquence.”—Mr Recoider is looked up¬
on to be the mouth of the city, to deliver all addrefles
to the king, &c. from the corporation ; and he is the
firil; officer in order of precedence that is paid a la-
lary, which originally was no more than rol. fter-
ling per annum, with feme few perquifites j but it has
from time to time been augmented to 1000I. per
annum, and become the road of preferment in the
law. This office has fometimes been executed by a
40 dePuty- , . . . ^
Chamber- The next chartered officer of this corporation is the
lam. chamberlain •, an officer of great repute and truft, and
is in the choice of the livery annually. This officer,
though chofen annually on Midfummer-day, is never
difplaced during his life, except feme very great crime
can be made out again!! him. He has the keeping of
the moneys, lands, and goods, of the city orphans, or
takes good fecurity for the payment thereof when the
parties come to age. And to that end he is deemed
in the law a foie corporation, to him and his fuc-
ceffors, for orphans j and therefore a bond or a recog¬
nizance made to him and his fucceflbrs, is recoverable
by his fucceflfors. This officer hath a court peculiarly
belonging to him. His office may be termed a public
treafury, collecting the cuftoms, moneys, and yearly
revenues, and all other payments belonging to the
corporation of the city. It was cufiomary for govern¬
ment to appoint the chamberlain receiver of the land
tax -7 but this has been difeontinued for feveral years
41 Paft-
Other of- The other officers under the lord mayor are, 1. The
fleers. common ferjeant. He is to attend the lord mayor and
court of aldermen on court days, and to be in council
with them on all occafions, within or without the pre-
cinfts or liberties of the city. He is to take care of
orphans eftates, either by taking account of them, or
to fign their indentures, before their paffing the lord
mayor and court of aldermen. And likewdfe he is to
let, fet, and manage the orphans eftates, according to
his judgment, to the belt advantage. 2. The town
clerk ; who keeps the original charter of the city, the
books, rolls, and other records, wherein are regiitered
the adts and proceedings of the city ; fo that he may
not be improperly termed the city-regifter : he is to
attend the lord mayor and aldermen at their courts,
and figns all public inftruments. 3. The city remem¬
brancer ; who is to attend the lord mayor on certain
days, his bufinefs being to put his lordfhip in mind of
the feleft days he is to go abroad with the aldermen,
2..
&c. He is to attend daily at the parliament houfe, London,
during the feffions, and to report to the lord mayor v—-
their tranfadtions. 4. The fword-bearer $ who is to
attend the lord mayor at his going abroad, and to carry
the fword before him, being the emblem of juftice.
This is an ancient and honourable office, reprefenting
the ftate and princely office of the king’s moft excel¬
lent majefty, in his reprefentative the lord mayor ; and,
according to the rule of armory, “ He muft carry
the fword upright, the hilts being holden under his
bulk, and the blade diredtly up the midft of his bread,
and lo forth between the fword-bearer’-s brows.”
5. The common hunt 5 whofe bufinefs it is to take
care of the pack of hounds belonging to the lord mayor
and citizens, and to attend them in hunting in thofe
grounds to which they are authorized by charter.
6. The common crier. It belongs to him and the fer¬
jeant at arms, to fummon all executors and adminiftra-
tors of freemen to appear, and to bring in inventories
of the perfonal eftates of freemen, within two months
after their deceafe : and he is to have notice of the
appraifements. He is all’o to attend the lord mayor on
let days, and at the courts held weekly by the mayor
and aldermen. 7. The water bailiff 5 whofe office is to
look after the prefervation of the river Thames againft
all encroachments •, and to look after the fiftiermen for
the prefervation of the young fry, to prevent the de-
ftroying them by unlawful nets. For that end, there
are juries for each county, that hath any part of it ly¬
ing on the fides or ffiores of the faid river ; w hich juries,
fummoned by the water bailiff at certain times, do make
inquiry of all offences relating to the river and the fiffi,
and make their preferments accordingly. He is alfo
bound to attend the lord mayor on fet days in the
week.—Thefe feven purchafe their places j except the
town clerk, who is chofen by the livery.
There are alfo three ferjeant carvers ) three ferjeants
of the chamber ; a ferjeant of the channel; four yeo¬
men of the water fide 5 an under water bailiff; two
yeomen of the chamber ; two meal w eighters ; two yeo¬
men of the wood wharfs j a foreign taker j city mar-
Ihals. There are befides thefe, feven gentlemen’s menj
as the fvvord-bearer’s man, the common hunt’s two
men, the common crier’s man, and the carver’s three
men.
Nine of the foregoing officers have liveries of the
lord mayor, viz. the fword-bearer and his man, the
three carvers, and the four yeomen of the water
fide. All the reft have liveries from the chamber of
London.
The following officers are likewife belonging to the
city $ farmer ef the markets, auditor, clerk of the
chamber, clerk to the commiftioners of the fewers,
clerk of the court of confcience, beadle of the fame
court, clerk of the city works, printer to the city,
juftice of the Bridge yard, clerk comptroller of the
Bridge houfe, fteward of the Borough, bailiff of the
Borough.
There is alfo a coroner, called fo from corona, i. e.
a crown, becaufe he deals principally with the crown,
or in matters appertaining to the imperial crown of
England. See the article Coroner.
Befides thefe officers, there are feveral courts in this
city for the executing of jullice, viz. the court of huf-
tings, lord mayor’s court, &c. In the city there are
alfo
4*
lilitary
overn-
icnt.
LON [
London, alfo two fubordinate kinds of government. One exe-
■—* ^ cuted by the alderman, deputy, and common-council
men, and their inferior officers, in each ward ; under
which form are comprehended all the inhabitants, free
or not free of the city. Every ward is therefore like
a little free date, and at the fame time fubjedt to the
lord mayor as chief magiftrate of the city. The
houfekeepers of each ward eleft their reprefentatives,
the common council, who join in making bye-laws for
the government of the city. The officers and fervants
of each ward manage the affairs belonging to it, with¬
out the affiftance of the reft ; and each has a court cal¬
led the wardmote, as has been already defcribed, for
the management of its own affairs. The other, by the
mafter, wardens, and court of affiftants, of the incor¬
porate companies •, whofe power reaches no farther
than over the members of their refpeftive guilds or fra¬
ternities j except that in them is veiled the power to
choofe reprefentatives in parliament for the city, and
all thofe raagiftrates and officers elected by a common
hall •, which companies are invefted with diftindl
powers, according to the tenor of their refpeftive
charters.
The military government of the city is lodged in a
lieutenancy, confifting of the lord mayor, aldermen,
and other principal citizens, who receive their autho¬
rity by a commiffion from the king. Thofe have un¬
der their command the city trained bands, confifting
of fix regiments of foot, diftinguiftied by the names of
the white, orange, yellow, blue, green, and red, each
containing eight companies of 150 men, amounting in
all to 7200. Befides thefe fix regiments, there is a
corps called the artillery company, from its being taught
the military exercife in the artillery ground. This
company is independent of the reft, and confifts of 700
or 800 volunteers. All thefe, with two regiments of
foot of 800 men each commanded by the lieutenant of
the Tower of London, make the whole militia of this
city ; which, exclufive of Weftminfter and the bo¬
rough of Southwark, amounts to about 10,000 men.
The trading part of the city of London is divided
into 89 companies 5 though feme of them can hardly be
called fo, becaufe they have neither charters, halls, nor
liveries. Of thefe 89 companies, 55 have each a hall
for tranfadling the bufinefs of the corporation; and
this confifts of a mafter or prime warden, a court of af¬
fiftants, and livery.—Twelve of thefe companies are
fuperior to the reft both in antiquity and wealth j and
of one of thofe 12 the lord mayors have generally made
themfelves free at their eleftidn. Thefe companies are
the mercers, grocers, drapers, fiffimongers, goldfmiths,
Ikinners, merchant-taylors, haberdaffiers, falters, irdn-
mongers, vintners, and clothworkers.—The principal
187 ] ' LON
incorporated focieties of the merchants of this city are,
the Hamburgh Company, the Hud fun’s Bay Company,
the Ruffia Company, the Turkey Company, the Ealt
India Company, the Royal African Company, the South
Sea Company, and fome Infurance Companies. The
moft of thefe companies have llately houies for tranfadt-
ing their bufinefs, particularly the Eaii India and South
Sea Companies. See Company.
London.
43
trading
rompames.
44
The ftreets and public buildings in London and its ReiI!ark"
liberties being far too numerous for a particular de-
fcription in this work, we ffiall only feledt the moft re- incS w,tb-
markable, beginning with London Bridge as the moft in the
ancient, and proceeding in our furvey through the (a) * c,0'-
wards into which the city is divided. 45
I. Remarkable Buildings, &c. in the ClTT. The London
original bridge, which ftands in Bridge ward was ofljr‘d^e’
wood, and appears to have been firft built between the
years 993 and ioi6j but being burnt down about the
year 1136, it was rebuilt of wood in 1163. The ex-
pences, however, of maintaining and repairing it be¬
came fo burdenfome to the inhabitants of the city,
that they refolved to build a ftone bridge a little weft-
ward of the wooden one. This building was begun in
1176, and finifhed in 12095 and was 915 feet long,
44 feet high, and 73 feet w ide 5 but houfes being
built on each fide, the ipace between was only 23
feet.
This great w'ork was founded on enormous piles
driven as clofely as poffible together : on their tops
were laid long planks 10 inches thick, ftrongly bolted5
and on them was placed the bafe of the pier, the
lowermoft ftones of which were bedded in pitch, to
prevent the water from damaging the work : round
all were the piles which were called the Jlerlings, de-
figned for the prefervation of the foundation piles.
Thefe contra&ed the fpace between the piers fo great¬
ly, as to occafion at the retreat of every tide a fall of
five feet, or a number of temporary catara&s, which
fince the foundation of the bridge have occafioned the
lofs of many thoufand lives. The number of arches
was 19, of unequal dimenfions, and greatly deformed
by the fterlings and the houfes on each fide, which
overhung and leaned in a moft terrific name. In
moft places they hid the arches, and nothing appeared
but the rude piers. Within recolledlion, frequent
arches of ftrong timber croffed the ftreet from the top.
of the houfes to keep them together, and from falling
into the river (a). Nothing but ufe could preferve
the quiet of the inmates, who foon grew deaf to the
noife of the falling waters, the clamours of w atermen,
or the frequent thrieks of drowning wretches. In
one part had been a drawbridge, ufeful either by way
A a 2 of
(a) The gallant adlion of Edmund Ofborne, anceftor to the duke of Leeds, when he was apprentice to Sir
William Hewet, cloth-worker, may not improperly be mentioned in this place. About the year 1536, when
his mafter lived in one of thofe tremendous houfes, a fervant maid was playing with his only daughter in her
arms in a window over the water, and accidentally dropt the child. Young Oiborne, who was witnefs to the
misfortune, inftantly fprang into the river, and beyond all expedlation, brought her fafe to the terrified fa¬
mily ! Several perfons of rank paid their addrefles to her when ffie was marriageable, among others the earl of
Shn v ffiury 5 but Sir William gratefully decided in favour of Ofborne : OJborne, fays \ie,faved her, andOJborne
jhcll enjoy her. In her right he poffeffed a great fortune. He became fheriff of London in 1575, and lord
mayor in 1582.
LON [
London of defence or for the admiffion of (hips into the upper
part of’ the river. This was proteded by a ftrong
tower. It ferved to repulfe Falconbridge the Baftard
in his general afl'ault on the city in 1471, with a fet
of banditti, under pretence of reicuing the unfortunate
Hmry, then confined in the Tower. Sixty houfes
were burnt on the bridge on the occafion. It alfo
ferved to check, and in the end annihilate, the ill-con-
duded infurredion of Sir Thomas Wyat, in the reign
of Queen Mary. The top of this tower, in the fad
and turbulent days of this kingdom, uled to be the
fhambles of human flefh, and covered with heads or
quarters of unfortunate partizans. Even fo late as the
year 1598, Hentzner, the German traveller, with Ger¬
man accuracy, counted on it above 30 heads. The
old map of the city in 1597 reprefents them in a moft
horrible duller.—An unparalleled calamity happened
on this bridge within four years after it was finifhed.
A fire began on it at the Southwark end •, multitudes
of people rulhtd out of London to extinguifh it \ while
they were engaged in this charitable defign, the fire
feized on the oppofite end, and hemmed in the crowd.
Above 3000 perfons periihed in the flames, or were
drowned by overloading the veffels which were hardy
enough to attempt their relief.
The narrownefs of the paffage on this bridge having
occafioned the lofs of many lives from the number of
carriages continually pafiing j and the ftraitnefs of the
arches, with the enormous lize of the fterlings, which
occupied one-fourth part of the water-way, having al¬
fo occafioned frequent and fatal accidents, as already
mentioned j the magiflrates of London in 1756 ob¬
tained an aft of parliament for improving and widen¬
ing the paflage over and through the bridge, which
granted them a toll for every carriage and horfe pafiing
over it, and for every veffel with goods pafling through
it : but thefe tolls proving infufficient, were abolilhed
by an aft made in 1758 for explaining, amending, and
rendering the former aft more effeftual •, and for grant¬
ing the city of London money towards carrying on
that work. In confequence of thefe afts of parliament,
a temporary wooden bridge was built, and the houfes
on the old bridge were taken down. Inftead of a
narrow ftreet 23 feet wide, there is now a paflage of
31 feet for carriages, with a railed pavement of If one
on each fide 7 feet broad for the ufe of foot paflen-
gers. The fides are fecured by (lone baluftrades, en¬
lightened in the night with lamps. The paflage through
the bridge is enlarged by throwing the two middle
arches into one, and by other alterations and improve¬
ments ; notwithftanding which, however, it is ftill
greatly fubjeft to its former inconveniences—Under
the firft, fecond, and fourth arches, from the north
fide of the bridge, and now likewife towards the fouth-
ern extremities, there are engines worked by the flux
and reflux of the river, the water of which they raife to
fuch a height as to fupply many parts of the city.
Thofe engines were contrived in 1582 by one Peter
Morice a Dutchman, and are called London-bridge
’ivater-works. By the report of a committee appointed
to confider of the requifite improvements in and about
London, it was propofed to remove the prefent London
bridge, and to replace it by one of call iron 65 feet
high in the clear above high water. Part of the plan
■which came under the confideration of the committee
188 ] LON
in i8ot, was a defign of Mefirs Telford and Douglas, lord 1
in which it is propofed to conftruft the bridge of a't—
Angle arch, compofed wholly of calf iron j the ipan of
the arch is to be 600 feet, being the width to which, by
Mr Jeffop’s report, the river ought to be contrafted. The
boldnefs and limplicity of this defign rendered it an ob-
jeft of great attention, not only to the committee en¬
gaged in confidenng the further improvement of the
port of London, but to the public. No piogrefs, we
believe, has yet been made in the execution of this plan. 46
Near the north fide of London bridge Hands the The Mo
Monument, a beautiful and magnificent fluted columnnun''ent-
of the Doric order, built with Portland Hone, and
erefted in memory of the conflagration 1666. It was
begun by Sir Chriilopher Wren in 1671, and finilh-
ed by him in 1677. Its height from the pavement is
202 feet ■, the diameter ot the lhaft, or body of the co¬
lumn, is 13 feet j the ground-plinth, or low eft part
of the pecieftal is 28 feet fquare j and the pedeftal is
40 feet high. Over the capital is an iron balcony en-
compafling a cone 32 feet high, which fupports a blaz¬
ing urn of gilt brai’s. Within is a large ftaircafe of
black marble, containing 345 Heps, each ten inches
and a half broad, and fix inches thick. The weft fide
is adorned with a curious emblem in ait-relief, denoting
the deftruftion and reftoration of the city. The firft
female figure reprefents London fitting in ruins, in a
languiihing pofture, with her head dejefted, her hair
difhevelled, and her hand carelefsly lying on her fword.
Behind is Time, gradually raifing her up : at her fide
is a woman touching her with one hand, whilft a wing¬
ed fceptre in the other direfts her to regard the god-
defles in the clouds j one with a cornucopia, denot¬
ing Plenty ; the other w ith a palm branch, the emblem
of Peace. At her feet is a bee hive, (bowing, that by
induftry and application the greateft misfortunes are to
be overcome. Behind the figure of Time are citizens
exulting at his endeavours to reftore her j and beneath,
in the midft of the ruins, is a dragon, who, as the
fupporter of the city arms, with his paw endeavours to
prelerve the fame. Oppofite to the city, on an ele¬
vated pavement, (lands the king, in a Roman habit,
wdth a laurel on his head, and a truncheon in his
hand $ and approaching her, commands three of his
attendants to defcend to her relief. The firft repre¬
fents the Sciences with a winged head and circle of
naked boys dancing thereon $ and holding Nature in
her hand, with her numerous breads, ready to give
afliftance to all. The fecond is ArchiteBure, with a
plan in one hand, and fquare and a pair of compafles
in the other; and the third is Liberty, waving a hat in
the air, (bowing her joy at the pleafing prolpeft of the
city’s fpeedy recovery. Behind the king (lands his
brother the duke of York, with a garland in one hand
to crown the riling city, and a fword in the other for
her defence. The two figures behind are Jujlice and
Fortitude; the former with a coronet, and the latter
with a reined lion •, and under the royal pavement lies
Envy, gnawing a heart, and inceflantly emitting pefti-
ferous fumes from her mouth. On the plinth the re-
conftruftion of the city is reprefented by builders and
labourers at work upon houfes. On the north, fouth,
and eaft fides, are infcriptions relating to the deftruc-
tion occafioned by the conflagration, the regulations
about rebtulding the city^ and erefting the monument;
and
X.o’v’on,
47
The Tower.
LON [i
and round it is the following one :—“ This pillar was
fet up in perpetual remembrance of the moil: dreadful
burning of this Proteifant city, begun and carried on
by the treachery and malice of the Popilh fa&ion, in
the beginning of September, in the year of our Lord
1666, ^in order to their carrying on their horrid plot
for extirpating the Proteftant religion and old Engkjh
liberty, and introducing Popery and flavery.” Dr
Wendeborn, in his account of London, obferves, that
the monument, though not much above 100 years old,
bears viiible marks of decay already and it will not
probably be long before it mutt be pulled down. Some
are of opinion that this is occaftoned by the fault of
the architeft, others by the continual (baking of the
ground by coaches j but the doctor inclines to the lat¬
ter opinion.
Ea ft ward of the bridge and monument ftands the
Tower^ which gives name to another ward. It is the
chief fortrefs of the city, and fuppofed to have been
originally built by William the Conqueror. It ap¬
pears, however, to have beer, railed upon the remains
of a more ancient fortrefs, erected probably by the Ro¬
mans : for in 1720, in digging on the iouth fide of
what is called Cxfar's Chapel, there were difcovered
fome old foundations of (tone, three yards broad, and
fo ftrongly cemented that it was with the utmoft dif¬
ficulty they were forced up. The firft work (accord¬
ing to Mr Pennant) feems to have been fuddenly flung
up in 1066 by the Conqueror, on his taking poffeflion
of the capital j and included in it a part of the ancient
wall.
The great fquare tower, called the White Tower,
was erefted in the year 1078, when it arole under the
dire£tions of Gundulph bifliop of Rochefter, who was a
great military arehite£f. This building originally flood
by itfelf. Fitz-Stephen gives it the name of Arx Pa-
latina, “ the Palatine Tower j” the commander of
which had the title of Palatine beftowed on him. With¬
in this tow'er is a very ancient chapel for the ufeof fuch
of our kings and queens who wifhed to pay their de¬
votion here. In 1092 a violent tempeft did great in¬
jury to the Tower j but it was repaired by W illam
Rufus and his fuccefior. I he firft added another ca-
ftellated building on the fouth fide between it and the
Thames, which was afterwards called St Thomas's
Tower.
The Tower was firft enclofed by William Long-
champ biftiop of Ely and chancellor of England,, in
the reign of Richard I. Phis haughty prelate having
a quarrel with John, third brother to Richard, under
pretence of guarding againft his defigns, furrounded
the whole w’ith walls embattled, and made on the out-
fide a vaft ditch, into which, in after times, the water
from the Thames was introduced. Different princes
added other works. The prefent contents within the
walls are 12 acres and 5 rods, the circuit on the out-
fide of the ditch 1052 feet. It was again enclofed
89 ] LON
with a mud wall, by Henry III.: this was placed at a
diftance from the ditch, and occafioned the taking
down part of the city-wall, which was relented by the
citizens j who, pulling down this precindt of mud,
were puniftied by the king with a fine of a thouland
merks.
The Lions Tower was built by Edward IV. It was
originally called the JBulwark, but received the former
name from its ufe. A menagery had very long been
a piece of regal ftate : Henry I. had his at his manor
of Wood flock, where he kept lions, leopards, lynxes,
porcupines, and feveral other uncommon beads, ihey
were afterwards removed to the Tower. Edward 11.
commanded the (heriffs of London to pay the keepers
of the king’s leopards fixpence a-day for the (ufte-
nance of the leopards, and three halfpence a-day for
the diet of the keeper out of the fee-farm of the city.
The royal menagery is to this day exceedingly well
fupplled.
In 1758 the Tower ditch was railed all round. New
barracks were fome years ago erefted on the lower
wharf, which parts it from the river ; and upon the
wharf is a line of 61 pieces of cannon, which are fired
upon ftate holidays. On this fide of the lower the
ditch is narrow, and over it is a drawbridge. Parallel
to the wharf, within the walls, is a platform 70 yards
in length, called the Ladies Line, becaufe much fre¬
quented by the ladies in the fummer j it being (haded
in the infide with a row of lofty trees, and without
is a delightful profpeft of the (hipping with boats paf-
fing and repafling on the river Thames. You afcend
this line by (tone tteps, and being once upon it you may
walk almoft round the walls of the lower without in-
London.
terrnption.
The principal entrance into the Tower is by a gate
to the weft, large enough to admit coaches and heavy
carriages j but thefe are firft admitted through an out¬
ward gate, fituated without the ditch upon the hill,
and muft pafs a flout (lone bridge built over the ditch
before they can approach the main entrance. There
is, befides, an entrance near the very fouth-weft corner
of the Tower outward wall, for perfons on foot, over
the drawbridge already mentioned to the wharf.
There is alfo a water-gate, commonly called Traitor's
gate, through which it has been cuftomary to convey
traitors and other ftate prifoners to or from the Tower,
and which is feldom opened on any other occafion ;
but the lords committed to the Tower in 1746 were
publicly admitted at the main entrance. Over this gate
is a regular building, terminated at each end by two
round towers, on which are embrafures for pointing
cannon. In this building there are the infirmary, the
mill, and the water-works that fupply the Tower with
water.
In the Tower, the curiofities of which are more
particularly defcribed in the note (b), are a church,,
the offices of ordnance and of the mint, thofe of the
keepers
fB) In examining the curiofities of the Tower of London, it will be proper to begin with thofe on the
outfide of the principal gate. The firft thing a ftranger ufually goes to vifit is the wild hearts; which, from
their fituation, firft prefent themfelves : for having entered the outer gate, and paffed what is called the. (pur-
guard, the keeper’s houfe prefents itfelf before you, which is known by a painted hon on the wall, and another
4
t
LON [ 190 ] LON
keepers of the records, of the jewel office, of the Spa-
nifh armoury, the horfe armoury, and the new or ffnall
armoury ; with barracks for the foldiersof the garrifon,
and handfome houfes for feveral officers whorefide here.
The principal officers of the Tower are, a conftable, a
lieutenant, and a deputy-lieutenant. Belonging to this
fortrefs are 11 hamlets-, the militia of which, confut¬
ing of 400 men, are obliged, at the command of the
conftable of the Tower, to repair hither, and reinforce London.
the garrifon. v——/
On Little Tower hill is the VlBuaUing office for the ..4s .
navy. It fh ..prated from Tower-hill by a wall and office^''1*
gate, and contains houfes for the officers, flaughter-
houfes, {tore rooms, a brew-houle, a falting-houfe, and
barrelling-houfe \ under the direction of feven com-
miffioners and other inferior officers.
In
over the door which leads to their dens. By ringing a bell, and paying fixpence each perfon, you may eafily
gain admittance.
The next place worthy of obfervation is the Mint, which comprehends near one-third of the Tower, and
contains houfes for all the officers belonging to the coinage. On palling the principal gate you fee the White
Tower, built by William the Conqueror. This is a large, fquare, irregular done building, fituated almoft
in the centre, no one fide anfwering to another, nor any of its watch-towers, of which there are four at the
top, built alike. One of thefe towers is now converted into an obfervatory. In the firfl dory are two noble
x-ooms, one of which is a fmall armoury for the fea-fervice, it having various forts of arms, very curioufly laid
up, for above 10,000 feamen. In the other room are many clofets and preiles, all filled with warlike engines
and indruments of death. Over this are two other floors, one principally filled with arms ; the other with
arms and other warlike indruments, as fpades, {hovels, pickaxes, and chevaux de frize. In the upper dory
are kept match, dieep-fkins, tanned hides, See. and in a little room called Julius Caelar’s chapel, are depofited
fome records, containing perhaps the ancient ufages and cudoms of the place. In this building are alfo pre-
ferved the models of the new-invented engines of dedruftion that have from time to time been prefented to
the government. Near the fouth-wed angle of the White Tower is the Spanifh armoury, in which are de¬
pofited the fpoils of what was vainly called the Invincible Armada j in order to perpetuate to lated poderity
the memory of that fignal viftory obtained by the Engliffi over the whole naval power of Spain in the reign of
Philip II.
You are now come to the grand dorehoufe, a noble building to the northward of the White Tower, that
extends 245 feet in length and 60 in breadth. It was begun by King James II. who built it to the fird floor ;
but it was finifhed by King William III. who erefted that magnificent room called the New or Small Armoury,
in which that prince, with Queen Mary his confort, dined in great form, having all the warrant workmen and
labourers to attend them, dreffed in white gloves and aprons, the ufutd badges of the order of mafonry. To
this noble room you are led by a folding door, adjoining to the ead end of the Tower chapel, which leads to a
grand daircafe of 50 eafy deps. On the left fide of the uppermod landing-place is the work-ffiop, in which are
condantly employed about 14 furbiffiers, in cleaning, repairing, and new-placing the arms. On entering the
armoury, you fee what they call a wildernefs of arms, fo artfully difpofed, that at one view you behold arms for
near 80,000 men, all bright and fit for fervice 5 a fight which it is impoffible to behold without adenifhment ;
and befides thofe expofed to view, there were, before the late war, 16 cheds flrut up, each ched holding about
1000 mufkets. The arms were originally difpofed by Mr Harris, who contrived to place them in this
beautiful order, both here and in the guard-chamber of Hampton-court. He was a common gunfmith 5 but
after he had performed this work, which is the admiration of people of all nations, he was allowed a penfion from
the crown for his ingenuity.
Upon the ground door, under the fmall armoury, is a large room of equal dimenfions with that, fupported
by 20 pillars, all hung round with implements of war. This room, which is 24 feet high, has a paflage in the
middle 16 feet wide. At the fight of fuch a variety of the mod dreadful engines of dedruftion, before wffiofe
thunder the mod fuperb edifices, the nobled works of art, and numbers of the human fpecies, fall together in one
common and undidinguifhed ruin ; one cannot help widiing that thofe horrible inventions had dill lain, like a
falfe conception, in the womb of nature, never to have been ripened into birth.
The horfe armoury is a plain brick building, a little to the eadward of the White Tower ; and is an edifice
rather convenient than elegant, where the fpeftator is entertained with a reprefentation of thofe kings and heroes
of our own nation, with whofe gallant aftions it is to be fuppofed he is well acquainted j fome of them equipped
and fitting on horfeback, in the fame bright and diining armour they were ufed to wear when they performed
thofe glorious aftions which gave them a didinguiffied place in the Britiffi annals.
You now come to the line of kings, which your condudlwr begins by reverdng the order of chronology ; fo that
that in following them we mud place the lad fird.
In a dark, drong done room, about 20 yards to the eadward of the grand dore-houfe, or new armoury,
the crown jewels are depofited. 1. T he imperial crown, with which it is pretended that all the kings of
England have been crowned fince Edward the Confeflbr in 1040. It is of gold, enriched with diamonds,
rubies, emeralds, fapphires, and pearls: the cap within is of purple velvet, lined with white tafiet)', turned
up with three rows of ermine, They are, however, midaken in fhowing this as the ancient imperial diadem
of St Edward , for that, with the other mod ancient regalia of this kingdom, .vas kept in the arched room
in the cloilters in VVedminder Abbey till the civil war: when, in 1642, Harry Martin, by order of the
parliament, broke open the iron ched in which it was ftcured, took it thence, and told it, together with the
robes,
LON
49
luftom-
oufe..
[
London. In Tower ward is alfo the Cujlomhoufe, a large,
handfome, and commodious building of brick and (lone.
It ftands upon the bank of the Thames, and is ac¬
commodated with large wharfs, keys, and warehoufes.
On this fpot is the bufy concourfe of all nations, who
pay their tribute towards the fupport of Great Bri¬
tain. About the year 1559, the lofs to the revenue,
by collefting it in different parts of the city, was firit
difcovered, and an aft paffed to compel people to land
91 ] LON
their goods in fuch places as were appointed by the London. ^
commiflioners of the revenue $ and this was the fpot v ~
fixed on : A cuftomhoufe was erefted j which, being
deftroyed by the great fire, was rebuilt by Charles II.
In 1718 it underwent the fame fate, and was reftored
in its prefent form. Before the cuftomhoufe was
effabliihed here, the principal place for receiving the
duties was at Billingfgate. In 1268 the half year’s
cuftoms for foreign merchandife in the city of London
came
robes, fword, and fceptre, of St Edward. However, after the Relforation, King Charles II. had one made in
imitation of it, which is that now Ihown. 2. The golden orb, or globe, put into the king’s right hand before
he is crowned : and borne in his left hand, with the fceptre in his right, upon his return into Weftminfter-hall
after he is crowned. It is about fix inches in diameter, edged with pearl, and enriched with precious ftones.
On the top is an amethyft, of a violet colour, near an inch and a half in height, fet with a rich crofs of gold,
adorned with diamonds, pearls, and precious Hones. The whole height of the ball and cup is 11 inches. 3. The
golden fceptre, with its crofs fet upon a large amethyit of great value, garnifhed .round with table diamonds.
The handle of the fceptre is plain, but the pummel is fet round with rubies, emeralds, and fmall diamonds.
The top rifes into a fleur-de-lis of fix leaves, all enriched with precious ftones, from whence iffues a mound or
bail, made of the amethyft already mentioned. The crofs is quite covered with precious ftones. 4. The fceptre,
with the dove, the emblem of peace, perched on the top of a fmall Jerufalcm crofs, finely ornamented with table
diamonds and jewels of great value. This emblem was firft ufed by Edward the Confeffor, as appears by his
feal •, but the ancient fceptre and dove was fold with the reft of the regalia, and this now in the Tower was
made after the Reftoration. 5. St Edward’s ftaff, four feet feven inches and a half in length, and three inches
three quarters in circumference, all of beaten gold, which was carried before the king at his coronation. 6. The
rich crown of ftate, worn by his majefty in parliament j in which is a large emerald feven inches round j a pearl
efteemed the fineft in the world ; and a ruby of ineftimable value. 7. The crown belonging to his royal high-
nefs the prince of Wales. The king wears his crown on his head when he fits upon the throne j but that of
the prince of Wales is placed before him, to (how that he is not yet come to it. 8. The late Queen Mary’s
crown, globe, and fceptre, with the diadem fhe wore at her coronation with her confort King William III,
9. An ivory fceptre, with a dove on the top, made for King James II.’s queen, whofe garniture is gold, and the
dove on the top gold enamelled with white. 10. The car/awa, or fword of mercy, which has a blade of 32 inches
long, and'near two broad, is without a point, and is borne naked before the king at his coronation, between the
two {words of juftice, fpiritual and temporal. 11. The golden fpurs, and the armillas, which are bracelets for
the wrifts. Thefe, though very antique, are worn at the coronation. 12. The ampulla, or eagle of gold, finely
engraved, which holds the holy oil the kings and queens of England are anointed with ; and the golden fpoon
that the bilhop pours the oil into. Thefe are two pieces of great antiquity. The golden eagle, including the
pedeftal, is about nine inches high, and the wings expand about feven inches. The whole weighs about ten
ounces. The head of the eagle ferews oft' about the middle of the neck, which is made hollow for holding the
holy oil ; and when the king is anointed by the biihop, the oil is poured into the fpoon out of the bird’s bill.
13. A rich faltfeller of ftate, in form like the fquare White Tower, and fo exquifitely wrought, that the work-
manftiip of modern times is in no degree equal to it. It is of gold, and ufed only cn the king’s table at the co¬
ronation. 14. A noble filver font, double gilt, and elegantly wrought, in which the royal family are chriften- •
ed. 15. A large filver fountain prefented to King Charles II. by the town of Plymouth, very curibufty wrought j
but much inferior in beauty to the above. Befides thefe, which are commonly fhowm, there are in the jewel of¬
fice all the crown jewels worn by the princes and princeffes at coronations, and a great variety of curious old plate.
The record office confifts of three rooms, one above another, and .a large round room, where the rolls are kept.
Thefe are all handfomely wrainfcotted, the wainfeot being framed into preffes round each room, within which are
fhelves and repofitories for the records \ and for the eafier finding of them, the year of each reign is inferibed on
the infide of thefe prefles, and the records placed accordingly. Within thefe preffes, which amount to 56 in
number, are depofited all the rolls, from the firft year of the reign of King John to the beginning of the reign of
Richard III. but thofe after this laft period are kept in the Rolls Chapel. The records in the Tower, among
other things, contain the foundation of abbeys and other religious houfes 5 the ancient tenures of all the lands in
England, with a furvey of the manors; the original of laws and ftatutes ; proceedings of the courts of common
law and equity ■, the rights of England to the dominion of the Britiffi feas; leagues and treaties with foreign
princes; the achievements of England in foreign wrars 5 the fettlement of Ireland, as to law and dominion j the
forms of fubmiffion of fome Scottiffi kings for territories held in England •, ancient grants of our kings to their
fubjefts *, privileges and immunities granted to cities and corporations during the period above mentioned j en¬
rolments of charters and deeds made before the conqueft ; the bounds of all the forefts in England, with the fe-
veral refpeftive rights of the inhabitants to common pafture, and many other important records, all regularly dif-
pofed, and referred to in near a thoufand folio indexes. This office is kept open, and attendance conftantly given,
from feven o’clock till one, except in the months of December, January, and February, when it is open only
from eight to one, Sundays and holidays excepted. A fearch here is half a guinea, for which you may perule
any one fubjeft a year.
LON [ ip
London, came only to 75I. 6s. lod. ; the annual produce of
* ''   the cuftoms, ending in April 1789, amounted to
50 3,711,1261.
Trinity jn Water-lane, a little to the north-weft of the
Houle. cuftotnhoufe, is the Trimly Houfe; a fociety founded in
1515, at a period in which the Britifti navy began to
affume a fyftetn. The founder was Sir Thomas Spert,
comptroller of the navy, and commander of the great
fhip Henry Grace de Dieu. It is a corporation,
confrfting of a mafter, four wardens, eight aflift-
ants, and eighteen elder brethren \ felefted from com¬
manders in the navy and the merchants fervice $
and now and then a compliment is paid to one or
two of our firft nobility. They may be confidered
as guardians of our (hips, military and commercial.
Their powers are very extenfive : they examine the
mathematical children of Chrift’s hofpital, and the
matters of his majefty’s fhips •, they appoint pilots for
the river Thames; fettle the general rates of pilotage ;
ere£t light houfes and lea marks; grant licenfes to poor
feamen, not free of the city, to row on the Thames ;
prevent foreigners from ferving on board our thips
without licenfe ; punilh feamen for mutiny and defer-
tion ; hear and determine complaints of officers and
men in the merchants fervice, but liable to appeal to
the judge of the court of admiralty ; fuperintend the
deepening and cleanling of the river 1 hames, and
have under their jurifdiftion the ballaft office; have
powers to buy lands, and receive donations for chari«
table ufes ; and in confequence, relieve annually many
thoufands of poor feamen, their widows, and orphans.
It is in this houfe the bufinefs of . the inftitution is
carried on : but the mother houfe is at Deptford, the
corporation being named, “ the mafter, wardens, and
affiftants of the guild or fraternity of the moft glori¬
ous and undivided Trinity, and of St Clement, in
the pariffi of Deptford Strond, in the county of
tjr Kent.”
The Mi- Between Aldgate and the Tower is the ftreet called
nories. ^ Minories, from fome poor ladies of the order of
St Clare, or minoreffes. They had been invited to
London by Blanch,'queen of Navarre, and wife to Ed¬
mund earl of Lancafter, who founded a convent for
them in 1293. On the fuppreffion of the monafteries
it was converted into a dwelling houfe for fome of the
nobility, and is now in the poffeffion of the Dartmouth
family. Till of late years, the Minories were but a
defpicable ftreet ; but have now been excellently re¬
built, and are as elegant as any in the city.
On the weft fide of the city walls at this place, flood
the houfe of the Crutched or Crojfed Friars, an order
inftituted at Bologna in 1169, and of which a branch
fettled in England in 1244, where they were accom¬
modated with a houfe in this place by two citizens
named Ralph Hofier and William Sabernas, who became
^ members of their order. Henry VIII. granted their
houfe to Sir Thomas Wyat the elder, who built .a
handfome manfion on part of the ground where it
flood. This manfion became afterwards the refidence
of John Lord Lumley, a celebrated warrior in the
India''Com*’ tirne of Henry VIII. In procefs of time, jt was con-
pai.j’fc verted into a navy office : but this office being remov-
warehoufes. eJ Somerfet-houfe, the India Company have ereft-
ed in its place a moft magnificent warehoufe, in form
of an oblong fquare of about 250 feet by 160, enclof-
2 ] LON
ing a court of 150 by 60 feet, tha entrance to which London,
is by an arched gateway. "
Billingfgale ward is diftinguilhed by its
Billinzfgate was a fmall port for the reception of ihip- gate>
ping, and for a confiderable time the moft important
place for the landing of almoft every article of com¬
merce. In the time of King William, Billingfgate
began to be celebrated as a fiffi-market. In 1699
was by aft of parliament made a free port for filh to
be fold there every day except Sunday ; but Mr Pen¬
nant informs us, that the objeft of this has long been
fruftrated, and that fiffi are now no longer to be had
there in perfeftion. The fame author gives a lift of
the fifti which in the time of Edward III. were
brought to the London market ; the monarch himfelf
having condefcended to regulate the prices, that his
fubjefls might not be impofed upon by thofe who
fold them. Among thefe were the conger-eel and
porpoife, neither of which is now admitted to any
table. A pike at that time coft 6s. 8d. ; whence our
author concludes, that it was an exotic fiffi, and brought
over at a vaft expence. Some fillies are mentioned in
his lift with which this naturalift owns himfelf unac¬
quainted, viz. the barkey, bran, batrile, cropling, and
rumb. In Archbilhop Nevill’s great feaft is mention¬
ed alfo a fifti named thirk-poole, unknown at prefent.
Seals were formerly accounted a fiffi ; and thefe, to¬
gether with the fturgeon and porpoife, were the only
freffi fiffi permitted by the 33d of Henry VIII. to be
bought of any ftranger at fea between England, France,
Flanders, and Zealand. _ 54 ,
Limeftreet ward is remarkable for a very large build- Leadenha s
ing of great antiquity, called Leaderhall, with flat
battlements leaded on the top, and a fpacious fquare
in the middle. In 1309 it v^as the houfe of Sir Hugh
Nevill, knight ; in 1384, of Humphry Bohun, earl of
Hereford ; in 1408 it became the property of the ce¬
lebrated Whittington, who prefented it to the mayor
and commonalty of London; and in I4J9» a public
granary w'as erefted here by Sir Simon Kyre, a citi¬
zen and draper, who built it with ftone in its prefent
form. This granary w’as defigned as a prefervative
againft famine, and to be kept always full of corn,
which defign was for fome time happily anfwered. The
houfe came to be ufed for many other purpofes befides
that of a granary ; as for keeping the artillery and
arms of the city. Preparations for any kind of pageantry
or triumph were alfo made here ; and from its ftrength
the place was confidered as the chief iortrefs within
the city in cafe of any popular infurre&ion, and was
likewife the place from wffience alms were diftributed.
In this edifice are warehoufes for the (ale of leather, Col-
chefter baize, meal, and wool. Adjoining to Leaden-
hall is a market, thence called Leadenlia/l market, con¬
fining of five confiderable fquares or courts, and rec¬
koned one of the greateft markets in Europe for
fleffi and other provifions, as well as for leather,
green hides, and wool. A little to the eaftw'ard is ^
the India Hvfe, built in 1726, on the fpot occupied The Ind
by Sir William Craten, mayor in 1610. According Houfe.
to Mr Pennant, this houfe “ is not worthy of the lords
of Indoftan.” 56
In Broad-ftreet is the Bank of England, a ftone build- Bank of
ing, which occupies one fide of Threadneedle-ftreet, England
The centre, and the building behind, Were founded
in
LON
[ London, in the year 17335 the architect George Sampfon.
-V"—' Before that time the bufinefs was tranfafted in Gro-
cers-hall. The front is a fort of veftibulej the bafe
ruftic, the ornamental columns above Ionic. Within
is a court leading to a fecond elegant building, which
contains a hall and offices, where the debt of above
250 millions is pundtually difcharged. Of late years
two wings of uncommon elegance, designed by Sir
Robert Taylor, have been added, at the expence of
a few houfes, and of the church of St Chriftopher’s
le Stocks. “ The name of the project or of this national
glory (fays Mr Pennant), was Mr James Paterfon of
Scotland. This palladium of our country was in
1780 faved from the fury of an infamous banditti
by the virtue of its citizens, who formed fuddenly a
volunteer company, and overawed the mifcreants ;
while the chief magiftrate Ikulked trembling in his
manfion-houfe, and left his important charge to its
fate. This important building has ever lince been
very properly guarded by the military 5 who, in paf-
hng through the city, have often given offence to
many bufy characters who would drive to preferve the
city rights, at the expence of the national deftruftion.
A lord mayor was the laft who interefted himfelf by
applying to Mr Grenville, who gave him to under-
ftand, that if the guards were not quietly permitted
to difeharge their duty, the bank would be removed
to Somerfet-houfe.”
I Merchant t^ie extremity of Threadneedle-dreet is Mer-
Taylors chanl-Taylors Hall. In this llreet alfo is the South Sea
I Hall, 6tc. Houfe, firft eftablilhed in 1711 for the purpoie of an
exclulive trade to the South fea, and for fupplying
Spaniffi America with negroes.
Near.the jun61ion of Throgmorton-ftreet with Broad-
ftreet flood a magnificent houfe built by Cromwell
earl of liffex 5 after whofe fall, the houfe and gardens
were bought by the Drapers company. The houfe
was deilroyed in the great fire, but rebuilt for the ufe
of the company in a magnificent manner.
( gt Giles’s. Mr Pennant informs us, that St Giles's church in the
fields, and a few houfes to the weft of it, in the year
1600, were barely feparated from Broad-ftreet. The
church is fuppofed to have belonged to an hofpital for
lepers, founded about the year 1117, by Matilda queen
to Henry I. In ancient times it was cuftomary here
to prefent to malefaflors, on their way to the gallows
(which, about the year 1413, was removed from
Smithfield, and placed between St Giles’s high-ftreet
and Hog-lane (c), a great bowl of ale, as the laft
refreftiment they were to receive in this life. On
the door to the churchyard is a curious piece of
fculpture, reprefen ting the laft day, containing an
amazing number of figures, fet up about the year
Vol. XII. Part I.
LON
1686. This church was rebuilt in 1625. By the Condon,
amazing railing of the ground by filth and vari- ^
ous adventitious matter, the floor in the year 1730
was eight feet below the furface acquired in the
intervening time. This alone made it neceffary to re¬
build the church in the prefent century. The firfl:
ftone was laid in 1730 ; it was finiffied in 1734, at the
expence of io,oool.—In the churchyard is a great
fquare pit, with many rows of coffins piled one upon
the other, all expofed to fight and fmell, the latter of
which is highly offenfive if not dangerous.
On the weft fide of Broad-ftreet flood the houfe of
the Auguftines, founded by Humphrey Bohun earl
of Somerfet in 1253, ^or friars and hermits of the 59
Auguftine order. On the diffolution of the mo- Winchefter
nafteries, great part of the houfe was granted toHoute*
William Lord St John, afterwards marquis of Win¬
chefter, and lord treafurer, who founded a magni¬
ficent houfe named Winchejler-houfe. The weft end of
the church was granted in 1551 te John a Lafco for
the ufe of the Germans and other fugitive Proteftants,
and afterwards to the Dutch as a place for preach¬
ing. A part of it was alfo converted into a glafs-
houfe for Venice glafs, in which the manufadhire was
carried on by artifts from that city, and patronifed by
the duke of Buckingham. The place was afterwards
converted into Pinners-ha/l, belonging to the company
of pinmakers. g0
To the eaftward of Winchefter-ftreet flood the houfe Greftiam
of that very eminent merchant Sir Thomas Grefham, af-College*
terwards known by the name of Grejham-college: (See
Gresham). It has been pulled down not many years
ago 5 and the Excife Office, a moft magnificent and atExcife
the fame time Ample building, rofe in its place. Mr°®ce*
Pennant informs us, that from the 5th of January 1786
to January 5th 1787, the payments into this office
amounted to no lefs than 5,531,114!. 6s. ic-j-d. 62
The Royal Exchange, w hich is the meeting place ofRoyal Ex-
the merchants of London, ftands in the ward ofcfi‘ir§e*
Cornhill, and is the fineft and ftrongeft fabric of
the kind in Europe. It was founded in the year
1566. Sir Thomas Greffiam, merchant in London,
made an offer to the lord mayor and citizens, to build,
at his own expence, a commodious edifice for mer¬
chants to meet and tranfadl bufinefs, provided the city
would find him a convenient fituation for the fame.
Mr Pennant informs us, that one Richard Clough a
Welthman, originally Sir Thomas’s fervant, firft put
him on this defign by a letter from Antwerp, in which
he reproached the London merchants with having no
place to tranfaft their bufinefs, but walking about in
the rain, more like pedlars than merchants. The ci¬
tizens, in compliance with Sir Thomas’s defire, pur-
B b chafed,
[ 193 1
(c) This late place of execution, according to Mr Pennant, was called in the time of Edward III. when
the gentle Mortimer finilhed his days here, the Elms: but the original as well as the prefent name was Ty-
bourne; not from tye and burn, as if it were called fo from the manner of capital puniftiments 5 but from bourne,
the Saxon word for a “ brook,” and Tye the name of that brook, which joined gave name to a manor before
the conqueft. Here w as alfo a village and church denominated St John the Evangelifi, which fell to decay,
and was fucceeded by that of Mary-bourne, corrupted into Mary la-bonne. In 1626, Queen Henrietta
Maria was compelled by her priefts to take a walk by way of penance to Tyburn. What her offence was wa
are not told •, but Charles was fo difgufted at this infolence, that he icon after fent them and all her majefty’s
French fervants out of the kingdom.
LON [i
London, chafed, for the film of 3532l. 80 houfes in the two
■*-' alleys called New St Chrijlopher1 s and Swan-alley, lead¬
ing out of Cornhill into Threadneedle-ftreet. 1 he
materials of thofe houfes were fold for 47^- and the
ground, when cleared, was conveyed to Sir 'Ihomas
Grelham, who, accompanied by feveral aldermen, laid
the firlt brick of the new building on the 7th of June
that year. Each alderman alfo laid his brick, and
left a piece of gold for the workmen j who fet about
it with fuch affiduity and refolution, that the whole
fabric was roofed by the month of November 1567?
and was foon after completed under the name of the
Burfe. This building was totally deftroyed by the
fire in 1666 j and in its place the prefent magnificent
ilrudlure was erefted at the expence of 8o,oool.
which Hands upon a plat of ground 203 feet in length
and 171 in breadth, containing an area in the middle,
of 61 Iquare perches, furrounded with a fubftantial
and regular Hone building, wrought in ruftic. It has
two fronts, north and fouth, each of which is a piaz¬
za j and in the centre are the grand entrances into
the area, under a very lofty and noble arch. The
fouth front in Cornhill is the principal } on each fide
of which are Corinthian demi-columns, fupporting a
compafs pediment ■, and, in the intercolumniation on
each fide, in the bront next the ftreet, is a niche, with
the ftatues of King Charles I. and II. in Roman ha¬
bits, and well executed. Over the aperture, on the
cornice between the two pediments, are the king’s
arms in relievo j on each fide of this entrance is a
range of windows placed between demi-columns and
pilafters of the Compofite order, above which runs a
baluftrade. This building is 56 feet high j and from
the centre, in this front, rifes a lanthorn and turret
178 feet high, on the top of which is a vane of gilt
brafs made in the lhape of a grafiiopper, the creft
of Sir Thomas Grelham’s arms. The north front in
Threadneedle-ftreet is adorned W'ith pilafters of the
Compofite order j but has neither columns nor ftatues
on the outfide j and has triangular, inftead of com-
94 ] L O N
pafs, pediments. The infide of the area is alfo fur-
rounded with piazzas, forming ambulatories for mer-,•
chants, &c. to ftielter themfelves from the weather,
when met there upon bufinefs. Above the arches
of this piazza is an entablature w'ith curious orna*
ments : and on the cornice a range of pilafters with
an entablature extending round, and a compafs pedi¬
ment in the middle of the cornice of each of the four
fides. Under the pediment on the north fide are the
king’s arms •, on the fouth, the city’s arms ; on the
eaft, Sir Thomas Grelham’s arms 5 and on the weft,
the mercers arms, with their refpe&ive enrichments.
In thefe intercolumns are 24 niches, 20 of which are
filled with the ftatues of the kings and queens of Eng¬
land. Under thefe piazzas, within the area, are 28
niches, all vacant but that in which Sir Thomas Gre-
fham’s ftatue is placed in the north-weft angle, and
that in the fouth-weft, where the ftatue of Sir John
Barnard was placed in his lifetime by his fellow-citi¬
zens to exprels their fenfe of his merit. The centra
of this area alfo is ornamented with a ftatue of King
Charles II. in a Roman habit, {landing upon a marble
pedeftal about eight feet high, and encompaffed with
iron rails $ which pedeftal is enriched on the fouth
fide with an imperial crown, a fceptre, fword, palm-
branches, and other decorations, with a very flattering
infcription to the king. On the weft fide is a Cupid
cut in relievo, refting his right hand on a ftiield, with
the arms of France and England quartered, and hold¬
ing a rofe in his left hand. On the north fide is an¬
other Cupid fupporting a ftiield, with the arms of
Ireland j and on the eaft fide are the arms of Scot¬
land, with a Cupid holding a thiftle ; all done in re¬
lievo : the whole executed by that able ftatuary Mr
Gibbon.
In this area, merchants, and fuch as have bufinefs
with them, meet every day at change hours •, and for
the more regular and readier defpatch of bufinefs, they
difpofe of themfelves into feparate walks, according to
the following plan :
London;
North.
Threadneedle-Street.
Ealt country
w'alk.
irifla
walk.
Scotch
walk.
Dutch and
Jewellers.
Silkmens
walk.
Turkey
walk.
Clothiers
walk.
Grocers
and
Druggifts
walk.
Hamburgh
walk.
Salters
walk.
Brokers
of Stock,
&c. walk.
Italian
w'alk.
I
w
u
Virginia
walk.
Jamaica
walk.
Spanilh
walk.
Jews
walk.
cn
s.
it ^
“ %
Cornhill.
South.
In
Lone! on.
53
Oeneral
Poft Office
<54
The Man-
fion hotife.
^5
St Stephen
Church.
65
Lomfon-
itohe.
LON [1
In building this expenfive ftru&ure there was an eye
'not only to magnificence, and to accommodate the
merchants, but alfo to reimburfe the expence. For
this reafon a gallery was built over the four Tides of
the Royal Exchange. This was divided into 200 {hops,
which were let out to haberdafliers, milliners, &c. and
which for feveral years were well occupied. But thefe
{hops have now for a long time been deferted, and the
galleries are let out to the Royal Exchange Aflurance-
Office, the Merchant-feaman’s Office, the Marine So¬
ciety, and to au&ioneers, &c. Under the whole area
there are the fineft dry vaults that can be found any¬
where, which are let out to the Eaft India Company
to depofite their pepper. In the turret is a good clock
with four dials, which is well regulated every day, fo
that it becomes a ftandard of time to all the mercan¬
tile part of the town •, and it goes with chimes at
three, fix, nine, and twelve o’clock, playing upon
twelve bells. The outfide of this grand fabric fuffers
very much in its elegance from the (hops that furround
it, and are built within its walls ; and which are occu¬
pied by bookfellers, toymen, cutlers, hofiers, watch¬
makers, &c.
South of the Royal Exchange, and near the weft
extremity of Lombard-ftreet, is the General Pojl Office^
which is a handfome and commodious building.
In Walbrook ward is the Manjion-houfe, for the re-
fidence of the lord mayor. This edifice was begun in
1739, and finilhed in 1753. It is built of Portland
ftone, with a portico of fix fluted columns, of the
Corinthian order in the front. The bafement ftory
is very mafly, and confifts of ruftic work ; in the centre
of it is the door, which leads to the kitchen, cellars,
and other offices. On each fide rifes a flight of fteps,
leading up to the portico, in the middle of which is
the principal entry. The ftone baluftrade of the flairs
is continued along the front of the portico, and the
columns fupport a large angular pediment, adorned
with a group of figures in bas relief, reprefenting the
dignity and opulence of the city of London. It is an
extremely heavy building, of an oblong form, and its
depth is the long fide, having feveral magnificent apart¬
ments, which are not, however, well lighted, on account
of the houfes that furround it.
i Behind the Manfion-houfe is St Stephen's Church,
in Walbrook, juftly reputed the mafterpiece of the
celebrated Sir Chriftopher Wren, and faid to ex¬
ceed every modern ftrmRure in the world in proportion
and elegance.
The PTanfion-houfe, and many adjacent buildings,
ftand on the place where the Stocks-market once flood.
This took its name from a pair of flocks ere&ed near
the fpot in 1281 ; and was the great market of London
for provifions during many centuries.
In this ward is fituated one of the moft remarkable
pieces of antiquity in London. It is a great ftone,
now {landing in a cafe on the north fide of Canon-
ftreet, clofe under the fouth wall of St Swithin’s
church. It is called London-Jlone -And. was formerly
pitched edgeways on the other fide of the ftreet, oppo-
fite to where it now {lands, fixed deeply in the ground,
and ftrongly faftened with iron bars $ but for the con-
veniency of wheel-carriages it was removed to its pre-
fent fituation. This ftone is mentioned fo early as
the time of Athelftan, king of the Weft Saxons, and
« 1 . L ° N
has been carefully preferved from age to age. . Ot the
original caufe of its eredtkm no memorial remains j but
it is conjetlured, that as London was a Roman city,
this ftone might be the centre, and might ferve as an
objedt from which the diftance was computed to the
other confiderable cities or ftations in the province.
In Dowgate ward is a noted academy, called Mer- ^er«^nt'
chant-Taylors School, from its having been founded by
the merchant-taylors company, in the year 1561. It
was deftroyed by the fire of London in 1666, but was
rebuilt, and is a very large ftrudlure, with commodi-
Lotidon.
67
ous apartments for the mailers and uflrei's, and a fine
library. Sir Thomas White, lord mayor of this city,
having founded St John’s college in Oxford in I557>
appointed this fchool as a feminary for it, and efta-
bliftied at Oxford 46 fellowftiips for fcholars eleded
from this fchool. # 6S
The church of St Mary le Bow, in Cordwainers- St Mary le
ftreet ward, is the moft eminent parochial church in the £ow.
city. It was originally built in the reign of William
the Conqueror •, and Being the firft church the ileeple
of which was embelliihed with ftone arches or bows,
took thence its denomination of le Bowx It was burnt
down in the fire of 1666, but foon afterwards rebuilt.
The fteeple of this church is reckoned the moft beauti¬
ful of its kind in Eurepe. 69
In Cheap ward is Guildhall, or the townhoufe of Gu.klha.!.
London. This was originally built in 1411, but fo
damaged by the great fire already mentioned, as to
be rebuilt in 1669. The front has a Gothic appear¬
ance j and this charadler is alfo due to the two gi¬
gantic effigies which ftand within the hall. The hall
is 153 feet long, 50 broad, and 55 high, adorned with
the royal arms, and thofe of the city and its com pa
nies, as well as with feveral portraits of Engliffi fove-
reigns and judges. In this building are many apart¬
ments lor tranfa&ing the bufinefs ef the city, befides
one for each of the judicial courts, namely, that of the
King’s Bench, the Common Pleas, and the Exchequer. 7 j
In the year 1246 Cheaplide was an open field,Cheapfide.
named Crown-field, from an inn with the fign of the
crown. At that time, and even for 200 years after¬
wards, none of the ftreets of London were paved ex¬
cepting Thames-ftreet, and from Ludgate-hill to Cha-
ring-Crofs. 7r.
Go/d/mith's Hall {lands in Fofter-lane, which opens Goldfmiths
into the weft end of Cheapfide.— In this lane alfo is J1
St Martin’s le Grand, which, though furrounded byStM7ary
the city, was yet fubjedl, near three centuries, to ie Grand.
Weftminfter Abbey. A fine college was built here
in 700 by Wythred, king of Kent ; and, about the
year 1036, rebuilt and chiefly endowed by Ingelric
and Edward, two noble brothers. In 1068, it was con¬
firmed and made independent of every other eeclefiafti-
cal jurifdidlton, even that of the pope himfelf not ex¬
cepted ; and its privileges were confirmed by fuccecd-
ing monarchs. It was governed by a dean, and a
number of fecular canons. In this jurildiction a mag¬
nificent church was erefted, but pulled down in 1548,
when the college was furrendered ; alter which a tavern
was erected on the fpot. 73
A little to the weftward of Mary le Bow church The orofs
(in the adjoining ward), ftood the Crofs and Conduit Con*
in the middle of the ftreet. The former was built by
Edward I. in 1290, in memory of his queen Eleanor,
B b 2» - whofe
LON
^GTv’on. uhoft? body was refted on that fpot in its way to be
‘-“"-v—buried. Originally it had the ftatue of the queen at
full length, reftmbling exactly that at Northampton.
Having at length fallen to decay, it was rebuilt in
1441 by John Hutherby mayor of the city, at the ex¬
pence of feveral citizens, being now ornamented with
various images, as thofe of the Refurreftion, the Vir¬
gin Mary, &c. As the magnificent proceflions took
this road, it was new gilt at every public entry. After
the Reformation, the images gave fo much offence,
that it was thought proper to fubftitute that of Diana
in place of the Virgin Mary. This, however, was
relented by Queen Elizabeth, who offered a reward
for the difcovery of the offenders. As (he imagined
that a crofs, the fymbol of the Chriftian religion,
could not juftly give offence to any profeffor of that
religion, {he ordered a crofs to be placed on the fum-
mit and gilt*, but in 1643, the parliament ordered the
demolition of all croffes and other marks of Romilh fu-
perllition.
Splendid tournaments were held between the Crofs
and Sopers-lane in the year 1331 j but as Queen Phi¬
lippa and a great number of other ladies, dreffed in rich
attire, were fitting on the upper fcaffolding to behold
the fports, the feat gave way, and they fuddenly fell
down among the knights and others who flood below $
many of whom were grievoufly hurt. The carpenters
■were faved from punifhment by the interceflion of the
queen j but the king, to prevent accidents of the like
nature, ordered a building of ftone to be eredled near
Bow church, from whence the queen and other ladies
might behold fuch fpeblacles in fafety. This was ufed
for the fame purpofe till the year 1410, when Hen¬
ry IV. granted it to certain mercers, who converted it
into {hops, warehoufes, and other places neceffary for
their trade.
A fmall diftance eaftward from the Crofs flood the
Conduit, which ferved to fill the leffer ones with wa¬
ter brought by pipes from Paddington.—This flood on
the fpot where the old conduit was fituated, which was
founded in 1285, conftrufted of ftone lined with lead,
and rebuilt in 1479 by Thomas Ilan, one of the ftie-
riffs. On fome grand occafions, thefe conduits have
been made to run with claret 5 as at the coronation of
Anna Bullen.
74 ^ On the north fide of Cheapfide flood the Hofpital of
Hr" ^ Thomas of Aeon, founded by Fitz-Theobald de Hel-
les, and his wife Agnes, lifter to the famous Thomas
a Becket. The hofpital was built 20 years after the
murder of Thomas $ and fuch was his reputation for
fantlity, that it was dedicated to him even before he
was canonized, and that in conjundtion with the Vir¬
gin Mary herfelf. The whole was granted by King
Henry VIII. to the company of mercers. It was
deftroyed by the great fire in 1666 ; but rebuilt by the
mercers company, who have their hall here.—Imme¬
diately to the eaft is a narrow ftreet called the O/A
Old Jewry. Jewry> which took its name from a great fynagogue
which flood here till the Jews were expelled the king-
L O N
dom in 1291. After them an order of friars named London.
Fratres de facca, or de penitentia, took poffeflion of the
fynagogue : and in 1305, Robert Fitzwalter, the great
banner-bearer of the city, requefled that the friars
might aflign it to him j the reafon of which probably
was, that it flood near to his houfe, which was fitu¬
ated in the neighbourhood of the prelent Grocers-hall.
The chapel was bought by the grocers from Fitzwalter
in 1411 for 320 marks. ^
In Baflilhaw or Bafinghall ward, is B/achwe/l orBakewell I
Bakewe.ll hall, which adjoins to Guildhall, and is the Hall,
greateft mart of woollen cloth in the world. It was
purchafed of King Richard II. by the city j and has
ever fince been ufed as a weekly market for broad and
narrow wroollen cloths, brought out of the country.
Formerly proclamations were iffued to compel people
to bring their goods into the hall, to prevent deceit in
the manufaiffures, which might be productive of dif-
credit in foreign markets, and likew ife be the means
of defrauding the poor children of Chrift’s hofpital of
part of the revenue which arofe from the hallage of
this great magazine. It fuffered in the general deva-
ftation in 1666 ■, but was rebuilt in 1672, and is now
a fpacious edifice, with a ftone front adorned with co¬
lumns. -y
Gripplegate ward is remarkable for a college, called Sion Col- i
Sion College, founded in 1627, on the fite of Fifing-kge*
hofpital (d) or priory, by Dr Thomas White, vicar of
St Dunftan’s in the Weft, for the improvement of
the London clergy ; and with alms-houfes under their
care, for 20 poor perfons, 10 men and 10 women. In
the year 1631, a charter was procured for incorporat¬
ing the clergy of London, by which they were confti-
tuted fellows of the college j and out of the incumbents
are annually elefted, on Tuefday three weeks after
Eafter, a prefident, twro deans, and four afliftants, who
are to meet quarterly to hear a Latin fermon, and af¬
terwards be entertained at dinner in the college hall at
the expence of the foundation. John Simpfon, re£lor
of St Olave’s, who fuperintended the building, added,
at his own expence, for the ufe of the ftudious part of
the London clergy, a library 1 20 feet long, and am¬
ply filled with books. ^3
In this ward is a hall which belonged to the com-Barbers
pany of barber-furgeons, the profeflions of barber and Hall,
furgeon being formerly exercifed by the fame perfon.
It was built by the celebrated Inigo Jones, and the
upper end is formed out of one of the towers or barbi¬
cans of London wall. The anatomical theatre is el¬
liptical, and very finely contrived. The hall is now
called Barbers hall; the furgeons, who difdained to be
any longer affociated with their ancient brethren, hav¬
ing obtained a feparate charter, and built themfelves a
new hall in the Old Bailey. ^
Farringdon ward w ithin, is diftinguilhed by the St Paul’s
moft magnificent Proteftant church in the world, the Cathedral,
cathedral of St Paul. The beft authority we have for
the origin of this church, is from its great reftorer Sir
Chriftopher Wren.. His opinion, that there had been
[ 196 1
(d) This was founded by William Fifing mercer in 1329 (on the fite of a decayed nunnery), for the fup-
port of 100 blind men. He afterwards changed it into a priory, and became himfelf the firft prior, who with
four canons-regular were to fuperintend the miferable objects.
4
LON [ i
a church on this fpot, built by the Cbintians in the
time of the Romans, was confirmed : when he fearch-
ed for the foundations for his own defign, he met
with thoie of the original prejbyterium, or lemicircular
chancel, of the old church. They confifted only of
KentUh rubble ftone, artfully worked, and eonfolidated
with exceedingly hard mortar, in the Roman manner,
much excelling the fuperftruffure. He explodes the
notion of there having been here a temple of Diana,
and the difcovery of the horns of animals ufed in the
facrifices to that goddefs, on which the opinion had
been founded, no fuch having been difcovered in all his
1’ea relies.
The fir ft church is fuppofed to have been defiroyed
in the Dioclelian perfecution, and to have been re¬
built in the reign of Conftantine. This was again
demolilhed by the pagan Saxons j and reftored, in
603, by Sebert, a petty prince, ruling in thefe parts,
under Ethelbert king of Kent, the firft Chriftian
monarch of the Saxon race ; who, at the inftance of
St Auguftine, appointed Melitus the firft bilhop of
London. Erkenwald, the fon of King Offa, fourth
in fucceflion from Melitus, ornamented his cathedral
very highly, and improved the revenues with his own
patrimony. He was moft defervedly canonized : for
the very litter, in which he was carried in his laft ill-
nefs, continued many centuries to cure fevers by the
touch } and the very chips, carried to the fick, reftored
them to health !
When the city of London was deftroyed by fire, in
1086, this church was burnt; the bifhop Mauritius
began to rebuild it, and laid the foundations, which
remained till its fecond deftruftion, from the fame
caufe, in the laft century. Notwithftanding Mauri¬
tius lived twenty years after he had begun this pious
work, and Bifhop Beauvages enjoyed the fee twenty
more, yet fuch was the grandeur of the defign, that
it remained unfiniihed. The firft had the ruins of
the Palatine tower beftowed on him, as materials for
the building ; and Henry I. beftowed on Beauvages
part of the ditch belonging to the tower, which,
with purchafes made by himfelf, enabled him to en-
clofe the whole with a wall. The fame monarch grant¬
ed befides, that every fhip which brought ftone for the
church, Ihuuld be exempted from toll; he gave him
alfo all the great fifti taken in his precindls, except the
tongues: and, laftly, he fecured to him and his fuccef-
for the delicious tythes of all his venifon in the county
of EiTex.
The ftyle of th« ancient cathedral was a moft beau¬
tiful Gothic ; over the eaft end was an elegant cir¬
cular window ; alterations were made in the ends of
97 ] L O N
the two tranfepts, fo that their form is not delivered
down to us in the ancient plans ; and from the central
tower rofe a lofty and moft graceful fpire. The dimen-
fions, as taken in 1309, were thefe : The length fix
hundred and ninety feet ; the breadth a hundred and
twenty ; the height of the roof of the weft part, from
the floor, one hundred and two ; of the eaft part, a
hundred and eighty-eight ; of the tower, two hundred
and fixty ; of the fpire, which was made of wood cover¬
ed with lead, two hundred and leventy-four. The
whole fpace the church occupied was three acres, three
roods, and twenty-one perches.
We may be aftonilhed at this amazing building, and
naturally inquire what fund could fupply money to
fupport fo vaft an expence. But monarchs refigned
their revenues refulting from the cuftoms due for the
materials, which were brought to the adjacent wharfs :
they furniftied wood from the royal forelis: prelates
gave up much of their revenues ; and, what was more
than all, by the pious bait of indulgences, and rCmil-
fions of penance, brought in from the good people of
this realm moft amazing fums. Pope Innocent III.
in 1252, gave a releafe of fixty days penance; the
archbiftiop of Cologne gave, a few years before, a re¬
laxation of fifty days ; and Boniface archbifliop of
Canterbury, forty days.
The high altar dazzled with gems and gold, the
gifts of its numerous votaries. John king of France,
when prifoner in England, nrft paying his refpefts to
St Erkenwald’s ftirine, offered four bafons of gold :
and the gifts at the obfequies of princes, foreign and
Britifh, were of immenfe value. On the day of the
converfion of the tutelar faint, the charities were pro¬
digious, firft to the fouls, when an indulgence of forty
.days pardon was given, vere pcenitentibus, contritis et
conf jjh ; and, by order of Henry HI. fifteen hundred
tapers were placed in the church, and fifteen thoufand
poor people fed in the churchyard.
The holinefs of this place did not prevent thieves
and profligates of all denominations from lurking w ithin
the precinfts, and committing, under the favour of the
night, murders and every fort of crime. Edward I.
gave the dean and canons permiffion to enclofe the
whole within a wall ; and to have gates to be ftiut
every night, to exclude all diforderly people. • Within
thefe walls, on the north-weft fide, was the biftiop’s
palace. Froiffart tells us, that after the great tour¬
nament in Smithfield, King Edward III. and his queen
lodged here, on occafion of their nuptials (e).—In
1561, the noble fpire was totally burnt by lightning,
and never reftored.
In confequence of the refolutions taken in 1620, by
James I.
London.
(e) Before this cathedral was the famous Paul's Crofs, a pulpit formed of wood, mounted upon fteps of
ftone, and covered with lead, in which the moft eminent divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in the
forenoon. To this place, the court, the mayor and aldermen, and principal citizens, ufed to refort. The
greateft part of the congregation fat in the open air ; the king and his train had covered galleries ; and the bet¬
ter fort of people were alfo protected from the injury of the weather; but the far greater part flood expofed in
the open air : for wrhich reafon the preacher went in very bad weather to a place called the Shrouds; a covered
fpace on the fide of the church, to protect the congregation in inclement feafons. Confiderable contributions were
raifed among the nobility and citizens, to fupport fuch preachers as were (as was often the cafe) called to town
from either of the univerfities. In particular, the lord mayor and aldermen ordered that every preacher, who
came from a diftance, ftiould be freely accommodated, during five days, with fweet and convenient lodgings,
candle,,
’London.
LON [ 198 ) LON
James I. to repair the cathedral, the celebrated Inigo
Jones was appointed to the work. But it was not at¬
tempted till the year 1633, when Laud laid the firft
ftone, and Inigo the fourth. That great architect
begun with a mod notorious impropriety, giving to
the weft end a portico of the Corinthian order, beau¬
tiful indeed, to this ancient Gothic pile $ and to the
ends of the two tranfepts Gothic fronts in a moft hor¬
rible ftyle. The great fire made way for the reftoring
of this magnificent pile in its prefent noble form by
Sir Chriftopher Wren, an architeft worthy of fo great
a defign.
It is built of fine Portland ftone, in form of a crofs.
sOn the outfide are two ranges of pilafters, confifting
of a hundred and twenty each •, the lower range of
the Corinthian order, and the upper of the Compofite.
The fpaces between the arches of the windows and
the architrave of the lower order, are filled with a
great variety of curious enrichments, as are alfo thofe
aboVe. On the north fide is a portico, the afcent to
which is by twelve fteps of black marble, and its dome
fupported by fix very large columns. Over the dome
is a pediment, the face of which is engraved with the
royal arms, regalia, and other ornaments. On the
fcuth is a portico, the afcent to which is by twenty-
five fteps, and its dome fupported by fix columns, cor-
refponding with thofe on the north fide. The weft
front is graced with a moft magnificent portico, fup¬
ported by twelve lofty Corinthian columns : over thefe
are eight columns of the Compofite order, which fup-
pcrt a noble pediment, crowned with its acroteria, and
in this pediment is the hiftory of St Paul’s converfion,
boldly carved in bas relief. The afcent to this portico
is by a flight ef fteps of black marble, extending the
whole length of the portico j and over each corner of
the weft front is a beautiful turret. A vaft dome, or
cupola, rifes in the centre of the building. Twenty
feet above the roof of the church is a circular range
of thirty-two columns with niches, placed exa&ly
againft others within. Thefe are terminated by their
entablature, which fupports a handfome gallery, adorn¬
ed with a ftone balluftrade. Above the columns laft
mentioned is a range of pilafters, with windows be¬
tween them : and from the entablature of thefe, the
diameter of the dome gradually decreafes. On the
fummit of the dome is an elegant balcony, from the
centre of which runs a beautiful lanthorn, adorned
with Corinthian columns. The whole is crowned
with a copper ball, fupporting a crofs, both finely gilt.
Within, the cupola ftands on eight ftupendous pillars
curioufly adorned : the roof of the choir is fupported
by fix pillars, and that of the church by two ranges,
confifting of twenty more. The roof of the church
and choir is adorned with arches and fpacious periphe¬
ries of enrichments, admirably carved in ftone. Quite
round the infide of the cupola, there is a whifpering
iron balcony, or gallery, the top of which is richly
painted by Sir James Thornhill.
The firft ftone of this fuperb edifice was laid on
June 21. 1675 ; and the building was completed in
1710 j but the whole decorations were not finilhed till
1723. It was a moft Angular circumftance, that, not-
withftanding it was 35 years in building, it was begun
and finilhed by one architect, and under one prelate,
Henry Compton biftiop of London. The church of
St Peter’s was 135 years in building, in the reigns of
19 popes, and went through the hands of twelve archi¬
tects. It is not, as often miftaken, built after the mo¬
del of that famous temple : it is the entire conception
of our great countryman, and has been preferred in
fome refpe&s by a judicious writer, to even the Roman
Bafilica. Its dimenfions are lefs. The comparative
view is given in the Parentalia, and copied in London
and its Environs. The height of St Peter’s, to the
top of the crofs, is 437 feet and a half; that of St Paul’s
34O feet ; fo that, from its fituation, it is lofty enough
to be feen from the fea. The length of the firft is 729
feet ; of the latter, 500. The greateft breadth of
St Peter’s is 364; of St Paul’s, 180.
In the reigns of James I. and Charles I. the body
of this cathedral w-as the common refort of the poli¬
ticians, the news-mongers, and idle in general. It
vras called Paul's tvalk; and is mentioned in the old
plays and other books of the times.
Notwithftanding the magnificence of this noble pile,
however, it is remarked to have many defeCls. Its
fituation is fuch, that it cannot be view-ed at a diftance.
The divifion of the porticos, and the whole ftruClure,
into two ftories on the outfide, certainly indicates a like
divifion within, which is acknowledged to be a fault.
The dome, it has alfo been obferved, bears too great a
proportion to the reft of the pile, and ought to have
been raifed exactly in the centre of the building ; be-
fides that, there ought to have been two fteeples at the
eaft end, to correfpond tfith tliofe at the weft. On
entering this church, we inftantly perceive an obvious
deficiency, not only of elevation but length, to affift
the perfpeftive 5 and the columns are heavy and clumfy,
rather encumbering the profpeft than enriching it.
St Paul’s occupies an area of fix acres, and is railed
all round with iron baluftrades, each about five feet
and a half high, fixed on a dwarf wall of hewn
ftone. In the weft end of this area is a marble ftatue
of Queen Anne, holding a fceptre in one hand, and a
globe
London.
candle, and all neceffaries. And notice was given by the biftiop of London, to the preacher appointed by him, of
the place he was to repair to.
We hear of this being in ufe as early as the year 1259. ^ was as Pennant obferves, not only for
the inftruftion of mankind by the dodtrine of the preacher, but for every purpofe political or ecclefiaftical-j for
giving force to oaths, for promulging ef laws, or rather the royal pleafure, for the emiflion of papal bulls,
fer anathematizing finners, for benedidlions, for expofing of penitents under cenfure of -the church, for recan¬
tations, for the private ends of the ambitious, and for the defaming of thofe who had incurred the difpleafure of
crowned heads.
It was demoliftied in 1643 ^7 order of parliament, executed by the willing hands of Ifaac Pennington the
^gnatical lord mayor of that year, who died in the Tower a convidted regicide.
(
LON
t '99 ]
LON
So
College of
Ph) fid an Si
Ch rift’s
HofpitaL
La,don. globe in tbe other, furrounded with four emblematical
■—figures reprefenting Great Britain, France, Ireland,
and America.
Befides very large contributions for carrying on
this edifice, the parliament granted a duty on fea-coal,
■which, at a medium, produced 5000I. a year ; and the
whole ex pence of the building is faid to have amounted
to 736,752!. 2s. 3d.
On the ealt fide of the cathedral is St Paul's School,
founded in 1509 by Dr John Collet dean of this
church, who endowed it for a principal mafter, an un-
der-mafter, a chaplain, and 153 fcholars.
In Warwick-lane, in the fame ward, Hands the Col¬
lege of Physicians, eretted in 1682 by Sir Chriftopher
Wren. It is built of brick, and has a fpacious ftone
frontifpiece. Near the fouth extremity of the Old
Bailey, on the eaft fide, is the hall of the Company of
Surgeons, with a theatre for difie&ion.
. Adjoining to Chrift-church in Newgate-ftreet is
Chrift's Hofpital, which, before the diflblution of nao-
nafteries by Henry VIII. was a houfe of Gray-friars.
The hofpital was founded by King Edward VI. for
fupporting and educating the fatherlefs children of
poor freemen of this city 5 of whom 1000 of both
fexes are generally maintained in the houfe or out at
nurfe, and are likewife clothed and educated. In
1673, a mathematical fchool was founded here by
Charles H. endowed with 320I. a-year j and a writ¬
ing fchool was added in 1694 by Sir John Moor, an
alderman of the city. After the boys have been feven
or eight years on the foundation, fome are fent to the
univerfity and others to fea \ while the reft, at a pro¬
per age, are put apprentices to trades at the charge of
the hofpital. At firft their habit was a ruffet cotton,
but was foon after changed for blue, which has ever
fince continued to be their colour j and on this account
the foundation is frequently called the Blue-coat hofjntal.
The affairs of this charity are managed by a prefident
and about 300 governors, befides the lord mayor and
aldermen. The fabric, which is partly Gothic and
partly modern, was much damaged by the fire of 1666,
but was foon repaired, and has been fince increaled
with feveral additions. The principal buildings, which
form the four fides of an area, have a piazza round
them with Gothic arches, and the walls are fupported
by abutments. The front is more modern, and has
Doric pilafters fupported on pedeftals.
In Caftle-Baynard ward is a large ftru&ure called
Do&ors Commons* It confifts of feveral handfome pa¬
ved courts, in which the judges of the court of admiral¬
ty, thofe of the court of delegates, of the court of arches,
and the prerogative court, with the dodlers that plead
caufes, and the proftors of the place, all live in a col¬
legiate way •, and from commoning together, as in
other colleges, the name of Doftors Commons is de¬
rived. Here courts are kept for the trial of civil and
ecclefiaftical caufes under the archbiftiop of Canterbury
and the biftiop of London. The college has an excel¬
lent library, every bifliop at his confecration giving
25I. or 50I. towards purchafing books for it.
Near Do&ors Commons, on St Bennet’s Hill, is the
College of Heralds, who were incorporated by King
Richard III. Befides the chief officer, rvho is the
earl-marffial of England, here are three kings at arms,
I
London.
8a
Dodlors
Commons.
College of
Heralds.
viz. Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy, with fix heralds,
four purfuivants, and eight pro&ors. Garter attends
the inftalments of knights of that order, carries the
garter to foreign prince^, regulates the ceremonies at
coronations, and the funerals of the royal family and
nobility : Clarencieux dire&s the funeral ceremonies
of thofe under the degree of peers fouth of Trent;
and Norroy performs the like office for thofe north of
Trent. This building was originally the houfe of the
earl of Derby. It is a fpacious quadrangle, built of
brick, and has convenient apartments. Here are kept
records of the coats of arms of all the families and
names in England, with an account when they were
granted, and on what occafion.
In Farringdon ward without, is a large building BridewelL
called Bridewell, from a fpring formerly known by the
name of St Bridget’s or St Bride’s Well. It was ori¬
ginally a royal palace, and occupied all the ground
from Fleet-ditch on the eaft to Water-lane on the weft.
That part of it now called Salijbury-court was given to
the biihops of Salifbury for their town refidence ; and
the eaft part, which w as rebuilt by King Henry VIII.
is the prefent Bridewell. It was granted to the city
by Edward VI. as an hufpital } and he endowed it for
the lodging of poor travellers, and for the corre&ion
of vagabonds, {trumpets, and idle perfons, as well as
for finding them work. In one part of the building
20 artificers have houfes j and about 150 boys, dil-
tinguiffied by white hats and blue doublets, are put
apprentices to glovers, flaxdreffers, weavers, &c. and
when they have ferved their time are entitled to the
freedom of the city, with 10I. towards carrying on
their refpe&ive trades. The other part of Bridewell
is a receptacle for diforderly perfons, who are kept at
beating hemp and other hard labour.
Near Bridewell is St Bride's Church, a {lately fabric
in feet long, 57 broad, and 41 high, with a beautiful
fpire 234 feet in altitude, and has a ring of 12 bells in
its tower. 85
Oppofite to Fleet-ditch, over this part of the river, Blackfriars
Hands Blackfriars Bridge; a moft elegant ftructure, Bridge,
built after the defign of Mr Robert Mylne. The
fituation of the ground on the two {bores obliged the
architefl to employ elliptical arches ; which, however,
have a very fine effeft. The number of arches is nine j
of which the centre one is 100 feet wide. The whole
length is 995 feet j the breadth of the carriage-way is
28 feet, and that of the two foot ways 7 each. Over
each pier is a recefs j an apology for the beautiful
Ionic pillars which fupport them, and which have a
moft beautiful effe& from the river. This bridge was
begun in 1760 j and finiffied in 1768, at the expence
of 152,840!. to be difcharged by a toll upon the paf-
fengers. It is fituated almoft at an equal diftance be¬
tween thofe of Weftminfter and London, commands a
view of the Thames frmr* the latter to Whitehall, and
difcovers the majefty of St Paul’s in a very ftriking
manner. S6
Weji Smithfield. In this ward is an area containing Smithfield.
three acres of ground, called in old records Smithjield-
Pond or Horfe Pool, it having been formerly a watering
place for horfes. It was in ancient times the common
place of execution ; and at the fouth-weft corner there
was a gallows called the Elms, from a number of elm-
trees
LON [ 200 ] LON
London.
87
St Bartho¬
lomew’s
IJofpital.
88
Old Bailey.
89
Newgate.
99
Fleet-pri-
fon.
trees that grew in the neighbourhood. It was like-
wife the fcene of public jufts and tournaments, and has
been a market-place for cattle above 900 years.
On the fouth fide of this, area, and contiguous to
Chriit’s hofpital, is St Bari/io/omew's Hofpital. It was
originally founded foon after the acceffion of Henry I.
by Rahere the king’s jefter, as an infirmary for the
priory of St Bartholomew' the Great, which then Hood
near the fpot. But upon the diffolution of religious
houfes, Henry VIII. refounded it, and endowed it
with 500 marks a-year, on condition that the citizens
fhould pay the fame fum annually for the relief of 100
Jame and infirm patients. The endowments of this
charity have fince been fo much enlarged, that it now
receives the diltreffed of all denominations. In 1702,
a beautiful frontifpiece w'as creeled towards Smithfield,
adorned with pilafters, entablature, and a pediment of
the Ionic order, with a ilatue of King Henry VIII.
Handing in a niche in full proportion, and thofe of two
cripples on the top of the pediment over it. In 1729,
a plan was formed for rebuilding the reft of this hofpi¬
tal, in confequence of which a magnificent edifice has
been eredted.
Among many other privileges granted by Henry I.
to the prior and canons of the monaftery of St Bar¬
tholomew the Great, and to the poor of the infirmary,
was that of keeping a fair in Smithfield on the eve,
day, and morrow, of St Bartholomew. This fair,
called Bartholomew fair, has been held annually ever
lince : and by the indulgence of the magiftrates of
London, to whom the privilege of keeping it devolved
upon the difiblution of the priory, it ufed to continue
a fortnight. A great number of booths was eredled
in it by the adlors of the theatres, for the exhibition
of dramatic performances of various kinds ; and it be¬
came at length a fcene of fo much licentioufnefs and
riot, that Sir John Barnard w'hen lord mayor of Lon¬
don reduced the time of the fair to its original dura¬
tion of three days. This laudable example has been
followed ever fince j and the magiftrates have likewife
prohibited all public exhibitions which had been for¬
merly accompanied wdth fo much diforder.
In a ftreet in this ward, called the Old Baileij, is a
hall named Jujlice hall, or the Seffiori's houfe, where a
court is held eight times a-year by the king’s com-
miflion of oyer and terminer for the trial of criminals
for offences committed within the city of London and
county of Middlefex. The judges of this court arc
the lord mayor, thofe of the aldermen that have ferved
that office, and the recorder \ w ho are attended by the
Iheriffs and by one or more of the national judges.
In this ftreet is alfo the great criminal prifon, lately
built in a much more convenient fituation, and on a
more enlarged plan, than the former prifon, called
Newgate: by which name it is Hill diftinguiffied.
Here the unfortunate debtert will no longer be an¬
noyed by the dreadful rattle of chains, or by the more
horrid founds iffuing from the lips of thofe wretched
beings who fet defiance to all laws divine and human j
and here alfo, the offender, whofe crime is not capital,
may enjoy all the benefits of a free open air.
In this ward is likewife a prifon called the Fleet
Prifon, from a fmall river named the Fleet which for¬
merly ran by it: this building is large, and reckoned
the beft in the city for good rooms and other conve¬
niences. It has the benefit of a large yard, which London,
is enclofed w ith a very high wall. This prifon is asl"—
ancient as the reign of Richard I. and belongs to the
court of chancery, &e. . t
In Chancery-lane, in this ward, is an office confift-The R0II5.
ing of a houfe and chapel, called the office and chapel
of the Rolls, from being the great repofitory of the
modern public rolls and records of the kingdom. This
building was originally the houfe of an eminent Jew j
but being forfeited to the crown, King Henry III. in
the year 1223 converted it into a holpital for the
reception and accommodation of Jewifti and other pro-
felytes. In I377? Edward III. granted this hofpital
and its chapel to William Burftall, mailer of the rolls,
to whofe fucceffors in that office it has ever fince be¬
longed. Round this office there is a fmall diftrift
confifting of about 200 houfes, called the Liberty of
the Rolls, over which the magiftrates of London have
no authority, it being under the government of the
mailer of the rolls.
In this ward are feveral Inns of court and chancery,
particularly the Inner and Middle Temple, Serjeants
Inn, Clifford’s Inn, Barnard’s Inn, Staple’s Inn, and
Futnival’s Inn. 91
The Temple received its name from being originally The Tem.
founded by the Knights Templars, w'ho fettled herePle*
in 118 if. It was at firft called the Ntw Temple, to
diftinguilh it from the former houle of the Knights
Templars, which Hood in Holborn near Chancery
lane.
The original building was divided into three parts;
the Inner, the Middle, and the Outer Temple. The
Inner and the Outer Temple were fo called, becaufe
one was within and the other was without the Bar ;
and the Middle derived its name from being fituated
between them. Upon the diffolution of the order of
Knights Templars, the New Temple devolved to the
Knights Hofpitallevs of St John of Jerulalem, who
granted a leafe of it to the ftudents of the common law,
and converted that part of it called Inner and Middle
Temple into two inns of court for the ftudy and prac¬
tice of the common law. The Outer Temple became
a houfe for the earl of Effex.
The buildings of the Temple efcaped the fire in
1666, but were moll of them deftroyed by fublequent
fires, and have fince been rebuilt. The two Temples
are each divided into feveral courts, and have pleafant
gardens on the banks of the Thames. They are ap¬
propriated to diftinfl focieties, and have feparate halls,
where the members dine in common during term-time.
The Inner Temple hall is faid to have been built in
the reign of Edward III. and the Middle Temple hall,
which is a magnificent edifice, was rebuilt in 1572
in form of a college hall. The Middle Temple gate,
Mr Pennant informs us, was eredted by Sir Amias
Powlet on a lingular occafion. It feems that Sir A-
mias, about the year 150J thought fit to put Cardi¬
nal Wolfey, then parfon of Lymington, into the Ilock^.
In 1515, being fent for to London by the cardinal on
account of that ancient grudge, he was commanded
not to quit town till farther orders. In confequence,
he lodged five or fix years in this gateway, which he
rebuilt; and to pacify his eminence, adorned the front
with the cardinal’s cap, badges, cognifance, and other
devices of this butcher’s fon j fo low were the great
meb
L ON f 2v
London, men obliged to ttoop to that meteor of the times !
>—*   Each temple has a good library, adorned with paint¬
ings, and well furnilhed with books. An affembly,
called a parliament, in which the affairs of the fuciety
of the Inner Temple are managed, is held there every
term. Both Temples have one church, firft founded
in 1185, by the Knights Templars j but the prefent
edifice is fuppofed to have been built in 1420. It is
fupported by neat flender pillars of Suffex marble, and
is one of the moft beautiful Gothic ftrudtures in Eng¬
land. In this church are many monuments, particu¬
larly of nine Knights Templars cut in marble in full
proportion, lome of them feven feet and a half long j
fix are crofs-legged, and therefore fuppofed to have
been engaged in the crufades. The minifler of this
church, who is ufually called the majler of the Temple,
is appointed by the benchers or fenior members of both
focieties, and prefented by a patent from the crown.
Shakefpeare (whether from tradition or hiftory) makes
the Temple garden the place in which the badge of the
white and red rofe originated-, the diflinftive badge of
the houfes of York and Lancafter, under which the
refpedtive partiz^ns of each arranged themfelves in the
fatal quarrel which caufed fuch torrents of Englifh
blood to flow.
Near the Temple bar is the Devil's Tavern, fo called
from its fign of St Dunftan feizing the evil fpirit by
the nofe with a pair of hot tongs. Ben Johnfon has im¬
mortalized it by 'tils'Leges Conviviales, which he wrote
for the regulation of a club of wits held in a room he
dedicated to Apollo j over the chimney-piece of which
they are preferved. The tavern was in his days kept
by Simon Wadloe j whom, in a copy of verfes over the
door of the Apollo, he dignified with the title of King
of Skinkers.
Serjeants Inn is a fmall inn in Chancery-lane, where
the judges and ferjeants have chambers, but not houfes,
as they had in another inn of this name in Fleet-ftreet,
which they abandoned in 1730 j but in each of them
there is a hall and a chapel. Clifford's Inn is an inn of
chancery belonging to the Inner Temple. It was ori¬
ginally a houfe granted by Edward II. to the family
of the Cliffords, from which it derived its name 5 but
was afterwards let upon leafe to the ftudents of the
law, and in the reign of Edward III. fold to the mem¬
bers of this fociety. Bernard's Inn is likewife an inn of
chancery belonging to Gray’s Inn. It (lands in Holborn,
and was the houfe of John Mack worth, dean of Lincoln,
who gave it to the profeffors of the law. Staple's Inn
belongs alfo to Gray’s Inn, and is fituated in Holborn.
It was once a hall for the merchants of the llaple for
wool, whence it derives its name j but it was purchafed
by the benchers of Gray’s Inn, and has been an inn
of chancery fince the year 1415. Fnrnival's Inn is an
inn of chancery belonging to Lincoln’s Inn, and was
once the houfe of the family of the Furnivals, by whom
it was let out to the profeflbrs of the law. It is a large
old building, with a hall and a pleafant garden.
In Coleman-ftreet ward, on the fouth fide of a large
fquare called Mooffelds, flood Bethlehem IIoff it a /, fo u n d -
ed in 1675 by the lord mayor and citizens of London
for the reception and cure of poor lunatics. It was a
noble edifice, built with brick and (tone, and adorned
w ith pilafters, entablatures, and fculpture ; particularly
with the figures of two lunatics ever the prand gate.
Vgl. XII. Part I.
i j L O N
which are well executed. This building w-as 540 feet
Londi)».
93
Inns of
Chancery
„ 94
Bethlehem
Hofpital.
95
long and 40 broad, exclufive of two wings of a later v
ereftion, intended for the reception of fuch lunatics as
were deemed incurable. This hofpital contained a great
number of convenient cells or apartments, where the
patients were maintained and received all medical aflift-
ance without any other expence to their friends than
that of bedding. The (Irufture was divided into twm
(lories, through each of which ran a long galldry from
one end of the houfe to the other. On the fouth fide
were the cells, and on the north the windows that gave
light to the galleries, which were divided in the middle
by handfome iron gates, to keep the men and women
feparate. This hofpital being pulled down, it is intend¬
ed to ereft another building for the ufe of the fame
charity, at a (liort diftance from the metropolis. A new
road is to be opened from the fite of the old hofpital to
the Royal Exchange.
Oppofite to Bethlehem hofpital (toed that of St St Luke’s
Luhe, a long plain building, till of late appropriated toHolpital-
the fame purpofes, but wholly independent of the for¬
mer. It was founded on the humane coniideration
that Bethlehem was incapable of receiving all the mi-
ferable objefts which were offered. Gf late years the
patients were removed from the old hofpital to a new
one erected under the fame name in Old-ftreet, on the
plan of the former, extending in front 492 feet. The
old hofpital is now pulled down, and replaced by a
handfome row of houfes. Uncured patients may be
taken in again, by a very liberal regulation, on the pay¬
ment of five (hillings a week ; fothat their friends may,
if they choofe, try a fecond time the force of medicine
on their unhappy relations or acquaintances.
Befides the three markets already mentioned atDjffgrenf
Smithfield for cattle and hay, at Leadenhall for but-markets,
chers meat, wool, hides, and Colcheller baize, and
at Billingfgate for Lftr 5 there are in this city the fol¬
lowing other markets, which are all very confiderable,
viz. Honey-lane, Newgate, and Fleet-market, chiefly
for flefh, though with feparate divifions for fiflr, butter,
eggs, poultry, herbs, and fruit j and the Three-Cranes
market, for apples and other fruit. The principal corn-
market is held in a neat exchange fituated in Market-
lane, and that for flour at Queenhithe. In Thames-
(Ireet, near Billingfgate, there is an exchange for dealers
in coals and mailers of veffels in that trade to tranfaeffc
their bufinels.
II. The borough of SOUTH JVAKK. It was called 2. Borough
by the Saxons Suth, or the <l South work,” in refpe£lot Sout!l ■
to fome fort or fortification bearing that afpe£l fromlts
London. If was alfo called the Borough, or 1 &"Ci
probably from the fame reafon. It was long inde¬
pendent of the city of London : but, in confideration
of the inconveniences arifing from the efcape of ma¬
lefactors from the great capital into this place, it was
in 1327 granted by Edward III. to the city, on pay¬
ment of 10I. annually It was then called the village
of Southwark j it w'as afterwards (lyled the' bailiwick
of Southwark, and the mayor and commonalty of Lon¬
don appointed the bailiff. This power, however, not
being fuflicient to remedy the evil, a more intimate
connexion was thought neceffary 5 and in the reign of
Edward VI. on a valuable confideration paid to the
crown, it was formed into a 26th w-ard, by the title of
Bridge-Ward Without; with a refervation of certain
C c privileges
London.
fi8
Courts.
99
Prifons.
100
Fariflies,
Stc.
L O' N [ 20
privileges enjoyed there by the archbifhop of Canter¬
bury and fmne other ecclefiaftics. In confequence of
this, it was fubje£led to the lord mayor of London,
with the fteward and bailiff. But Southwark being
divided into two parts, this is to be underftood of the
divifion called the Borough Liberty^ which confifts of
three of the parilhes belonging to the town, with the
greater part of a fourth pariih. For the city divifion,
the lord mayor by his fteward holds a court of record
every Monday at the feftions houfe on St Margaret s
Hill in this borough for all debts, damages, and tref-
paffes within the limits of his jurifdiaion. The other
divifion is called the Clinh, or the Manor of Southwark,
and is fubdivided into the Great Liberty, the Guild¬
hall, and the King’s Manor •, for each of which fubdi-
viiions a court-leet is held, where the conftables, ale¬
conners, and flelh-tafters, are chofen, and other bufi-
nefs of this kind tranfa&ed. A court-houfe, called
Union Hall, has lately been built in the new ftreet
called Union-fireet, which leads in a direft line from
the high-ftreet in the Borough to Great Surry-ftreet
Blackfriars road. The Clink liberty is under the ju¬
rifdiaion of the biftiop of Winchefter, who, befides a
court-leet, keeps here a court of record on the Bank-
fide near St Saviour’s church, by his fteward or bailiff,
for pleas of debts, damages, and trefpaffes. Court-leets
are allb kept at Lambeth, Bermondfey, and Rother-
hithe, three fmall diftrias adjoining to the Borough.
There is a compter for the imprifonment of offenders
in the bailiwick, and another for the Clink liberty}
to which may be added the Surry workhoufe for va¬
grants. Befides thefe, there is the Marftialfea pnfon,
which is the county guol for telons, and the admiralty
gaol for pirates (g) } in which is a court, firft ereaed
for trials of caufes between the. king’s domeftics or
menial fervants, of which the knight-marfhal is prefi-
dent, and his fteward judge, to whom belong four
counfellors and fix attorneysj and the court is held
every Friday, by him, or his deputy, for debt, damages,
and trefpaffes, in caufes for JO miles round Whitehall,
excepting London. In this quarter is alfo the King s
Bench prifon, the rules of which are above two miles
in circuit, and comprife the greateft part of St George’s
Fields. Here was committed Henry prince of Wales,
afterwards King Henry V. by the fpirited and honeft
Judge Gafcoigne, for ftriking or infulting him on the
bench. In this prifon the allowance is fomewhat bet¬
ter than that of the common prifons j.for which rea-
fon, many debtors remove themfelf hither by habeas
corpus. It is properly a place of confinement in all
cafes triable in the King’s Bench court.—The fiift
time that Southwark is mentioned in hiftory is on oc-
cafion of Earl Goodwin’s failing up the river to at¬
tack the royal navy of 50 ftiips lying before the palace
of Weftminfter : this was in 1052, when we are told
he went ad Suthweorce, and ftaid there till the return
of the tide.
Southwark confifts of the pariflies of St Olave,
2 ] LON
St Saviour, St George, and St Thomas; the parifti of London.
Chrift-church, though contiguous to the borough, is in J
the county of Surry.
The principal church in Southwark is that of St Sa¬
viour, which was formerly a priory of regular canons.
Being dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and fituated near
the bank of the Thames, it was called St Mary Over
Ree, or Overy, by which appellation it is commonly
known. This church is built in the manner of a ca¬
thedral, with three aifles from eaft to weft, and a crofs
aifle. It is reckoned the largeft pariflr-church in Eng¬
land, the three aifles firft mentioned meafuring 269
feet in length, and the crofs aifle 109 feet. The height
within is 47 feet, and it has a tower with four fpires
150 feet high.
Not far from St George’s church ftood the magnifi¬
cent palace of Charles Brandon duke of Suffolk, the
deferved favourite of Henry VIII. After his death,
in 1545, it came into the king’s hands, who eftabliftied
here a royal mint. It at that time was called South¬
wark Place, and in a great meafure preferved its dig¬
nity. Edward VI. once dined in it. His After and
fucceffor prefented it to Heath, archbiftiop of York,
as an inn or refidence for him and his fucceffors when¬
ever they repaired to London. As to the Mint, it
became a fanftuary for infolvent debtors*, but at length
becoming the peft of the neighbourhood, by giving
{belter to villains of every fpecies, that awakened the
attention of parliament *, which by the ftatutes 8 and
9 Will. III. 9 George I. and 11 George I. entirely
took away its abufive privileges. I0I
In the parifti of Chrift-church, near the w*ater on Ancient j
Bankfide, ftood Paris-garden, one of the ancient play- places of ;
houfes of our metropolis. Ben Johnfon is reproacheddiverfl(,n*
by one Decker, an envious critic, with his ill fuccefs
on the ftage, and in particular with having performed
the part of Zuliman at Paris-garden. It feems to
have been much frequented on Sundays. This pro¬
fanation (Mr Pennant obferves) was at length fully
puniftied by the dire accident which befel the fpe&a-
tors in 1582, when the fcaffolding fuddenly fell., and
multitudes of people wrere killed or miferably maimed.
The omen feems to have been accepted *, for in the
next century the manor of Paris-garden was ere&ed
into a parifti, and a church founded under the name of
Chrift’s.
Beyond this place of amufement were the Bear-gar¬
den and place for baiting of bulls, the Britijh circi;
“ Herein (fays Stow) were kept beares, bulls, and
other beafts to be bayted * as alfo maftives in feveral
kennels nouriflied to bayt them. Thefe beares and
other beafts are there kept in plots of ground fcaffblded
about for the beholders to ftand fafe.” This was then
an amufement for perfons of the firft rank : our great,
if not good, Elizabeth caufed the French ambaffadors
to be carried to this theatre, to divert them with thefe
bloody fpe&acles. _ 10a I
Not far from thefe feenes of cruel paftime was the jhe Ste>v
Bordello
cG) In 1277 this prifon was broken open by a mob of failors, who murdered a gentleman confined in it for
killing one of their comrades, and who had been pardoned by the court. It was again broken open by Wat
Tyler and his followers in 1381. It efcaped in the infamous riots of 1780, while the King s Bench, the Bo¬
rough Prifon, and the Clink Prifon, .were nearly at the fame inftant facrificed to their fury.
London.
LON [20
Bordello or Stews, permitted and openly licenfed by
1 government, under certain laws or regulations. They
were farmed out. Even a lord mayor did not difdain
to own them : but rented them to the Froes, that is,
“ the bawds,” of Flanders. Among other Angular
regulations, no ftewholder was to admit married wo¬
men ; nor were they to keep open their houfes on Sun-
• days 5 nor were they to admit any women who had on
them the perilous infirmity of burning. Fhefe infamous
houfes were very properly fuppreffed in the reign of
Henry VIII.
The bifhop of Winchefter had formerly a palace
here with a park (the fame that is now called South-
warle-parh'), which is fince converted into warehoufes
and tenements, held by leafe Irom the bifhops of that
fee* *
St Thomas’s Befides feveral alms-houfes, there are here St 1 ho-
Hoipital. mas's and Guy's Uofpital, two of the’ noble ft endow¬
ments in England. The former was firft ere&ed in
1215 by Peter de Rupibus, biftiop of Winchefter, who
endowed it with land to the amount of 343I. a-year j
from which time it was held of the abbots of Bermond-
fey, one of whom in 1428 granted a right to the mafter
of the hofpital to hold all the lands it was then in pof-
feflion of belonging to the faid abbot and convent, the
whole revenue of which did not exceed 266k 17s- 6d.
per annum. In the year 1551, after the citizens of
London had purchafed of Edward VI. the manor of
Southwark and its appurtenances, of which this hof¬
pital was a part, they expended iiool. in repairing
and enlarging the edifice, and immediately received
into it 260 patients; upon which the king in 1553
incorporated this hofpital with thofe of Chrift-church
and Bridewell in the city of London. The building
being much decayed, three beautiful fquares adorned
-with colonnades were ere&ed by voluntary fubfcription
in 1693, to which in 1732 the governors added a mag¬
nificent building, confifting of feveral wards with pro¬
per offices. The annual diftmrfements of this hofpital
have for many years amounted to 8000I. I he houfe
Is divided into 19 wards, and is faid to contain 474
beds.
Adjoining to St Thomas’s Hands Guy's Hofpital, per¬
haps the moft extenfive charitable foundation that ever
was eftablifhed by one man in private life. The found¬
er of this hofpital was Thomas Guy, a bookfeller in
Lombard-ftreet, London, who lived to fee the edifice
roofed in ; and at his death, in 17245 238,292k
16s. including the expence of the building, to finilh
and endow it. This hofpital confifts of two capacious
fquares, containing 12 wards and 435 beds. It W'as
incorporated by charter from parliament, and the firft
governors were appointed in 1725'
In St George’s Fields, weftw-ard of the King’s Bench
prifon, is the Magdalen Hofpital for the reception of
penitent proftitutes; a little farther is fituated the Afy-
lum for orphan girls ; and not far diftant is the Weft-
minfter Lying-in Hofpital: Inftitutions, of which the
following feeling and animated account is given by
Mr Pennant.
“ The Afylum is an inftitution of a moft heavenly
nature, calculated to fave from perdition of foul and
body the brighter part of the creation ; fuch on whom
Providence hath beftowed angelic faces and elegant
forms, defigned as bleffings to mankind, but too often
104
Guy’s Hof¬
pital.
i°5
The Aly-
lum.
3 ] LON
debafed to the vileft ufes. The hazard that thefe inno-, Lon^on- ,
cents conftantly are liable to from a thoufand tempta¬
tions, from poverty, from death of parents, froip the
diabolical procurefs, and often from the itupendous
wickednefs of parents themfelves, who have been known
to fell their beauteous girls for the purpofe of proftitu-
tion, induced a worthy band to found in the year
1758 the Afylum, or Houfe of Refuge. Long may it
flourilh, and eternal be the reward of thofe into whofe
minds fo amiable a conception entered ! io^
“ To afford means of falvation to thofe unhappy Xhe Mag-
beings who had the ill fortune to lofe the benefits ofdalenHof-
this divine inftitution, the Magdalen Hofpital was infti-P’tA
tuted for the reception of the penitent proftitutes. T.0
fave from vice, is one great merit, lo reclaim and re-
ftore to the dignity of honeft rank in life, is certainly
not lefs meritorious. The joy at the return of one fin-
ner to repentance is efteemed by the higheft authority
worthy of the heavenly hoft. "1 hat ecftafy, I truft, this
inftitution has often occafioned. Since its foundation in
the fame year with the former, to December 25. 17^^
not fewer than 2471 have been admitted. Of thefe (it
is not to be wondered that long and evil habits are often
incurable) 300 have been difcharged, uneafy under con-
ftraint; 45 proved lunatics, and afflidted with incurable
fits ; 60 have died ; 52 never returned from hofpitals
they were fent to ; 33^ difcharged for faults and irre¬
gularities. How to be dreaded is the entrance into the
bounds of vice, fince the retreat from its paths is fo
difficult! Finally, 1608 prodigals have been returned
to their rejoicing parents; or placed in reputable fer-
vices, or to honeft trades, banes to idlenefs, and fecuri-
ties againft a future relapfe.” Into this charity, every
w'oman who has been feduced (and is not pregnant or
difeafed), whether recommended or not, may apply for
admiffion to the committee, who meet for that purpofe
on the firft Tuefday in every month. 107
Akin to thofe charities is that of the Lying-in Hofpi- Lying-ia
tal, which is not intended merely for the reception ofHofPlu!’
“ the honeft matron who can depofite her burden with
the confcioufnefs of lawful love, but alfo for the un¬
happy wretches whom fome villain in the unguarded
moment has feduced, and then left a prey to defertion
of friends, to poverty, want, and guilt.—Left fuch
« may be driven to defpair by fuch complicated mifer^r,
and be tempted to deftroy themfelves and murder their
infants,’ here was founded in 1765 this humane preven¬
tive, the Weftminfter New Lying-in Hofpital, in which
every affiftance and accommodation requifite in fuch li-
tuations are provided in the moft attentive and liberal
manner. To obviate all objeftion to its being an en¬
couragement to vice, no one is taken in a fecond time:
but this moft excellent charity is open to the worthy
diftreffed matron as often as neceffity requires. None
are rejetted who have friends to recommend. And of
both defcriptions upwards of 4000 have experienced its
falutary effett.” _ I0g
St George’s Fields are now almoft covered with newStGeorge>
eretted buildings, from the ditch at the end of Great Fields.
Surry-ftreet, or Burrow'’s Buildings, to the Fifhmong-
ers alms-houfes, in one direttion ; and from the Mar-
Ihalfea prifon to the Dog and Duck, in the other direc¬
tion ; with feveral irregular indentations in its circumfe¬
rence : And where the principal roads meet, an obelilk
has been eretted, pointing out the diftance it ftands
C. f' o from
LON
[ 204 3
LON
icp
Lambeth
Palace,
London, from different parts of London, Weftminffer, and Black-
friars bridges. Among the buildings which ferve to
embellilh and improve this entrance to London, Cha-
tham-fquare and Bridgeftreet-Blackfriars may be par¬
ticularly fpecified.
At Lambeth, the archbifhops of Canterbury have had
a palace. According to Mr Pennant, it was in the
earlier times a manor, poffibly a royal one : for the
great Hardiknut died here in 1042, in themidft of the
jollity of a wedding dinner j and here, without any for¬
mality, the ufurper Harold is faid to havefnatched the
crown and placed it on his own head. At that period
it was part of the eftate of Goda, wife to Walter earl
of Mantes, and Euftace earl of Boulogne ; who pre-
fented it to the church of Rochefter, but referved to
herfelf the patronage of the church. It became in
iiqy the property of the fee of Canterbury, by ex¬
change tranfafted between Glativille bilhop of Rc-chef-
ter and the archbilhop Hubert Walter. The building
was improved by Langton the fucceffor of Walter j but
it was afterwards neglefled and became ruinous. “ No
pious zeal (fays Mr Pennant) reftored the place, but
the madnefs of prieftly pride. Boniface, a wrathful and
turbulent primate, eledled in 1244, took it into his
head to become a vifitor of the priory of St Bartholo¬
mew, to which he had no right. The monks met him
with reverential refpedl, but allured him the office did
hot belong to the biffiop. The meek prelate ruffied on
the fub-prior, knocked him down, kicked, beat, and
buffeted him, tore the cope off his back, and ftamped
on it like one poffeffed, w’hile his attendants paid the
fame compliments to all the poor monks. The people
enraged at his unprieftly conduft would have torn him
to pieces ; when he retired to Lambeth, and, by way
of expiation, rebuilt it with great magnificence. At a
fubfequent period it w^as very highly improved by the
munificent Henry Chichely, who enjoyed the primacy
from 1414 to 1443. I lament to find fo worthy a man
to have been the founder of a building fo reproachful to
his memory as the Lollards tower, at the expence of
near 280I. Neither Proteftants or Catholics ffiould
omit vifiting this towrer, the cruel prifon of the unhappy
followers of Wickliffe. The vaft ftaples and rings to
which they were chained before they were brought to
the flake, ought to make Proteflants blefs the hour
which freed them from fo bloody a religion.” During London,
the civil wars of the laft century, this palace fuffered o'
greatly j but at the Reftoration, the whole was repaired
by Archbilhop Juxton. iI0
The parilh church of Lambeth (h), w hich is at a and Church,
fmall diftance from the palace, has a plain tower j and
the architecture is of the Gothic of the time of Ed¬
ward IV. It has very little remarkable in it, except
the figure of a pedlar and his dog, painted in one of
the windows ; and tradition fays, that the parilh was
obliged to this man for the bequeft of a piece of land,
which bears the name of the Pedlar's Acre. In the
churchyard is the tomb of old Tradefcant. Both father
and fon were great travellers j and the former is fuppo-
fed to have vifited Ruffia and moft parts of Europe,
Turkey, Greece, many of the eaftern countries, Egypt,
and Barbary ; out of which he introduced multitudes
of plants and flowers, unknown before in our gardens.
The monument is an altar tomb ; embellilhed with em¬
blematical fculptures; and bearing the following in-
fcription, which is both lingular and hiftorical :
Know, ftranger, ere thou pafs, beneath this flone
Lye John Tradefcant, grandfire, father, fon $
The lafl dy’d in his fpring ; the other two
Liv’d till they had travell’d Art and Nature through,
As by their choice collections may appear,
Of what is rare, in land, in fea, in air $
Whilft they (as Homer’s Iliad in a nut)
A world of wonders in one clofet Ihut:
Thefe famous Antiquarians, that had been
Both gardeners to the Rofe and Lily Queen,
Tranfplanted now themfelves, fleep here j and when
Angels {hall with their trumpets waken men,
And fire lhall purge the world, thefe hence lhall rife,
And change this garden for a paradife.
From Lambeth, eaftward along the river fide, Lambeth
was once a long trad of dreary marlh, and ftillMarfh.
in parts called Lambeth Marjh; about the year
1560, there w as not a houfe on it from Lambeth pa¬
lace as far as Southwark. In a ftreet called Aar-Great ma.
row-wall (from one of the ancient embankments) ismifaCtories.
Mrs Conde’s noted manufactory of artificial ftone (1) :
And at a fmall diftance, Meff. Beaufoy’s (k) great
work
(h) In defcribing this church, Mr Pennant takes occafion to mention the fad example of fallen majefty in the
perfm of Mary d’Efte, the unhappy queen of James II. *, who, flying with her infant prince from the ruin im¬
pending over their houfe, after croffing the Thames from the abdicated Whitehall, took ffielter beneath the an¬
cient walls of this church a whole hour, from the rain of the inclement night of December 6. 1688. Here Ihe
-(tyaited with aggravated mifery, till a common coach, procured from the next inn, arrived, and conveyed her to
Gravefend, from whence Ihe failed, and bade an, eternal adieu to thefe kingdoms.
(1) Her repofitory confifts of feveral very large rooms filled with every ornament, which can be ufed in
architecture. The ftatue, the vafe, the urn, the rich chimney pieces, and in a few words, every thing
which could be produced out of natural ftone or marble by the moft elegant chifel, is here to be obtained at
an eafy rate.
(k) “ Where (fays Mr Pennant) the foreign wines are moft admirably mimicked. Such is the prodigality
and luxury of the age, that the demand for many forts exceeds in a great degree the produce of the native vine¬
yards. We have Ikilful fabricators, who kindly fupply our wants. It has been eftimated, that half of the
port, and five-fixths of the white wines confumed in our capital, have been the produce of our home wine
preffes. The produCl of duty to the ftate from a fingle houfe was in onh year, from July 5> 1785 to July f.
1786, not lefs than 7363I. 9s. 8^d. The genial banks of the Thames oppofite to our capital, yield almolt
every fpecies of white wine } and, by a wondrous magic. Meff. Beaufoy pour forth the materials for the rich
Frontiniac,
LON
[ 2°5 1
LON
London.
113 ^
3. City and
Liberties of
Weftmin-
fter.
114
Govern¬
ment of
Weftrnin-
fier.
■wotk for making wines, and that for making vine¬
gar (l).
This ground, fo profitable to the proprietors, and
fo productive of revenue to the ftate, was within me¬
mory the fcene of low difiipation. Here Hood Cuper’s
garden, noted for its fireworks, and the great refort of
the profligate of both fexes. This place was ornament¬
ed with feveral of the mutilated ftatues belonging to
Thomas earl of Arundel, which had been for that pur-
pofe begged from his lordlhip by one Boyder Cuper, a
gardener in the family. The great timber yards be¬
neath which thefe antiquities were found, are very well
worthy of a vifit. One would fear that the forefts of
Norway and the Baltic Would be exhaufted, to fupply
the wants' of our overgrown capital, were we not aflfured
that the refources will fucceflively be increafed equal to
the demand of fuccefeding ages.— In this parifh are alfo
vail diftilleries, formerly the property of Sir Jofeph
Mawbey ; where are feldom lefs than 2000 bogs, which
are fed entirely on grains.
III. City and Liberties of WESTMINSTER. The city
of Weftminfter derives its name from a minfler, or ab¬
bey, and xvefl, on account of its fituation with refpe£t
to St Paul’s cathedral, which was formerly called Kqfl-
tninfer. In ancient times this diftriCt flood upwards of
a mile from the city of London, and contained only
two pariihes, which were thofe of St Margaret and St
John, with two chapels of eafe j but at prefent it has
Jeven other parochial churches, viz. St Clement’s
Danes, St Paul’s Govent-garden, St Mary’s le Strand,
St Martin’s in the Fields, St Anne’s, St James’s, and
St George’s Hanover-fquare.
Weltminfter was anciently called Thorny IJland, from
its having been covered with thorn bufhes, and encom-
paffed by a branch of the Thames, which is faid to have
run through the ground now called St James'‘s Park,
from weft to eaft, and to have rejoined the river at
Whitehall.
Till the general diflblution of religious houfes, Weft¬
minfter was fubjeCl to the arbitrary rule of its abbot
and monks j but in 1541, upon the furrender of Wil¬
liam Benfon the laft abbot, Henry VIII. not only
turned it into an honour, but created it the fee of a
bifnop, and appointed for a diocefe the whole coun¬
ty of Middlefex, except Fulham, which belonged
to the hifhop of London. This bifhoprick, how¬
ever, foon after its inftitution, was diffolved by Ed¬
ward VI.
The city of Weftminfter is governed by a high
fteward, an office of great dignity, who is ufually one London,
of the firft peers in the realm ; and is chofen for life ^
by the dean and chapter of the collegiate church of
St Peter. There is alfo a deputy fteward and a high
bailiff, who alfo hold their offices for life j being no¬
minated by the dean and chapter, and confirmed by
the high fteward.
The dean and chapter are invefted with an ecclefiaf-
tical and civil jurifdiftion within the liberties of Weft¬
minfter, St Martin’s le Grand, near Cheapfide, in the
city of London, and fome towns in Effex, which are
exempted from the jurifdiftion of the bilhop of London
and the archbiftiop of Canterbury.
St Margaret's Church was founded by Edward the Churches.
Confeffor, fince which time it has been frequently re¬
built. In the eaft end of this church is a window cu-
rioufly painted, with the hiftory of the crucifixion,
and with the figures of feveral apoftles and faints finely
executed. It formerly belonged to a private chapel at
Copt-hall, near Epping in Effex, and was purchafed
by the officers of this pariffi, fome years ago for 400
guineas. In this church the houfe of commons attends
divine fervice on ftate holidays.
The church of St John the Evangeliji was erefted in
1728, and having funk confiderably whilft it was build¬
ing, occafioned an alteration of the plan. On the north
and fouth fides are magnificent porticoes, fupported by
vaft ftone pillars, as is alfo the roof of the church ; at
each of the four corners is a beautiful ftone tower and
pinnacle, which were added with the view of making
the whole ftru&ure fink equally. The parts of this
building are held together by iron bars, which run
acrofs even the aifles. Jl6-
The moft remarkable ftru&ure in Weftminfter is the Weftmin-
abbey-church of St Peter. On its fite flood once a fter Abbey,
temple of Apollo, which according to tradition wasits
thrown down by an earthquake in the time of Antoni-C*^aPel*
nus Pius ; and from the ruins of which Sebert king of
the Weft Saxons raifed a Chriftian church, which was
ruined by the Danes. It was repaired by Edward the
Confeffor, and given to a few monks 5 and this fpot he
chofe for his burial-place. Henry HI. 160 years after,
took down this fabric of Edward’s, and erected a new
church, which was 50 years in building. It fuffered
much by fire in 1274, but was repaired by Edward I.
Edward II. and the abbots. In 1700 this church being
much decayed, the parliament granted money for re¬
pairing it, and has frequently repeated the bounty fince
that time. The form of the abbey is that of a long
crofs ;
Frontiniac, to the more elegant tables $ the Madeira, the Calcavella, and the Lifbon, into every part of the
kingdom.”
(l) “ There is a magnificence of bufinefs (our author remarks) in this ocean of fweets and fours that cannot
fail exciting the greateft admiration •, whether we confider the number of veff ls or their fize. The boafted tun
at Heidelberg does not furpafs them. On fir ft entering the yard, two rife before you, covered at the top with a
thatched dome; between them is a circular turret, including a winding ftaircafe, which brings you to their fum-
mits, which are above 24 feet in diameter. One of thefe confervatories is fud of fweet wine, and contains
58,109 gallons, or 18x5 barrels of Winchefter meafure. Its fuperb affociate is full of vinegar, to the amount of
56,799 gallons, or 1774 barrels of the fame ftandard as the former. The famous German veffel yields even to
the laft by the quantity of 40 barrels.—-Befides thefe, is an avenue of leffer veffels, which hold from 32,500 to
16,974 gaP°ns each. After quitting this Brobdignagian fcene, we pafs to the acres covered with common bar¬
rels : we cannot diminifti our ideas fo fuddenly, but at firft we imagine we could quaff them off as eafily as Gulli ¬
ver did the little hogffieads of the kingdom of Lilliput.”
LON [
London, erofs: its greateft length is 489 feet, and the breadth
of the weft front 66 feet; the length of the crofs aifle
is 189 feet, and the height of the roof 92 feet. At
the weft end are two towers: the nave and crofs aifle
are fupported by 50 flender pillars of Suflex marble ex-
clufive of pilafters. In the upper and lower ranges
there are 94 windows, all which, with the arches, roofs,
and doors, are in the Gothic tafte. The infide of this
church is much better executed than the outfide : and
the perfpedfive is good j particularly that of the grand
aifle. The choir, from which there is an afcent by fe-
veral fteps to a fine altar-piece, is paved with black and
. white marble ^ having 28 ftalls on the north, the fame
number on the fouth, and eight at the weft end. The
altar is made of a beautiful piece of marble, the gift
of Queen Anne, enclofed by a curious baluftrade, and
upon a pavement of porphyry, jafper, Lydian, and
ferpentine ftones, laid in the mofaic ftyle, at the ex¬
pence of Abbot Ware, A. D. 1272; and is faid to be
one of the moft beautiful of its kind in the world.
On each fide of this altar a door opens into St Ed¬
ward’s chapel; round which are 10 other chapels,
ranging from the north to the fouth crofs aifles, and
are dedicated, 1. To St Andrew. 2. To St Michael.
3. To St John Evangelift. 4. Hip’s chapel. 5. To
St John Baptift. 6. To St Paul. 7. Henry V.’s cha¬
pel. 8. To St Nicholas. 9. To St Edmund. 10. To
St Benedift.
In St Edward’s chapel are ftill to be feen the remains
of his ftirine ; which, though now' in obfcurity, and
robbed of all its riches and luftre, was once efteemed
the glory of England, fo far as art and riches could
make it. Here are the tombs of King Edward I. and
feveral other kings and queens of England j and here
alfo is Ihown the famous chair in which the kings of
Scotland ufed to be crowmed at Scone. Henry V.’s
chapel is divided from St Edward’s by an iron fcreen,
on each fide of which are ftatues as big as life.—St
Andrew’s chapel, which is next the north crofs, and
the others rvhich furround the choir, are crowded with
the monuments of noble perfonages, worthy the atten¬
tion of the curious.—At the corner of St Benedift’s
chapel, an iron gate opens into the fouth crofs aifle $
which from the number of monuments erefted therein
to celebrated Englith poets, has obtained the name of
the Poets corner : though here we find a meft magnifi¬
cent monument e.re&ed at the fouth end in memory of
the late John duke of Argyle and Greenwich j another
to William Camden the antiquarian ; and others to
the celebrated divine Dr Ifaac Barrow, to Thomas
Parr who died at the age of 152 years, &c.—The
fouth aifle is adorned with 19 curious monuments of the
pious, the brave, and the learned ; and turning north¬
ward from the weft door, we view' a great number
206 ] LON
and of fuch curious workmanfhip, that it would take
a volume to defcribe each part with juftice and pro-
London.
117
Henry
VIl.’s cha-
j»el.
On the eaft of the abbey, and which, though fepa-
rate from the other chapels in the choir, feems to be
one and the fame building w ith the abbey, Hands the
chapel of King Henry VII. which that king founded
in the year 1502, and was at that time ftyled the won¬
der of the world, and is now one of the moft expenfive
remains of the ancient Englifh tafte and magnificence.
There is no looking upon it without admiration : it
conveys an idea of the fine tafte of Gothic architec¬
ture in that age j and the infide is fo noble, majeftic,
pnety.
Its original intention was to be a dormitory for the
royal blood : and fo far the will of the founder has
been obferved, that none have been interred therein
but fuch as have traced their defeent from ancient
kings. The tomb of King Henry VII. is moft magni¬
ficent, enclofed with a fcreen of call brafs, moft admi»
rably defigned, and as well excuted. Within the rails
are the figures of that king and his royal confort, in
their robes of ftate, on a tomb of black marble : and
at the head of this tomb lie the remains of Edward VI.
In different parts of this chapel are the monuments of
Lewis Stuart duke of Richmond, George \ illars duke
of Buckingham, John Sheffield duke of Buckingham,
Charles Montague marquis of Halifax, Edw ard V. and
his brother Richard ; the vault of James I. and his
queen Anne and daughter Mary, on which is a fmall
tomb adorned with the figure of a child ; a lofty mo¬
nument of Oueen Elizabeth, and another of Mary
queen of Scots j the monuments fer Margaret Douglas
daughter of Margaret queen of Scots, Margaret coun-
tefs of Richmond mother to Henry VII. the vault of
King Charles II. and William III. Oueen Mary his
confort, Queen Anne, and Prince George. Overthefe
royal perfonages are their effigies (except that of
Prince George) in wainfeot preffes, made of wax to
refemble life, and dreffed in their coronation robes.
And at the corner of the great eaft window, in another
wainfeot prefs, Hands the effigy of Mary duchefs of
Richmond, daughter to James duke of Richmond and
Lenox, dreffed in the very robes ffie wore at the coro¬
nation of Queen Anne. On leaving the aifle, you are
Ihown another prefs, containing the effigy of General
Monk, who, on account of his loyalty, and the part
he took in the reftoration of King Charles II. had a
vault appropriated to him and his family amongft the
royal blood.
In a fine vault under Henry the VII.’s chapel, is
the burying place of the prefent royal family, erefted
by bis late majefty King George II. Adjoining to
the abbey are the cloifters, built in a quadrangular
form, with piazzas towards the court, where feveral of
the prebendaries have their houfes.
Near the abbey church is the King’s fchool, ufually Wcftmin- J
called Wejlminjler fchool. It was originally founded in ftt r c 00
1070, and a fecond time by Queen Elizabeth in 1560,
whence it is fometimes called the Queen’s College; and
is at prefent one of the greateft fchools in the king¬
dom. The learned antiquary Mr Camden was once
matter of it, and Ben Johnfon one of his fcholars.
Dr Bulhy, who was mafter upwards of 50 years,
gfeatly contributed to keep up its reputation, formed
its mufeum, and improved both the matter’s and his
prebendal houfe.—This fchool, inftead of one mafter
and one uftier as at firft, has now an upper and under
mafter, and five ufhers, who have about 400 youths
under their tuition. A plan was fet on foot when the
prefent archbilhop of York was mafter, for building
a college for the ufe of the ftudents, but this did not
fuceeed. _ 119
On the north-eaft fide of the abbey is an old Go- Wefttiwi-J
thic building called Wefminfer-hall, firft built by Wil- fter-hall.
liam Rufus as an addition to a royal palace, and after¬
wards
118
LON
[ 207 ]
LON
London.
120
oufe of
jinmons.
ill
oufe of
ords.
121
Vince’s
Chamber,
kc.
wards rebuilt by Richard II. in the year 1397. It
is reckoned one of the largelt rooms in Europe, being
200 feet long, 70 broad, and 90 high, fupported
only by buttreffeS. The roof is of timber, and was
fome years ago Hated, the old covering of lead being
reckoned too heavy. It is paved with ftone. In this
fpacious room the kings of England have generally
held their coronation and other folemn feafts 5 and it
is ufed for the trial of peers. Since the reign of
Henry III. the three great courts of Chancery, King’s
Bench, and Common Pleas, have been held in feparate
apartments of this hall j and the court of Exchequer
above Hairs.
Adjoining to the fouth-eaft angle of Weftminfter-
hall is a building formerly called S/ Stephen's Chape/t
from its having been dedicated to that faint. It was
founded by King Stephen j and in 1347 was rebuilt
by King Edward III. who converted it to a collegiate
church ; but fince it was furrendered to Edward VL
it has been ufed for the affembly of the reprefentatives
of the commons of England, and is now generally
called the Houfe of Commons. The benches, which
afeend behind one another as in .a theatre, are covered
with green cloth j the floor is matted j and round the
room are wainfeot galleries, fupported by cantilevers
adorned with carved work, in which ftrangers are often
permitted to lit and hear the debates.
On the fouth fide of the hall is the Houfe of Lordsy
fo called from being the place where the peers of
Great Britain affemble in parliament. It is an oblong
room, not quite fo large as the houfe of commons j
and is hung with fine old tapeftry, reprefenting the
defeat of the Spaniih Armada in 1588. The defign
was drawn by Cornelius Vroom, and the tapeftry exe¬
cuted by Francis Spiering. It was not put up till
the year 1650, two years after the extinction of mo¬
narchy, when the houfe of lords was ufed as a com¬
mittee room for the houfe of commons. T he heads
of the naval heroes who commanded on the glorious
day form a matchlefs border round the work, animat¬
ing pofterity to emulate their illuftrious example.
Here is a throne for the king, with feats on the right
and left for fuch peers of the realm as are of the
blood royal. Before the throne are three broad feats j
on the firft of which, next the throne, fits the lord
chancellor, or keeper of the great feal, who is fpeaker
of the houfe of peers ; and on the other two fit the
judges, the mafter of the rolls, or the mafters in chan¬
cery, who attend occafionally to give their opinions on
points of law. The two archbilhops fit at fome di-
Itance from the throne on the right hand, and the
other bilhops in a row under them. All the benches
are covered with red cloth fluffed with wool. Here
likewife, by an order of the houfe, a gallery for ftran¬
gers has been eredted.
Adjoining to the houfe of lords is the 'Prince's
Chamber, where the king is robed when he comes to
the parliament. On the other fide is the Painted
Chamber, which is faid to have been Edward the Con-
feffor’s bedchamber, and the room in which the par¬
liaments were anciently opened. Here conferences
are often held between the two houfes, or their com¬
mittees. Contiguous to thofe is an apartment called
the Court of Requefs, where fuch as have bufinefs in ei¬
ther houfe may attend.
London.
Near thefe buildings is a bridge over the Thames,
called \VeJlminfier Bridge, accounted one of the moft ^
complete and elegant ftrudlures of the kind in the Weftmin-
known world. It is built entirely of ftone, and ex- fter Bridge
tends over the river at a place where it is 1223 feet
broad : which is above 380 feet broader than at Lon¬
don bridge. On each fide is a fine baluftrade of
ftone, with places of Ihelter from the rain. The width
of the bridge is 44 feet, having on each fide a fine
foot way for paffengers. It confifts of 14 piers, and
13 large and two ftnall arches, all femicircular, that
in the centre being 76 feet wide, and the reft decreaf-
ing four feet each from the other, fo that the two
leaft arches of the 13 great ones are each 52 feet..
It is computed that the value of 40,000!. in ftone
and other materials is always under water. This
magnificent ftru&ure was begun in 1739, and finiftied
in 1750, at the expence of 389,000). defrayed by the
parliament. It was built after the defign of M. Labelye,
an ingenious architect, a native of France. 124
On the bank of the Thames, at the eaft confines of Whitehall.
St Margaret’s parifli, was a palace called Whitehall,
originally built by Hubert de Burgh earl of Kent, be¬
fore the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards
devolved to the archbilhop of York, whence it receiv¬
ed the name of York Place, and continued to be the
city refidence of the archbiftiops till it was purchafed
by Henry VIII. of Cardinal Wolfey in 1530. At
this period it became the refidence of the court ; but
in 1697 was deftroyed by accidental fire, all except
the Banqueting-houfe, which had been added to the
palace of Whitehall by James I. according to a defign
of Inigo Jones. This is an elegant and magnificent
ftrufture of hewn ftone, adorned with an upper and.
lower range of pillars, of the Ionic and Compofite or¬
ders y the capitals are enriched with fruit and foliages,
and between the columns of the windows. The roof
is covered with lead, and furrounded with a balmirade.
The building chiefly confifts of one room of an oblong
form 40 feet high, and a proportionable length and
breadth. The cieling is painted by the celebrated Sir
Peter Paul Rubens. It is now ufed only as a chapel-
royal, and the other part of the houfe is occupied with
ftate offices. r2-
Oppofite to the Banqueting-houfe Hands the Hor/^Horft
Guards, fo called from being the ftation where that Guards'.
part of his majefty’s troops ufually do duty. It is a
ftrong building, of hewn ftone, confifting of a centre
and two wings. In the former is an arched pafiage
into St James’s Park ; and over it, in the middle, riles
a cupola. In a part of the building is the War Office.
Near the Horfe-guards-is the Treafury; a large build¬
ing, which fronts the Parade in St James’s Park ; and
where the board of treafury is kept.
Eaftward of the Horfe-guards is the Admiralty Office, Admiralty
a large pile, built with brick and ftone. The front Office,
towards Whitehall has two deep wings, and a lofty
portico fupported by four large ftone pillars. A piazza,
confifting of beautiful columns, runs almoft from one
end to the other. The wall before the court has been
lately built in an elegant manner, and each fide of the
gate is ornamented with naval emblems. Befides a hall,
and other public apartments, here are fpacious houfes
for feven commiffioners of the admiralty.
At a little diftance from the Admiralty, where three
3 capital
LON [ 208 ] LON
128
Queen’s
Palace.
129
St James’s.
L melon, capital ftreets terminate, is a large opening called
Charing-crofs, from one of the croffes which King Ed¬
ward I. caufed to be erefted in memory of his queen
Eleanor, and Charing the name of a village in which
it was built. The crofs remained till the civil wars in
the reign of Charles I. when it was deftroyed by the
fanatics, as a monument of popifh fuperftition 5 but
after the Reftoration, an equeltrian ftatue of Charles I.
was fet up in its dead. This, which is of brafs, and
finely executed, continues to be an ornament to the
place. It was made in 1633, at ^ie exPence °f the
Howard-Arundel family. The parliament fold it to a
brazier in Holborn, with drift orders to break it to
pieces; but he concealed it under ground till the Re-
doration, when it was fet up in 1678.
At the wed end of the Mall, in St James’s park,
which begins near Charing-crofs, dands the Queen's
Palace. It was originally known by the name of Ar¬
lington Houfe; but being purchafed by the late duke of
Buckingham’s father, who rebuilt it from the ground
in Jt 703, it was called Buckingham Houfe, till the year
1762, when it w'as purchafed by his majedy for a
royal refidence. It is built of brick and done, having
in the front tv’o ranges of piladers of the Corinthian
and Tufcan orders. It has a fpacious court yard, en-
clofed with iron rails, fronting St James’s park, with
offices on each fide, with two pavilions, feparated from
the manfion houfe by colonnades of the Tufcan, Do¬
ric, and Ionic orders. His majedy has here built a
fine library, in an oftagonal form, befides feveral other
additions.
Eadward of the queen’s palace dands St James's,
an old building, which, till the former was purchafed
by the crown, had been the town refidence of the
royal family fince the burning of Whitehall in 1697.
This palace was built by Henry VIII. and obtained
its name from an hofpital which formerly dood on the
fpot. It is an irregular building, of a mean appearance
without, but contains feveral magnificent apartments.
Here the court and levees are dill kept, and mod of
the perfons belonging to the houfehold have their re¬
fidence. The chapel of the hofpital was converted to
the ufe of the royal family, as it now remains, and is
a royal peculiar, exempted from all epifcopal jurifdic-
tijon. When this palace was built, it abutted in the
fouth-wed upon an uncultivated fwampy traft of
ground, which the king enclofed and converted into
a park, called from the palace St James's park. He
alfo laid it out into walks, and collefted the water into
one body. It was afterwards much enlarged and im¬
proved by King Charles II. who planted it with lime
trees, and formed a beautiful vida, near half a mile in
length, called the Mall, from its being adapted to a
play at bowls didinguilhed by that name. He alfo
formed the water into a canal 100 feet broad and
2800 feet long; and furnidied the park with a decoy,
and other ponds for water-fowl ; but thefe have lately
been dedroyed, on account of the unwholefomevapours
which they excited.
In a line with St James’s palace, on the ead fide,
is Marlborough-houfe, which belongs to the duke of
Marlborough, and is a large brick edifice, ornamented
131 with done.
The btrand, Eadward from Charing-crofs, runs that fine dreet
fonned*1^ the S/rdw*/, which terminates at Temple-bar. In the
130
The Park
and Mall.
year 1353 the whole of it was an open high way, with London
gardens to the water fide. In that year it was fo ”~-y—-j
ruinous, that Edward III. by an ordinance direfted a
tax to be railed upon wool, leather, wine, and goods
carried to the daple at Wedminder, from Temple-bar
to Wedminder abbey, for the repair of the road j and
that all owners of houfes adjacent to the high way
(hould repair as much as lay before their doors.
Before the above period, it entirely cut off Wedmin¬
der from London; nothing intervened except the
fcattered houfes, and a village which afterwards gave
name to the whole *, and St Martin’s dood literally in
the fields. But about the year 1560 a dreet was form¬
ed, loofely built 5 for all the houfes on the fouth fide
had great gardens to the river, w-ere called by their
owmers names, and in after-times gave name to the
feveral dreets that fucceeded them, pointing down to
the Thames; each of them had dairs for the con-
veniency of taking boat, of which many to this day
bear the names of the houfes. As the court was for
centuries either at the palace of Wedminder or White¬
hall, a boat w'as the cudomary conveyance of the great
to the prefence of their fovereign. The north fide
was a mere line of houfes from Charing-crofs to
Temple-bar; all beyond was country. The gardens
which occupied part of the fite of Covent-Garden were
bounded by fields, and St Giles’s was a didant country
village. Our capital found itfelf fo fecure in the vigo¬
rous government of Queen Elizabeth, that, by the
year 1600, mod confiderable additions were made to
the north of the long line of dreet jud deferibed. St
Martin’s-lane was built on both fides. St Giles’s
church was dill infulated: but Broad-dreet and Hol¬
born were completely formed into dreets with houfes
all the way to Snow-hill. Covent-gardeu and Lin-
coln’s-inn-fields were built, but in an irregular manner.
Drury-lane, Clare-dreet, and Long-acre, arofe in the
fame period.
Almod contiguous to Charing-crofs, and upon the Northunr
fouth fide of the Strand, is that noble palace calledberland
Northumberland Houfe, which dands on the fite of Houfe.
the hofpital of St Mary Rounceval. Henry VIII.
granted it to Sir Thomas Caverden. It was after¬
wards transferred to Henry Howard earl of Northamp¬
ton ; who, in the time of James I. built here a houfe,
and called it after his own name. He left it to his
kinfman the earl of Suffolk, lord treafurer : and by the
marriage of Algernon Percy earl of Northumber¬
land, with Elizabeth daughter of Theophilus earl of
Suffolk, it paffed into the houfe of the prefent noble
owner. The greater part of the houfe was built by
Bernard Janfen, an architeft in the reign of James I.
The front next the dreet was begun by Algernon in
1748, and finidied by the prefent duke, who married
his daughter. Two additional wings to the front next
the Thames, and a variety of other improvements both
in building and furniture, have contributed to render
this houie the larged and mod magnificent in London.
It contains a gallery of icbfeet long by 26 wide, mod
fuperbly furnidied. ?
A Ihort way eadu'ard, on the fame fide, dood Z)«r-Durbata
ham Yard, which took its name from a palace built ori-Yard,
ginally by the illudrious Thomas de Hatfield, elefted
bidrop of Durham in 1345; defigned by him for the
tovm refidence of him and his fucceflors. At this place,
in
London.
134
The Adel-
phi.
US
The Savoy.
136
Somerfet
Houfe.
LON
[ 209 j
I, O N
in 1540, was held a moft magnificent feaft, given by
the challengers of England, who had caufed to be
proclaimed, in France, Flanders, Scotland, and Spain,
a great and triumphant jufting to be holden at Weft-
miniter, for all comers that would undertake them.
But both the challengers and defendants were Eng-
lifh. After the gallant fports of each day, the chal¬
lengers rode into this Durham-houfe where they kept
open houfehold, and fealted the king and queen (Anne
of Cleves) with her ladies, and all the court. In the
reign of Edw’ard VI. the Mint was eftablilhed in this
houfe, under the management of Sir William Shar-
rington, and the influence of the afpiring Thomas
Seymour, lord admiral. Duvham-houfe was reckon¬
ed one of the royal palaces belonging to Queen Eliza¬
beth ; who gave the ufe of it to the great Sir Walter
Raleigh.
Durham yard is now filled with a moft magnificent
mafs of building, called the Adelphi, in honour of two
brothers, the ingenious Adams, its architefls. Be-
fides its fine lodgings, it is celebrated for its enchant¬
ing profpedl, the utility of its wharfs, and its fubter-
raneous apartments anfwering a variety of purpofes of
general benefit.
Farther on ftand the ruins of the Savoy. Henry III.
had granted to Peter of Savoy, uncle to his queen
Eleanor, daughter of Berringer of Provence, all the
houfes upon the Thames where this building now
ftands, to hold to him and his heirs, yielding yearly
at the Exchequer three barbed arrows for all fervices.
This prince founded the Savoy, and beftowed it on
the foreign hofpital of Montjoy. Queen Eleanor pur-
chafed it, and beftowed it on her fon Edmund earl
of Laneafter. It was rebuilt in a moft magnificent
manner by his fon Henry. It was made the place of
confinement of John king of France in 1356, after
he was taken prifoner at the battle of Poitiers. In
1381 it was entirely deftroyed by Wat Tyler, out of
fpleen to the great owner John of Gaunt. Henry VII.
began to rebuild it, with a defign of forming it into
an hofpital for a hundred diftreffed people, and Hen¬
ry VIII. completed the defign. The revenues, at the
fuppreflion by Edward VI. amounted to above jool*
a-year. Queen Mary reftored it ; and her maids of
honour, with exemplary piety, furnilhed it with all ne-
celfaries. It was again fupprefled by Queen Elizabeth j
and at prefent part ferves as lodgings for private people,
for barracks, and a fcandalous infeblious prifon for the
foldiery and for tranfport-convi&s.
A little to the eaitward flood Somerfet-Houfe, a pa¬
lace built by Somerfet the proteftor in the time of
Edward VI. $ and to make way for which he demo-
lifhed a great number of buildings without making any
recompenfe to the owners. Part of the church of St
John of Jerufalem and the Tower were blown up for
the fake of the materials j and the cloifters on the north
fide of St Paul’s, with the charnel houfe and chapel,
underwent the fame fate •, the tombs being deftroyed,
and the bones thrown into Finfbury-fields. I his hap¬
pened in 1 549 J but it is probable that he did not live
to inhabit the palace he built, as he was executed in
the year 1552. After his death the palace fell to the
crown \ and it became an occafional place of refidence,
firft to Queen Elizabeth, and aftenvards to Catherine
.queen to King Charles II. It was built in a ftyle of
Vol, XII. Part I,
London.
architecture compounded of the Grecian and Gothic ;
and the back, front, and water-gate, were done from '—■"“v—-
a defign of Inigo Jones, about the year 1623. A
chapel was begun the fame year by that architect, and
fmiflied fome time after. The whole of this ftrufture
was deiuolilhed in 1775, in confequence of an a£t of
parliament ; and a moft magnificent edifice, from a
defign ,by Sir William Chambers, has been erected
for the accommodation of all the public offices,—thofe
of the Treafury, the Secretary of State, the Admi¬
ralty, the War, and the Excife, excepted. The
Royal Society, and the Society of Antiquarians, hold
their meetings here, in apartments which have been
alletted to them by royal munificence j and here alfo
are annually exhibited the works of the Britilh painters
and fculptors. The terrace on the fouth fide is a walk
bounded by the Thames, and unparalleled for grandeur
and beauty of view.
The church of St Martin is diftinguilhed by thest Martin's
name of St Martin‘>s w the Fields, from its fituation, and other
which was formerly a field, with only a few fcattered churches,
houfes. The church being decayed, was rebuilt by
Henry VIII. and again by James I. but not being
large enough to accommodate the inhabitants of the
parilh, it was augmented in 1607, at the charge of
Prince Henry, eldeft fon of James I. and feveral of
the nobility. After many expenfive reparations, howr-
ever, it was entirely taken down in V]20, and a
new church begun, which was finifned in 1726. 'Ihis
is an elegant edifice, built of ftone. On the weft front
is a noble portico of Corinthian columns, fupporting a
pediment, in which are reprefented the royal arms in
bas relief. The afcent to the portico is by a flight of
very long fteps. The length of this church is about
140 feet, the breadth 60, and height 45. It has a fine
arched roof fuftained by ftone columns of the Corin¬
thian order. The fteeple has a beautiful fpire, and
one of the belt rings of bells in London.
St James's Church was built in the reign of Charles
II. at the expence of Henry earl of St Alban’s, and
other neighbouring inhabitants. The building is of
brick and ftone, about 85 feet long, 60 broad, and
45 feet high, with a handfome fteeple 150 feet in
height.
St George's Church, near Hanover-fquare is a beau¬
tiful ftrufture. This was one of the fifty new churches
erefted within the reign ol Queen Anne, ihe ground
for the edifice was given by the late Lieutenant-general
Stewart, who alfo left 4000I. to the parilh, towards
erefting and endowing a charity fchool j which, by
additional benefaftions and fubfcriptions, is become
very confiderable.
The greater part of the parifh of St Paul's Covent-
garden, was anciently a garden, belonging to the ab¬
bot and convent of Weftminfter, and was then called
Convent garden, a name corrupted into Covent, and
more generally Common garden. In 1552, Edward Vi. Covent
gave it to the earl of Bedford, with an adjoining field,Gal(len-
formerly called the Seven Acres, but now, being turned
into a long ftreet, called Long-acre. The church of
St Paul’s, Covent-garden, was built by Inigo Jones,
and was efteemed one of the moft Ample and perfeft
pieces of architefture in England. It was burnt by
accident a few' years ago j but has fince been rebuilt in
a very plain ftile. In the area before the church, of about
D d three
LON
[ 2'
London.
139
St Mary
le Strand,
&c.
140
Foundling
and other
Mofpitals
*4*
Oray’s Inn
three acres of ground, is Covent garden market, which
is the bed in England for herbs, fruit, and flowers.
On the north, and part of the eaft fi.de, is a magnificent
piazza, defigned by Inigo Jones.
Next to the parifii of St Paul, Covent-garden, is
that of St Mary le Strand. This is alfo one of the fitly
new churches built in the reign of Queen Anne, and
is a handfome piece of architefture, though not very
extenfive. At the entrance, on the weft fide, is an
afcent by a flight of fteps, hr a circular form, which
leads to a fimilarly ftiaped portico of Ionic columns,
covered with a dome, that is crowned with a vafe.
The columns are continued along the body of the
church, with pilafters of the fame order at the corners j
and in the intercolumniations are niches handfomely
ornamented. Over the dome is a pediment fupported
by Corinthian columns, which are alfo continued round
the body of the ftructure, over thofe of the Ionic order.
A handfome baluftrade is carried round the top of the
church, and adorned with vafes.
A little eaftward from the preceding church is that
of Si Clement's Danes, fituated likewife in the Strand.
A church is faid to have flood in this place fince about
the year 700 ; but the prefent ftruclure was begun in
1680, defigned by Sir Chriftopher Wren, It is built
of ftone, with two rows of windows, the lower plain,
but the upper ornamented j and the termination is by
an attic, the pilafters of which are covered with vafes.
On the fouth fide is a portico, covered with a dome
lupported by Ionic columns •, and oppofite to this is
another. The fteeple is beautiful, and of a great
height.
The church of St George, Bloomfhury, is alfo one of
the fifty new churches erefted by aft of parliament.
It is diftinguifhed from all the reft by ftanding fouth
and north, and by the ftatue of King George I. at
the top of its pyramidal fteeple.
In Lamb’s Conduit-fields, on the north fide of the
town, is a large and commodious ftrudture called the
Foundling Hofpital, for the reception of expofed and
’Seferted children. This laudable charity was projeft-
ed by feveral eminent merchants in the reign of Queen
Anne} but was not carried into execution till many
years afterwards, when a charter for its eftabliftiment
was obtained, through the indefatigable afliduity of
Mr Thomas Coram, the commander of a merchant
veSTel, who fpent the remainder of his life in promoting
this defign. From the time of its inftitution, the par¬
liament has occafionally granted confiderable iums for
its fupport; and in fome years upwards of 60.00 infants
have been received.
Not far from hence is an Hofpital for the Smallpox ;
and in different parts of the town there are others, either
for the fick of all kinds, or thofe in particular circum-
ftances. Of the latter are feveral Lying-in hofpitals,
and the Lock Hofpital for female patients in the venereal
difeafe. Of the former are St George's and Middlefex
Hofpitals, befides feveral infirmaries.
. Gray's Inn is one of the four principal inns of court j
which, though fituated within the limits of the parifh
of St Andrew, Holborn, is yet without the liberties
of the city of London. It took its name from an
ancient family of the name of Gray, which formerly
refided here, and in the reign of Edward III. demifed
it to fome ftudents in the law j but it is faid to have
o ] LON
been afterwards conveyed to the monks of Shene, near London.
Richmond in Surry, who leafed it to the fociety of the * —1
Inn. It was held by this tenure till the diffolution of
the monafteries, when Henry VIII. granted it to the
fnciety in fee-farm. This inn confifts chiefly of two
quadrangles, and has an old hall well built of timber,
with a chapel in the Gothic ftyle. Here is alfo a good
library, and the inn is accommodated with a fpacious
garden. ... *4*
Lincoln's Inn, another of the four principal inns of Lincoln’s
court, was originally the palace of Ralph Neville biftiop Inn.
of Chichefter, and chancellor of England about the
vear 1.226. It afterwards devolved to the earl of Lin¬
coln, who converted it into a court for the ftudents of
law about the year 1310. From him it received the
name of Lincoln's Inn, and confifted only of what is
now called the old fquare, which is entered from Chan¬
cery-lane. At prefent this fquare contains, befides
buildings for the lawyers, a large hall where the lord
chancellor hears caufes in the fittings after term. To
this inn belongs likewife a fine garden, which has late¬
ly been diminiftied by the building of fome large and
commodious offices, for the ufe of the fix clerks in the
court of chancery, &c. _ _ 143
In the pariffi of St James, Clerkenwell, is an hofpi- Charter-
tal called the Char ter-houfe, which is a corruption of Houfe.
the word chartreux, a name formerly ufed for a con¬
vent or priory of the Carthufians, which this place
formerly was. After the diffolution of monafteries it
fell to the earl of Suffolk, who difpofed of it to Tho¬
mas Sutton, Efq. a citizen of London, in the time of
King James I. for 13,000!. The purchafer intend¬
ing it for an hofpital, applied to the king for a patent,
which he obtained in 1611, and the grant was con¬
firmed by parliament in 1623. Mr Sutton having ex¬
pended 7000I. in fitting up the buildings, gave it
the name of King James's Hofpital, and endowed it
with lands to the amount of near 4500I. a-year, for
the maintenance of 80 gentlemen, merchants or fol-
diers, who ffiould be reduced to indigent circumftances j
and 40 boys, to be inftrufled in claffical learning.
The men are provided with handfome apartments, and
all the neceffaries of life except clothes *, inftead of
which each of them is allowed a gown, and 7l‘ a-ycar.
Of the boys, 29 are at a proper time fent to the uni-
verfity, where each has an allowance of 20I. a-year for
eight years. Others, who are judged more fit for trade,
are put out apprentices, and the fum of 40I. is given
with each of them. As a farther encouragement to
the fcholars, there are nine ecclefiaftical preferments
in the gift of the governors. It is alfo by the recom¬
mendation of the latter that all penfioners and youths
are received into the hofpital. They confift of 16, of
which number the king is always one, and the others
are generally noblemen of the firft rank. To this
hofpital belong a mafter, a preacher, two fchoolmafters,
a phyfician, a regifter, a receiver, a trealurer, a ftew-
ard, an auditor, and other officers; and the annual re¬
venues of it being now increafed to upwards of 6000L
five men and four boys have been added to the original
number. M4
In the parilh of St Luke ftands the Haberdafhers Afke’s
alms-hdufes, or Ajle's Hofpital, fo called from having HoiPUaI’
been erefted by the company of haberdalhers, purfuant
to the will of Robert Alke, Efq- one of their mem¬
bers.
I
LON [2
tordan. bers, who left 30,000!. for the building and the re-
—lief of 20 poor members of the company j befides the
maintenance and education of 20 boys, fons of decay,
ed freemen of the fame company. This is a large edi¬
fice of brick and ftone, 400 feet long, with a piazza
in front 340 feet in length, confiding of ftone columns
of the Tufcan order. In the middle of the building
is a chapel, adorned with columns, entablatures and
pediment, of the Ionic order ; under the pediment is a
■niche with a ftatue of the founder. In the fame parifti
is the Ironmongers hofpital, likewife a large building.
In the pariftr of St Mary, Whitechapel, Hands the
London Hofpital, for the reception of the fick. It is a
large building, and was ere&ed a few years fince by
voluntary contribution. Here are alfo fome confider-
able alms-houfes.
[toufo of Within the precin&s of Weftminfter are feveral ftate-
the nobili- ly houfes belonging to the nobility, fome of which have
been already mentioned. Of the others, the mod re¬
markable at prefent are, Burlington-houfe, Devonfliire-
houfe, Egremont-houfe, and Bedford-houfe $ Carleton-
houfe, the magnificent abode of the prince of Wales;
and the fuperb refidence eredled by the duke of York
I4<; between the Treafury and the Horfe-guards.
Britifh To thefe may be added, Montagu-houfe (now the
Mufeum. Britifh Mufeum) ; which was built on a French plan
by the firft duke of Montagu, who had been ambafia-
dor in France. The ftaircafe and ceilings were paint¬
ed by Rouffeau and La Foffe : the apotheofis of Iris,
and the affembly of the gods, are by the laft. It was
purchafed of the duke’s heirs by parliament, for uniting
together the Royal, Cottonian, Harleian, Sloanian,
and other colle&ions of books, MSS. coins, antiqui¬
ties, fubje&s in natural hiftory, &c. &c. for the public
ufe, for which it is excellently adapted. The firft of
thefe libraries contains the books and MSS. of our
princes from Henry VII. to Charles II.; the fecond
the MSS. colle&ed by Sir John Cotton, his fon, and
grandfon Sir John, which laft gave it to the public by
adl 12 and 13 Will. HI. c. 7. The Harleian collec¬
tion of MSS. was formed by Edward earl of Oxford,
and purchafed by government in 1753, at the fame
time with the library, MSS. and natural curiofities, of
Sir Hans Sloane. This laft coft Sir Hans 50,000!. ;
and he left it by will, to the ufe of the public, on con¬
dition that the parliament would pay 20,000!. to his
executors. It comprehends an amazing number of cu¬
riofities : among which are, the library, including books
of drawings, MSS. and prints, amounting to about
^0,000 volumes ; medals and coins, ancient and mo¬
dern, 20,000 ; cameos and intaglios, about 700 ; feals,
268 ; veffels, &c. of agate, jafper, &c. 542 ; antiqui¬
ties, 1125; precious ftones, agates, jafper, &c. 2256;
metals, minerals, ores, &c. 2725; cryftal, fpars, &c.
1864; foflUs, flints, ftones, 1275; earths, fands, falts,
1035 ; bitumens, fulphurs, ambers, &c. 399 ; talcs,
micae, &C.-388; corals, fponges, &c. 1421 ; teftacea,
or {hells, &c. 5843 ; echini, echinitae, &c. 659 ; afte-
riae, trochi, entrochi, &c. 241; cruftaceae, crabs, lob-
fters, &c. 363; ftellae marinae, ftar-filhes, &p. 173 ;
fifti, and their parts, &c. 1555 \ birds, and their parts,
eggs, and nefts of different ipecies, 1172; quadrupeds,
&c. 1886; vipers, ferpents, &c. 521; infefls, &c.
5439 ; vegetables, 12,506 ; hortus ficcus or volumes of
dried plants, 334; humani, as calculi, anatomical pre-
i ] LON
parations, 756; mifcellaneous things, natural, 2098 ; London. ^
mathematical inftruments, 55. A catalogue of all the 'J " v
above is written in a number of large volumes. It is
a large and magnificent building ; and has behind it a
garden, confifting nearly of nine acres.
The Britifti Mufeum has of late been very much en¬
riched by an acceflion of Egyptian curiofities, chiefly
taken from General Menou at Alexandria. The Bri¬
tifti Mufeum has received a very valuable acceflion of
minerals in the fplendid colleftion of the Hon. C. Gre-
ville, which was purchafed by parliament at the ex¬
pence of 13,000!. fterling, and depofited there for the
ufe of the public. _ 147
Befides a great number of fpacioos ftreets, which are Principal
daily increafing, this part of the metropolis is ornament-
ed with feveral magnificent fquares, viz. Grofvenor-
fquare, Berkeley-fquare, Portman-fquare, Cavendifti-
fquare, Hanover-fquare, St James’s-fquare, Soho-fquare,
Bloomfliury-fquare, Queen’s-fquare, Lincoln’s Inn-
Fields, Leieefter-fquare, Red-Lion-fquare, fome of which
have been particularly defcribed; not to mention others
that are at prefent building. In general the new build¬
ings in the liberty of Weftminfter have increafed to a
prodigious degree; infomuch that they reach as far as
Marybone to the north, Piccadilly to the fouth, and
Hyde-Park wall to the weft. . 148
Before the conflagration in 1666, London (which London^an-
like moft other great cities, had arifen from fmall be-
ginnings) was totally inelegant, inconvenient, and un- and un_
healthy, of which latter misfortune many melancholy healthy,
proofs are authenticated in hiftory, and which, without
doubt, proceeded from the narrownefs of the ftreets,
and the unactountable projeftiohs of the buildings, that
confined the putrid air, and joined with other circum-
ftances, fuch as the want of water, rendered the city
feldom free from peftilential devaftation. R he fire
which confirmed the greateft part of the city, dreadful
as it was to the inhabitants at that time, was produc¬
tive of confequences which made ample amends for the
Ioffes fuftained by individuals; a new city arofe on the
ruins of the old ; but, though more regular, open, con¬
venient, and healthful, than the former, yet it by no
means anfwered to the charadters of magnificence or
elegance, in many particulars; and it is ever to be la¬
mented (fuch was the infatuation of thofe times), that
the magnificent, elegant, and.ufeful plan of the great
Sir Chriftopher Wren, was totally difregarded, and fa-
crificed to the mean and felfifti views of private pro¬
perty ; views which did irreparable injury to the citi¬
zens themfelves, and to the nation in general : for had
that great architedl’s plan been followed, what has of¬
ten been afferted muft have been the refult; the me¬
tropolis of this kingdom would inconteftably have been
the moft magnificent and elegant city in the univerfe;
and of confequence muft, from the prodigious refort of
foreigners of diftiudlion and tafte who would have vi-
fited it, have become an inexhauftible fund of riches
to this nation. But as the deplorable blindnefs of that
age has deprived us of fo valuable an acquifition, it is
become abfolutely neceffary that fome efforts fhould be
made to render the prefent plan in a greater degree
anfwerable to the chara&er of the richeft and moft
powerful people in the world. _ _ 1491
The plan of London, in its prefent flate, will ih Its pL”
many inftances appear to very moderate judges to he^e e ec*
D d 2 as *
LON [2i
'London, as injudicisus a difpofitiftn as can eafily be conceived
’ \r~~~ for a city of trade and commerce, on the borders of
fo noble a river as the Thames. The wharfs and quays
on its banks are extremely mean and inconvenient $
and the want of regularity and uniformity in the
ftreets of the city of London, and the mean avenues
to many parts of it, are alfo circumftances that greatly
leffen the grandeur of its appearance. Many of the
churches and other public buildings are likewife thruft
up in corners, in fuch a manner as might tempt fo¬
reigners to believe that they were defigned to be con¬
cealed. The improvements of the city of London for
feme years paft have, however, been very great j and
the new ftreets, which are numerous, are in general
more fpacious, and built with greater regularity and
150 elegance.
Great im- Xhe very elegant and neceffary method of paving
provemeuts. enligljtening the ftreets is alfo felt in the moft fen-
fible manner by all ranks and degrees of people. The
roads are continued for feveral miles around upon the
fame model •, and, exelufive of lamps regularly placed
on each fide, at ftiort diftances, are rendered more fe-
cure by watchmen ftationed within call of each other.
Nothing can appear more brilliant than thofe lights
when viewed at a diftance, efpecially where the roads
run acrofs; and even the principal ftreets, fuch as Pall-
Mall, New Bond-ftreet, Oxford-ftreet, &c. convey an
151 idea of elegance and grandeur.
Wealth anl London, then, in its large fenfe, including Weft-
grandeur ofminqer, Southwark, and part of Middlefex, forms
metropolis. one great metropolis, of vaft extent and of prodi¬
gious wealth. YVhen confidered with all its advan¬
tages, it is now' what ancient Rome once was $ the
feat of liberty, the encourager of arts, and the admi¬
ration of the whole world. It is the centre of trade *,
has an intimate connexion with all the counties in the
kingdom ; and is the grand mart of the nation, to
which all parts fend their commodities, from whence
they are again fent back into every town in the nation
and to every part of the world. From hence innumer-
- able carriages by land and water are conftantly em¬
ployed : and from hence arifes that circulation in the
national body which renders every part healthful, vigo¬
rous, and in a profperous condition ; a circulation that
is equally beneficial to the head and the moft diftant
members. Merchants-are here as rich as noblemen ;
witnefs their incredible loans to government: and
there is no place in the world where the (hops of tradef-
men make fuch a noble and elegant appearance, or are
152 better flocked.
Its excellent Xhe Thames, on the banks of which London is fi-
fitnation tuated, is a river which, though not the largeft, is
the richeft and moft commodious for commerce of any
in the world. It is continually filled with fleets, fail¬
ing to or from the moft difiant climates ; and its banks,
from London-bridge to Blackwall, form almoft one
continued great magazine of naval ftores ; containing
numerous wet docks, dry docks, and yards for the
building of (hips, for the ufe of the merchants; befides
the places allotted for the building of boats and lighters,
and the king’s yards lower down the river for the
building of men of war.
The Weft India Docks are defigned to receive all
the (hips trading to the Weft Indes, and will, when
finiftitd, juftly claim a place among the curiofities
for com¬
merce.
2 ] LON
of Great Britain. By virtue of an a£l of parliament London,
they were undertaken in 1799, the entrances into which —\r-~J
are by Blackwall and Limehoufe-hole. The proprie¬
tors began wdth a capital of 500,000!. with parliamen¬
tary authority toincreafe it to 6oo,oool. if they (hould
find it requifite, and they are to be indemnified by a
tonnage of 6s. upon the burden of every drip entering
the dock.
The docks at Wapping muft be allowed to be an
important improvement. The prodigious one which
goes by the name of St George’s dock, is capable of
containing 200 (hips, and Shadwell dock will contain
about 50 veflels. The company proje&ing and carry¬
ing thefe into execution, poffefs a capital of 1,200,0001.
and the (hares bear a premium. The foundation of
the entrance bafon w7as laid on the 26th of June, 1802,
and at the fame time the firft done of a tobacco ware-
houle, which is the largeft in the world.
As the city is about 60 miles diftant from the fea, it
enjoys, by means of this beautiful river, all the bene¬
fits of navigation, without the danger of being fur-
prifed by foreign fleets, or of being annoyed by the
moift vapours of the fea. It riles regularly from the
water-fide, and, extending itfelf on both (ides along its
banks, reaches a prodigious length from eaft to weft in
a kind of amphitheatre towards the north, and is conti¬
nued for near 20 miles on all (ides, in a fucceflion of
magnificent villas and populous villages, the country-
feats of gentlemen and tradefmen 5 whither the latter
retire for the benefit of freftr air, and to relax their
minds from the hurry of bufinefs. The regard paid
by the legiilature to the property of the fubjeft, has
hiterto prevented any bounds being fixed for its ex-
tenfion.
The irregular form of London makes it difficult toIl;s
afeertain its extent. However, its length from eaft to extent, f
weft is generally allowed to be above 1'even miles from
Hyde-park corner to Poplar ; and its breadth in lome
places three, in others two, and in others again not
much above half a mile. Hence the circumference of
the whole is almoft 18 miles 3 or, according to a later
meafurement, the exteot of continued buildings is 35
miles two furlongs and 39 roods. But it is much ealier
to form an idea of the large extent of a city fo irregu¬
larly built by the number of the people, who are com¬
puted to be near a million 3 and from the number of
edifices devoted to the fervice of religion. ^ 1
Of thefe, befide St Paul’s cathedral and the colle-General |
giate church at Weftminfter, there are 114 parifh-enuraera- 1
churches and 62 chapels, of the eftabliftied religion ;t,on
17 foreign Proteftant chapels 3 11 chapels belonging ^“^^1
to the Germans, Dutch, Danes, &c.; 26 Independent
meetings 3 34 Prefhyterian meetings 3 20 Baptift meet¬
ings 3 11 Popifh chapels, and meeting-houfes for the
ufe of foreign ambaffadors and people of various ledls j
and 6 Jews fynagogues. So that there are above 300
places devoted to religious worfliip in the compals of
this vaft pile of buildings, without reckoning the 21
out-parifties ufually included in the bills of mortality,
and a great number of Methodift tabernacles.
There are alfo in and near this city 100 alms-houfes, Hofpitals,!
about 20 hofpitals and infirmaries, 3 colleges, 10 public fchoo:s, i
prifons, 15 fle(h-markets 3 one market for live cattle Routes,
two other markets more particularly for herbs 3 and 23
other markets for corn, coals, hay, &c. 3 15 inns of
court j
LON [21
i London, court i 2? public fquares, befides tbofe within Angle
Y ' buildings, as the Temple, &c. j 3 bridges, 55 halls
for companies, 8 public fchools, called free-fchools j
and 13 x charity-fchools, which provide education for
5034 poor children 5 207 inns, 447 taverns, 551 cof-
feehoufes, 5975 alehoufes; xooo hackney-coaches j 400
ditto chairs j 7000 ftreets, lanes, courts, and alleys,
and 150,000 dwelling-houfes, containing, as has been
*S6 r, already obferved, about 1,000,000 inhabitants, who,
according to a moderate eftimate, are fuppofed to con-
n‘“i lUU 'fume the following provilions weekly :
157
.Veetdy
ionfumpt
[ )f provi-
ions.
1000 Bullocks, at 61. a-piece - L. 6000 o O
6000 Sheep, at 12s. a-piece - 3600 o O
2000 Calves, at il. 4s. a-piece 2400 o o
3000 Lambs, at 8s. a-piece for fix
months - - - 1200 O o
1500’ Hogs in pork and bacon, at
20s. for fix months - - I50° 0 0
2000 Pigs, at 2s. 6d. a-piece - 250 o O
1000 Turkeys, at 3s. 6d. a-piece for
fix months - - - I750°
1000 Geefe. at 2s. 6d. a-piece, for
fix months - - - 125 o O
2000 Capons, at !-•>. 8d. a-piece - 166 13 2
500 D zens of chickens, at 9s per
dozen - - - 225 o o
4300 Ducks, at 9d. a-piece - 161 5 o
1500 Dozens of rabbits, at 7s. per
dozen, for eight months - 525 O O
2000 Dozens of pigeons, at 2s. per
dozens, for eight months - 200 O O
700 Dozens of wild fowl, of feveral
forts, for fix months - - 250 o o
In fait and frelh filh, at id. a-day, for
half a million of people for a week 14,583 6 8
In bread of all forts, white and brown,
at id. a-day, for one million of
people for a week - - 29,166 13 4
300 Tons of wine, of all forts, at 50I.
a ton, one fort with another, for
one week , _ - 15,000 O O
In milk, butter, cheefe, &c. at id.
a-day, for a million of people for
a week _ _ - 29,166 13 4
In fruit of all forts, at one farthing
a-day, for a million of people for a
week - - - 7291 13 4
In eggs of hens, ducks, geefe, &e. at
half a farthing a-day, for a million
of people for a week - - 3645 4
In beer and ale, ftrong and fmall, at
2d. a-day, for a million of people
for a week - - - 5^,333 ^ ^
In fugar, plums, and fpice, and all
forts of grocery, at a halfpenny a-
day, for a million of people for a
week . - - - 14,583 6 8
In wheat-flour, for pies and pud¬
dings, oat-meal and rice, &c. at half
a farthing a-day, for a million of
people for a week - - 3645 *6 8
In fait, oil, vinegar, capers, olives,
and other fauces, at half a farthing
3 ] ..LON
a-day, for a million of people for a
week ... L.3645 16
In roots and herbs of all forts, both
for food and phyfic, at half a far¬
thing a-day, for a million of people
for a week - - - 3^45 ^
In fea-coal, charcoal, candles, and
fire-wood of all forts, at id. a-day,
for a million of people for a week 29,166 13 4
In paper of all forts (a great quantity
being ufed in printing) quills, pens,
ink, and wax, at a farthing a-day,
for a million of people for a w eek 729i I3 4
In tobacco, pipes, and fnuff, at half
a farthing a-day, for a million of
people for a week - - 3^45 8
In clothing, as linen and woollen,
for men, women, and children,
ihoes, itockings, &c. at 3s. 6d. per
week, for a million of people for
a week - - 175,000 O O
Expences for horfe-meat, in hay, oats,
beans, 1000 load of hay, a-week, at
40s. a load, comes to 2000I. in oats
and beans the like value, 2000I.
which is in all, for one w-eek - 4000 o O
Cyder, mum, brandy, ftrong waters,
coffee, chocolate, tea, &c. at id.
a-day, for a million of people for
one week - - - 29,166 13 4
London,
G8
The common firing is pit coal, commonly called fea Firing;, por-
coal, of w'hich there are confumed upwards of 766,880 ter, Stc.
chaldrons every year. The annual conlumption ot oil
in London and Weftminiter for lamps, amounts to
400,000!. In 1787, the quantity of porter brewed in
London for home confumption and foreign exportation,
amounted to 1,176,856 barrels. In 1805 it amounted
to 1,200,000 barrels of 36 gallons each.
The above was the weekly confumption of the arti¬
cles fpecified a few years ago. The following is the
annual confumption of fome of them eftimated fince
the year 1800. Bullocks 110,000 : Iheep and lambs
776,000: calves 210,000: hogs 210,000: fucking
pigs 60,000: milk in gallons 6,980,000; for which
the inhabitants pay 481,666!. and this is the produce
of 8500 cows : vegetables and fruit 3,000,000!.: ipi-
rituous liquors and compounds 11,146,782 gallons:
wine 32,500 tons: butter 16,600,000 pounds : cheefe
21,100,000 pounds. xijp
This great and populous city is happily fupplied Supply of
with abundance of frelh water from the 'lhames andwater*
the New River ; which is not only of inconceivable
fervice to every family, but by means of fire plugs
everywhere difperfed, the keys of which are depofited
with the parifti officers, the city is in a great mealure
fecured from the fpreading of fire ; for thefe plugs are
no fooner opened, than there are vaft quantities of wa¬
ter to fupply the engines. This plenty of water has l6-0
been attended with another advantage, it has given infurance
rife to feveral companies, who enlure houfes and companies,
goods from fire ; an advantage that is not to be met
with in any other nation on earth : the premium is
fmall; and the recovery in cafe of lofs is eafy and cer¬
tain.
i6i
Places of
diveriion,
&c.
LON [2
XonAon, tam. Every one of thefe offices keeps a fet of men in
London- pay^ \yfio are ready at all hours to give their affiftance
derry' , in cafe of fire ; and who are on all occafions extremely
bold, dexterous, and diligent : but though all their la¬
bours fhould prove unfuccefsful, the perfon who fuffers
by this devouring element has the comfort that muff
arife from a certainty of being paid the value (upon
oath) of what he has enfured.
The places for diveffion are, Vauxhall, Ranelagh-
gardens, the two play-houfes, the Pantheon, and the
little theatre in the Hay-Market, with Sadler’s-wells,
Hugh es’s Circus, and Aflley’s Royal-Grove, &c. The
finelf repofitories of rarities and natural hiftory, are Sir
Hans Sloane’s, in the Britifli Mufeum, already deferr¬
ed ; and another collefted by Sir Afhton Lever, after¬
wards the private property of Mr Parkinfon, and de-
pofited in apartments for public infpe£tion, near the
fouth end of Blackfriars bridge, was fold in 1806.
The Royal Intfitution owed its origin to a number of
noblemen and gentlemen, who held meetings for the
avowed purpofe of ameliorating the condition of the
poor. They firfl projefted the plan of its foundation,
which was matured by the exertions and talents of the
indefatigable Count Rumford. The meetings began in
1800, fhortly before which his majefly granted the
proprietors a charter of incorporation by the name of
the Royal Injlitution of Great Britain, for the purpofe
of facilitating the general introdu&ion of ufeful mecha¬
nical inventions and improvements, and for teaching,
by courfes of philofophical lectures and experiments,
the application of fcience to the common purpofes of
life.
The government of the fociety confifts of the prefi-
dent, 15 managers, and the fecretary, chofen by and
from among the proprietors. Of the 15 managers, one-
third is defied annually, on the firft of May. The
houfe is fituated in Albemarle-ftreet, is extremely fpa-
cious, and well adapted to the purpofes to which it is
applied.
The London Inftitution was formed in the autumn
of 1805, by the indefatigable exertions of a few fpirit-
ed individuals. The houfe in the mean time is in the
Old Jewry, till the managers can procure a more fuitable
place. The defign of it is to promote the diffemination
of fcience, literature, and the arts : its view at prefent
being confined to three objedls, viz. the acquifition of
a valuable and extenfive library ; the diffufion of ufeful
knowledge by the means of leflures and experiments *,
and the eftablilhment of a reading room, where the
foreign and domeftic journals are provided for the ufe
of the proprietors and fubferibers. The government of
the inftitution is veiled in a prefident, four vice-prefi-
dents, twenty managers, and the fecretary. The num¬
ber of proprietors is limited to 1000, each of whom
paid 75 guineas for a lhare, and the life fubferibers pay
25 guineas.
Londonderry, or Colermn, a county of
Ireland, in the province of Ulfter. It is bounded on
the fouth and fouth-weft by the county of Tyronne ;
by Antrim on the eaft, from which it is parted by the
xiver Bann : by Donegal on the weft j and that coun¬
ty and the Deucaledonian ocean on the north. Its
greateft length is about 36 miles, its breadth 30, con¬
taining about 251,510 acres. The bogs and heaths
•«f this county are manured with fea-fliells, as thofe
3
14 ] LON
of Donegal. Like that, too, it is pretty champaign,
and not unfruitful. It is particularly noted for a very
clear river called the Bann, abounding with falmon, a ^
filh faid to delight in limpid ftreams. This river, to
diftinguilh it from a leffer of the fame name, is called
the Greater or Lower Bann. In order to cultivate,
fettle, and civilize this county, King James I. granted
it, by letters patent, to a fociety, by the name of the
Governor and AJJiJlants at London of the new plantation
of Uljler in the realm of Ireland. It contains fix ba¬
ronies ; and, befides the two knights of the Ihire, fends
to parliament two members for the city of London¬
derry, and two each for Colerain and Newton-Lima-
vady or Lamnevady.
Londonderry, or D^rry, the capital of the county,
and the fee of a bilhop, Hands at the bottom of Lough-
Foyle. This city has a very good port, to which Ihips
of the greateft burden have accefs, and a confidt/rable
trade. It will be ever famous for the gallantry and
perfeverance with which it defended itfelf in three
memorable fieges, in defiance of the greateft hardihips
and difeouragements, namely, ift, In 1641, when the
rebels could not reduce it either by fraud or force.
2dly, In 1649, when it was befieged by the lord Ardes,
and reduced almoft to extremity by famine, till at lalt
relieved by troops fent from England. 3dly, When
it held out againft the French and Irifti from the 7th
of December 1688, to the laft day of July 1689,
though it was neither well fortified nor provided with
a garrifon or (lores of provifion and ammunition, and
hardly any attempt made to relieve it during fo long a
time. Though the city is 20 miles up the river, yet
very large (hips can come up to the quay, where there
are four or five fathoms of water. It is now well for¬
tified with a ftrong wall, befides outworks j and along
the banks of the river are feveral 'Caftles and a fort.
This city is of no great antiquity, having been built
and planted in the reign of James I. by a colony fent
by the fociety above mentioned. The trade of the
town is very confiderable, having not only a large
(hare in the herring filhery, but lending (hips alfo to
the Weft Indies, New England, and Newfoundland,
for which they are fo advantageoufly fituated, that a
veffel bound from thence to America often arrives
there before a London (hip can get clear of the found¬
ings, or arrive in the latitude of Londonderry. Though
there are a great many (hallows in Lough-Foyle,
which ferves it inftead of a road ; yet they are eafily
avoided, as there are deep channels between them.
Thefe points called Emiftone, Rujlerhull or Caldy head,
which lie a little to the weft of the mouth of the har¬
bour, are counted the mod northerly of Ireland. The
inhabitants of this city are almoft all Proteftants. It
gave title of earl and baron to a branch of the family
of Pitt, which became extinft in 17645 but part of
the title was revived in Robert Stewart, who was creat¬
ed Baron Londonderry in 1789. A late traveller
fays, “ Derry is, perhaps, the cleaned, bed built, and
mod beautifully fituated town in Ireland 5 and except¬
ing Cork, as convenient as any for commerce, foreign
and domeftic.” The lake almoft furrounds it 5 and the
whole ground-plot both of it and its liberties belongs to
the 12 great companies of London. Great quantities
of falmon, failed and barrelled, are exported from
hence to America. It contains 10,000 inhabitants,
. and
London,
derrv.
LON [2
Lofton and has a wooden bridge 1068 feet long, which was
deny, ere&ed in 1791. Long. 70 5' W. Lat. 550 4' N.
Lond- LONG, an epithet given to whatever exceeds the
ufual itandard of length.
LONG-Boat, the largeft and ftrongeft boat belonging
to any diip. It is principally employed to carry great
burdens, as anchors, cables, ballalt, &c. See Boat.
Long, Roger, D. D. matter of Pembroke-hall in
Cambridge, Lowndes’s profeffor of aftronomy in that
univerfity, reftor of Cherryhinton in Huntingdonttiire,
and of Bradwell juxta mare in Effex, was author of a
well known and much improved treatife of aftronomy,
and the inventor of a remarkably curious aftronomical
machine, thus deferibed by himfelf. “ I have, in a
room lately built in Pembroke-hall, erefted a fphere of
18 feet diameter, wherein above 30 perfons may fit con¬
veniently; the entrance into it is over the fouth pole by
fix fteps; the frame of the fphere confifts of a number
of iron meridians, not complete femieircles, the north¬
ern ends of which are fcrewed to a large round plate of
brafs, with a hole in the centre of it ; through this
hole, from a beam in the ceiling, comes the north pole,
a round iron rod, about three inches long, and fupports
the upper parts of the fphere to its proper elevation for
the latitude of Cambridge; the lower part of the fphere,
lo much of it as is invifible in England, is cut off; and
the lower or fouthern ends of the meridians, or trunca¬
ted femicircles, terminate on, and are fcrewed down to
a ftrong circle of oak, of about 13 feet diameter;
which, when the fphere is put into motion, runs upon
large rollers of lignum vitae, in the manner that the
tops of fome windmills are made to turn round. Upon
the iron meridians is fixed a zodiac of tin painted blue,
whereon the ecliptic and heliocentric orbits of the pla¬
nets are drawn, and the conftellations and ftars traced :
the Great and Little Bear and Draco are already paint¬
ed in their places round the north pole ; the reft; of the
conftellations are propofed to follow' : the whole is
turned round with a fmall winch, writh as little labour
as it takes to w ind up a jack, though the weight of the
iron, tin, and wooden circle, is about 1000 pounds.
When it is made ufe of, a planetarium will be placed in
the middle thereof. The w hole, with the floor, is well
fupported by a frame of large timber.” Thus far Dr
Long, before this curious piece of mechanifra was per¬
fected. Since the above was written, the fphere has
been completely finiftied ; all the conftellations and ftars
of the northern hemifphere, vifiblexat Cambridge, are
painted in their proper places upon plates of iron joined
together, which form one concave furface. Dr Long
publiftied a Commencement Sermon 1728 ; and an an-
fwer to Dr Galley’s pamphlet on Greek Accents; and
died December 16th, 1770, at the age of 91. As the
materials for this article are fcanty, we fliall fubjoin,
for 1783, from the Gentleman’s Magazine*, a few traits of him,
3 583. as delineated in 1769 by Mr Jones. “ He is now in
the 88th year of his age, and for his years vegete and
active. He was lately (in O&ober) put in nomination
for the office of vice-chancellor. He executed that
truft once before, I think in the year 1737 ; a very in¬
genious perfon, and fometimes very facetious. At the
public commencement in the year 17x3, Dr Greene
(tnafter of Bennet college, and afterwards bifhop of
Ely) being then vice-chancellor, Mr Long w'.as pitched
S J LON
upon for the tripos-performance ; it was witty and hu-
morous, and has palled through divers editions. Some Longevity^
that remembered the delivery of it, told me, that in
addrelfing the vice-chancellor (whom the univerfity
wags ufually ftyled Mifs Greene), the tripos-orator, be¬
ing a native of Norfolk, and afluming the Norfolk dia¬
led, inftead of faying, Domine Vice-Canceliarit, did
very archly pronounce the words thus, Domim. Vice-
Canceilari'A ; which occafioned a general fmile in that
great auditory. His friend the late Mr Bonfoy of Rip-
ton told me this little incident, ‘ That he and Dr Long
walking together in Cambridge in a dulky evening,
and coming to a ftiort pojl fixed in the pavement, which
Mr B. in the midft of chat and inattention, took to be
a boy Handing in his way, he faid in a hurry, ‘ Get
out of my way, boy.’ ‘ That boy. Sir, faid the doc¬
tor very calmly and flily, is a poflboy, who turns out
of his way for nobody.^—I could recoiled feveral other
ingenious repartees if there were occafion. One thing
is remarkable, he never was a hale and hearty man, al¬
ways of a tender and delicate conftitution, yet took
great care of it. His common drink water. He always
dines with the fellows in the hall. Of late years he
has left off eating fleih-meats ; in the room thereof,
puddings, vegetables, &c. fometimes a glafs or two of;
wine.”
LONGEVITY, length of life.
From the different longevities of men in the begin¬
ning of the world, after the flood, and in thefe ages,
Mr Derham draws an argument for the interpofition of
a divine Providence.
Immediately after the creation, w'hen the world was
to be peopled by one man and one woman, the ordinary
age was 900 and upwards.—Immediately after the
flood, when there were three perfons to ftock the world,,
their age was cut ftiorter, and none of thofe patriarchs,
but Shem, arrived at 5C0. In the fecond century we
find none that reached 240 : in the third, none butTe-
rah that came to 2.00 years ; the world, at leaft a part
of it, by that time being fo well peopled, that they had
built cities, and were cantoned out into diftant nations.
—By degrees, as the number of people increafed, their
longevity dwindled, till it came down at length to 70
or 80 years : and there it flood, and has continued to
Hand ever fince the time of Mofes.—This is found a
good medium, and by means hereof the world is neither
overftocked, nor kept too thin; but life and death keep
a pretty equal pace.
That the common duration of man’s .life has been the
fame in all ages fince the above period, is plain both
from facred and profane hiftory. To pafs by others,
Plato lived to 8x* and was accounted an old man : and
the inftances of longevity produced by Pliny, lib. vii.
c. 48. as very extraordinary, may moft of them be
matched in modern hiftories.—In the following Tables
are colle£ted into one point of view the moft memorable
inftances of long-lived perfons of whofe age we have any
authentic records. The firft and fecond are extra<ftedf
from Mr Whitehu.rfs Inquiry into the Origin and Strata
of the Earth, with fome additions by Dr Fothergill ;
who inferted them, accompanied by a third, together
with a number of ufeful obfervations, in the firft vo¬
lume of the Memoirs of the Manchefter Literary So-
ciety..
LON
[ 216 ]
LON
Longevity.
Names of the Perfons.
Age.
Thomas Parre
Plenty Jenkins
Robe’-t Montgomery
James Sands
His Wife
Countefs of Defmond
   ■ - Eclefton
J. Sagar
— Laurence
Simon Sack
Col. Thomas Window
Francis Confift
Chrift. J. Drakenberg
Margaret Forfter
' —— her daughter
Francis Eons
John Brookey
James Bowels
John Tice
John Mount
A. Goldfmith
Mary Yates
John Bales
William Ellis
Louifa Truxo, a Negrefs
Margaret Patten
Janet Taylor
Richard Lloyd
Sufannah Hilliar
Ann Cockbolt
James Hay ley
Places of Abode.
Living or Dead.
M2
169
126
14O
120
I40
I43
112
140
141
146
15°
146
136
104
I 21
x34
!52
125
136
140
128
126
130
175
138
108
x33
100
x°5
112
Shroplhire
Yorklhire
Ditto
Staffordlhire
Ditto
Ireland
Ditto
Lancafhire
Scotland
Trionia
Ireland
York fli ire
Norway
Cumberland
Ditto
France
Devonlhire
Killingworth
Worcefterlhire
Scotland
France
Shroplhire
Northampton
Liverpool
Tucomea, S. America
Lockneugh near Paifley
Fintray, Scotland
Montgomery
Piddington, Northamplh.
Stoke-Bruerne, lb*
__y   Middlewich, Chelhire
William Walker, aged 112, not mentioned abov
at the battle of Edgehill.
("Died November 16. 1635
7 Phil. Tranf. N° 44.
fDied December 8. 1670.
{ Phil. Ti'anf. N° 221.
Died in 1670.
^ Do. Fuller’s Worthies,
l P-47-
Raleigh’s Hilt. p. 166.
Died — — 1691.
  _ _ 1668.
Living — —
Died May 30. 1764.
  Aug. 26. 1766.
  Jan. — 1768
  June 24. 1770.
Both living 1771.
Died Feb. 6. 1769.
Living— — I777-
Died Aug. 15. 1656.
■ — March 1774
  Feb. 27. 1766.
  June — !7y6.
  — — 1776.
  April 5. 1776.
—— Aug. 16. 1780.
Living Oft. 5. 1780
Lynche’s Guide to Health
Died Oft. JO. 1780.
Lynche’s Guide to Health.
Died Feb. 19. 1781. (o)
  April 5. 1775. (r)
   March 17. 1781. (q_)
, who was a foldier
(A)
O)
(0
O)
(E)
(F)
(G)
(«)
(0
(K)
(E)
(M)
(N)
If we look back to an early period of the Chriltian
era, we lhall find that Italy has been, at lealt about
that time, peculiarly propitious to longevity. Lord Ba¬
con obferves that the year of our Lord 76, in the reign
of Vefpafian, was memorable j for in that year was a
taxing which afforded the molt authentic method of
knowing the ages of men. From it, there were found
in that part of Italy lying between the Apennine moun¬
tains and the river Po, 124 perfons who either equalled
or exceeded 100 years of age, namely—
54 perfons of 100 years each.
, 57 * 110
2 - 125
4 perfons of 130 years.
In Parma
In Bruffels
In Placentia
In Faventia
In Rimino
Longevity,
136
140
120
130
125
131
132
IIO
120
150 years, viz.
Marcus Aponius,
Mr
(a) Fuller’s Worthies, p. 140.
(B1) Phil. Tranf. abridged by Lowthorp, vol. iii.
p. 30, 6.
(c) Derham’s Phyfico-Theology, p. 173.
(d) Annual Regilter.
(e) Daily Advertifer, Nov. 18. 1777.
(f) Warwicklhire.
(g) Daily Advertifer, March 1774.
(h) Morning Polt, Feb. 29. 1776.
{1) Daily Advertifer, June 24. 177.6..
(k) Daily Advertifer, Aug. 22. 1776.
(l) See Infcription in the portico of All-Saints
church.
(m) London Even. Polt, Aug. 22. 1780.
(n) London Chronicle, Oft. 5. 1780.
(o) Northamp. Mercury, Feb. 19. 1781.
(?) Well known to perfons of credit in Northamp**
ton.
(q_) Gen. Evening Poll, March 24. 1781.
LON [2
[/ffgtvity. Mr Carew, in his Survey of Cornwall, affures us,
“""Y”—' that it is no unufual thing with the inhabitants of that
county to reach 90 years of age and upwards, and
even to retain their ftrength of body and perfeft ufe
of their fenfes. Belides Brown, the Cornilh beggar,
who lived to 120, and one Polezew to 130 years of
age, he remembered the deceafe of four perfons in his
own parilh, the fum of whofe years, taken colleftively,
amounted to 340. Now, although longevity evident-
17 ] LON
ly prevails more in certain diftri£ls than in others, yet Longevity-
it is by no means confined to any particular nation or —
climate j nor are there wanting inftances of it in al-
moft every quarter of the globe, as appears from the
preceding as well as the fubfequent Table j which
might have been confiderably enlarged, had it ap¬
peared neceffary j but we have only added, in the
laft, three recent inftances that are peculiarly remark¬
able.
Names of the Perfons.
Hippocrates, Phyfician
Democritus, Philofopher
Galen, Phyfician
Albuna, Marc
Dumitur Raduly
Titus Fullonius
Abraham Paiba
L. Tertulla
Lewis Cornaro
Robert Blackeney, Efq.
Margaret Scott
W. Gulftone
J. Bright
William Poftell
Jane Reeves
W. Paulet, Marquis’)
of Winchefter j
John Wilfon
Patrick Wian
M. Laurence
Evan Williams
John Jacobs (r)
Matthew Tait (s)
Donald Macleod (t)
Age.
104
109
140
15°
140
142
I37
100
114
l2S
140
105
120
103
106
1x6
1 *5
140
I45
121
123
104
Places of Abode.
Where recorded.
Ifland of Cos
Abdera
Pergamus
Ethiopia
y Haromfzeck, Tranfyl-
\ vania
Bononia
Charleftown, South Carol.
Ariminum
Venice
Armagh, Ireland
Dalkeith, Scotland
Ireland
Ludlow
France
Effex
Hamplhire
Suffolk
Lefbury, Northumberd.
Orcades
C Caermarthen work-
\ houfe, ftill alive
Mount Jura
Auchinleck, Ayrfhire
r Ifle of Sky. Alive Jan.
i I792-
Lynche on Health, chap. 3.
Bacon’s Hiftory, 1095.
Voff. inlt. lib. iii.
Hakewell’s Ap. lib. i.
Died Jan. 18. 1782. General
Gazetteer, April 18.
Fulgofus, lib. viii.
General Gazetteer.
Fulgofus, lib. viii.
Bacon’s Hi ft. of Life, p. 134.
General Gazetteer.
Infcription on her tomb there.
Fuller’s Worthies.
Lynche on Health.
Bacon’s Hiftory, p. 134.
St James’s Chron. June 14.1781.
Baker’s Chron. p. 502.
Gen. Gaz. Oft. 29. 1782.
Plemp. Fundam. Med. § 4. c. 8.
Buchanan’s Hift. of Scotland.
General Gazetteer, Oft. i2lh
1782.
All the public prints, Jan. 1790.
C Died Feb. 19. 1792. Edin.
\ Even. Cour. Mar. 8. 1792.
All the public prints at the end
of 1790 j and Memoirs, &c.
Vol. XII. Part I.
E e
A
(r) This man, in 1789, at the age of 120, quitted his native hills, and from the fummit of Mount Jura un¬
dertook a journey to Verfailles, to behold and return thanks to the national affembly for the vote which had
freed him and his poor countrymen from the feudal yoke. In the early part of his life, he was a fervant in
the family of the prince de Beaufremont. His memory continued good to the laft day of his life $ and the
principal inconveniences which he felt from his great age were, that his fight was weakened, and the natural
heat of his body was fo diminifhed, that he ftiivered with cold in the middle of the dog-days if he was not fit¬
ting by a good fire. This old man was received in the body of the houfe by the national affembly, indulged
with a chair, and direfted to keep on his hat left he ftiould catch cold if he was to fit uncovered. A colleftion
was made for him by the members, which exceeded tool, fterling •, but he lived not to return to Mount Jura,
He was buried on Saturday the 31ft of January 1790, with great funeral pomp, in the pariflx church of St Euftace
at Paris.
(s') He ferved as a private at the taking of Gibraltar in 1704.
(t) Memoirs of the Life and gallant Exploits of the Old Highlander, Serjeant Donald Macleod, &c. publifhed
1791, in the 103d year of his age.—This old gentleman, for it appears that he really is a gentleman both
by birth and by behaviour, was born in the year of the Revolution, in the parifh of Bracadill, in the ifle of
Sky, and county of Invernefs, North Britain. He is a cadet of the family of Ulinifh in Sky \ and defcended,
through his mother, from Macdonald of Slate, the anceftor of the prefent Lord Macdonald. The earlier
part of his life coincided with the famine of feven years in Scotland •, which was fo great as to fuggeft, even
to the patriotic Mr Fletcher, the idea of the people felling themfelves as (laves for immediate fubfiftence. He
was
LON
vity. A certain author mentions a lift collefted by him-
felf of 107 perfons, who all died at the age of 120 and
upwards. Two of them attained the age of 150, three
of 152, one of 154, one of 169, and another 175. In
1763 there were found, in Sweden 988 females above
90 years of age. We have feen a lift of 104 perfons,
none of whom died under j 20 years of age, and one of
them, it' is faid, lived to the prodigious age of 180.
Forty-one of them belonged to England, 16 to Scot¬
land, and 24 to Ireland.
The antediluvians are purpofely omitted, as bearing
too little reference to the prefent race of mortals, to af¬
ford any fatisfadlory conclufionsj and as they have been
already taken notice of in a feparate article-, (fee An-
tedii.uvians). As the improbable ftories of fome
perfons who have almoft rivalled them in modern
times, border too much upon the marvellous to find
a place in thefe tables, the prefent examples are a-
bundantly fufficient to prove, that longevity does not
depend, fo much as has been fuppofed, on any par¬
ticular climate, fituation, or occupation in life : for
we fee, that it often prevails in places where all
thefe are extremely diflimilar ; and it would, moreover,
be very difficult, in the hiftories of the feveral perfons
above mentioned, to find any circumftance common to
them all, except, perhaps, that of being born of heal¬
thy parents, and of being inured to daily labour, tem¬
perance, and fimplicity of diet. Among the inferior
ranks of mankind, therefore, rather than among the
fons ofeafe and luxury, {hall we find the moft numer¬
ous inftances of longevity *, even frequently, when o-
ther external circumftances feem extremely unfavour¬
able } as in the cafe of the poor fexton at Peterbo¬
rough, who, notwithftanding his unpromifing occupa¬
tion among dead bodies, lived long enough to bury two
crowned heads, and to furvive two complete genera-
L O N
tions. The .livelihood of Henry Jenkins and old Longevity,
Parre is faid to have confitted chiefly of the coarfeft
fare, as they depended on precarious alms. To which
may be added the remarkable inftance of Agnes Mil-
bourne, who, after bringing forth a numerous off-
fpring, and being obliged, through extreme indigence,
to pafs the latter part of her life in St Luke’s work-
houfe, yet reached her 106th year in that fordid and
unfriendly fituation. The plain diet and invigorating
employments of a country life are acknowledged onr
all hands to be highly conducive to health and longe¬
vity, while the luxury and refinements of large cities
are allowed to be equally deftru&ive to the human fpe-
cies j and this confideration alone, perhaps, more than
counterbalances all the boafted privileges of fuperior
elegance and civilization reiulting from a city life.
From country villages, and not from crowded ci¬
ties, have the preceding inrtances of longevity been
chiefly fupplied. Accordingly it appears from the'
London bills of mortality, during a period of 30 years,
viz. from the year 1728 to 1738, the fum of the
deaths amounted to 730,322, and that, in all this
prodigious number, only 242 perfons furvived the
1 ooth year of their age! This overgrown metropo¬
lis is computed by Dr Price to contain a ninth
part of the inhabitants of England, and to con-
fume annually 7000 perfons, who remove into it
from the country every year, without increafing it.
He moreover obferves, that the number of inhabitants
in England and Wales has diminithed about one-fourth
part fince the Revolution 5 and fo rapidly of late, that
in 11 years,, near 200,000 of our common people have
been loft. If’the calculation be juft, however alarming
it may appear in a national view, there is this confo-
lation, when confidered in a philofophical light, that
without partial evil, there can be no general good j
[ 218 ]
was bred in the midft of want and hardftrips, cold, hunger, and for the years of his apprenticefhip with a
mafon and ftone-cutter in Invernefs, in inceffant fatigue. He inlifted, when a boy, in the Scottilh feryice,
in the town of Perth in the laft year of the reign of King William. _ The regiment into which he inlifted
was the Scots Royals, commanded by the earl of Orkney. That old military corps, at that time, ufed bows and
arrows as well as fwords, and wore fteel caps. He ferved in Germany and Flanders under the duke of Marlborough;
under the duke of Argyle, in the rebellion 1715 j in the Highland Watch, or companies raifed for enforcing
the laws in the Highlands-, in the fame companies when, under the name of the 42d regiment, they were
fent abroad to Flanders, to join the army under the duke of Cumberland -, in the fame regiment in Ireland,
and on the breaking out of the French war, I757> *n America. Irom the 42d he was draughted t© a£t as
a drill ferjeant in the 78th regiment, in which he ferved at the reduaion of Louifburg and Quebec : After
this he became an out-penfioner of Cbelfea Hofpital. But fuch was the fpirit of this brave and hardy ve¬
teran, that he ferved in 1761 as a volunteer in Germany under the marquis of Granby j and offered his
fervices in the American war to Sir Henry Clinton j who, though he declined to employ the old man in the
fatigues and dangers of war, treated him with great kindnefs, allowed him a liberal weekly penfren out of his
own pocket, and' fent him home in a Ihip charged with defpatehes to government.—The ierjeant, “ as-his
memory, according to the obfervation of his biographer, is impaired, does not pretend to make an exaft enu¬
meration of all his offspring : but he knows of 16 fons now living, 14 of whom are in the army and navy, be-
fides daughters -, the eldeft ©f whom by his prefent wife is a mantuamaker at Newcaftle—His eldeft fon is now
83 years old, and the youngeft only nine. Nor, in all probability, would this lad clofe the rear of his immedi¬
ate progeny, if his-prefent wife, the boy’s mother, had not attained to the 49th year of her age. In his
prime he did not exceed five feet and Even inches. He is now inclined through age to five feet five inches.
He has an intending phyfiognomy, expreflive of fincerity, fenfibility, and manly courage. His biographer
very properly fubmits it to the confideration of the Polygraphic Society, whether they might not do a thing
worthy of themfelves and their ingenious art, if they ftiould multiply likeneffes of this living antiquity, and cir¬
culate them at an eafy rate throughout Britain and Europe. They would thus gratify a very general curiofity j.
a curiofity not confined to the prefent age,..
LON [ 219 ] LON
evity. and that what a nation lofes in the feale of population principle contained in the atmofphere, fo efiential to Longevo:y»
-at one period, it gains at another ; and thus probably, the fupport of flame, as well as animal life, concern-
the average number of inhabitants on the iurface of ing which authors have propofed fo many conjetfures,
the globe continues at all times nearly the fame. By appears now to be nothing elfe but that pure dephlo-
this medium, the world is neither overftocked with in- ghticated fluid lately difcovered by that ingenious phi-
habitants nor kept too thin, but life, and death keep a lofopher Dr Prieftley. The common atmofphere may
tolerably equal pace, The inhabitants of this ifland, well be fuppofed to be more or lefs healthy in propor-
comparatively fpeaking, are but as the dull of the ba- tion as it abounds with this animating principle. As
lance ; yet inflead of being diminilhed, we are affured this exhales in copious fleams from the green leaves
by other writers, that within thefe 30 years they are of all kinds of vegetables, even from thofe of the moll
greatly increafed. " poifonous kinds, may we not, in feme meafure account
^ The defire of felf-prefervation, and of protrafling why inltances of longevity are fo much more frequent
the Ihort fpan of life, is fo intimately interwoven with in the country than in large cities ; where the air, in¬
cur conftitution, that it is jultly efteemed one of the Head of partaking fo_ largely of this falutary impregna-
firlt principles of our nature, and, in fpite even of pain tion, is daily contaminated with noxious animal effluvia
and mifery, feldom quits us to the la A moments of and phlogifton ?
our exiflence. It feems, therefore, to be no lefs our With refpea to climate, various obfervations con-
duty than our intereft, to examine minutely into the fpire to prove, that thofe regions which lie within the
various means that have been confidered as conducive temperate zones are bell calculated to promote long
to health and long life : and, if polflble, to diftinguiffl life. Hence, perhaps, may be explained, why Italy
fuch circumflances as are effential to that great end -has produced fo many Jong livers, and why illands in
from thofe which are merely accidental. But here it general are more falutary than continents; of which
is much to be regretted, that an accurate hiltory of Bermudas and fome others afford examples. And it
the lives of all the remarkable perfons in the above is a pleafmg circumllance that our own ifland ap-
table, fo far as relates to the diet, regimen, and the pears from the above table (notwithflanding the fud-
ufe of the non-naturals, has not been faithfully handed den viciffitudes to which it is liable) to contain far
down to us j without which it is impoffible to draw more inftances of longevity than could well be imagin-
the neceffary inferences. Is it not then a matter of ed. The ingenious Mr Whitehurft affures us, from
aftoniihment, that hiftorians and philofophers have hi- certain fafts, that Englifflmen are in general longer
therto paid fo little attention to longevity ? If the pre- lived than North Americans $ and that a Britilh con-
fent imperfed lift fliould excite others, of more leifure ftitution will laft longer, even in that climate, than a
and better abilities, to undertake a full inveftigation native one. But it muft be allowed in general, that
• of fo interefting a fubjed, the inquiry might prove not the human conftitution is adapted to the peculiar ftate
only curious but highly ufeful to mankind. In or- and temperature of each refpedive climate, fo that no
der to furniih materials for a future hiftory of longe- part of the habitable globe can be pronounced too hot
vity, the bills of mortality throughout the kingdom or too cold for its inhabitants. Yet, in order to pro-
ought firft to be revifed, and put on a better footing, mote a friendly intercourfe between the moft remote
agreeable to the fcheme of which Manchafter and Chef- regions, the Author of nature has wifely enabled the
ter have already given a fpecimen highly worthy of inhabitants to endure great and furprifmg changes of
imitation. The"plan, however, might be further im- temperature with impunity.
proved with very little trouble, by adding a particular 2. Foods and drink. Though foods and drink Oa
account of the diet and regimen of every perfon who the moft Ample kinds are allowed to be the bell cal-
dies at 80 years of age or upwards; and mentioning culated for fupporting the body in health, yet it can
whether his parents were healthy, long-lived people, hardly be doubted but variety may be fafely indulged
&c. An accurate regifter, thus eftabliffled through- occaflonally, provided men would reftrain their appe-
out' the Britiih dominions, would be produftive of tites within the bounds of temperance : for bound-
many important advantages to fociety, not only in a ful Nature cannot be fuppofed to have poured forth
medical and philofophical, but alfo in a political and fuch a rich profufion of proviftons, merely to tantalize
moral view. the hu“an fpecies, without attributing to her the part
All the circumllances that are moft effenlially necef- of a cruel ftepdame, inftead of that of the kind and
fary to life may be comprifed under the fix follow- indulgent parent. Befldes, we find, that by the won-
ing heads : 1. Air and climate > 2. Meat and drink j derful powers of the digeftive organs, a variety of am-
a. Motion and reft *, 4. The fecretions and excretions j mal and vegetable fubftances, of very dncordant pnn-
c. Sleep and watching j 6. Affeaions of the mind. ciples, are happily afflmilated into one bland homoge-
Thefe though all perfectly natural to the conftitu- neous chyle ; therefore it feems natural to diftrult thols
tion, have by writers been ftyled the non-naturals, by cynical writers, who would rigidly confine mankind to
a ftrange perverfion of language ; and have been all one Ample diffl, and their drink to the mere water of
copioufly handled under that impropej term. How- the brook. Nature, it is true, has pointed out that mild
eve- it may not be amifs to offer a few fflort obferva- infipid fluid as the univerfal diluent, and therefore moft
tions’ on each, as they are fo immediately conneded admirably adapted for our daily beverage. But expe-
with the prefent fubjed. rience has equally proved, that vinous and fpintuous
I. /fir. See. It has long been known that frefh air is liquors, on certain occafions, are no lefs ialutary anu
more immediately neceffary to life than food ; for a man beneficial, whether it be to fupport ftrength agamft
may live two or three days without the latter, but not ficknefs or bodily fatigue, or to exhilerate the mind
manv minutes without the former. The vivifying under the preflure of hea’&y misfortunes. But) a as •
' E e 2 what
LON [ 220 ] LON
Lcngev'ty. what Nature meant for innocent and ufeful cordials, to
be tjfed on]y occafionally, and according to the direc¬
tion of reafon, cuftom and caprice have by degreesren-
dered habitual to the human-frame, and liable to the
moft enormous and deftruftive abufes. Hence it may
be juftly doubted, whether gluttony and intemperance
have not depopulated the world more than even the
fword, peftilence, and famine. True, therefore, is the
old maxim, “ Modus utendi ex veneno facit medicamen-
tum, ex medicamento venerium.
3. and 4. Motion and re/}, Jleep and watching. It
is allowed on all hands, that alternate motion and relt,
and deep and watching, are neceffary conditions to
health and longevity j and that they ought to be adapt¬
ed to age, temperament, conftitution, temperature of
the climate, &c.} but the errors which mankind daily
commit in thefe refpefts become a fruitful fouree of
difeafes. While fome are bloated and relaxed with
eafe and indolence, others are emaciated, and become
rigid through hard labour, watching, and fatigue.
5. Secretions and excretions. Where the animal
fundlions are duly perfonjied, the fecretions go on re¬
gularly ; and the different evacuations fo exaftly cor-
refpond to the quantity of aliment taken in, in a given
time, that the body is found to return daily to nearly
the fame weight. If any particular evacuation happen
to be preternaturally diminifhed, fome other evacua¬
tion is proportionally augmented, and the equilibrium
is commonly preferved ; but continued irregularities,
in thefe important funffions, cannot but terminate in
difeafe.
6. AffeBions of the mind. The due regulation of
the paflions, perhaps, contributes more to health and
longevity than that of any other of the ^non-naturals.
The animating paflions, fuch as joy, hope, love, &c.
when kept within proper bounds, gently excite the ner¬
vous influence, promote an equable circulation, and are
highly conducive to health j while the deprefling affec¬
tions, fuch as fear, grief, and defpair, produce the con¬
trary effect, and lay the foundation of the mofl: formi¬
dable difeafes.
From the light which hiflory affords us, as well as
from fome inftances in the above table, there is great
reafon to believe, that longevity is in a great meafure
hereditary j and that healthy long-lived parents would
commonly tranfmit the fame to their children, were it
not for the frequent errors in the non-naturals, which
fo evidently tend to the abbreviation of human life.
Where is it, but from thefe caufes, and the unnatu¬
ral modes of living, that, of all the children which are
born in the capital cities of Europe, nearly one half
die in early infancy ? To what elfe can we attribute
this extraordinary mortality ? Such an amazing pro¬
portion of premature deaths is a circumflance unheard
of among favage nations, or among the young of other
animals ! In the earlieft ages, we are informed, that
human life was protrafted to a very extraordinary
length $ yet how few perfons, in thefe latter times,
arrive at that period which nature feems to have de-
figned ! Man is by nature a field animal, and feems de¬
fined to rife with the fun, and to fpend a large por¬
tion of his time in the open air, to inure his body to
robuft exercifes and the inclemency of the feafons,
and to make a plain homely repaft only when hunger
didates. But art has ftudioufly defeated the kind
4
intentions of nature ; and by enflaving him to all the Longevity
blandifhments of fenfe, has left him, alas! an eafy vie- |]
tim to folly and caprice. To enumerate the various
abufes which take place from the earlieft infancy, and ^
which are continued through the fucceeding ftages of
modifh life, would carry us far beyond our prefent in¬
tention. Suffice it to obferve, that they prevail more
particularly among people who are the moft highly
polithed and refined. To compare their artificial mode
of life with that of nature, or even of the long-livers
in the lift, would probably afford a very ftriking con-
traft ; and at the fame time fupply an additional reafon
why, in the very large cities, inftances of longevity are
fo very rare.
LONGFORD, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Leinfter, bounded by the counties of Leitrim and
Cavan on the north, Meath on the eaft and fouth, and
Rofcommon on the weft. It contains 143,700 Irilh
plantation acres, 24 parifties, and above 50,000 inha¬
bitants j and returns two members to the imperial par¬
liament. It is fmall, and much encumbered with bog,
intermixed with a tolerable good foil; and is about 25
miles long, and 15 broad.
Longford, a town of Ireland, fituated on the river
Cromlin, in the county of Longford and province of
Leinfter, 64 miles from Dublin ; Avhich river falls a
few miles below this place into the Shannon. It is a
borough, poll, market, and fair town 5 and formerly
returned two members to parliament. Patron Lord
Longford. It gave title of earl to the family of Aun-
gier j of vifeount, to the family of Micklethw aitej and
now gives that of baron to the family of Packenham.
Within a mile and a half of the town is a charter-fchool
for above 40 children. This place has a barrack for a
troop of horfe. It is large and well built j and in a
very early age an abbey was founded here, of which
St Idus, one of St Patrick’s difciples, was abbot. In
the year 1400, a fine monaftery was founded to the
honour of the virgin Mary, for Dominican friars, by
O’Ferral prince of Annaly. This monaftery being de-
ftroyed by fire, Pope Martin V. by a bull in the year
1429, granted an indulgence to all who Ihould contri¬
bute to the rebuilding of it. In I433> Pope Eugene
IV. granted a bull to the fame purpofe *, and in 1438
he granted another to the like effedi. The church of
this friary, now the parilh church, is in the diocefe of
Ardagh The fairs are four in the year.
LONG-island, an ifland of North America, be¬
longing to the ftate of New York, which is feparated
from the continent by a narrow channel. It extends
from the city of New York eaft 140 miles, terminat¬
ing with Montauk point; and is not more than ten
miles in breadth on a medium. It is divided into
three counties, King’s, Queen’s, and Suffolk. The
fouth fide of the ifland is flat land, of a light, fandy
foil, bordered on the fea-coaft with large trafts of fait
meadow, extending from the weft point of the ifland
to Southampton. This foil, however, is well calcu¬
lated for raifing grain, efpecially Indian corn. The
north fide of the ifland is hilly, and of a ftrong foil,
adapted to the culture of grain, hay, and fruit. A
ridge of hills extends from Jamaica to South-hold.
Large herds of cattle feed upon Hampftead plain and
on the fait marlhes upon the fouth fide of. the ifland.
Hampftead plain in Queen’s county is a curiolity. It
tons¬
il! and
II
,onginus
LON [22
is 16-miles in length, eaft and weft, and 7 or 8 miles
wide. The foil is black and to appearance rich, and
yet it was never known to have any natural growth,
but a kind of wild grafs and a few fhrubs. It is fre¬
quented by vaft numbers of plover. Rye grows toler¬
ably well on fome parts of the plain. The moll: of
it lies common for cattle, horfes, and Iheep. As there
is nothing to impede the profpeft in the whole length
of this plain, it has a curious but tirefome effeiR upon
the eye, not unlike that of the ocean. The ifland
contains 30,863 inhabitants.
LONGIMETRY, the art of meafuring lengths,
both acceflible and inacceflxble. See GEOMETRY and
Trigonometry.
LUNGING, a preternatural appetite in pregnant
women, and in fome lick perfons when about to recover.
It is called pica, from the bird of that name, which is
faid to be fubjeft to the fame diforder. The diforder
conlifts of both a defire of unufual things to eat and
drink, and in being foon tired of one and wanting
another. It is called malaria, from “ weak-
nefs.” In pregnant women it is fomewhat relieved by
bleeding, and in about the fourth month of their preg¬
nancy it leaves them. Chlorotic girls, and men who
labour under fuppreffed hemorrhoids, are very fubjeft
to this complaint, and are relieved by promoting the
refpeftive evacuations. In general, whether this dif¬
order is obferved in pregnant women, in perfons re¬
covering from an acute fever, or thofe who labour un¬
der obftruftions of the natural evacuations, this craving
of the appetite ftiould be indulged.
LONGINICO, a town of Turkey in Europe, in
the Morea, anciently called Olympia, famous for being
the place where the Olympic games were celebrated,
and for the temple of Jupiter Olympus, about a mile
diftant. It is now but a fmall place, feated on the
river Alpheus, 10 miles from its mouth, and 50 fouth
of Lepanto. E. Long. 22. o. N. Lat. 37. 30.
LONGINUS, Dionysius, a celebrated Greek cri¬
tic of the third century, was probably an Athenian.
His father’s name is unknown, but by his mother he
was allied to the celebrated Plutarch. His youth vras
fpent in travelling with his parents, which gave him an
opportunity to increafe his knowledge, and improve
his mind. After his travels, he fixed his refidence at
Athens, and with the greateft affiduity applied to ftudy.
Here he publiftied his Treatife on the Sublime j which
railed his reputation to fuch a height, and gave the
Athenians fuch an opinion of his judgment and tafte,
that they made him fovereign judge of all authors, and
every thing was received and reje&ed by the public
according to his decifions. He feems to have ftaid at
Athens a long time \ here he taught the academic phi-
lofophy, and among others had the famous Porphyry
for his pupil. But it was at length his fortune to be
drawm from Athens, and to mix in more a&ive fcenesj
to train up young princes to virtue and glory; to guide
the bufy pafiions of the great to noble objects ; to
ftruggle for, and at laft to die in the caufe of liberty.
Zenobia, queen of the Eaft, prevailed on him to un¬
dertake the education of her fons -, and he foon gained
an uncommon (hare in her efteem : {he fpent the vacant
hours of her life in his converfation, and modelled her
fentiments and condu6t by his inftruftions. That prin-
eefs was at war with Aurelian; and being defeated by
i } L O N
him near Antioch, was compelled to ftmt herfelf up in Longinus
Palmyra, her capital city. The emperor wrote her a Lonsj|tU{jei
letter, in which he ordered her to furrender ; to which
fhe returned an anfwer, drawn up by Longinus, which
filled him with refentment. The emperor laid fiege to
the city ; and the Palmyrians were at length obliged
to open their gates and receive the conqueror. The
queen and Longinus endeavoured to fly into Perfia ;
but were unhappily overtaken and made prifoners when
they were on the point of crofting the Euphrates. The
queen, intimidated, weakly laid the blame of vindicat¬
ing the liberty of her country on its true author ; and
the brave Longinus, to the difgrace of the conqueror,
was carried away to immediate execution. The writ¬
ings of Longinus were numerous, fome on philofophi*.
cal, but the greater part on critical fubje<Rs. Dr
Pearce has collefted the titles of 25 treatifes, none of
which, excepting that on the Sublime, have efcaped
the depredations of time and barbarians. On this im-
perfebl piece the great fame of Longinus is railed,
who, as Pope exprefles it—“ is himfelf the great fu-
blime he draws.” The beft edition of his works is
that by Tollius, printed at Utrecht ir* 1694. cum nolis
variorum. It has been tranflated into Englifh by Mr
Smith.
LONGISSIMUS dorsi. See Anatomy, Table
of the Mufcles.
LONGITUDE, in Geography and Navigation, is
the diftance of any place from another eaftward or weft-
ward, counted in degrees upon the equator : but when
the diftance is reckoned by leagues or miles and not in
degrees, or in degrees on the meridian, and not of the
parallel of latitude, in which cafe it includes both lati¬
tude and longitude, it is called departure.
To find the longitude at fea, is a problem to which
the attention of navigators and mathematicians has
been drawn ever fince navigation began to be improv¬
ed.—The importance of this problem foon became fo
well known, that, in 1598, Philip III. of Spain of¬
fered a reward of 1000 crowns for the folution ; and
his example was foon followed by the States General,
who oflFered xo,ooo florins. In 1714 an adl was paf-
fed in the Britiftr parliament, empowering certain com-
miftioners to make out a bill for a fum not exceeding
2000I. for defraying the neceffary expences of expe¬
riments for afcertaining this point, and likewife grant¬
ing a reward to the perfon who made any progrefs in
the folution, proportionable to the degree of accuracy
with which the folution was performed: 10,cool, was
granted if the longitude fhould be determined to one
degree of a great circle, or 60 geographical miles $
15,000!. if to two-thirds of that diftance j and 20,0001.
if to half the diftance.
In confequence of thefe proffered rewards, innumer¬
able attempts were made to difcover this important fe-
cret. The firft was that of John Morin profefforof ma¬
thematics at Paris, who propofed it to Cardinal Riche¬
lieu : and though it was judged infufficient on account
of the imperfection of the lunar tables, a penfion of
2000 livres per annum was procured for him in 1645
by Cardinal Mazarine. Gemma Frifius had indeed, in
1530, projected a method of finding the longitude by
means of watches, which at that time were newly in¬
vented : but the ftruCture of thefe machines was then
by far too imperfeCl to admit of any attempt; nor even
LON
[ 222 ]
LON
Longitude. In 1631, when Metius made an attempt to this purpofe,
v“—-v were they advanced in any confiderable degree. About
the year 1664, Dr Hooke and Mr Huygens made a
very great improvement in watchmaking, by the appli¬
cation of the pendulum fpring. Dr Hooke having
quarrelled with the miniftry, no experiment was made
Avith any of his machines •, but many were made with
thofe of Mr Huygens. One experiment particularly,
made by Major Holmes, in a voyage from the coatt of
Guinea in 1665, anfwered fo well, that Mr Huygens
was encouraged to improve the ftrufture of his watches:
but it was found that the variations of heat and cold
produced fuch alterations in the rate of going of the
watch, that unlefs this could be remedied, the watches
could be of little ufe in determining the longitude.
In 1714 Henry Sully, an Englithman, printed a
fmall tra£t at Vienna upon the fubjett of watchmaking.
Having afterwards removed to Paris, he applied himfelf
to the improvement ot time-keepers for the difcovery of
the longitude. He taught the famous Julian de Roy :
and this gentleman, with his fon, and M. Berthoud,
are the only perfons who fince the days of Sully, have
turned their thoughts this way. But though experi¬
ments have been made at fea with fome of their w atch-
es, it does not appear that they have been able to ac-
complilh any thing of importance with regard to the
main point. The firft who fueceeded in any confider¬
able degree was Mr John Harrifon j who, in I72^>
produced a watch which went fo exadtly, that for ten
years together it did not err above one fecond in a
month. In 1736 it was tried in a voyage to Lilhon
and back again, on board one of his majefty’s {hips}
during which it correfted an error of a degree and a
half in the computation of the {hip’s reckoning. In
I confequence of this he received public encouragement
to go on : and by the year 1761 had finilhed three
time-keepers, each of them more accurate than the
former. The laft turned out fo much to his fatisfa&ion,
that he now applied to the commiflioners of longitude
for leave to make an experiment with his watch in a
voyage to the Weft Indies. Permiflion being granted,
his fon Mr William Harrifon fet out in his majefty’s
{hip the Deptford for Jamaica in the month of Novem¬
ber 1761. This trial was attended with all imaginable
fpccefs. The longitude of the ifland, as determined by
the time-keeper, differed from that found by aftrono-
mical obfervations only one minute and a quarter of the
equator ; the longitudes of places feen by the way be¬
ing alfo determined with great exa&nefs. On the {hip’s
return to England, it was found to have erred no more
during the whole voyage than 1' *n t’me> ’vhich
is little more than 28 miles in diftance } which being
within the limits prefcribed by the aft, the inventor
claimed the whole 20,oool. offered by government.
Objeftkms to this, however, were foon ftarted. Doubts
** were pretended about the real longitude of Jamaica,
as well as the manner in which the time had been
found both there and at Portfmouth. It was alleged
alfo, that although the time-keeper happened to be
right at Jamaica, and after its return to England, this
was by no means a proof that it had always been fo
in the intermediate times } in confequence of which al¬
legations, another trial was appointed in a voyage to
Barbadoes. Precautions were now taken to obviate as
aaany of thefe objeftions as poflible. The comrr.if-
fioners fent out proper perfons to make aftronomical Longitudf.
obfervations at that ifiand : which, when compared -v-—«•'
with others in England, would afcertain beyond a doubt
its true fituation. In 1764 then, Mr Harrifon junior
fet fail for Barbadoes; and the refult of the experi¬
ment was, that the difference of longitude behvixt
Portfmouth and Barbadoes was ftiown by the time¬
keeper to be 3b. 55'3"} and by aftronomical obfer¬
vations to be 3I1. 54' 20" ; the error being now only
43" of time, or io' 45" of longitude. In confequence
of this and the former trials, Mr Harrifon received one
half of the reward proipifed, upon making a difcovery
of the principles upon which his time-keeper were con-
ftrufted. He was likewife promifed the other half of
the reward as foon as time-keepers ftiould be conftruft-
ed by other artifts which Ihould anfwer the purpofe as
well as thofe of Mr Harrifon himielf. At this time he
delivered up all his time-keepers, the laft of which was
fent to Greenwich to be tried by Mr Nevil Malkelyne,
the aftronomer-royal. On trial, however, it was found
to go with much lefs regularity than had been expeft-
ed ; but Mr Harrifon attributed this to his having
made fome experiments with it which he had not time
to finifti when he was ordered to deliver up the watch.
Soon after this, an agreement was made by the com¬
miflioners with Mr Kendall to conftruft a watch upon
Mr Harrifon’s principles; and this upon trial was found
to anfwer the purpofe even better than any that Har¬
rifon himfelf had conftrufted. This watch was fent
out with Captain Cook in 1772; and during all the
time of his voyage round the world in 1772, 1773,
1774, and 1775, never erred quite 14-J ieconds per
day : in confequence of which, the houfe of commons,
in 1774, ordered the other ic,oool. to be paid to
Mr Harrifon. Still greater accuracy, however, has
been attained. A watch was lately conftrufted by
Mr Arnold, which, during a trial of 13 months, from
February 1779 to February 1780, varied no more
than 6.69" during any two days; and thq^greateft
difference between its rates of going on any day and
the next to it was 4.11". The greateft error it would
have committed therefore in the Jongitude during any
Angle day would have been very little more than one
minute of longitude ; and thus might the longitude be
determined with as great exaftnefs as the latitude gene¬
rally can.—This watch, however, has not yet been
tried at fea. )
Thus the method of conftrufting time-keepers for
difcovering the longitude feems to be brought to as
great a degree of perfeftion as can well be expeftedi
Still, however, as thefe watches are fubjtft to acci¬
dents, and may thus alter the rate of their going with¬
out any poffibility of a difcovery, it is neceffary that
fome other method ftiould be fallen upon, in order to
correft from time to time thofe errors which may arife
either from the natural going of the watch, or from
any accident which may happen to it. Methods of
this kind are all founded upon celeftial obfervations ef
fome kind or other ; and for thefe methods, or even
for an improvement in time-keepers, rewards are ftill
held out by government. After the difcoveries made
by Mr Harrifon, the aft concerning the longitude
was repealed, excepting fomuch of it as related to the
conftrufting, printing, publifhing &e, of nautical al¬
manacks and other ufeful tables. It vvas enafted alio,
that
LON [ 223 ] LON
onntude. that any perfon who fhall difcover a method for find-
ing the longitude by means of a timeJceeper, the prin¬
ciples of which have not hitherto been made public,
fhall be entitled to a reward of 5000I. if, after cer¬
tain trials made by the commiflioners, the faid method
{hall enable a {hip to kfcep her longitude, during a voy¬
age of fix months, within 60 geographical miles, or a
degree of a great circle. If the {hip keeps her longi¬
tude within 40 geographical miles for that time, the
inventor is entitled to1 a reward of 7500I. and to
iO,oool. if the longitude is kept within half a de¬
gree. If the method is by improved aftronomical
tables, the author is entitled to 5000I. when they
fliow the diftance of the moon from the fun and ftars
within 15 feconds of a degree, anfwering to about
7 minutes of longitude, after allowing half a degree for
errors of obfervation and under certain reftri£tions,
and after comparifon with aflronomical obfervations
for a period of 184- years, during which the lunar ir¬
regularities are fuppofed to be completed. The fame
rewards are offered to the perfon who fliall with the
like accuracy difcover any other method of finding the
longitude.
Thefe methods require celeftial obfervations ; and
any of the phenomena, fuch as the different apparent
places of ftars with regard to the moon, the beginning
and ending of eclipfes, &c. will anfwer the purpofe :
only it is abfolutely neceffary that fome variation fhould
be perceptible in the phenomenon in the fpace of two
jninutes j for even this fhort fpace of time will pro¬
duce an error of 30 miles in longitude. The moft
proper phenomena therefore for determining the lon¬
gitude in this manner are the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fa-
tellifes. Tables of their motions have been conftrudt-
ed, and carefully corre&ed from time to time, as the
mutual attraftions of thefe bodies are found greatly to
difturb the regularity of their motions. The difficulty
here, however, is to obferve thefe eclipfes at fea *, and
this difficulty has been found fo great, that no perfon
feems able to furmount it. The difficulty arifes from
the violent agitation of a fhip in the ocean, for which
no adequate remedy has ever yet been found, nor pro¬
bably will ever be found. Mr Chriftopher Irwin in¬
deed invented a machine which he called a marine
chair, with a view to prevent the effefts of this agita¬
tion \ but on trying it in a voyage to Barbadoes, it was
found to be totally ufelefs.
A whimfical method of finding the longitude was
propofed by Meffrs Whifton and Ditton from the re¬
port and flaft> of great guns. The motion of founcF'is
known to be nearly equable, from whatever body it pro¬
ceeds or whatever be the medium. Suppofing there¬
fore a mortar to be fired at any place the longitude of
which is known, the difference between the moment
that the flalh is feen and the report heard will give
the diftances between the two places ; whence, if we
know the latitudes of thefe places, their longitudes
muft alfo be known. If the exaft time of the explo-
fion be known at the place where it happens, the
difference of time at the place where it is heard will
likewife give the difference of longitude. Let us next
fuppofe the mortar to be be loaded with an iron ffiell
filled with combuftible matter, and fired perpendicu-
hfrly upward into the air, the ihell will be carried to
tthe height of a mile, and will be feen at the diftance of
2-
n'ear ICO ; whence, fuppofing neither the flafti of the Long
mortar fhould be feen nor the report heard, ftill the
longitude might be determined by the altitude of the
{hell above the horizon.
According to this plan, mortars were to be fired at
certain times and at proper ftations along all frequented
coafts for the direction of mariners. This indeed might
be of ufe, and in ftormy weather might be a kind of
improvement in lighthoufes, or a proper addition to
them j but with regard to the determination of longi¬
tudes, is evidently ridiculous.
We {hall now proceed to give fome pradtical direc¬
tions for finding the longitude at fea by proper ce¬
leftial obfervatio’hs ; exclufive of thofe from Jupiter’s
fatellites, which, for reafons juft mentioned, cannot
be praftifed at fea. In the firft place, however, it will
be neceffary to point out fome of thofe difficulties
which ftand in the w'ay, and which render even this
method of finding the longitude precarious and uncer¬
tain. Thefe lie principally in the reduction of the ob¬
fervations of the heavenly bodies made on the furface of
the earth to fimilar obfervations fuppofed to be made at
the centre 5 which is the only place where the celeftial
bodies appear in their proper fituation. It is alfo very
difficult to make proper allowances for the refraction of
the atmofphere, by which all objedts appear higher than
they really are j and another difficulty arifes from their
parallaxes, which make them, particularly the moon,
appear lower than they would otherwife do, excepting
when they are in the very zenith. It is alfo well known,
that the nearer the horizon any celeftiai body is, the
greater its parallax will be 5 and as the parallax and
refradtion adt in oppofite ways to one another, the for¬
mer depreffing and the latter railing the objedl, it is
plain, that great difficulties muft arife from this circum-
ftance. The fun, for inftance, whofe parallax is lefs
than the refradlion,'muft always appear higher than he
really is 5 but the moon, whofe parallax is greater than
her refradlion, muft always appear lower.
To render obfervations' of the celeftial bodies more
eafy, the commiffioners of longitude have caufed an
Ephemeris or Nautical Almanack to be publiffied an¬
nually, containing every requifite for folving this im¬
portant problem which can be put into any form of ta¬
bles. But whatever may be done in this way, it will
be neceffary to make the neceffary preparations concern¬
ing the dip of the horizon, the refradlion, femidiame-
ters, parallax, &c. in order to reduce the apparent to
the true altitudes and diftances ; for which we ffiall here
fubjoin two general rules.
The principal obfervation for finding the longitude
at fea is that of the moon from the fun, or from
fome remarkable ftar near the zodiac. To do this,
the operator muft be furniffied with a watch -which
can be depended upon for keeping time within a mi¬
nute for fix hours-;- and with’a good Hadley’s qua¬
drant, or, which is preferable, a fextant : and this laft
inftrument will ftill be more fit for the purpofe if it be
furniftied with afcrew for moving the index gradually;
likewife an additional dark glafs, but not ib dark as
the common kind, for taking off the glare of the moon’s
light in obferving her diftance from a ftar. A fmall
telefcepe, which may magnify three or four times, is -
alfo neceffary to render the contaft of a ftar with the
moon’s limb more difcernible. A magnifying glafs of
one c
LON [ 224 ] LON
Longitude, one and a half or two inches focus will like wife affift
* v ' the operator in reading off his obfervations w ith the
greater facility.
1. To mahe the obfervatiov. Having examined and
adjufted his inftrument as well as poffible, the obferver
is next to proceed in the following manner : If the di¬
stance of the moon from the fun is to be obferved, turn
down one of the fcreens } look at the moon direftly
through the tranfparent part of the horizon-glafs ; and
keeping her in view, gently move the index till the
fun’s image be brought into the filvered part of that
glafs. Bring the neareit limbs of both objects into
contadf, and let the quadrant librate a little on the lu¬
nar ray •, by which means the fun will appear to rife
and fall by the fide of the moon j in which motion the
neareft limbs muft be made to touch one another exaft-
ly by moving the index. Uhe obfervation is then
made •, and the divifion coinciding with that on the
Vernier fcale, will Show the diftance of the neareft limbs
of the objects.
When the diftance of the moon from a ftar is to be
obferved when the moon is very bright, turn down the
lighteft fcreen, or ufe a dark glafs lighter than the
fcreens, and defigned for this particular purpofe ; look
at the ftar dire&ly through the tranfparent part of the
horizon-gafs •, and keeping it there, move the index
till the moon’s image is brought into the filvered part
of the fame glafs. Make the quadrant librate gently
on the ftar’s ray, and the moon -will appear to rife and
fall by the ftar : move the index between the librations,
until the moon’s enlightened limb is exaflly touched
by the ftar, and then the obfervation is made. In
thefe operations, the plane of the quadrant mnft always
pafs through the two obje&s, the diftanee of which is
to be obferved : and for this purpofe it muft be placed
in various politions according to the fituation of the
objects, which will foon be rendered eafy by prac¬
tice.
The obfervation being made, fomebody at the very
inftant that the operator calls muft obferve by the
watch the exatt hour, minute, and quarter minute, if
there be no fecond hand, in order to find the apparent
time j and at the fame inftant, or as quick as poffible,
two affiftants muft take the altitudes of thofe objedfs
the diftance of which is obferved ; after which thejjb-
fervations neceffary for finding the longitude are com¬
pleted.
The Ephemeris Shows the moon’s diftance from the
fun, and likewife from proper ftar?, to every three
hours of apparent time for the meridian of Greenwich j
and that the greater number of opportunities of obferv-
ing this luminary may be given, her diftance is gene¬
rally fet down from at leaft one objeft on each fide of
her. Her diftance from the fun is fet down while it is
between 40 and 120 degrees-, fo that, by means of a
fextant, it may be obferved for two or three days after
her firft and before her laft quarter. When the moon
is between 40 and 90 degrees from the fun, her diftance
is fet down both from the fun and from a ftar on the
contrary fide : and, laftly, when the diftance is above
120 degrees, the diftance is fet down from two ftars,
one on each fide of her. The diftance of the moon
from objefts on the eaft fide of her is found in the Ephe-
meris in the 8th and 9th pages of the month j and her
diftance from objefts on the weft is Sound in the 10th d«,
and iith pages of the month. . T""*
When the Ephemeris is ufed, the diftance of the
moon muft only be obferved from thofe ftars the di¬
ftance of which is fet down there j and thefe afford a
ready means of knowing the ftar from which her di¬
ftance ought to be obierved. The obferver has then
nothing more to do than to fet his index to the di¬
ftance roughly computed at the apparent time, efti-
mated nearly for the meridian at Greenwich y after
which he is to look to the eaft or weft of the moon,
according as the diftance of the ftar is found in the
8th or 9th, or in the 10th or nth, pages of the
month ; and having found the moon upon the hori¬
zon-glafs, the ftar will eafily be found by fvveeping
with the quadrant to the right or left, provided the air
be clear and the ftar be in the line of the moon’s ftiort-
elt axis produced. The time at Greenwich is efti-
mated by turning into time the fuppofed longitude
from that place, and adding it to the apparent time
at the (hip, or fubtrafting it from it as occafion re¬
quires. The diftance of the moon from the fun, or a
Star, is roughly found at this time, by faying, As x8o
minutes (the number contained in three hours) is to
the difference in minutes between this nearly eftimated
time and the next preceding time fet down in the
Ephemeris fo is the difference in minutes between the
diftance in the Ephemeris for the next preceding and
next following times, to a number of minutes : which
being added to the next preceding diftance, or Sub¬
tracted from it, according as it is increafing or de-
creafing, will give the distance nearly at the time the
obfervation is to be made, and to which the index muft
be fet.
An eafier method of finding the angular diftance is
by bringing the objects nearly into contact in the
common way, and then fixing the index tight to a
certain degree and minute j waiting until the objects
are nearly in contact, giving notice to the affiftants to
get ready with the altitudes, and when the objects are
exactly in contact to call for the altitudes and the exact
time by the watch. The obferver may then prepare
for taking another diftanee, by fetting his index three
or four minutes backwards or forwards, as the objets
happen to be receding from or approaching to each
other ’y thus proceeding to take the diftance, altitudes,
and time by the watch, as before. Thus the obferver
may take aS many diftances as he thinks proper j but
four at the diftance of three minutes, or three at the
diftance of four minutes, will at all times be fufficient.
Thus not only the eye of the obferver will be lefs fa¬
tigued, but he will likewife be enabled to manage his
inftrument with much greater facility in every direc¬
tion, a vertical one only excepted. If in taking the
diftances the middle one can be taken at any even di¬
vifion on the arch, fuch as a degree, or a degree and
20 or 40 minutes, that diftance will be independent of
the Nonius divifion, and confequently free of thofe
errors which frequently arife from the inequality of
that divifion in feveral parts of the graduated arch.
The obfervation ought always to be made about two
hours before or after noon $ and the true time may bo
found by the altitude of the fun taken at the precife
time of the diftance. If three diftances are taken,
the&
LON , [ 2
Longitude, then find the time by the altitude cnrrefpnding with
middle diftance ; and thus the obfervation will be
ftcured from any error arifing from the irregularity of
the going of the watch. As the time, however,
found by the altitude of a liar cannot be depended up¬
on, becaufe of the uncertainty of the horizon in the
night, the belt way of determining the time for a night
obfervation will be by two altitudes of the fun j one
taken on the preceding afternoon, before he is within
fix degrees of the horizon j and the other on the next
morning, when he is more than fix degrees high. It
muft be obferved, however, that in order to follow
thefe dire&ions, it is neceffary that the atmofphere
fiiould be pretty free from clouds ; otherwife the ob-
ferver muft take the obfervations at fuch times as he
can beft obtain them.
2. To reduce the obferved D'Jlance of the Sun or a
Star from the Moon to the true Diflance. I. Turn the
longitude into time, and add it to the time at the fhip
if the longitude be w eft, but fubtraft it if it be eaft,
which will give the fuppofed time at Greenwich $ and
this we may call reduced time. 2. Find the neareft
noon or midnight both before and after the reduced
time in the feventh page of the month in the Ephemeris.
3. Take out the moon’s femidiameter and horizontal
parallaxes correfponding to thefe noons and midnights,
and find their differences. Then fay, As 12 hours is
to the moon’s femidiameter in 12 hours, fo is the redu¬
ced time to a number of feconds j which, either added
to or fubtradled from the moon’s femidiameter at the
noon or midnight juft mentioned, according as it is in-
creafing or decreafing, will give her apparent femidia¬
meter ; to which add the correction from Table VIII.
of the Ephemeris, and the fum will be her true femidia¬
meter at the reduced time. And as 12 hours is to the
difference of the moon’s horizontal parallax in 12 hours,
fo is the reduced time to a fourth number •, which, be¬
ing added to or fubtraCted from the moon’s horizontal
parallax at the noon or midnight before the reduced
time, according as it is increafing or decreafing, the
fum or difference will be the moon’s horizontal parallax
at the reduced time. 4. If the reduced time be nearly
any even part of 12 hours, viz. £th, ^th, &c. thefe
parts of the difference may be taken, and either added
or fubtrafted according to the directions already given,
without being at the trouble of working by the rule of
proportion. 5. To the obferved altitude of the fun’s
lower limb add the difference betw ixt his femidiameter
and dip and that fum will be his apparent altitude.
6. From the fun’s refraCtion take his parallax in alti¬
tude, and the remainder will be the eorreftion of the
fun’s altitude. 7. From the ftar’s obferved altitude take
the dip of the horizon, and the remainder will be the
apparent altitude. 8. The refraftion of a ftar will be
the corredlion of its altitude. 9. Take the difference
between the moon’s femidiameter and dip, and add it
to the obferved altitude if her lower limb was taken, or
fubtraft it if her upper limb was taken $ and the fum or
difference will be the apparent altitude of her centre.
10. From the proportional logarithm of the moon’s ho¬
rizontal parallax, taken out of the nautical almanack
(increafing its index by 10), take the logarithmic co-
iine of the moon’s apparent altitude, the remainder will
be the proportional logarithm of her parallax in alti-
* Vol. XII. Part I.
25 ] LON
tude ; from which take her refraCHon, and the remain- Longitude,
der will be the correction of the moon’s altitude. 11. ^
To the obferved diftance of the moon from a ftar add
her femidiameter if the neareft limb be taken, but tub-
trad it if the fartheft limb was taken, and the fum or
difference will be the apparent diftance. l 2. To the
obferved diftance of the fun and moon add both their
femidiameters, and the fum will be the apparent di¬
ftance of their centres.
3. To find the true D farce of the Objects, having
their apparent Altitudes and D fiances. 1. To the pro¬
portional logarithm of the corredion of the tun or
ftar’s altitude, add the logarithmic cofine of the fun
or ftar’s apparent altitude ; the logarithmic fine of the
apparent diftance of the moon from the fun or ftar j
and the logarithmic cofecant of the moon’s apparent
altitude. The fum of thefe, rejeding 30 from the
index, will be the proportional logarithm of the firit
angle. 2. To the proportional logarithm of the cor¬
redion of the fun or ftar’s altitude, add the loga¬
rithmic cotangent of the fun or ftar’s apparent alti¬
tude, and the logarithmic tangent of the apparent
diftance of the moon from the fun or ftar. The fum
of thefe, rejeding 20 in the index, will be the pro¬
portional logarithm of the fecond angle. 3. Take
the difference between the firft and fecond angles,
adding it to the apparent diftance if it be lefs than
90, and the firft angle be . greater than the fecond j
but fubtrading it if the fecond be greater than the
firft. If the diftance be greater than 90, the ium of
the angles muft be added to the apparent diftance,
which will give the diftance correded for the refrac¬
tion of the fun or ftar. 4. To the proportional lo¬
garithm of the corredion of the moon’s altitude add
the logarithmic cofine of her apparent altitude j the
logarithmic fine of the diftance correded for the fun
or ftar’s refradion and the logarithmic cofecant of
the fun’s or ftar’s apparent altitnde. The fum, rejed¬
ing 30 in the index, will be the proportional loga¬
rithm of the third angle. 5. To the proportional
logarithm of the corredion of the moon’s apparent
altitude, add the logarithmic cotangent of her appa¬
rent altitude, and the tangent of the diftance cor¬
reded for the fun or ftar’s refradion } their fum, re¬
jeding 20 in the index, will be the proportional lo¬
garithm of the fourth angle. 6. Fake the difference
between the third and fourth angles, and fubtrad it
from the diftanee correded for the fun or ftar’s re¬
fradion if lefs than 90, and the third angle be great¬
er than the fourth j or add it to the diftance if the fourth
angle be greater than the third : but if the diftance be
more than 90, the fum of the angles muft be fubtrad-
ed from it, to give the diftance correded for the fun
or ftar’s refradion, and the principal effeds of the
moon’s parallax. 7. In Table XX. of the Ephemeris,
look for the diftance correded for the fun and* ftar’s
refradion, and the moon’s parallax in the top column,
and the corredion of her altitude in the left-hand fide
column ; take out the number of feconds that ftand
under the former, and oppofite to the latter. Look
again in the fame table for the correded diftance in
the top column, and the principal effeds of the moon’s
parallax in the left-hand fide column, and takeout the
number of feconds. The difference between thefe two
F£ numbers
LON r 22*5 ] LON
Longitude, numbers muft be added to the corrected diftance if lefs
■ *—— than 90, but fubtraded from it if greater j and the
fum or difference will be the true diftance.
4, To determine the Longitude after having obtain~
ed the true D’Jlance.—Lock in the Ephemeris among
the diftances of the objects for the computed diftance
betwixt the moon and the other obje£i obferved on
the given day. If it be found there, the time at
Greenwich will be at the top of the column j but if
it falls between two diftances in the Ephemeris which
ftand immediately before and after it, and alfo the
dift'erence between the difiance flanding before and
the computed diftance j then take the proportional
logarithms of the firft and fecond differences, and the
difference between thefe two logarithms will be the
proportional logarithm of a number of hours, minutes,
and feconds ; which being added to the time (landing
over the firft diftance, will give the true time at Green¬
wich. Or it may be found by faying, As the firft
difference is to three hours, fo is the fecond difference
to a proportional part of time : which being added as
above direfted, will give the time at Greenwich. The
difference between Greenwich time and that at the
{hip, turned into longitude, will be that at the time
the obfervations were made ; and will be eaft if the
time at the fhip is greateft, but weft if it is lead.
Having given thefe general direftions, w!e fliall next
proceed to fliow fome particular examples of finding the
longitude at fea by all the different methods in which
it is ufually tried.
1. To find the longitude by Computation from the Ship's
Courfe.—Were it poflible to keep an accurate account
of the diftance the fhip has run, and to meafure it ex-
* See Log, a£tly by the log * or any other means, then both lati-
Ferletual. tude and longitude would eafily be found by fettling
the (hip’s account to that time. For the courfe and
diftance being known, the difference of latitude and
departure is readily found by the Traverfe Table: and
the difference of longitude being known, the true
longitude and latitude will alfo be known. A variety
of caufes, however, concur to render this computa¬
tion inaccurate ; particularly the fhip’s continual de-
fledtion from the courfe fet by her playing to the
right and left round her centre of gravity : the un¬
equal care of thofe at the helm, and the diftance fup-
pofed to be failed being erroneous, on account of
llormy feas, unfteady winds, currents, &c. for which
it feems impoffible to make any allowance. The place
of the fhip, however, is judged of by finding the la¬
titude every day, if poflible, by obfervations $ and if
the latitude found by obfervation agrees with that by
the reckoning, it is prefumed that the fhip’s place is
properly determined 5 but if they difagree, it is con¬
cluded that the account of the longitude Hands in need
of correflion, as the latitude by obfervation is always
to be depended upon.
Currents very often occafion errors in the compu¬
tation of a fhip’s place. The caufes of thefe in the
great depths of the ocean are not well known, though
many of the motions near the fhore can be accounted
for. It is fuppofed that fome of thofe in the great
oceans are owing to the tide following the moon, and
a certain libration of the waters arifing from thence j
likewife that the unfettled nature of thefe currents
may be owing to the changes in the moon’s declina-
4
tion. In the torrid zone, however, a confiderable cur- Longitude,
rent is occafioned by the trade winds, the motion be-
ing conftanlly to the weft, at the'rate of eight or ten
miles per day. At the extremities of the trade winds,
or near the 30th degree of north or fouth latitude,
the currents are probably compounded of this motion
to the weftward, and of one towards the equator j
whence all fhips failing within thefe limits ought to
allow’ a courfe each day for the current.
When the error is iuppofed to have been occafioned
by a current, it ought if poflible to be tried whether
the cafe is fo or not; or we muft make a reafonable
eftimate of its drift and courfe. Then with the fet-
ting and drift, as a courfe and diftance, find the dif¬
ference of latitude and departure •, with which the
dead reckoning is to be increaled or diminifhed j and
if the latitude thus correfled agrees with that by ob¬
fervation, the departure thus correfted may be lafely
taken as true, and thus the fhip’s place with regard to
the longitude determined.
Exam. Suppofe a fhip in 24 hours finds, by her
dead reckoning, that fire has made 96 miles of dif¬
ference of latitude north and 38 miles of departure
weft ; but by obfervation finds her difference of lati¬
tude 112, and on trial that there is a current which
in 24 hours makes a difference of 16 miles latitude
north, and 10 miles of departure eaft : Required the
fhips departure.
Miles.
Diff. lat. by account 96 N.
Diff. lat. by current 16 N.
True diff. lat. 112
Here the dead reckoning corredled by the current gives
the difference of latitude 112 miles, which is the fame
as that found by obfervation j whence the departure 28
is taken as the true one.
When the error is fuppofed to arife from the courfes
and diftances, we muft obferve, that if the difference
of latitude is much more than the departure, or the
diredl courfe has been within three points of the me¬
ridian, the error is moft probably in the diftance. But
if the departure be much greater than the difference
of latitude, or the diredl courfe be within three points
of the parallel, or more than five points from the me¬
ridian, the error is probably to be aferibed to the
courfe. But if the courfes in general are near the mid¬
dle of the quadrant, the error may be either in the
courfe, or in the diftance, or both. This method ad¬
mits of three cafes.
1. When, by the dead reckoning, the difference of
latitude is more than once and a half the departure j
or when the courfe is lefs than three points : Find
the courfe to the difference of latitude and departure.
With this courfe and the meridional difference of la¬
titude by obfervation, find the difference of longitude.
2. When the dead reckoning is more than once
and a half the difference of latitude $ or when the
courfe is more than five points : Find the courfe and
diftance, with the difference of latitude by obfervation,
and departure by account $ then w ith the co-middle
latitude by obfervation, and departure by account, find
the difference of longitude.
3. When
Departure by
account
Departure by
current
Miles.
38 W.
10
28 W.
LON f 2i
3. When the difference of latitude and departure
by account is nearly equal, or the direft courfe is be¬
tween three and five points of the meridian : Find the
courfe with the difference of latitude and departure by-
account fince the laft obfervation. With this courfe
and the difference of latitude by obfervation find ano¬
ther departure. Take half the fum of thefe departures
for the true one. With the true departure and differ¬
ence of latitude by obfervation find the true courfe 5
then with the true courfe and meridional difference of
latitude find the difference of longitude. _
2. To find the Longitude at Sea by a Variation-chart.—
Dr Halley having collefted a great number of obfer-
vations on the variation of the needle in many parts of
the world ; by that means was enabled to draw certain
lines on Mercator’s chart, (hewing the variation in all
the places over which they paffed in the year 1700, at
which time he firft publifhed the chart •, whence the
longitude of thofe places might be found by the chart,
provided its latitude and variation were given. The
rule is, Draw a parallel of latitude on the chart through
the latitude found by obfervation •, and the point where
it cuts the curved line marked with the variation that
was obferved will be the drip’s place.
Exam. A (hip finds by obfervation the latitude to
be 18° 20' north, and the variation of the compafs to
be 40 wed. Required the (hip’s place.—Lay a ruler
over 18° 2o' north parallel to the equator j and the
point where its edge cuts the curve of 40 well varia¬
tion gives the (hip’s place, which will be found in about
270 xc/ wed from London.
This method of finding the longitude, however, is
attended with two inconveniences. 1. That when the
variation lines run eatl or wed, or nearly fo, it cannot
be applied *, though as this happens only in certain parts
of the world, a variation chart may be of great ufe for
the red. Even in thofe places indeed where the varia¬
tion curves do run eall or wed, they may be of con-
fiderable ufe in corre&ing the latitude when meridian
obfervations cannot be had •, which frequently happens
on the northern coads of America, the Wedern ocean,
and about Newfoundland ; for if the variation can be
found exadlly, the ead and wed curve anfwering to it
will (how the latitude. But, 2. The variation itfelf is
fubjeft to continual change \ whence a chart, though
ever fo perfeft at firff, mud in time become totally ufe-
lefs ; and hence the charts conftrufted by Dr Halley,
though of great utility at their fird publication, became
at length almod entirely ufelefs. A new one was pub-
lithed in 1746 by Meffrs Mountaine and Dodfon,
which was fo well received, that in 1756^ they again
drew variation lines for that year, and publillred a third
chart the year following. They alfo prefented to the
Royal Society a curious paper concerning the variation
of the magnetic needle, with a fet of tables annexed, con-
taing the refult of more than 50,000 obfervations, in
fix periodical reviews from the year 1700 175^
clufive, adapted to every five degrees of latitude and
longitude in the more frequented oceans j all of which
were publifhed in the Philofophical Franfaftions for
1757. _ '
3, To find the Longitude by the Sun's Declination.-—
Having made fuch obfervations on the fun as may
enable us to find his declination at the place, take the
difference between this computed declination and that
7 ] LON
drown at London by the Ephemeris j from which take ^ong:
alfo the daily difference of declination at that time j
then fay, as the daily difference of declination is to the
above found difference, fo is 360 degrees to the dif¬
ference of longitude. In this method, however, a
fmall error in the declination will make a great one in
the longitude.
4. To find the Longitude by the Moon's culminating.—
Seek in the Ephemeris for the time of her coming to
the meridian on the given day and on the day follow¬
ing, and take their difference ; alfo take the difference
betwixt the times of culminating on the fame day as
found in the ephemeris and as obferved j then fay, as
the daily difference in the ephemeris is to the difference
between the ephemeris and obfervation } fo is 360 de¬
grees to the difference of longitude. In this method
alfo a fmall difference in the culmination will occafion
a great one in the longitude.
5. By Edipfes of the Moon.—This is done much in
the fame manner as by the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatel-
lites: For if, in two or more diftant places where an
eclipfe of the moon is vifible, we carefully obferve the
times of the beginning and ending, the number of di¬
gits eclipfed, or the time when the (hadowr touches fome
remarkable fpot, or when it leaves any particular fpot
on the moon, the difference of the times when the ob¬
fervations were made will give the difference of longi¬
tude. Phenomena of this kind, however, occur too
feldom to be of much ufe.
6. In the 76th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
adlions, Mr Edward Pigot gives a very particular ac¬
count of his method of determining the longitude
and latitude of York ; in which he alfo recommends
the method of determining the longitude of places by
obfervations of the moon's tranfit over the meridian.
The inftruments ufed in his obfervations were a gridiron
pendulum clock, a two feet and a half refleftor, an
eighteen inch quadrant made by Mr Bird, and a tranfit
inftrument made by Mr Siffon.
By thefe inftruments an obfervation was made, on
the 10th of September 1783, of the occultation of a
ftar of the ninth magnitude by the moon, during an
eclipfe of that planet, at York and Paris. Befides
this, there were obfervations made of the immerfions
of p Aquarii and 5 Pifcium; the refult of all which
was, that between Greenwich and York the difference
of meridians was 4' 27"*
In 1783, Mr Pigot informs us, that he thought of
finding the difference of meridians by obferving the
meridian right afcenfions of the moon’s limb. This he
thought had been quite original : but he found it after¬
wards in the Nautical Almanack for 1769, and in
1784 read a pamphlet on the fame fubjeft by the abbe
Toaldo •, but (till found that the great exaflnefs of this
method was not fufpe&ed 5 though he is convinced that
it muft foon be univerfally adopted in preference to that
from the firft fatellite of Jupiter.
After giving a number of obfervations on the fatel-
lites of Jupiter, he concludes, that the exaftnefs ex¬
pelled from obfervations, even qn the firft latellite, is
much overrated. “ Among the various objections
(fays he), there is one I have often experienced, and
which proceeds folely from the difpofition of the eye,
that of feeing more diftinftly at one time than another.
It may not be improper alfo to mention, that the obfer-
F f 2 .»• vation
LON [
J*ongitudfe. vation I (hould ha\e relied on as the heft, that of
i Auguft 30. 1785, marked excellent, is one of thofe moft:
diftant from the truth.”
After giving a number of obfervations on the eclipfe
of the moon September 10. 1783, our author concludes,
that the eclipfes of the moon’s Ipots are in general too
much neglefted, and that it might be relied upon much
more were the following circumftances attended to:
I. To be particular in fpecifying the clearnefs of the
228 ] LON
attended to, the refults would be undoubtedly much Longitude,
more exadl. v—-v'—^
“ 1. Compare the obfervations with the fame made
in feveral other places. 2. Let feveral and the fame
ftars be obferved at thefe places. 3. Such liars as ar«
neareft in right afcenlion and declination to the moon
are infinitely preferable. 4. It cannot be too ftrongly
urged, to get, as near as polhble, an equal number of
obfervations of each limb, to take a mean of each fet,
leave no helitation as to the part eclipfed. 3. That
every obferver fhould ufe, as far as poflible, telefcopes
equally powerful, or at leaft let the magnifying powers
be the fame. “ A principal objection (fays he) may
ilill be urged, viz. the difficulty of diftinguilhing the
true fhadow from the penumbra. Was this obviated,
I believe the refults would be more exa£l than from Ju¬
piter’s firft fatellite : Undoubtedly the ftiadow appears
better defined if magnified little ; but I am much in¬
clined to think, that, with high magnifying pov;ers,
there is greater certainty of drooling the fame part of
the ffiadow, wffiich perhaps is more than a fufficient
compenfation for the lofs of diftindlnefs.”
The following rule for meridian obfervations of the
moon’s limb is next laid down : “ The increafe of the
moon’s right afeenfion in twelve hours (or any given
time found by computation) is to 12 hours, as the
increafe of the moon’s right afeenfion between two
places found by obfervation is to the difference of me¬
ridians.
Example.
November 30. 1782.
k.
*3 ,
fecond limb
13 13 29.0$ Ditto of u rtji
12 57.62 Meridian tranlit of moon's") -p , , .
r j 1* 1 ■ -DV CiOCK.
Iponnrl IimK v *
i Greenwich.
Iky. 2. To choofe fuch fpots as are well defined, and and then a mean of both means. This will in a great
meafure correct the error of telefcopes and light.
5. The adjuftment of the telefcopcs to the eye of the
obferver before the obfervation is alfo very neceffary,
as the fight is fubjedt to vary. 6. A principal error
proceeds from the obfervation of the moon’s limb,
which may be confiderably leffened, if certain little
round fpots near each limb were alfo obferved in fettled
obfervatories ; in which cafe the libration of the moon
will perhaps be a confideration. 7. When the differ¬
ence of meridians, or of the latitudes of places is very
confiderable, the change of the moon’s diameter be¬
comes an equation.
“ Though fuch are the requifites to ufe this method
with advantage, only one or two of them have been em¬
ployed in the obfervations thsit I have reduced. Two-
thirds of thefe obfervations had not even the fame liars
obferved at Greenwich and York j and yet none of the
refults, except a doubtful one, differ 15" from the
mean j therefore I think we may expedl a ftill greater
exadtnefs, perhaps within jg", if the above particulars
be attended to.
“ When the fame ftars are not obferved, it is necef¬
fary for the obfervers at both places to compute their
right afeenfion from tables, in order to get the appa¬
rent right afeenfion of the moon’s limb. Though
this is not fo fatisfa&ory as by a£lual obfervation, ftill
the difference will be trifling, provided the liar’s right
afeenfions are accurately fettled. I am alfo of opi¬
nion, that the fame method can be put in practice by
travellers with little trouble, and a tranfit inlfrument,
conftru£led fo as to fix up with facility in any place.
It is not neceffary, perhaps, that the inftrument ffiould
be perfectly in the meridian for a few feconds of time*
provided ftars, nearly in the fame parallel of declina¬
tion with the moon, are obferved nay, I am inclined
to think, that if the inftrument deviates even a quarter
or half a degree, or more, fufficient exaftnefs can be
attained 5 as a table might be computed, Ihowing the
moon’s parallax and motion for fuch deviation \ which
laft may eafily be found by the well-known method of
obferving ftars whofe difference of declination is con¬
fiderable.
“ As travellers very feldom meet with fituations to
obferve liars near the pole, or find a proper obje£l for
determining the error of the line of collimation, I
lhall recommend the following method as original.—
Having computed the apparent right afeenfion of
four, fix, or more ftars, which have nearly the fame
parallel of declination, obferve half of them with the
inftrument inverted, and the other half when in its
right pofitinn. If the difference of right afeenfions
between each fet by obfervation agrees with the com¬
putation, there is no error 5 but if they difagree, half
that difagreement is the error of the line of collima¬
tion. The fame obfervations may alfo ferve to deter¬
mine;,
31.46 Difference of right afeenfion.
13 14 8.05 Meridian tranfit of moon’s
fecond limb
13 14 30.13 Ditto of *
1
By clock
at York.
32.08 Difference at York
31.46 Difference at Greenwich,
"| The clocks
going near-
9.38 Increafe of the moon’s ap- »fidereal
^ J . • y . r time.nocor-
parent right afeenfion
between Greenwich and
York, by obfervation.
time, no cor¬
rection isre-
quired.
I4iw in feconds of a degree, ditto, ditto, ditto.
The increafe of the moon’s right afeenfion for 12 hours,
by computation, is 23,340 feconds j and 12 hours re¬
duced into feconds is 43,200. Therefore, accord¬
ing to the rule Hated above,
23,340" : 43,200": diff. of merid — 261"
“ Thefe eafy obfervations and ffiort reduction (fays
Mr Bigot) are the whole of the bufinefs. Inilead of
computing the moon’s right afeenfion for 12 hours,
I have conftantly taken it from the Nautical Alma¬
nacks, which give it fufficiently exaCt, provided fome
attention be paid to the increafe or decreafe of the
moon’s motion. Were
the
s.
following circumftances
LON [ 229 ] LON
mine, whether the diftances of the correfponding wires
are equal. In cafe of neceflity, each limb of the fun
might be obferved in the fame manner, though proba¬
bly with lefs precifion. By a fingle trial I made above
two years ago, the refult was much more exadl than
I expcfted. Mayer’s catalogue of ftars will prove of
great ufe to thofe that adopt the above method.—I
am rather furprifed that the immerfions of known ftars
of the lixth and feventh magnitude, behind the dark
limb of the moon, are not conftantly obferved in fixed
obfervatories, as they would frequently be of great
ufe.”
The annexed rule for finding the (hip’s place, with
the mifcellaneous obfervations on different methods,
were drawn up by Mr John M‘Lean of Edinburgh.
1. With regard to determining the (hip’s place by the
help of the courfe and diftance failed, the following rule
may be applied.—It will be found as expeditious as any
of the common methods by the middle latitude or meri¬
dional parts; and is in fome refpefts preferable, as the
common tables of lines and tangents only are requi-
fite in applying it.—Let a and b be the diftances of
two places from the fame pole in degrees, or their com¬
plete latitude ; c the angle which a meridian makes
with the rhumb line palling through the places-, and L
the angle formed by their meridians, or the difference
of longitude in minutes: then A and B being the lo¬
garithmic tangents of 4 tf, and 4^, th*5 fine °f C, an(l
S the fine of we (hall have the following e-
quation: L = (a). Alfo, from a well known
o -O
property ©f the rhumb line, we have the following
equation :
S-f-E=R-f-D, where S is the logarithmic cofine of
C, E the logarithm of the length of the rhumb line, or
diftance, D the logarithm of the minutes difference of
latitude, and R the logarithm of the radius.
By the help of thefe two equations, we (hall have
an eafy folution of the feveral cafes to which the
middle latitude, or meridional parts, are commonly ap¬
plied.
Exam. A (hip from a port in latitude 56° N. fails
S. W. by W. till (he arrives at the latitude of 40° N:
Required the difference of longitude ?
Here 0=34°, £=50°> C=S^° A=9-48534r
B=9.56107, S'orq.9199308, 8=9.9198464 j there¬
fore, --^^^=897 the minutes differ-
8'—S 844 *'
ence of longitude. Alfo, 8=9.74474, 0=2.98227;
therefore E=R-j-D—8=3.23753, to which the na¬
tural number is 1728, the miles in the rhumb line fail¬
ed over.
2. The common method of finding the difference
of longitude made good upon feveral courfes and di¬
ftances, by means of the difference of latitude and de¬
parture made good upon the feveral courfes, is not ac¬
curately true.
For example : If a (hip (hould fail due fouth 600
miles, from a port in 6o° north latitude, and then due
weft 600 miles, the difference of longitude found by the
common methods of folution would be 1053 ; whereas
the true difference of longitude is only 933, lefs than
the former by 120 miles, which is more than one-eighth
of the whole. Indeed every confiderable alteration in
the courfe will produce a very fenfible error in the dif¬
ference of longitude. Though, when the feveral rhumb
lines failed over are nearly in the fame direction, the
error in longitude will be but fmall.
The reafon of this will eafily appear from the annexed
figure, in which the (hip is fuppofed to fail from Z to
A, along the rhumb lines ZB, BA; for if the meri¬
dians PZ,PkoeBL be drawn ; and very near the latter
other two meridians PhD, Pmn ; and likewife the pa¬
rallels of latitude Bn, De, mo, hk ; then it is plain
that De is greater than hk, (for De is to hk as the
fine of DP to the fine of hP) : and fince this is the
cafe everywhere, the departure correfponding to the
diftance BZ and courfe BZC, will be greater than
the departure to the diftance oZ and courfe oZC.
And in the fame manner, we prove that nB is greater
than mo; and confequently, the departure correfpond¬
ing to the diftance AB, and courfe ABL, is greater
than the departure to the diftance Ao, and courfe
AoL. Wherefore, the fum of the two departures cor¬
refponding to the courfes ABL and BZC, and to the
diftances AB and BZ, is greater than the departure
correfponding to the diftance AZ and courfe AZC :
therefore the courfe anfwering to this fum as a de¬
parture, and CZ as a difference of latitude, (AC be¬
ing the parallel of latitudes pafling through A), will
be greater than the true courfe AZC made good upon
the whole. And hence the difference of longitude
found by the common rules will be greater than the
true difference of longitudes ; and the error will be
greater or lefs according as BA deviates more or lefs
from the dire&ion of BZ.
■P
3. Of determining the (liipVlongitude by lunar ob¬
fervations.
Several rules for this purpofe have been lately pub-
liftied, the principal objeft of which feems to have been
to
(a) Aco B fignifies the difference between A and B,«
LON [23
jUngitule. tin abbreviate the computations requiiite for determin-
*.,■ >r—jng tjje true diflance 0f the fun or ftar from the moon’s
centre. This, however, Ihould have certainly been
lefs attended to than the inveftigation of a folution, in
■which confiderable errors in the data may produce a
fmall error in the required diftance. When either of
the luminaries has a fmall elevation, its altitude will
be affe61ed by the variablenefe of the atmofphere ;
likewife the altitude, as given by the quadrant, will
be affefled by the inaccuracy of the inftrument, and
the uncertainty neceflarily attending all obfervations
made at fea. The fum of thefe errors, when they all
tend the fame way, may be fuppofed to amount to at
lead one minute in altitude •, which, in many cafes,
according to the common rules for computing the true
diftance, will produce an error of about 30 minutes in
the longitude. Thus, in the example given by Monf.
Callet, in the Tables Portative*, if we fuppofe an error
of one minute in the fun’s altitude, or call it 6® 26'
34", inftead of 6° 27' 34" ; we fhall find the alteration
in diftance according to his rule to be 54", producing
an error of about 27 minutes in the longitude •, for the
angle at the fun will be found, in the fpherical triangle
whofe fides are the complement of the fun’s altitude,
complement of the moon’s altitude, and obferved di¬
ftance, to be about 26° j and as radius is to the cofine
of 26°, fo is 16 the fuppofed error in altitude, to 54"
the alteration in diftance. Perhaps the only method
of determining the diftance, fo as not to be affe&ed by
the errors of altitude, is that by firft finding the angles
at the fun and moon, and by the help of them the cor-
re&ions of diftance for parallax and refra£Hon. The
rule is as follows :
Add together the complement of the moon’s appa¬
rent altitude, the complement of the fun’s apparent al¬
titude,Jand the apparent diftance of centres ; from half
the fum of thefe fubtraft the complement of the fun’s
altitude, and add together the logarithmic cofecant
of the complement of the moon’s altitude, the loga¬
rithmic cofecant of the apparent diftance of centres,
the logarithmic fine of the half fum, and the logarith¬
mic fine of the remainder •, and half the fum of thefe
four logarithms, after reje&ing 20 from the index,
Cofec. 0.025x2  *’s co. alt. 70° 42'
])’s co. alt. 34 4-—
Cofec.——0.11479——obf.dift. 50 9 
2)i54 55
Sine 9.98950   — 77 27—
Rem. 6 45—
o ] LON
is the logarithmic cofine of half the angle at the Longitude,
moon.
As radius is to the cofine of the angle at the moon •,
fo is the difference between the moon’s parallax and
refratftion in altitude to a corre£Hon of diftance j which
is to be added to the apparent diftance of centres when
the angle at the moon is obtufe ; but to be fubtradfed
when that angle is acute, in order to have the diftance
once corredled.
In the above formula, if the word fun be changed
for moon, and vice verfa, wherever thefe terms occur, we
fhall find a fecond correftion of diftance to be applied
to the diftance, once corre&ed by fubtra&ion when the
angle at the fun is obtuf'e, but by addition when that
angle is acute, and the remainder or fum is the true
diftance nearly.
In applying this rule, it will be fufficient to ufe the
complement, altitude, and apparent diftances of cen¬
tres, true to the neareft minute only, as a fmall error
in the angles at the fun and moon will very little affeft
the corrections of diftances.
If D be the computed diftance in feconds, d the
difference between the moon’s parallax and refraCHon
in altitude, S the fine of the angle at the moon, and
</* S* .
R the radius : then ——1> will be the third correction
2 DR
of diftance, to be added to the diftance twice correct¬
ed : But it is plain from the nature of this correction,
that it may be al ways rejected, except when the diftance
D is very fmall, and the angle at the moon nearly equal
to 90°.
This folution is likewife of ufe in finding the true
diftance of a ftar from the moon, by changing the word
fun intoy?///*, andufing the refraCtion of the ftar, inftead
of the difference between the refraCtion and parallax
in the altitude of the fun, in finding the fecond correc¬
tion of diftance.
Ex. Given the obferved diftance of a ftar from the
centre of the moon, 50° 8' 41" ; the moon’s altitude,
55° 5%' 5” > th® liar’s altitude, 190 18' 5" j and the
moon’s horizontal parallax, i° 0' 5" : Required the tru«
diftance.
■Cofec. 0.25169
.Cofec    
■Sine—9.98950
■Sine 9.07018
Sine—9.83688    Rem. 43 23 2)19.42616
2)19.96629    - — Cofec. 9.71308—-—58° 54*
Cofec. 9-98314  150 54'   
2 117 48= 5’s angle.
31 48=:*’$ angle.
Rad. Cofec. 1170 48' : : D’s diff. parall. & refraCt. 1980" : 923'/ =r ift correCt. of diftance.
Rad. : Cofec.. 310 48' : : ftar’s refraCt. 162" : 138"=: 2d correCt, of diftance.
Here
LON [2
Longitude Here the firft corre&ion of diftance is additive,
II fince the angle at the moon is obtufe ; and the fe-
Lcngue- coni;j corrt;(^ion is alfo additive, fince the angle at the
_V1 e' ftar is acute: therefore their fum 923"-f i38"=:io6r"
= 17'41", being added to 50° 8' 41", the apparent
diltance of the ftar from the moon’s centre, gives
co° 26' 21" for the true difiance of centres nearly ;—
and 2XL (d-J-S)—L (2 L. R-J-h* 2-}-L D)~L S',
which, being added to the diftance twice correfted,
gives 50° 26' 29" for the true diftance. By compar¬
ing this diftance with the computed diftances in the
ephemeris, the time at Greenwich correfponding to
that of obferving the diftance will be known ; and the
difference of thofe times being converted into degrees
and minutes, at the rate of 15 degrees to the hour,
will give the longitude of the place of obfervation ;
which will be eaft if the time at the place be greater
than that at Greenwich, but weft if it be lefs.
LONGITUDINAL, in general, denotes fomething
placed lengthwife : thus feme of the fibres in the vel-
fels of the human body are placed longitudinally, others
tranfverfely or acrofs.
LONGOBARDI. See Lombards.
LONGOMONTANUS, Christian, a learned a-
fironomer, born in a village of Denmark in 1562. He
was the fon of a ploughman ; and was obliged to fuffer
during his ftudies all the hardlhips to which he could
be expofed, dividing his time, like the philofopher Cle-
anthes, between the cultivation of the earth and the
leffons he received from the minlfter of the place. At
laft, when he was 15, he ftole away from his family,
and went to Wiburg, where there was a college, in
which he fpent 11 years j and though he was obliged
to earn a livelihood, he applied himftlf to ftudy with
fuch ardour, that among other fciences he learned the
mathematics in great perfection. He afterwards went
to Copenhagen •, where the profeffbrs of that univerfity
in a fhort time conceived fo high an opinion of him,
that they recommended him to the celebrated Tycho
Brahe. Longomontanus lived eight years with that
famous aftronomer, and was of great fervice to him in
his obfervations and calculations. At length, being
extremely defirous of obtaining a profeffor’s chair in
Denmark, Tycho Brahe confented, though with fome
difficulty, to deprive himfelf of his fervice ; gave him
a difcharge, filled with the higheft teftimonies of his
efteem •, and furniffied him with money for the expence
of his long journey. He obtained a profefforfhip of
mathematics in the univerfity of Copenhagen in 1605 *,
and difcharged the duty of it worthily till his death,
which happened in 1647. He wrote many learned
works 5 amufed himfelf with endeavouring to fquare the
circle, and pretended that he had made that difcovery ;
but Dr John Pell, an Engliffi mathematician, attack¬
ed him warmly on that fubjeft, and proved that he
was miftaken.
LONGTOWN, a town of Cumberland, on the
Scots borders, near the conflux of the Elk and Kirk-
fop, 9 miles from Carlifle, and 313 miles from Lon¬
don •, it has a market on Thurfday, and a charity fchool
for 60 children. The population in 1801 was eftimated
at 1313.
LONGUEVILLE, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of Lower Seine, and in the territory of Caux,
31 ] LOO
feated on the fmall river Lee, 17 miles north of Rouen. Longue-
It has the title of a duchy. E. Long. T. 10. N. Lat. v^x
49. 46. Lool.
LONGWY, a town of France, in the department of y—
Mofelle, with a caltle, divided into the old and new
towns. This laft was built and fortified by Louis XTY.
It is feated on an eminence. It was taken by the king
of Pruffia in 1792, but retaken two months after. E.
Long. 5. 58. N. Lat. 49. 32.
LONG US, a Greek fophift, author of a book en¬
titled napwiK*, or Paftorals, or a romance containing
the loves of Daphnis and Chloe. Huetius, bilhop of
ikvranches, fpeaks very advantageoully of this work j
but he cenfures the obfcene touches with which it is in-
terfperfed. None of the ancient authors mention him,
fo that the time when he lived cannot be certainly fixed.
There is an Englilh tranflation of this author, which is-
afcribed to Mr J. Crag^s, once fecretary of ftate.
LONICERA, Honeysuckle, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
LONSDALE, or Kirkby LONSDALE, a town of
Weftmoreland, feated on the river Lon, in a pleafant
and rich valley of the fame name. It is a large well
built town, has a handfome church, and a fine Hone
bridge over the river. It is well inhabited j and is the
bell town in the county except Kendal. It gives title
of earl to the Lowther family. W. Long. 2. 27.
N. Lat. 54. 10.
LOO, a tow n of the United Provinces, in Guelder-
land, eight miles weft of Deventer, where the prince
of Orange has a fine palace. E. Long. 6. o. N. Lat.
52. 18.
LOOP, the after part of a ftfip’s bew ; or that part
of her fide forward where the planks begin to be ineur-
vated into an arch as they approach the Item.
Look, or Lnjf. See Luef.
LOOK-OUT, in the fea-language, a watchful at-,
tention to fome important objeft or event which is ex¬
pelled to ariie from the prefent fituation of a Ihip, &c.
It is principally ufed in navigation when there is a
probability of danger from the real or fuppofed proxi¬
mity of land, rocks, enemies, and, in fliort, whatever
peril flie may encounter through inattention, which
might otherwife have been avoided by a prudent and:
neceffary vigilance.
There is always a look-out kept on a (hip’s fore-
caftle at fea, to watch for any dangerous objects lying
near her track, and to which (be makes a gradual ap¬
proach as (he advances: the mate of the watch accord¬
ingly calls often from the quarter-deck, “ Look out afore
there !” to the perfons appointed for this fervice.
LOOKING-glasses, are nothing but plain mir¬
rors of glafs, which, being impervious to the light*
refleft the images of things placed before them. See
the articles MiRROR and Optics.
For calling, grinding, and poliffiing looking-glaffes*
fee the article Glass.
For foliating looking-glaffes, fee the article Fo¬
liating.
LOOL, in Metallurgy, a velfel made to receive the
waffiings of ores of metals. The heavier or more me¬
talline parts of the ores remain in the trough in which
they are waffied j the lighter and more earthy run off
with the water, but fettle in the lool,
LOOM,.
LOR [ 232 ] LOR
LOOM, the weaver’s frame j a machine whereby
feveral diftin£l threads are woven into one piece.
Looms are of various ftruftures, accommodated to
the various kinds of materials to be woven, and the va¬
rious manner of weaving them ; viz. for woollens, filks,
linens, cottons, cloths of gold, and other works, as
tapeftry, ribbands, dockings, &c. divers of which will
be found under their proper heads. See Weaving.
The weaver’s loom-engine, otherwife called the
Dutch loom-engine, was brought intoufe from Holland
to London, about the year 1676.
Heir-LOOM, in Law. See HEIR-Loom.
Loom, at fea. If a (hip appears big, when at a
didance, they fay die looms, or appears a great fail:
the term is alfo ufed to denote the indidinft appear¬
ance of any other didant objefts.
LoOM-gale, at fea, a gentle eafy gale of wind, in
which a diip can carry her top-fails a-trip.
LOOP, in the iron works, is a part of a fow or
block of cad iron broken or melted off from the red,
and prepared for the forge or hammer. The ufual
method is, to break off the loop of about three quar¬
ters of a hundred weight. This loop they take up
with their dinging-tongs, and beat it with iron dedges
upon an iron plate near the fire, that fo it may not
fall to pieces, but be in a condition to be carried un¬
der the hammer. It is then placed under the hammer,
and a little water being drawn to make the hammer
move but foftly, it is beat very gently, and by this
means the drofs and foulnefs are forced off j and after
this they draw more and more water by degrees, and
beat it more and more till they bring it to a four-fquare
mafs, of about two feet long, which they call a bloom.
LOOPING, in Metallurgy, a word ufed by the
miners of fome counties of England, to exprefs the
running together of the matter of an ore into a mafs,
in the roafting or firft burning, intended only to cal¬
cine it fo far as to make it fit for powdering. This
accident, which gives the miners fome trouble, is ge¬
nerally owing to the continuing the fire too long in
this procefs.
LOOSE-strife. See Lysimachia, Botany 7/raVx.
LOPEZ de vega. See Vega.
Lopez, or Indian Root, in the Materia Medico.
The plant to which this article belongs ’"s unknowm.
Neither the woody nor cortical part of the root has
any remarkable fenfible quality. A flight bitternefs
is perceptible; and it is recommended, like fimarouba,
in diarrhoeas even of the colliquative kind, in half¬
dram dofes four times a-day. Little of this root has
been brought to Europe ; but fome of thofe who have
had an opportunity of employing it, fpeak in very high
terms of the effefts obtained frqm it.
LOPHIUS, Fishing-frog, Toad-fjh, or Sea devil;
a genus of the branchioftegous order of fifties. See
Ichthyology Index.
LOHANTHUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
hexandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 481 h order, Aggregatce. See Botany Index.
LORARH, among the Romans, officers whofe
bufmefs it was, with w'hips and fcourges, to compel
the gladiators to engage. The lorarii alfo punifhed
Raves who difobeyed their matters.
LORD, a title of honour given to thofe who are
noble either by birth or creation. In this fenfe, it
amounts to much the fame as peer of the realm, or Lord. '
lord of parliament. The title is by courtefy alfo given v*'*" \ 1 -J
to all the Ions of dukes and marquifes, and to the
eldetl fons of earls : and it is alfo a title of honour be-
ftowed on thofe who are honourable by their employ¬
ments ; as lord advocate, lord chamberlain, lord chan¬
cellor, b’c. The word is Saxon, but abbreviated from
two fyllables into one; for it was originally Hlaford,
which by dropping the afpiration became Laford,
and afterwards by- contraction Lord. “ The etymo¬
logy of the word (fays J. Coates) is well worth ob-
ferving; for it was compofed of hlaf “ a loaf of
bread,” and ford, “ to give or afford ;” fo that Hla¬
ford, now Loi'd, implies “ a giver of bread ;” becaufe,
in thofe ages, fuch great men kept extraordinary
houfes, and fed all the poor ; for which reafon they
were called givers of bread, a thing now much out of
date, great men being fond of retaining the title, but
few regarding the practice for which it was firit given.
See Lady.
Houfe of LORDS, one of the three eftates of parlia¬
ment, and compofed of the Lords Spiritual and Tem¬
poral.
1. The Spiritual Lords confift of two archbiftiops and
24 biftiops; and, at the diffolution of monafteries by
Henry VIII. confifted likewife of 26 mitred abbots
and two priors; a very confiderable body, and in
thofe times equal in number to the temporal nobility.
All thefe hold, or are fuppofed to hold, certain ancient
baronies under the king : for William the Conqueror
thought proper to change the fpiritual tenor of frank-
almoign or free alms, under which the biftiops held
their lands during the Saxon government, into , the
feodal or Norman tenure by barony; which fubje£led
their eftates to all civil charges and affeffments, from
which they were before exempt; and in right of fuc-
ceflion to thofe baronies, which were unalienable from
their refpeftive dignities, the bilhops and abbots were
allowed their feats in the houfe of lords. But though
thefe lords fpiritual are in the eye of the law a diftinft
eftate from the lords temporal, and are fo diftinguiftied
in moft of our afts of parliament; yet in practice they
are ufually blended together under the name of the lords;
they intermix in their votes, and the majority of fuch
intermixture joins both eflates. And from this want
of a feparate affembly, and feparate negative of the
prelates, fome writers have argued very cogently, that
the lords fpiritual and temporal are now' in reality only
one eftate : which is unqueftionably true in every ef-
feftual fenfe, though the ancient diftinftion between
them ftill nominally continues. For if a bill ihould
pafs their houfe, there is no doubt of its validity,
though every lord fpiritual ftiould vote againft it; of
which Selden and Sir Edward Coke give many in-
ftances; as, on the other hand, doubtlefs it would be
equally good, if the lords temporal prefent were infe¬
rior to the bilhops in number, and every one of thofe
temporal lords gave his vote to rejtft the bill; though
this Sir Edward Coke feems to doubt of,
2. The Temporal Lords confift of all the peers of the
realm (the biftiops not being in ftri<ftnefs held to be
fuch, but merely lords of parliament), by whatever
title of nobility diftinguiflied ; dukes, marquifes, earls,
vifcounts or barons*. Some of thefe fit by defcent,* Sec JV>j
as do all ancient peers; fome by creation, as do allbMty,
new
LOR [23
Lord, new made ones ; others, fifice the union with Scotland,
by eleftion, which is the cafe of the 16 peers who
reprefent the body of the Scots nobility. Their num¬
ber is indefinite, and may be increafed at will by the
power of the crown : and once* in the reign of ^)ueen
Anne, there was an inftance of creating no lefs than
12 together 5 in contemplation of which, in the reign
of King George I. a bill paffed the houfe of lords, and
was countenanced by the then miniftry, for limiting
the number of the peerage. This was thought by
fome to promife a great acquifition to the conflitution,
hy reftraining the prerogative from gaining the afcen-
dant in that auguil affembly, by pouring in at plea-
fure an unlimited number of new-created lords. But
the bill was ill reliflied, and mifcarried in the houfe of
commons, whofe leading members were then defirous
to keep the avenues to the other houfe as open and eafy
as pomble.
The diftin&ion of ranks and honours is neceffary in
every well governed ftate ; in order to rev'ard fuch as
are eminent for their fervices to the public, in a manner
the moft defirable to individuals, and yet w ithout burden
to the community *, exciting thereby an ambitious yet
laudable ardour and generous emulation in others. And
emulation, or virtuous ambition, is a fpring of a&ion
which, how’ever dangerous or invidious in a mere repu-
hlic or under a defpotic fway, will certainly be attended
with good effedls under a free monarchy'^ where, with¬
out deftroying its exiftence, its exceffes may be conti¬
nually reftrained by that fuperior power from which
all honour is derived. Such a fpirit, when nationally
diffufed, gives life and vigour to the community j it
fets all the wheels of government in motion, which,
under a wife regulator, may be directed to any bene¬
ficial purpofe} and thereby every individual may be
made fubfervient to the public good, while he prin¬
cipally means to promote his own particular views.
A body of nobility is alfo more particularly neceffary
in our mixed and compounded conftitudon, in order to
i’upport the rights of both the crown and the people,
by forming a barrier to withlland the encroachments
of both. It creates and preferves that gradual fcale
of dignity which proceeds from the pealant to the
prince ; rifing like a pyramid from a broad founda¬
tion, and diminilhing to a point as it rifes. It is this
afcending and contra£ling proportion that adds liabi¬
lity to any government 5 for when the departure is
hidden from one extreme to another, we may pro¬
nounce that ftate to be precarious. The nobility
therefore are the pillars, which are reared from
among the people, more immediately to fupport the
throne *, and, if that falls, they mull alfo be buried
under its ruins. Accordingly, when in the laft cen¬
tury the commons had determined to extirpate mo¬
narchy, they alfo voted the houfe of lords to be ufelefs
and dangerous. And fince titles of nobility are thus
expedient in the ftate, it is alfo expedient that their
owners Ihould form an independent and feparate
branch of the legiflature. If they were confounded
with the mafs of the people, and like them had only
a vote in eledling reprefentatives, their privileges would
foon be borne dowm and overwhelmed by the popular
torrent, which would effeftually level all diftin6fions.
It is therefore highly neceffary that the body of nobles
ftiould have a diftimfl affembly, difthuSt deliberations,
Vol. XII. Part I.
3 ] LOR
and diftinft powers from the commons. See alfo KlKG,
Nobility, Parliament, Commons, and Common- Lor”tto
ALTY. _ ,   V 
As to the peculiar laws and cuftoms relating to the
houfe of lords : One very ancient privilege h that de¬
clared by the charter of the foreft, confirmed in parlia¬
ment 9 Hen. III. 5 viz. that every lord fpiritual or
temporal lummoned to parliament, and pafirng through
the king’s forefts, may, both in going and returning,
kill one or twm of the king’s deer without warrant ;
in view of the forefter if he be prefent, or on blowing
a horn if he be abfent ; that he may not feem to take
the king’s venifon by health.
In the next place, they have a right to be attended,
and conftantly are, by the judges of the court of
kino’s bench and common pleas, and fuch of the
barons of the exchequer as are of the degree of the
coif, or have been made ferjeants at law j as likewiie
by the king’s learned counfel, being ferjeants, and by
the mafters of the court of chancery ; for their ad¬
vice in point of law, and for the greater dignity of
their proceedings. rIhe fecretaries of ftate, with the
attorney and folicitor general, were alfo tiled to attend
the houfe of peers, and have to this day (together
with the judges, &c.) their regular writs of fummons
iffued out at the beginning of every parliament, adtrac-
tandum et conjiliutn impendendum, though not ad confen-
tiendum, but, whenever of late years they have been
members of the houfe of commons, their attendance
here hath fallen into difufe.
Another privilege is, that every peer, by licenfe
obtained from the king, may make another lord of
parliament his proxy, to vote for him in his ablence :
A privilege, which a member of the other houfe can
by no means have, as he is himfelf but a proxy for a
multitude of other people.
Each peer has alfo a right, by leave^ of the houfe,
when a vote paffes contrary to his fentiments, to en¬
ter his diffent on the journals of the houfe, with the
reafons for fuch diffent; which is ufually ftyled his
proteft.
All bills likewife, that may In their confequences any
way affedl the rights of the peerage, are by the cuftom
of parliament to have their firft rife and beginning in
the houfe of peers, and to fuffer no changes or amend¬
ments in the houfe of commons.
There is alfo one ftatute peculiarly relative to the.
houfe of lords-, 6 Ann. c. 23. which regulates the
election of the 16 reprefentative peers of North Britain,
in confequence of the 22d and 23darticles of the Union :
and for that purpofe prefcribes the oaths, &c. to be
taken by the electors ; diredts the mode of balloting j
prohibits the peers eledting from being attended in an
unufual manner ; and exprefsly provides, that no other
matter (hall be treated of in that affembly, fave only
the eledtion, on pain of incurring a praemunire. See
alfo the articles Nobility and Peers.
LORDOSIS, (of bent inwards'), in the me¬
dical writings, a name given to a diftempered ftate of
the fpine, in which it is bent inwards, or towards the
anterior parts. It is ufed in oppofition to gibbous, or
hump backed. See Surgery.
LORETTO, a town of Italy, in the Marca or
Marche of Ancona, with a bilhop’s fee. It is fmall
but fortified ; and contains the famous cafa fanta, or
G g holy
LOR [ 234 ] LOR
Lorctto. holj cliapel, fo much vifited by pilgrims. This cha-
pelj according to the legend, was originally a fmall
houfe in Nazareth, inhabited by the virgin Mary, in
which fhe was faluted by the angel, and where fhe
bred our Saviour. After their deaths, it was held in
great veneration by all believers in Jefus, and at length
confecrated into a chapel, and dedicated to the Virgin $
upon which occafion St Luke made that identical
image, which is Hill preferved here, and dignified with
the name of our Lady of Loretto. This fanftified
edifice was allowed to fojourn in Galilee as long as that
diltrift was inhabited by Chriftians j but when infidels
got poffeffion of the country, a band of angels, to fave
it from pollution, took it in their arms, and conveyed
it from Nazareth to a caftle in Dalmatia. This raft
might have been called in queftion by incredulous
people, had it been performed in a fecret manner j
but, that it might be manifeft to the moft Ihort-lighted
fpeftator, and evident to all who were not perfeftly
deaf as well as blind, a blaze of celeftial light, and
a concert of divine mufic, accompanied it during the
whole journey ; befides, when the angels, to reft them-
felves, fet it down in a little wood near the road, all
the trees of the foreft bowed their heads to the ground,
and continued in that refpeftful pofture as long as the
facred chapel remained among them. But not having
been entertained with fuitable refpeft at the caftle above
mentioned, the fame indefatigable angels carried it over
the fea, and placed it in a field belonging to a noble
lady called Lauretta, from whom the chapel takes its
name. This field happened unfortunately to be fre¬
quented at that time by highwaymen and murderers :
a circumftance with which the angels undoubtedly wdre
not acquainted when they placed it there. After they
were better informed they removed it to the top of a
hill belonging to two brothers, where they imagined
it would be perfeftly fecure from the dangers of rob¬
bery or affaflination ; but the two brothers, the pro¬
prietors of the ground, being equally enamoured of
their new vifitor, became jealous of each other, quar¬
relled, fought, and fell by mutual wounds. After
this fatal cataftrophe, the angels in waiting finally
moved the holy chapel to the eminence where it now
ftands, and has flood thefe 400 years, having loft all
relilh for travelling.
The facred chapel ftands due eaft and weft, at the
farther end of a large church of the moft durable ftone
of Illria, which has been built around it. This may
be confidered as the external covering, or as a kind
of great coat to the cafa fanta, w’hich has a fmaller
aoat of more precious materials and workmanthip
nearer its body. This internal covering, or cafe, is of
the choiceft marble, after a plan of San Savino’s, and
ornamented with baffb relievos, the workmanlhip of
the beft fculptors which Italy could furnifli in the reign
of Leo X. The fubjeft of thefe balfo relievos are
the hiftory of the Bleffed Virgin, and other parts of
the Bible. The whole cafe is about 50 feet long, 30
in breadth, and the fame in height: but the real houfe
itfelf is no more than 32 feet in length, 14 in breadth,
and at the fides about 18 feet in height j the centre
of the roof is four or five feet higher. The walls of
this little holy chapel are compofed of pieces of a
reddifh fubftance, of an oblong fquare ftiape, laid one
upon another, in the manner of brick. At firft fight, on
a fuperficial view, thefe red-coloured oblong fubftahces Loretto.
appear to be nothing elfe than common Italian bricks:
and, which is ftill more extraordinary, on a fecond and
third view, with all poflible attention, they ftill have
the fame appearance. Travellers, however, are alfured
with great earneftnefs, that there is not a fingle par¬
ticle of brick in their w’hole compofition, being entire¬
ly of a ftone, which, though it cannot now be found in
Paleftine, was formerly very common, particularly in
the neighbourhood of Nazareth.
The holy houfe is divided within into two unequal
portions, by a kind of grate-work of lilver. The di-
vifion towards the weft is about three-fourths of the
whole j that to the eaft is called the San&uary. In
the larger divifion, which may be confidered as the
main body of the houfe, the walls are left bare, to
ftiow the true original fabric of Nazareth ftone j for
they muft not be fuppofed to be bricks. At the
lower or weftern wall there is a window, the fame
through which the angel Gabriel entered at the An¬
nunciation. The architraves of this window' are co¬
vered wdth filver. There are a great number of gold¬
en and filver lamps in this chapel : one of the former,
a prefent from the republic of Venice, is faid to weigh
37 pounds, and fome of the filver lamps weigh from
120 to 130 pounds. At the upper end of the largeft:
room is an altar, but fo low, that from it you may
fee the famous image which ftands over the chimney
in the fmall room or fanftuary. Golden and filver
angels, of confiderable fize, kneel around her, fome
offering hearts of gold, enriched with diamonds, and
one an infant of pure gold. The tvall of the fanc-
tuary is plated with filver, and adorned with cruci¬
fixes, precious ftones, and votive gifts of various kinds.
The figure of the Virgin herfelf by no means corre-
fponds with the fine furniture ©f her houfe : She is a
little woman, about four feet in height, with the fea¬
tures and complexion of a negro. Of all the fculp¬
tors that ever exifted, affuredly St Luke, by whom
this figure is faid to have been made, is the leaft of a
flatterer \ and nothing can be a ftronger proof of the
Bleffed Virgin’s contempt for external beauty than
her being fatisfied with this reprefentation of her.
The figure of the infant Jefus, by St Luke, is of a piece
w'ith that of the Virgin : he holds a large, golden globe
in one hand, and the other is extended in the aft of
blefling. Both figures have crowns on their heads, en¬
riched with diamonds: thefe were preferits from Ann
of Auftria, queen of France. Both arms of the Vir¬
gin are enclofed within her robes, and no part but her
face is to be feen •, her drefs is moft magnificent, but
in a wretched bad tafte : this is not furprifing, for Ihe
has no female attendant. She has particular clothes
for the different feafts held in honour of her, and, w hich
is not quite fo decent, is always dreffed and Undreffed
by the priefts belonging to the chapel j her robes are
ornamented with all kinds of precious ftones down to
the hem of her garment.
There is a fmall place behind the fanftuary, in
which are fhown the chimney, and fome other furni¬
ture, which they pretend belonged to the Virgin when
Ihe lived at Nazareth j particularly a little earthen
porringer, out of which the infant ufed to eat. The
pilgrims bring rofaries, little crucifixes, and agnus
dei’s, which the obliging prieft (hakes fox half a mi¬
nute
j. o p. r s.is.] . t- .° R.
dilli •, after which it is believed they ac- begin a hymn in honour of the Virgin, which they
nute in this .......... v.
-rv-asr quire the virtue of curing various difeafes, and prove
an excellent preventive of all temptations of Satan.
The gown which the image had on when the chapel
arrived from Nazareth is of red camblet, and carefully
kept in a glafs (hrine.
Above IQO maffes are daily faid in this chapel, and
in the church in which it hands. The jewels and
riches to be feen at any one time in the holy chapel
are of a fmall yalue in comparifon of thofe in the trea-
fury, which is a large room adjoining to the veftry of
the great church. In the preffes of this room are
kept thpife prefents which royal, noble, and rich bigots
of all ranks, have, by oppreiTmg their fubje&s and
injuring their families, fent to this place. To enume¬
rate every particular would fill volume?. They confift
of various utenfils and other things in filver and gold j
as lamps, candlefticks, goblets, crowns, an,d crucifixes •,
lambs, eagles, faints, apoilles, angels, virgins, and
infants : then there are cameos, pearls, gems, and pre¬
cious hones, of all kinds and in great numbers. What
is valued above all the other jewels is, the miraculous
pearl, wdierein they affert that Nature has given a faith¬
ful delineation of the Virgin fitting on a cloud with
the infant Jefus in her arms. There y as not room in
the preffes of the treafury to hold all the filver pieces
which had been prefented to the Virgin. Several other
preffes in the veilry are completely full. It is faid
that thofe pieces are occafionally melted down by bis
holinefs for the ufe of the ftate : and alfo that the
moft precious of the jewels are picked out and fold for
the fame purpofe, falfe fton.es being fubftituted in their
room.
Pilgrimages to Loretto are not fo frequent with fo¬
reigners, or with Italians of fortune and diftindtion,
as formerly •, nineteen out of twenty of thofe who
make this journey now are poor people, who depend
for their maintenance on the charity they receive on
the road. To thofe who are in fuch a rank in life as
precludes them from availing themfelves of the cha¬
ritable inftitutions for the maintenance of pilgrims,
fuch journeys are attended with expence and inconve-
niency j and fathers and hulbands, in moderate or con¬
fined circumftances, are frequently brought to difagree-
able dilemmas, by the rafh vows of going to Loretto
which their waves or daughters are apt to make on any
fuppofed deliverance from danger. To refufe, is con-
fidered by the wdiole neighbourhood as cruel, and even
impious *, and to grant, is often highly diftreffmg, par¬
ticularly to fuch hufbands as, from affedlion or any
other motives, do not cboofe that their wives ftiould
be long out of their fight. But the poor, who are
maintained during their whole journey, and have no¬
thing more than a bare maintenance to expeft from
their labour at home, to them a journey to Loretto
is a party of pleafure as well as devotion, and by much
the moft agreeable road they can take to heaven. The
greateft concourfe of pilgrims is at the feafons of Eafter
and Whitfuntide. The rich travel in their carriages :
A greater number come on horfeback or on mules j
or, what is ftill more common, on affes. Great num¬
bers of females come in this manner, with a male
friend walking by them as their guide and protestor :
but the greateft number of both fexes are on foot.
The pilgrims on foot, as foon as they enter the fuburbs,
Loretto.
continue till they reach the church. The poorer fort
are received into an hofpital, where they have bed and
board for three days.
The only trade of Loretto ccnfifts of rofaries, cru¬
cifixes, little madonas, agnus dei’s, and medals, which
are manufadlured here, and fold to pilgrims. There
are great numbers of (hops full of thefe commodities,
fome of them of a high price ; but infinitely the
greater part are adapted to the purtes of the buyers,
and fold for a mere triile. The evident poverty of
thofe manufacturers and traders, and of the inhabitants
of this town in general, is a fufticient proof that the
reputation of our Lady of Loretto is greatly on the de¬
cline.
In the great church which contains the holy chapel
are confeffionals, where the penitents from every coun¬
try of Europe may be confefftd in their owrn language,
priefts being always in waiting for that purpofe : each
of them has a long white rod in his hand, with w hich
he touches the heads of thofe to whom he thinks it
proper to give abfolution. They place themfelves on
their knees in groupes around the confeffional chair j
and when the holy father has touched their heads with
the expiatory rod, they retire, freed from the burden
of their fins, and with renewed courage to begin a frefli
account.
In the fpacious area before this church there is an
elegant marble fountain, fupplied with water from ap
adjoining hill by an aquedudf. Few' even of the moft;
inconfiderable towns of Italy are without the ufeful
ornament of a public fountain. The embellifhments
of fculpture and architefture are employed with great
propriety on fuch works, which are continually in the
people’s view ; the air is refreftied and the eye delight¬
ed by tbe ftreams of water they pour forth j a fight
peculiarly agreeable in a warm climate. In this area
there is alfo a ftatue of Sixtus V. in bronze. Over
the portal of the church itfelf is a ftatue of the Vir¬
gin ; and above the middle gate is a Latin infeription,
importing that within is the houfe of the mother ef
God, in which the Word w-as made flelh. The gates
of the church are likewife of bronze, embelliflied with
baffo relievos of admirable workmanftnp : the fubje&s
taken partly from the Old and partly from the New
Teftament, and divided into different compartments.
As the gates of this church are (hut at noon, the pil¬
grims who arrive after that time can get no nearer the
fanta cafa than thefe gates, which are by this means
fometimes expofed to the firft violence of that holy ar¬
dour which was defigned for the chapel itfelf. All the
fculpture upon the gates which is within reach of the
mouths of thofe zealots, is in fome degree effaced by
their kiffes.
There are alfo feveral paintings to be feen here,
fome of which are highly efteemed, particularly two
in the treafury. The fubje£l of one of thefe is the
Virgin’s Nativity, by Annibal Caracci ; and of the
other, a Holy Family by Raphael. There are fome
others of confiderable merit which ornament the altars
of the great church. Thefe altars, or little chapels,
of which this fabric contains-a great number, are lined
with marble and embelliflied by fculpture ; but nothing
within this church interefts a traveller of fenfibility fo
much as the iron grates before thofe chapels, which
G g 2 were
L' O R t 236 ] LOR
were made of the fetters and chains of the Chriftian
{laves, who were freed from bondage by the glorious
viftory of Lepanto.
The palace where the governor refides {lands near
the church, and the ecclefiallics who are employed in
it lodge in the fame palace, where they receive the
pilgrims of high diftin&ion. The environs of this
town are very agreeable, and in fine weather the high
mountains of Croatia may be feen from hence. It is
ieated on a mountain, in E. Long. 13. 50. N. Lat.
43- 24'
LORICA, was a cuirafs, brigantine, or coat of
mail, in ufe among the Roman foldiers. It was gene¬
rally made of leather, and is fuppofed to be derived
from lorum.—The loricae were fet with plates of metal
in various forms: fometimes in hooks or rings like a
chain, fometimes like feathers, and fometimes like the
fcales of ferpents or fifties, to which plates of gold
were often added. There were other lighter cuiraffes
confiding only of many folds of linen cloth, or of flax
made llrong enough to refift weapons. Such foldiers
as were rated under IOOO drachms, inftead of the lorica
now defcribed, wore a peElorale.—The Roman lorica
was made like a fhirt, and defended the wearer both
before and behind, but was fo contrived that the back
part could be occafionally feparated from the front.
Some of the loricae were made of cords of hemp or flax,
clofe fet together } whence they are called thoraces,
bi/ices, trilices, &c. from the number of the cords fixed
one upon another \ but thefe were ufed rather in hunt¬
ing than in the field of battle.
LORIS, in Zoology. See Lemur, Mammalia
Index.
LORIMERS, one of the companies of London,
that make bits for bridles, fpurs, and fuch like fmall
iron ware. They are mentioned in ftatute 1 Rich. II.
c. 12.—The word feems derived from the Latin word
lorum, “ a thong.”
LORME, Philibert de, one of the moll celebra¬
ted architedls in the 16th century, w'as born at Lyons,
(^ueen Catherine de Medicis gave him the fiiperintend-
ance of buildings ; and he had the direftion of thofe of
the Louvre, the Thuilleries, the caftle of St Anet,
St Germains, and other edifices erefled by her orders.
He alfo wrote feveral books on archite&ure. He died
about the year 1577.
LORNE, a divifion of ArgylHhire in Scotland,
which gives the title of marquis to the duke of Argyll.
It extends above 30 miles in length from north to
fouth, and about nine at its utmoft breadth } bounded
on the eaft by Braidalbin j on the weft by the iflandsj
on the north by Lochaber j and is divided from Knap-
dale on the fouth by Loch Etive, on the banks of
which ftands the caftle of Beregonium, wherein the
courts of juftice were anciently held. Ihis diftrifr,
abounding with lakes, is the moft pleafant and fertile
part of Argyllfture, producing plenty of oats and
barley. It once belonged to the ancient family of
Macdougal, ftill refiding on the fpot j but devolved to
the lords of Argyll in confequence of a marriage with
the heirefs, at that time a branch of the Stuart family.
The chief place of note ill this diftritt is the caftle of
Dunftaffnage, a feat of the ScottHh kings previous to
the conqueft of the Pidls in 843 by Kenneth II. In
this place was long preferved the famous ftone, the pal-
I
ladium of North Britain ; brought, fays legend, out of Lome.
Spain, where it was firft ufed as a feat of juftice by
Gathelus, coeval with Mofes. It continued here as the
coronation chair till the reign of Kenneth II. who re¬
moved it to Scone, in order to fecure his reign $ for,
according to the infcription,
Ni fallal fatum, Scoti quocunque localum,
Invenient lapidem, regnare teneuntur ibidem.
Some of the ancient regalia were preferved till the pre-
fent century, when the keeper’s fervants, during his
infirm years, embezzled them for the filver ornaments;
and left only a battleaxe, nine feet long, of beautiful
workmanlhip, and ornamented with filver.
The caftle is fquare; the infide only 87 feet^ partly
ruinous, party habitable. At three of the corners
are round towers; one of them projects very little.
The entrance is towards the fea at prefent by a ftair-
cafe, in old times probably by a drawbridge, which
fell from a little gateway. The mafonry appears very
ancient; the tops battlemented. This pile is feated on
a rock at the mouth of Loch Etive, whofe waters
expand within to a beautiful bay, where {hips may
fafely ride in all weather. Of this building, the found¬
er of which is unknown, nothing remains except the
outer walls, which, though rooflefs, are ftill in good
order; and within which fome buildings have been
erefted, which ferve as the refidence of the laird.
The duke of Argyll is hereditary keeper under the
crown.—At a fmall diftance from the caftle is a ruined
chapel, once an elegant building j and at one end an
enclofure, a family cemetery. Oppofite to thefe is a
high precipice, ending abrupt, and turning fuddenly
towards the fouth-eaft. A perfon concealed in the re-
eefs of the rock, a little beyond the angle, furprifes
friends ftationed at fome diftance beneath the precipice
with a very remarkable echo of any word, or even fen-
tence, he pronounces 5 which reaches the laft diftinft
and unbroken. The repetition is Angle, but remark¬
ably clear.
In 1307, this caftle was poffeffed by Alexander
Macdougal lord of Argyll, a friend to the Englifti :
but was that year reduced by Robert Bruce, when
Macdougal fued for peace with that prince, and was
received into favour.
We find, about the year 1455, this to have been a
refidence of the lords of the illes j for here James laft
earl of Douglas, after his defeat in Annandale, fled to
Donald, the Regulus of the time, and prevailed on him
to take arms and carry on a plundering war againft his
monarch James II.
The fituation, of this regal feat was calculated for
pleafure as well as ftrength. The views of mountains,
valleys, waters, and iflands, are delightful. On the
north fide of Loch Etive flood the town of Berego¬
nium, fuppofed to have been the capital of the Weft
Highlands. It feems from certain mounds, excava¬
tions, and other appearances, to have been a ftrong
fortrefs, to prevent invafion, or to fecure a retreat, as
occafions might require. On the bank of the fame
loch is the fite of Ardchattan, a priory of monks of
Vallifcaullium in Burgundy, founded in 1230 by
Donald Maccoul, anceftor of the Macdougals of Lome.
Here Robert Bruce, who remained mafter of this country
before he got entire poffeflion of Scotland, held a par-
' liameal
LOT
[ 237 ]
LOT
Uaxnent or council.—The country abounds in Druidical,
Danift, and other monuments.
LORRAIN, a fovereign Rate of Europe, bounded
on the north by Luxemburg and the archbiihopric of
Treves, on the eaft by Alface and the duchy of Deux
Fonts, on the fouth by Tranche Compte, and on the
weft by Champagne and the duchy of Barr. It is about
100 miles in length, and 75 in breadth ■, and abounds
in all forts of corn, wine, hemp, flax, rape-feed, game
and filh, with which it carries on fome trade, and in
general all the neceffaries of life. There are fine mea¬
dows and large forefts, with mines of iron, iilver, arid
copper, as alfo fait pits. There are a great number of
rivers; of which the principal are the Maefe or Meufe,
the Mofelle, the Scille, the Meure, and the Sarre. It
is divided into three parts •, the duchy of Lorrain, pro¬
perly fo called, which was heretofore a fovereign ftate ;
the duchy of Barr, which formerly belonged to the
dukes of Lorrain, but afterwards came under the go¬
vernment of France ^ and the third comprehends the
three bilhoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which
have belonged to France ever fince the year 1552. .In
1733, the emperor of Germany being at war with
France, this laft got poffeflion of the duchy of Lor¬
rain : and when there was a peace made in 1735,. it
was agreed, that Staniflaus king of Poland, father-in-
law to the king of France, ftiould pofiefs thefe duchies,
and that after his death they Ihould be united for ever
to the crown of France. It was alfo then agreed, that
Francis Stephen, duke of Lorrain, and the emperor’s
fon-in-law, (hould have the grand duchy of Tufcany as
an equivalent for Lorrain. After the death of the great
duke of Tufcany, in 1737, King Staniflaus and the
duke of Lorrain took poffeflion of their refpe&ive do¬
minions, and the ceflion was confirmed and guaran¬
teed by a treaty in 1738. The trade confifts in corn
and linen cloth. Nanci is the capital town.
Lorrain, Robert /<?, an eminent fculptor, born at
Paris in 1666. From his infancy, he made fo rapid a
progrefs in the art of defigning, that at the age of 18
the celebrated Girardon intruded him with the care of
teaching his children and corre&ing his difciples. He
committed to him alfo, in conjundion with Nouliffon,
the execution of the famous tomb of Cardinal Richelieu
in the Sorbonne, and his own tomb at St Landres in
Paris. On his return from Rome, he finiftred feveral
pieces at Marfeilles, which had been left imperfed by
the death of M. Puget. He was received into the aca¬
demy of fculpture in 1701. His chef d'oeuvre is Ga¬
latea, a work univerfally admired. Lorrain afterwards
made a Bacchus for the gardens at Verfailles, a Faun
for thofe of Marly ; and feveral bronzes, among which
is an Andromeda •, all in an excellent tafte. This ar-
tift fucceeded chiefly in heads 5 and more particularly
in that of young girls, which he performed with incom¬
parable delicacy and truth.
Lorrain, Claude. See Claude.
LOTEN, John, a good landfcape painter of the
Englifli fchool ; though a native of Switzerland. His
tafle led'him to folemn and dreary fcenes, as land-
florms accompanied with fliowers of rain, &c. and he
feldom omitted to introduce oak trees in his profpefls :
his landfcapes are generally large \ and he painted with
nature, truth, and force. But the effect of his compo-
fition had been much greater if he had been lefs cold
in his colouring •, for the judicious eye is not pleafed
with the darkilh tint that predominates in it. He died
in London about 1681.
LOTHIAN, a name given to three counties of
Scotland, viz. Haddingtonlhire, Edinburghfliire, and
Linlithgowlhire j otherwife called £«/?, Mid, and Weft,
Lothians.
1. Eaft Lothian, or Haddingtonlhire, is bounded on
the north-weft by the frith of Forth ; and on the eaft by
the German fea •, on the fouth-eaft by Berwieklhire j
and on the weft by the county of Edinburgh. It ex¬
tends about 25 miles from eaft to weft, and where broad-
eft, nearly 15 from north to fouth. The coaft, advan¬
cing northward into the frith, forms an irregular curve.
—This is one of the moft fruitful counties in Scotland,
producing great quantities of wheat and all forts of
grain, well watered, and plentifully fupplied with filh,
fowl, fuel, and all the neceffaries of life. It abounds
with towns, villages, and farms, interfperfed with a
great number of agreeable houfes belonging to perfons
of rank and fortune. For cultivation, populoufnefs, and
fertility, this Ihire may vie with any trail of land in the
ifland of Great Britain. Befide farming, which is fuc-
cefsfully carried on, the people towards the fea-coaft
employ themfelves in the filhery, falt-making, and in,
foreign trade ; and fome of the more inland inhabitants
engage in the linen and woollen manufailures. Lime-
ftone and coal are found in moft parts of the countyr
and great numbers of iheep are fed on the hills of Lam-
mermuir.
2. Edinburghlhire, or Mid Lothian, is about 35-;
miles long, but varies in its breadth in different places
from five to 16 miles. It is bounded on the eaft by
Haddingtonlhire ; on the weft by the Ihire of Linlith¬
gow ; on the feuth, by Tweeddale or Peebleslhire j
and on the north, by part of Weft Lothian and the
frith of Forth. The afpe'61 of the country is in general
level and pleafant, interfperfed with a few hills, that
help to exhibit agreeable profpe£ls. It is well watered
with rivers, and fhaded with woods. It produces plenty
of coal, limeftone, a foft black marble, and fome cop¬
per ore. The foil, of itfelf fertile, is finely cultivatedj
and yields as plentiful harvefts of excellent wheat as are
found in any part of Great Britain. 1 he whole fhire is
interfperfed with noble houfes and plantations belonging
to noblemen and gentlemen of fortune. The farmers,
in general, are fkilful and wealthy. The country is
well inhabited, and prefents us with a good number of
towns and populous villages. Along the fea coaft the
common people fubfift by filhing, and traffic in coals
and fait, and fome few carry on a fmuggling com¬
merce. Thofe in the inland are employed in farming,
and fome branches of the weaving manufafture. Edin¬
burgh is a county within itfelf.
3. The {hire of Linlithgow, or Weft Lothian, is
bounded on the north by the frith of Forth. The fmall
river Almond divides it from Edinburghfliire on the
eaft. On the fouth-weft it joins the county of Lanark ;
and on the weft, it is parted from Stirlingflure by Avon,
a fmall river. Its form, though irregular, approaches
to a parallelogram. It meafures from north-eaft to
fouth-weft, nearly 20 miles. Its breadth, except on
the fliore of the frith, does not exceed 12.—The coun¬
try
Loten
Lothian,
Lothian
II
Lottery.
LOT [238
try is pleafant and fertile, abounding with corn and
palturage. Here is found plenty of coal, limeftone, ‘
and lead ore; nay, in the reign of James VI. it produ¬
ced a rich mine of filver.
LOTION is, ftrictly fpeaking, fuch wafhing as con¬
cerns beautifying the fkin, by cleanfing it of thofe de¬
formities which a diftempered blood throws upon it.
Medicines of this kind, however, are for the moll part
infignificant, and fometimes very dangerous ; the only
proper method of treating thefe diforders is, by admini-
ilering fuch medicines as tend to corredt the morbid
Hate of the confutation from whence they arife.
Lotion, in Pharmacy, denotes a preparation of me¬
dicines, by waffling them in fome liquid, either made
very light, fo as to take away only the dregs ; or fharp,
fo as to penetrate them, in order to clear them of fome
fait or corrofive fpirit, as is done to antimony, precipi¬
tates, magifteries, &c. or intended to take away fome
foulnefs or ill quality, or to communicate fome good one.
LOTOPHAGI, in Ancient Geography, a people of
the Regio Syrtica (fo called from their living on the
lotus) ; inhabiting between the two Syrtes from the Ci-
nyphus to the Triton. The lotus was faid to be a food
fo lufeious, as to make ftrangers forget their native
country. A fweet wine was expreffed from it, which
did not keep above ten days, (Pliny).
Lotophagi of Homer. See Meninx.
LOTTERY, a kind of public game at hazard, fre¬
quent in Britain, France, and Holland, in order to raife
money for the fervice of the Rate j being appointed with
us by the authority of parliament, and managed by
commiflioners appointed by the lords of the treafury for
that purpofe. It confifts of feveral numbers of blanks
and prizes, which are drawn out of wheels, one of
which contains the numbers, and the other the corre-
fponding blanks or prizes.
The Romans invented lotteries to enliven their Sa¬
turnalia. This feftival began by the diftribution of
tickets which gained fome prize. Auguftus made
lotteries which confided of things of little value;
but Nero eftablifhed fome for the people, in which
1000 tickets were diftributed daily, and feveral of
thofe who were favoured by Fortune got rich by them.
Helingabalus invented fome very fingular: the prizes
were either of great value or of none at all j one gain¬
ed a prize of fix Haves, and another of fix flies; fome
got valuable vafes, and others vafes of common earth.
A lottery of this kind exhibited an excellent pifture of
the inequality with which Fortune diftributes her fa¬
vours.
The firft Englifh lottery \re find mentioned in hiftory
was drawn A. D. 1569. It confifted of 40,000 lots,
at 10s. each lot: the prizes were plate; and the profits
were to go towards repairing the havens of this king¬
dom. It was drawn at the weft door of St Paul’s ca¬
thedral. The drawing began on' the nth of January
1569, and continued inceffantly, day and night, till the
6th of May following ; as Maitland, from Stowe, in¬
forms us in his hiftory, vol. i„ p. 257. There were
then only three lottery offices in London. The propo-
fals for this lottery w'ere publithed in the years 1567
and 1568. It was at firft intended to have been drawn
at the houfe of Mr Derieke, her majefty’s fervant, i. e.
her jeweller, but w as afterwards drawn as above men¬
tioned.
] LOT
DrRawlinfon {howled the Antiquarian Society, 1748,
“ A propofal for a very rich lottery, general without
any blankes, contayning a great number of good prizes, ^
as well of redy money as of plate and certain forts of
merchandizes, having been valued and prifed by the
commandment of the queene’s moft excellent majeitie’s
order, to the intent that fuch commodities as may
chance to arife thereof after the charges borne may be
converted towards the reparations of the havens and
ftrength of the realme, and towards fuch other public
good workes. The number of lotts ftiall be foure hun¬
dred thoufand, and no more ; and every lott ftiall be
the fum of tenne {hillings fteriing, and no more. To
be filled by the feaft of St Bartholomew. The ftiew’ of
prizes are to be feen in Cheapfide, at the fign of the
Queene’s Amies, the houfe of Mr Dericke, goldfmith,
fervant to the queene. Some other orders about it in
1567-8. Printed by Hen. Bynneyman.”
“ In the year 1612, King James, in fpecial favour
for the prefent plantation of Englilh colonies in Virgi¬
nia, granted a lottery, to be held at the weft end of St
Paul’s; whereof one Thomas Sharplys, a taylor of
London, had the chief prize, which was 4000 crowns
in fair plate.” Baker’s Chronicle.
In the reign of Queen Anne, it was thought necef-
fary to fupprefs lotteries, as nuifances to the public.
Since that time, however, they have been licenfed by
an a6l of parliament, under various regulations. The
aft paffed in 1778 reftrains any perfon from keeping an
office for the fale of tickets, {hares, or chances, or for
buying, felling, enfuring, or regiftering, without a li-
cenfe; for which licenfe each office-keeper muft pay
50I. to continue in force for one year, and the produce
to be applied towards defraying the expences of the lot¬
tery. And no perfon is allowed to fell any {hare or
chance lefs than a fixteenth, on the penalty of 50I.
All tickets divided into {hares or chances are to be de-
pofited in an office, to be eftabliffied in London by the
commiffioners of the treafury, who are to appoint a
perfon to conduft the bufinefs thereof; and all {hares
are to be ftamped by the faid officer, who is to give a
receipt for every ticket depofited with him. The num¬
bers of all tickets fo depofited are to be entered in a
book, with the names of the owners, and the number
of tliares into which they are divided ; and twopence
for each {hare is to be paid to the officer on depofiting
fuch tickets, who is therewith to pay all expences inci¬
dent to the office. All tickets depofited in the office
are to remain there three days after the drawing. And
any perfon keeping an office, or felling {hares, or who
{hall publifti any fcheme for receiving moneys in confi-
deration of any intereft to be granted in any ticket in
the faid lottery, &c. without being in pofleffion of fuch
ticket, {hall forfeit 500I. and fuffer three months impri-
fonment. And no bufinefs is to be tranfafted at any
of the offices after eight in the evening, except on the
evening of the Saturday preceding the drawing. No
perfon is to keep any office for the fale of tickets, &c.
in Oxford or Cambridge, on penalty of 20I. Before
this regulating ilatute took place, there were upwards
of 400 lottery offices in and about London only ; but
the whole number afterwards, for all Britain, as ap¬
peared by the lift publiftied by authority, amounted to
no more than 51.
LOTUS, or Bird’s-foot Trefoil; a genus of
plants
Lottery,
Lotus.
3
Lotus
Love.
L O y [2
plants bfclonging to the diadelphia clafs •, and in the
natural method ranking under the 3 2d order, Paf>i/io-
J nacea. See Botany Index.
Lotus of Homer. See Diospyros,-)
Egyptian Lotus. See Nymph^ea, (Botany
Libyan LOTUS. See Rhamnus, ( Index.
LOVAGE. See Ligusticum, J
LOVE, in a large fenfe of the word, denotes all
thofe offeftions of the pleafmg kind which objects and
incidents raife in us ; thus we are faid to love not only
intelligent agents of morally good difpofitions, but alfo
fenfual pleafures, riches, and honours. But
Love, in its ufual and more appropriate fignification,
may be defined, “ that affe£tion which, being com¬
pounded of animal delire, efteem, and benevolence, be¬
comes the bond of attachment and union between indi¬
viduals of the different fexes 5 and makes them feel in
the fociety of each other a fpecxes of happinefs which
they experience no where elfe.” We call it an affec¬
tion rather than a pajjion, becaufe it involves a defire of
the happinefs of its objefl : And that its conftituent
parts are thofe which have been juft enumerated, we
lhall firft endeavour to prove, and then proceed to trace
its rife and progrefs from a felfilh appetite to a generous
fentiment.
Animal defire is the aftual energy of the fenfual ap¬
petite : and that it is an effential part of the complex
affeftion, which is properly called love, is apparent
from this confideration, that though a man may have
fentiments of efteem and benevolence towards women
who are both old and ugly, he never fuppofes himfelf
to be in love of any woman, to whom he feels not the
fenfual appetite to have a ftronger tendency than to
other individuals of her fex. On the other hand, that
animal defire fl/c/ze cannot be called the affeftion of love
is evident; becaufe he who gratifies fuch a defire with¬
out efteeming its objeft, and wilhing to communicate
at the fame time that he receives enjoyment, loves not
the w’oman, but himfelf. Mere animal defire has nothing
in view but the fpecies and the fex of its objedf ; and
before it make a fele£fion, it muft be combined with
fentiments very different from itfelf. The firft fenti¬
ment with which it is combined, and by which a man
is induced to prefer one woman to another, feems to
be that by which we are delighted with gracefulnefs
of perfon, regularity of features, and beauty of com¬
plexion. It is not indeed to be denied that there is
fomething irrefiftible in female beauty. The moft fe-
Vere will not pretend that they do not feel an imme¬
diate prepoffeflion in favour of a handfome woman :
but this prepoffeflion, even when combined with ani¬
mal defire, does not conftitute the whole of that af-
fe&ion which is called love. Savages feel the influ¬
ence of the fenfual appetite, and it is extremely pro¬
bable that they have fome ideas of beauty ; but among
lavages the affeftion of love is feldom felt. Even among
the lower orders of civil fociety it ftems to be a very
grofs paffion, and to have in it more of the felfilhnefs
of appetite than of the generofity of efteem. To
Love.
59 1 L O V
thefe obfervations many exceptions will no doubt be
found (a) : but we fpeak of favages in general, and of
the great body of the labouring poor, who in the choice
of their mates do not ftudy—who indeed are incapable
of ftudying, that reftitude of mind, and thofe delicacies
of fentiment, without which neither man nor woman
can deferve to be efteemed.
In the favage ftate, and even in the firft ftages of
refinement, the bond of union between the fexes feems
to confift of nothing more than mere animal defire
and inftinflive tendernefs for their infant progeny.
The former impels them to unite for the propagation
of the fpecies j and the latter preferves the union, till
the children, who are the fruit of it, be able to provide
for their own fubfiftence. That in fuch unions, whe¬
ther cafualor permanent, there is no mutual efteem and
benevolence, is apparent from the ftate of fubjeflion in
which women are held in rude and uncultivated na¬
tions, as well as from the manner in which marriages
are in fuch nations contrafted.
Sweetnefs of temper, a capital article with us in the
female charadfter, difplays itfelf externally in mild looks
and gentle manners, and is the firft and perhaps the
moft powerful inducement to love in a cultivated
mind. “ But fuch graces (fays an ingenious writer*) * Sketches
are fcarce difcernible in a female favage; and even0/the Hif-
in the moft poliftied woman would not be perceived
by a male favage. Among favages, ftrength and bold-
nefs are the only valuable qualities. In thefe, females
are miferably deficient; for which reafon they are con¬
temned by the males as beings of an inferior order.
The North American tribes glory in idlenefs : the
drudgery of labour degrades a man in their opinion,
and is proper for women only. To join young perfons
in marriage is accordingly the bufinefs of the parents ;
and it would be unpardonable meannefs in the bride¬
groom to fhow tiny fondncfs for the bride. In Guiana
a woman never eats with her htjband, but after every
meal attends him with water for wafliing ; and in the
Caribbee iflands the is not even permitted to eat in the
prefence of her hutband. Dampier obferves in general,
that among all the wild nations with which he was ac¬
quainted, the women carry the burdens, while the men
walk before and carry nothing but their arms ; and
that women even of the higheft rank are not better
treated. In Siberia, and even in Ruflia, the capital
excepted, men till very lately treated their wives in
every refpett like Haves. It might indeed be thought,
that animal defire, were there nothing elfe, fhould have
raifed women to fome degree of eftimation among men ;
but male favages, utter ftrangers to decency and refine¬
ment, gratify animal defire with as little ceremony as
they do hunger or thirft.
“ Hence it was that in the early ages of fociety a
man purchafed a woman to be his wile, as one purchafes
an ox or a flieep to be food ; and valued her only as
Ihe contributed to his fenfual gratification. Inllances
innumerable might be coilefted from every nation of
which we are acquainted with ihe early hiftory ; but
(a) Sucb as the negroes vhofe ftory is fo pathetically told by Addifon in N° 215. of the Spectator ; the twro
lovers who were killed by lightning at Staunton-Harcourt, Auguft 9. C^ee PopPs Letters); and many
others which will occur to every reader..
L O V [
Love, we Avail content ourfelves with mentioning a few.
24O
A-
]
L O V
$ 1 Sam
xviii. 2S.
§ Lib. ix.
braham bought Rebekah, and gave her to his fon Ifaac
*Gen.xxiv. for a wife*. Jacob having nothing elfe to give, ferved
f Gen.xxix. Laban 14 years for two wivesf. To David, demand¬
ing Saul’s daughter in marriage, it was faid, ‘ The
king defireth not any dowry, but an hundred forefkins
of the PhiliftinesJ.’ In the Iliad Agamemnon offers
his daughter to Achilles for a wife 5 and fays that he
would not demand for her any price §. By the laws
of Ethelbert king of England, a man who committed
adultery with his neighbour’s wife was obliged to pay
| Sed. 32. the hufband a fine, and to buy him another But
it is needleis to multiply in fiances j the practice has
prevailed univerfally among nations emerging from the
lavage Hate, or in the ludefl flage of iociety : and
•wherever it prevailed, men could not poflibly have for
the fair fex any of that tender regard and eileem which
eonftitute fo effential a part of the complex affection of
love.
Accordingly we find the magnanimous Achilles an
abfolute ftranger to that generous affe£tion, though his
heart was fufceptible of the warmed and pureft friend-
Ihip. His attachment to Patroclus was fo heroically
difinterefted, that he willingly facrificed his own life to
revenge the death of his friend j but when Agamemnon
threatened to rob him of his favourite female captive,
though he felt the infult offered to his pride, he never
fpoke of the woman but as a Jlave whom he was con¬
cerned to preferve in point of honour, and as a teftimo-
ny of his glory. Hence it is that we never hear him
mention her but as his fpoil, the reward of war, or the
jgft which the Grecians gave him.
“ And dar’ft thou threat to fnatch mf'prixe away,
“ Due to the deeds of many a dreadful day ?
“ A pri%e as fmall, O tyrant! match’d with thine,
“ As thy own a£lions if compar’d with mine.
“ Thine in each conqueft is the wealthy prey,
“ Tho’ mine the fweat and danger of the day.
“ Some trivialprefent to my fhips I bear,
“ Or barren praifes pay the wounds of war.”
And again, after upbraiding the general with his ty¬
ranny and want of regard to merit, he adds, with the
greateft indifference as to the charms of the woman,
“ Seize on Brifei's, whom the Grecians doom’d
“ My prize of war, yet tamely fee refurn'd;
“ And feize fecure j no more Achilles draws
“ His conquering fword in any woman’s caufe.
“ The gods command me to forgive the pad ,
“ But let this firft invqfion be the laft :
“ For know, thy blood, when next thou dar’ft invade,
u Shall ftream in vengeance on my reeking blade.”
Pope has made the language of this rough warrior lefs
inconfiftent with the peculiar refentment natural to an
injured lover than it is in the original (b) j but from
the laft quoted paffage, even as tranflated by him, it is
apparent that Achilles would have been equally hurt
had Agamemnon threatened to deprive him of any
other part of his plunder. Accordingly he yields up
Brifeis, not in grief for a miftrefs whom he lofes, but in
fullennefs for an injury that is done him. Nor let it be
imagined, that this coldnefs proceeded from the pride
of the hero, which would not permit him to acknow'-
ledge his love of a captive. With the generous affec¬
tion of love captives and princeffes were equally inca¬
pable of infpiring him. He repeatedly affirmed indeed
that he delighted in his fair Lyrneffian fteve, but it was
only as an inftrument of fenfual gratification •, for as to
every thing elfe in a woman, he was fo totally indiffer¬
ent, that he declared he would not, w-hen he ffiould be
difpofed to marry, give himfelf the trouble to make a
choice, but leave the whole matter to his father.
“ If heav’n reftore me to my realms with life,
“ The rev’rend Peleus (hall eledt my wife.”
Even Agamemnon, of whom Pope and Madame Da-
cier think more favourably as a lover, fpeaks the very
fame language when mentioning his favourite captive
Chryfeis. In his furious debate with Achilles he calls
her indeed—
“ A maid, unmatch’d in manners as in face,
“ Skill’d in each art, and crown’d with ev’ry grace.”
And adds,
“ Not half fo dear were Clytemneftra’s charms,
“ When firft her blooming beauties bleft my arms.”
But this was faid merely to enhance the value of the
prize, which for the public good he was about to re-
fign •, for that Ihe was dear to him only as miniftering to
his pleafure, is paft difpute from the language which he
had previoufly held with her father, as well as from his
requiring grateful Greece to pay a juft equivalent, and
to repair his private lofs. A man who really loves
w ould have thought nothing an equivalent for the objett
of his love ; much lefs would he have infinuated to her
father
(b) The original paffages are :
Kttt pet yegies ast/laj ccpceigync-ffeei ctTruXu?,
*£1 i7n ttoAA’ i/AO'/vrct, ^oa-xv [tot wtj AftcittoV.
Ov [tiv a-ot Troll to-ov i%a ottttot Afcxtot
Tgawv ixTrigtrAT tvvxioftiyoy ttIo^ii^ov.
AXAa to [tut Trtetov Trohvxtitos Troteptoto
Xu^is i/ttxt dtiTrcvT' xrxg >)» Troh (ixtrftts itcrilxt,
Xot to yi[x^ TroXv [tit^ov, lyo) oXtyov Ti tytXov Tl
’E^oft nst Vi)«S5j ITCW xiKXfAU TToMpt^ay.
Iliad, lib. i.
And, AXAo Tot i[iM, tv S’ evi <Pqi<ri fixhXio oya-t’
Xi^rt (tiv ovti sy*>ye [tx^o-oftxt, unux kov^s,
Ovti cot, otfh tu xXXu, ittu [t xipiterfa yt SaiHej.
T«v x pot itrlt ion irx^x m
Tut ovk m* Tt <p££e<s xnhuv, xutoflo; ipuo’
E< S’ uyi pYiv, 7rii(>n<rxi, tvx yvaurt r-xt e<Ss«
ArJ'X toi xipx KiXxtvoy i^unnt Tti^t Sov§i.
In this latter paffage the hero fays exprefsly, “ 1 will
not fight with you or with any other man for the fake
of a girl; but you lhall not rob me of any other part
of my property which is forely the language of a
man to whofe heart love muft have been an utter
ftrangtr.
L O V [ 2
; Love, father a poiTibility of his difmifling from his embrace a
—woman whom he efteemed, when time thould have rob¬
bed her of every youthful grace.
Since, then, it is lb apparent, that in the heroic age
of Greece even princes and kings were ftrangers to
the generous affedlion of love, it needs not oceafion
much furprife that the fame affedlion has very little
influence upon mankind in the loweft ranks of the moft
polilhed focieties of modern Europe. That this is
actually the cafe, that among the generality of une¬
ducated men and women there is no other bond of at¬
tachment than the fenfual appetite, every year furnilhes
multiplied proofs. We daily fee youths, rejedled by
their minrefles, paying their addreffes without delay
to girls who, in looks, temper, and difpofition, are
diametrically oppolite to thofe whom fo lately they
pretended to love : We daily fee maidens, flighted by
their lovers, receiving the addreffes of men, who, in
nothing but their fex, rcfemble thofe to whom a week
before they wilhed to be married : and we believe it
is not very uncommon to find a girl entertaining feve-
ral lovers together, that if one or more of them fliould
prove falfe, flie may ffill have a chance not to be
totally deferted. Did efteem and benevolence, placed
on manners and charafter, eonftitute any part ot vul¬
gar love, thefe people would a£f very differently j for
they would find it impoffible to change their lovers and
their miftreffes with the fame eafe that they change
their clothes.
To this account of love, as it appears in favage
. nations, fome one may perhaps oppofe the paintings
of the fofter paflion in the poems of Oflian. That
bard deferibes the female charadfer as commanding re-
fpeft and efleem, and the Caledonian heroes as cherilh-
ing for their miftreffes a flame fo pure and elevated as
never was iurpaffed, and has feldom been equalled, in
thofe ages which we commonly call moft enlightened.
This is indeed true : and it is one of the many reafons
which have induced Johnfon and others to pronounce
the whole a modern fidlion. Into that debate w e do not
enter. We may admit the authenticity of the poems,
without acknowledging that they furnilh any exception
to our general theory. They furnith indeed in the man¬
ners which they deferibe a wonderful anomaly in the
general hiftory of man. All other nations of which we
read were in the hunter ftate favage and cruel. The
Caledonians, as exhibited by Oflian, are gentle and mag¬
nanimous. The heroes of Homer fought for plunder,
and felt no clemency for a vanquiflied foe. The heroes
of Oflian fought for fame ; and when their enemies
were fubdued, they took them to their bofoms. The
firft of Greeks committed a mean infult on the dead
body of the firft of Trojans. Among the Caledonians
infults ofl'ered to the dead, as well as cruelty to the
living, were condemned as infamous. The heroes of
Oflian appear in no inftance as favages. How they
came to be poliftied and refined before they were ac¬
quainted with agriculture and the moft ufeful arts of
life, it is not our bufinefs to inquire; but fince they
unqueftionably were fo, their treatment of the female
fex, inftead of oppoling, confirms our theory ; for wre
never conceived rich clothes, fuperb houfes, highly-
dreffed food, or even the knowledge of foreign tongues,
to be neceffary to the acquifition of a generous fenti-
ment. Luxury indeed appears to be as inimical to love
Vol. XII. Part I.
i J L O V
as barbarian : and we believe, that in modern nations, k°re. .
the tender and exalted affection which deferves that v
name is as little known among thehigheft orders of life
as among the loweft. Perhaps the Caledonian ladies
of Oflian refembled in their manners the German ladies
of Tacitus, who accompanied their hufbands to the
chafe, fought by their tides in battle, and partook
with them of every danger. If fo, they could not fail
to be refpefted by a race of heroes among whom cou¬
rage took place of all other virtues: and this fingle
circumftance, from whatever caufe it might proceed,
will fufticiently account for the eftiraation of the female
charadter among the ancient Germans and Caledoni¬
ans, fo different from that in which it has been held in
almoft every other barbarous nation.
But if among favages and the vulgar, love be un¬
known, it cannot poffibly be an inftindtive affedlion :
and therefore it may be afked, How it gets poffeflion
of the human heart; and by what means we can judge
whether in any particular inftance it be real or imagi¬
nary ? Thefe queflions are of importance, and deferve
to be fully anfwered ; though many circumftances con-
fpire to render it no eafy talk to give to them luch an-
fwers as (hall be perfectly fatisfadlory. Love can fub-
fift only between individuals of the different fexes.
A man can hardly love two women at the fame time j
and wre believe that a woman is ftill lefs capable of lov¬
ing at once more than one man. Love, therefore, has
a natural tendency to make men and women pair, or,
in other words, it is the fource of marriage : but in
poliftied fociety, where alone this affedlion has any
place, fo many things beftdes mutual attachment are
neceffary to make -the married life comfortable, that
we rarely fee young perfons uniting from the impulfe
of love, and have therefore but few opportunities of
tracing the rife, progrefs, and coniequences of the af-
fedlion. We fhall, however, throw together fuch re-
fledlions as have#occurred to us on the fubjeft, net
w ithout indulging a hope, that they may be ufeful to
the younger part of our readers when forming the moft
important connexion in life.
We have faid, that the perception of beauty, com¬
bined with animal defire, is the firft inducement which
a man can have to prefer one woman to another. It
may be added, that elegance of figure, a placid iqaf-
culine countenance, with a perfon which indicates
ftrength and agility, are the qualities which firft tend
to attach any woman to a particular man. Beauty
has been defined*, “ That particular form, which is # By Pere
the moft common of all particular forms to be met Buffier in
with in the fame fpecies of beings.” Let us apply ll15
this dehnition to our own ipecies, and try, by nieans sir joflnia
of it, to afeertain what conftitutes the beauty of the Reynolds in
human face. It is evident, that of countenances we the Idler.
find a number almoft infinite of different forms, of
which forms one only conftitutes beauty, whilft the
reft, however numerous, conftitute what is not beaultf,
but deformity or ughnefs. To an attentive oblerver,
however, it is evident, that of the numerous particular
forms of uglinefs, there is not one which includes fo
many faces as are formed aftet that particular caft
which conftitutes beauty. Every particular fpecies of
the animal as well as of the vegetable creation, may be
faid to have a fixed or determinate form, to which, as
to a centre, nature is continually inclining. Or it may
H h be
I- o V [ 2+2 1 L O V
„ Iove- be compared to pendulums vibratiog in different di¬
rections over one central point ; and as they all crofs
the centre, though only one paffes through any other
point; }o it will be found that perfeEl beauty is oftener
produced by nature than deformity : we do not mean
than deformity in general, but than any one hind and
degree of deformity. To inilance in a particular part
of a human feature : the line which forms the ridge of
the nofe is deemed beautiful when it isJlraight; but
this is likewife the central form, which is oftener found
than any one particular degree of concave, convex, or
any other irregular form that (hall be propofed. As we
are then more accuftomed to beauty than deformity,
we may conclude that to be the reafon why we approve
and admire it, juft as we approve and admire faftiions
of drefs for no other reafon than that we are ufed to
them. The fame thing may be faid of colour as of
form : it is cuftom alone which determines our prefer¬
ence of the colour of the EuropeansXo that of the Ethio¬
pians, and which makes them prefer their own colour
to ours \ fo that though habit and cuftom cannot be the
caufe of beauty (fee Beauty), they are certainly the
©aufe of our liking it.
That we do hhe it cannot be denied. Every one is
confeious of a pleafing emotion when contemplating
beauty either in man or woman •, and when that plea-
fure is combined with the gratification of the fenfual
appetite, it is obvious that the fum of enjoyment mull
be greatly increafed. The perception of beauty,
therefore, neceffarily direCts the energy of the fenfual
appetite to a particular objeCt $ but (till this combina¬
tion is a mere felfilh feeling, which regards its objedl
only as the bejl of many Jimilar inftrnments of pleafure.
Before it can deferve the name of love, itmuft be com¬
bined wuth efteem, which is never bellowed but upon
moral character and internal worth ; for let a woman
be ever fo beautiful, and of courfe ever fo defirable as
an inftrument of fenfual gratification, if ftie be not
poffeffed of the virtues and difpofitions which are pe¬
culiar to her fex, Ihe will infpire no man with a gene¬
rous affeftion. With regard to the outlines, indeed,
whether of internal difpolition or of external form,
men and women are the fame ; but nature, intending
them for mates, has given them difpofitions, which
though concordant, are, however, different, fo as to
produce together delicious harmony. “ The man,
more robuft, is fitted for fevere labour, and for field
exercifes j the woman, more delicate, is fitted for fe-
dentary occupations, and particularly for nurfing chil¬
dren. The man, bold and vigorous, is qualified for
* Sketches being a protestor * j the woman, delicate and timid,
of Man. requires protection. Hence it is, that a man never
admires a woman for poffeffing bodily ftrength or per-
fonal courage •, and women always defpife men who are
totally deftitute of thefe qualities. The man, as a pro-
teClor, is direCled by nature to govern •, the woman,
ctmfcious of inferiority, is difpofed to obey. Their in¬
tellectual powers correfpond to the deftination of na¬
ture. Men have penetration and folid judgment to fit
them for governing $ women have fufficient underftand-
ing to make a decent figure under a good government:
a greater proportion would excite dangerous rivallhip
between the fexes, which nature has avoided by giving
them different talents. Women have more imagination
and fenfibility than men, which make all their enjoy¬
ments more exqullite ; at the fame time that they are
better qualified to communicate enjoyment. Add an¬
other capital difference of difpofition : the gentle and
infinuating manners of the female fex tend to foften
the roughnefs of the other fex j and wherever women
are indulged with any freedom, they poliih fooner than
men.
“ Thefe are not the only particulars that diftinguifh
the fexes. With refpeCl to the ultimate end of love,
it is the privilege of the male, as fuperior and protec¬
tor, to make a choice : the female, preferred, has no
privilege but barely to confent or to refufe. Whether
this diftinftion be the immediate refult of the original¬
ly different difpofitions of the fexes, or only the effeCt
of affociations inevitably formed, may be queftioned ;
but among all nations it is the praClice for men to
court, and for women to be courted : and were the
moft beautiful woman on earth to invert this praClice,
fhe would forfeit the efteem, however by her external
grace Ihe might excite the defire, of the man whom
file addreffed. The great moral virtues which may
be comprehended under the general term integrity, are
all abfolutely neceffary to make either men or women
eftimable $ but to procure efteem to the female charac¬
ter, the modefty peculiar to their fex is a very effential
circumftance. Nature hath provided them with it as
a defence againft the. artful iolicitations of the other
fex before marriage, and alfo as a fupport of conjugal
fidelity.
A woman, therefore, whofe difpofitions are gentle,
delicate, and rather timid than bold, who is poffeffed
of a large (hare of fenfibility and modefty, and whofe
manners are foft and infinuating, muft, upon moral
principles (fee Moral Philosophy), command the
efteem and benevolence of every individual of the other
fex who is poffeffed of found underftanding j but if
her perfon be deformed, or not fuch as to excite fome
degree of animal defire, (lie will attraCl no man’s love.
In like manner, a man whofe moral character is good,
whofe underftanding is acute, and whofe converfation
is inftruCtive, muft command the efteem of every fen-
fible and virtuous woman ; but if his figure be dif-
agreeable, his manner unpolithed, his habits llovenly,
and, above all, if he be deficient in perfonal courage,
he will hardly excite defire in the female breaft. It is
only when the qualities which command efteem are, in
the fame perfon, united with thofe which excite defire,
that the individual fo accomplifhed can be an objeCt
of love to one of the other fex j but when thefe qua¬
lities are thus united, each of them increafes the other
in the imagination of the lover. The beauty of his
miftrefs gives her, in his apprehenfion, a greater {hare
of gentlenefs, modefty, and every thing which adorns
the female charader, than perhaps (he really poffeffes j
whilft his perfuafion of her internal worth makes him,
on the other hand, apprehend her beauty to be abfo¬
lutely unrivalled.
To this theory an objeftion readily offers itfelf,
which it is incumbent upon us to obviate. Men and
women fometimes fall in love at firft fight, and very
often before they have opportunities of forming a juft
eftimate of each other’s moral charafter : How is this
circumftance to he reconciled with the progreflive ge¬
neration of love ? We anfwer, By an affociation of
ideas, which is formed upon principles of phyfiogno-
Lov*.
my.
L O V
[ 243 1
L O V
Lovi. my. Every paflion and habitual difpofition of mind
gives a particular call to the countenance, and is apt
to difcover itfelf in fome feature of the face. This we
learn by experience j and in time, without any effort
of our own, the idea of each particular call of counte¬
nance comes to be fo clofely affociated in our minds
with the internal difpofition which it indicates, that
the one can never afterwards be prefented to our view
without inftantly fuggefting the other to the imagi¬
nation. (See Metaphysics and Physiognomy).
Hence it is that every man, who has been accuftomed
to make obfervations, naturally forms to himfelf, from
the features and lineaments of a ftranger’s face, fome
opinion of his character and fortune. We are no
fooner prefented to a perfftn for the firft time, than we
are immediately imprefled with the idea of a proud, a
referred, an affable, or a good-natured man j and upon
our going into a company of abfolute ftrangers, our
benevolence or averfion, our awe or contempt, rifes
inftantly towards particular perfons, before we have
heard them fpeak a word, or know fo much as their
names or defignations. The fame thing happens
when we ftre prefented to the fair fex. If a woman,
feen for the firft time, have that particular caft of
ctmntenance, and that expreftion of features, to which
we have affociated notions of gentlcncfs, modejhj, and
other female virtues, fhe inftantly commands our ejieem ;
and if fhe have likewife fo much beauty as to make her
an object of particular defirc, efteem and defire become
fuddenly combined ; and that combination conftitutes
the afffftion of love. Such, too, is the nature of all
mental affociations, that each part of which they are
compoftd adds ftrengtb and vividnefs to the other parts ;
fo that, in the prefent inftance, defire makes us imagine
virtues in the Woman which her countenance • perhaps
does not indicate ; and the virtues which are there ac¬
tually vifible, make us apprehend her beauty as more
perfect than it is.
The affe&ion thus generated is more or lefs pure,
and will be more or lefs, permanent, according as the
one or the other part of which it is compounded pre-
* Sketches dominates. “ Where defire of poffeftion * prevails over
of Man. our efteem of the perfon and merits of the defirable
object, love lofes its benevolent charaffer : the appe¬
tite for gratification becomes ungovernable, and tends
violently to its end, regardlefs of the mifery that muft
follow. In that ftate love is no longer a fweet agree¬
able affeftion ; it becomes a felfifh, painful paffion,
which, like hunger and thirft, produceth no happi-
nefs hut in the inftant of fruition; and when fruition
is over, difguft and averfion generally fucceed to defire.
On the other hand, where efteem, founded on a virtu¬
ous eharadfter’and gentle manners, prevails over animal
defire, the lover would not for the world gratify his
appetite at the expence of his miftrefs’s honour or
peace of mind, hie wifhes, indeed, for enjoyment ;
and to him enjoyment is more exquifite than to the mere
fenfual lover, becaufe it unites fentiment with the gra¬
tification of fenfe ; at the fame time that, fo far from
being fucheeded by difguft or averfion, it increafes his
benevolence to the woman, whofe chara&er and man¬
ners he efteeras, and who has contributed fo much to
his fdedfure. Benevolence to an individual, having a
general end, admits of afts ‘without number, and is fel-
dont fully aceomplifhed. Hence mutual l6ve, which is
hove.
compofed chiefly of efteem and benevolence, can hard¬
ly be of a dhorter duration than its obje&s. Frequent ’ ’
enjoyment endears fuch lovers to each other, and makes
conftancy a pleafure ; and when the days of fenfual en¬
joyment are over, efteem and benevolence will remain
in the mind, making fweet, even in old age, the focie-
ty of that pair, in whom are colledled the affe&ions of
hufband, wife, lover, friend, the tendereft affections 6f
human nature.”
From the whole of this inveftigation, we think it
appears,. that the affeftion between the fexes whioh
deferves the name of love, is infeparably conne£ted
with virtue and delicacy y that a man of loofe morals
cannot be a faithful or a generous lover ; that in the
breaft of him who has ranged from woman to woman
for the mere gratification of his fenfual appetite, de¬
lire muft have effaced all efteem for the female charac¬
ter ; and that, therefore, the maxim too generally re¬
ceived, “ that a reformed rake makes the beft huf¬
band,” has very feldom a chance to be true. We
think it may likewife be inferred, that thbufands fan¬
cy themfelves in love who know not what love is, or
how it is generated in the human breaft : and there¬
fore we beg leave to advife fuch of our readers as may
imagine themfelves to be in that Hate, to examine their
own minds, with a view to difcover, whether, if the ob¬
jects of their love were old and ugly, they would ftill
efteem them for the virtues of their charafter, and the
propriety of their manners. This is a queftion which
deferves to be well weighed by the young and the
amorous, who in forming the matrimonial connexion,
are too often blindly impelled by the mere animal d&fire
inflamed by beauty. “ It may indeed happen f, ailex \ Elements
the pleafure of gratifying that defire is gone (and if °f Criti~
not refined by efteem and benevolence, go it muft with cifm'
a fwift pace), that a new bond of attachment may be
formed upon more dignified and more lading princi¬
ples ; but this is a dangerous experiment. Even fup-
pofing good fenfe, good temper, and internal worth of
every fort, yet a new attachment upon fueh qualifica¬
tions is rarely formed ; becaufe it commonly or rather
always, happens, that Inch qualifications, the only folid
foundation of that indiffoluble connexion, if they did not
originally make efteem predominate over animal defire,
are afterwards rendered altogether invifible by fatiety
of enjoyment creating difguft.”
Love, in Medicine. The fyroptoms produced by
this paffion as a difeafe, according to medical writers,
areas follow : The eyelids often twinkle; the eyes
are hollow, and yet appear as if full with pleafure :
the pulfe is not peculiar to the paffion, but the fame
with that which attends folicitude and care. When
the objeft of this affe&ion is thought of, particularly
if the idea is fudden, the fpirits are confufed, the pulfe
changes, and its force and time are very variable : in
fome inftances, the perfon is fad and watchful ; in
others, the perfon, not being confcious of his ftate,
pines away, is flothful, and regardlefs of food ; though
the wifer, when they find themfelves in love, feek
pleafant company and a£live entertainments. As the
force of love prevails, fighs grow deeper ; a tremor af-
feifts the heart and pulfe ; the countenance is alternate¬
ly pale and red ; the voice is fuppreffed in the fauces;
the eyes grow dim ; cold fweats break out ; fleep ab-
fenMitfelfj at leaft.u.ntil the morning; the fecretions
H h 2 become
L O V f 244 J LOU
e- become difturbed j and a lofs of appetite, a hedtic fe-
ver, melancholy, or perhaps madnel's, if not death, con-
flitutes the fad catartrophe. On this fubjedl the curi¬
ous may confult TEgineta, lib. iii. cap. 17. Oribat. Sy-
rop. lib. viii. cap. 9. or a treatife profeffedly written on
love, as it is a diftemper, by James Ferrard, Oxford,
printed 1640.
The maimers of the Greeks and Romans w^ere fimi-
lar to each other in the affairs of love. They general¬
ly made a difcovery of their paflion by writing upon
trees, walls, doors, &c. the name of their beloved.
They ufually decked the door of their dulcinea with
flowers and garlands, made libations of wine before their
houfes, fprinkling the ports with the fame liquor, as if
the objedt of their affedlion was a real goddefs. For a
man’s garland to be untied, and for a woman to com-
pofe a garland, were held to be indubitable indications
of their love.
When their love was without fuccefs, they ufed fe-
\'eral arts to excite affedtion in the objedt of their de¬
fire. They had recourfe to enchantrefles, of whom the
Theffalian were in the higheft eftimation. The means
made ufe of were moft commonly philtres or love po¬
tions, the operation of which was violent and dangerous,
and frequently deprived fuch as drank them of their
reafon. Some of the moft remarkable ingredients of
w hich they were compofed were : the hippomanes, the
lynx, infe'dls bred from putrefadlion, the fifh remora,
the lizard, brains of a calf, the hairs on the tip of a
wolf’s tail, his fecret parts, the bones of the left fide of
a toad eaten with ants, the blood of doves, bones of
fnakes, feathers of fcreech-owls, twifted cords of wool
in which a perfon had hanged himfelf, rags, torches,
reliques, a neft of fwallows buried and familhed in the
earth, bones fnatched from hungry bitches, the marrow
of a boy famithed in the midft of plenty, dried human
liver; to thelh may be added feveral herbs growing
cut of putrid fubftances. Such were the ingredients that
entered into the compofition of that infernal draught a
love potion.
But, befides the philtres, various other arts were
ufed to excite love, in which the application of certain
fubftances was to have a magical influence on the per-
ibn againft whom they levelled their {kill. A hysena’s
udder worm under the left arm, they fancied would
draw the affeflions of whatever woman they fixed
their eyes upon. That fpecies of olives called Trflvgx,
and barley-bran made up into a pafte, and thrown into
the fire, thsy thought would excite the flame of love.
Flour w=as ufed with the fame intention. Burning lau¬
rel, and melted wax, were fuppofed to have the like
effebl. When one heart was to be hardened, and ano¬
ther mollified, clay and wax were expofed to the fame
fire together. Images of wax were frequently ufed, re-
prefenting the perfons on whom they wiftied to make
an impreflion ; and whatever was done to the fubftitute
of wax, they imagined was felt by the perfon repre-
fented. Enchanted medicaments were often fprinkled
on fome part of the houfe where the perfon refided.
Love-pledges were fuppofed to be of fingular ufe and
efficacy : tbefe- they placed under their threfhold, to
preferve the affeffions of the owner from wandering.
Love-knots were of fingular power, and the number
three w-as particularly obferved in all they did. But
no good effebt was expefted, if the ufe of thefe things
was not attended with charms or magical verfes and
forms of words. See Magic.
Having mentioned their arts of exciting love, it
may not be amifs to take notice, that the ancients ima¬
gined, that love excited by magic may be allayed by
more powerful fpells and medicaments, or by applying
to demons more powerful than thofe who had been
concerned in raifing that paflion. But love infpirtd
w ithout magic had no cure ; Apollo himfelf could find
no remedy, but cried out
Hei mihi quod nullis amor ejl medicabilis herbis.
The antidotes againft love were generally agnvs cajlus^
which has the pow er of weakening the generative facul¬
ty ; fprinkling the duft in which a mule had rolled her-
felf; tying toads in the hide of a beaft newly {lain ; ap¬
plying amulets of minerals or herbs, which were fup.
pofed of great efficacy in other cafes ; and invoking the
aftiftance of the inferior deities. Another cure for love
was bathing in the waters of the river Selemnus ; to
which we may add the lover’s leap, or jumping down
from the Leucadian promontory.
Love-Apple. See Solanum, Botany Index.
LOVENTINUM, or Luentinum, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town of the Demeta in Britain, near the
mouth of the Tuerobis or Tivy. Suppofed to have
been afterwards fwallowred up by an earthquake, and to
have flood where is now the lake called Llin Savatan
in Brecknockfhire.
LOUGHBOROUGH, a town of Leicefterfliire in
England, no miles from London. It is the fecond
town in the county, and was in the Saxons time a
royal village. Its market is on Thurfday ; the num¬
ber of inhabitants in 1801 exceeded 4500. It has
a large church, and a free fchool; befides a charity
fchool for 80 boys, and another for 20 girls. It has
been very much reduced by fires ; but is ftill a very
agreeable town, with rich meadow-ground, on the foffe,
which runs here almoft parallel with the river Soar.
The new canal has made the coal trade here very ex-
tenfive.
LOUGHBRICKLAND, a town of Ireland, fitua-
ted in the county of Down, and province of Ulfter, 58
miles from Dublin. The name fignifies the lake of
the fpechlcd trout ; and it w as fo called from a lake near
it, which abounds with thofe filh. It confifts of one
broad ftreet, at the end of which is the parifli church,
faid to have been built by Dr Taylor when bifhop of
Dromore, foon after the Reftoration. The linen manu-
fadure is carried on here very extenfively ; and the
town is a great thoroughfare, the turnpike road from
Dublin to Belfaft parting near it.
LOUGH-DERG, anciently Derg-abhan, i. e. “ the
river of the woody morafs,” from a river which iffues
out of this lake. This lough is fituated in the county
of Donegal and province ®f Ulfter in Ireland, and is
famous for having in it the ifland that contains St
Patrick’s purgatory, which is a narrow little cell,
hewn out of the folid rock, in which a man could
fcarce ftand upright. There is alfo a lake of this
name fituated between the counties of Galway and
Tipperary.
LOUGH-NEAGH, a loch or lake of Ireland, fi¬
tuated in the counties of Armagh, Down, Derry, and
Antrim, and province of Ulfter. This lake is 20 miles
3 iu
LOU [ 245 ] LOU
Lough- ia lengtli, and varies from 8 to 12 miles In breadth.
Neagh, 'phe area 0f this lake is computed to be 100,000 acres.
Lough- jt jg remarkable for a healing virtue j andlikevvife for
mgtoru petrjfyjng wooc}) which is not only found in the water
but in the adjacent foil at a confiderable depth. On its
Ihores feveral beautiful gems have been difcovered. Its
ancient name was Loch-Eclcha, or Loch-Nsach, from
/och, “ a lake,” and Neach, “ wonderful, divine, or emi¬
nent.” Its petrifying powers are not inftantaneous, as
feveral of the ancients have fuppofed, but require a
long feries of ages to bring them to perfe&ion, and
appear to be eccafioned by a fine mud or fand, which
iniinuates itfelf into the pores of the wood, and which
in procefs of time becomes, hard like Hone. On the
borders of this lake is Shane’s caftle, the elegant feat
of Lord O’Neil. Dr S myth feems to doubt whether
the healing quality in this lake is not to be confined to
one fide of it, called theJiJhing-bank ; and he informs us,
that this virtue was difcovered in the reign of Charles
II. in the inftance of the fon of one Mr Cunningham,
who had an evil which run on him in eight or ten
places ; and notwithllanding all applications, feemed
incurable: at length he was perfectly healed, after
bathing in this lough about eight days. Hence that wri¬
ter gives us another derivation of name. Lock-Neach,
which (he fays) feems to him to hint at this quality j
Neafgox Neast in Irilh,dignifying “a fore or ulcer,” which
might not improbably be corrupted into Neoch: Hence
he apprehends, this lake was remarked at a much earlier
period for its healing property. As to its petrifying
power, it is mentioned by Nenius, a writer of the 9th
century, who fays, “ Ell aliud ftagnum quod facit lig-
na durefcere in lapides. Homines autem findunt ligna,
et pofiquam formaverunt, projiciunt in ftagnum, et ma-
nent in eo ufque ad caput anni, et in capite anni lapis
invenitur •, etvocatur ttagnum Lough-
Neagh gives title of baron to the family of Skeffington.
LOUGH-STRANGFORD, a lake of Ireland,
fituated in the county of Down and province of Ul-
fter. It takes its prefent name from a fmall port-
town called Strangford, feated on the weft fide of the
narrow entrance into the fea. It was formerly known
by the name of Lough-Cone or Lough-Coyne. It is a
deep bay or inlet of the fea, about 17 miles long and
four or five broad ; it goes weft as far as Downpatrick,
and north as far as Comber and Newton, and by
computation covers 25,775 acres, Irifh plantation
meafure. It abounds with excellent fiih, particularly
fmelts j and off the bar there is a periodical herring-
fifhery in or about Augufl. The bar or entrance
into the lough is about three milesv below Strang-
ford. There is a long rock at the entrance in the
middle of the paflage, dangerous to flrangers on ac¬
count of the current \ yet there is a broad paffage on
either fide, and deep water. The current here is very
flrong and rapid, running at the rate of fix or feven
miles an hour. There are but few veflels that go
higher up than Strangford. A good many veffels
bound up the Channel pat in here, if the wind is un¬
favourable to their paffage. The iflands in this lake
are numerous; Dodlor Boat enumerates them at 260.
But from an aflual furvey, made at the time Dr Smyth
wrote his hiflory of that county, it appears, there are
54 iflands fmall and great, known by particular names,
and many others namelefs $ the contents of thefe 54 Lough-
iflands added together amount to 954 acres and a Strang or
half. The great and profitable manufacture carried Louipiana<
on in thefe iflands, and the flat ftony coafls furrounding , )
the lake, is the burning of fea-weed into kelp, which
employs a number of hands, and has been computed
to produce to the feveral proprietors a neat profit of
loool. per annum and upwards. Four of the iflands
here are called Swan ijlands, from the number of fwans
that frequent them.
LOUIS, or St Louis, Knights of the name of a
military order in France, inllituted by Louis XIV. in
1693. Their colours were of a flame colour, and pafs
from left to right j the king was their grand mailer.
There were in it eight great croffes, and 24 comman¬
ders j the number of knights was not limited. At the
time of their inilitution, the king charged his revenue
with a fund of 900,000 livres for the penfions of the
commanders and knights.
Louis, Lewis, Louis d'or, or Lewidore, a French
coin, firft ilruck in 1640, under the reign of Louis XIIL
and which has now a confiderable currency. See
Money-
LOUISIANA, formerly a Spanifli province of N.
America, now belonged to the United States, is bound¬
ed on the eaft by the Mifliflippi, on the fouth by the
gulf of Mexico, on the weft by New Mexico, and on
the north by boundaries which have not been defined.
It is interfered by a number of fine rivers, and the
greater part of the inhabitants are faid to be Roman
Catholics. They are chiefly the defeendants of the
French and Canadians; but in different fettlements of
this extenfive country there are likewife to be met with
the defeendants of people from Germany, as well as
numbers of Acadians and Americans. The population
in 1785, when a cenfus was taken, amounted to more
than 50,000 fouls j but different authors are of opinion
that this is much below the proper eftimate, notwith-
ftanding the population bears no proportion to the ex¬
tent of the country. According to another eftimate
there arc 89,970. The inhabitants have often attempt¬
ed to cultivate the fugar-cane, but they found the cli¬
mate rather unfavourable to the culture of that plant.
They chiefly export indigo, cotton, rice, beans, myrtle,
wax, and lumber. But if the climate is unfriendly to
the fugar-cane, it is faid to be favourable to the health
of the people, and to the culture of fruits and garden
vegetables. The total value cf the exports from Loui-
ftana in 1802 is faid to have amounted to 2,158,000
dollars, and of the imports to about 342,000 dollars
above that fum.
There are but few domeftic manufactures of any im¬
portance in Louifiana : but fuch of the inhabitants as
are denominated Acadians, manufasture fome cotton
into quilts and cottonades j and in the remote parts of
the province, thofe planters who are poor, are in the
habit of fpinning cloth mixed with wool for the ufe of
the negroes. In the parilh of Iberville there is a ma¬
chine for fpinning cotton, and another in.the Opeloufas,
but neither of them very extenfive ; a confiderable ma-
nufadlory of cordage, twelve diftilleries for making taf-
fia, and a fugar refinery which manufaflures about
200,000 lbs. of loaf fugar annually. The trade by
fea is confiderable, for m the year 1802. there entered
LOU [ 2
Louifiana. the river Mifliffippi 268 veffds of all deferiptions, one
*11,1 v“ of which belonged to France, 97 to Spain, and 170 to
America and 265 failed from the MiffitTippi in the
fame year, three of which belonged to France, 104 to
Spain, and 158 to America. The. coafting trade is
alfo conliderable from Penfacola, Mobille, and the
creeks and rivers falling into Lake Pontchartrain, from
whence fhip timber, charcoal, lime, pitch and tar, are
conveyed to New Orleans, in which about 500 (loops
and fchooners from eight to 50 tons are frequently em¬
ployed.
A return of the militia of Louifiana was made by
the baron of Carondelet to the court of Spain, which
made them amount to 10,340 hien j but in this efti-
mate were included feveral companies of volunteers,
negroes, and even companies of privileged horfe, or ca¬
valry. There are not above 930 native Indians in this
vaft country, fome of w hom are employed by the fettlers
as boatmen on the Red river, and much efteemed for
their friendfhip to the whites, for their bravery and
generofity.
The fortifications which have been erefted in Louifi¬
ana fcarcely merit our attention. Fort St Louis is com-
' manded by a lieutenant-colonel, w ith a handful of troops j
Baton Rouge is extremely ill conftru&ed, and contains
about 50 men j Fort Plaquemines, about 12 leagues
from the fea, is an irregular work built of bricks, and
badly conftrufted, on the eaft fide of the river Mifliflip-
pi, having a ditch in front of the river, and defended
on the lower fide by a deep creek. It is defencelefs be¬
hind, as thofe by whom it was, ?se6led had placed too
much confidence in the fwampinefs of the ground,
which is every day growing harder. It would be no
difficult matter to take it by efcalade, for by the negli¬
gence of the people it is fad falling into ruins. The
fmall redoubt called Fort Bourbon, is generally under
the command of a ferjeant, with a very fmall company.
Should a veffel attempt to pafs without fending a boat
on (bore, (lie would be inftantly fired upon.
When Louifiana was firft ceded to Spain, it preferv-
ed many of the regulations peculiar to France •, but the
province afterwards came to be governed by the laws
of Spain, and the ordinances formed exprefsly for the
colony. The governor’s court has a civil and military
jurifdi£tion throughout the province. That of the
lieutenant-governor has the fame extent in civil cafes
only. There are two alcades, whofe jurifdidlion, civil
and criminal, extends through the city of New Orleans
and five leagues around it, where the parties have no
fuero nrilitar, or military privilege : thofe who have
can transfer their caufes to the governor. The tribunal
of the alcade provincial has cognizance of criminal
caufes, where offences are committed in the country, or
when the criminal takes refuge there, and in other fpe-
eified cafes. The ecclefiaftical tribunal has jurifdi&ion
in all matters refpefting the church.
There are no colleges in Louifiana, and but one pub¬
lic fchool, which is at New Orleans, the mailers of
which receive their falary from the king. They teach
nothing but the Spaniffi language, and there are a few
private fchools for the benefit of children. It is re¬
markable that not more than one-half of the inhabitants
are fuppofed qualified to read and write, and of thefe it
is faid that not above 200 are capable of doing it well.
Louth,
46 ] L O U
The clfergy confift of a biffiop, who does not refide Louifiana
in the province, and whofe falary of 4000 dollars is
charged on the revenue of certain bhhoprics in Mexico,
and Cuba j twro canons have each a falary of 600 dol¬
lars j and 25 curates, five for the oity of New Orleans,
and 20 for as many country parilhes, who receive about
400 dollars each. Thefe falaries, exclufive of that of
the biffiop, are paid by the treafury at New Orleans,
and their annual amount has been ellimated at 13,000
dollars.
Inftead of paying local taxes, each inhabitant is
bound to make and repair roads, bridges, and embank¬
ments through his own land. A duty of fix per cent,
is payable at the cuftomhoufe, on the transfer of (hip¬
ping. It is afcertained upon the fum the buyer and
feller declare to be the real confideration. As no oath
is required from either, they feldom report more than
half the price. Two per cent, is payable on legacies
and inheritances, coming from collaterals, and exceed¬
ing 2000 dollars; four per cent, on legacies given to
perfons who are not relatives of the teftator. A tax on
civil employments, if their falaries exceed 300 dollars.
A tax is levied of 40 dollars per annum for licenfes to
fell liquors, and fix per cent, on all imports and ex¬
ports, which amounts to about 120,000 dollars, while
the amount of all the other taxes does not exceed 6000
dollars.
The expences of the government of Louifiana are
faid to amount to 650,000 dollars, to pay which there
are 400,000 dollars fent annually from Vera Cruz, in
confequence of w hich deficiency the debt is faid at pre-
fent to amount to 450,000 dollars, bearing no intereft,
and depreciated 30 per cmt.
Soon after Louifiana was ceded to the United States,
there were two fnckties eftabliffied for the promotion
of fcie'ncd and literature, one of them at New Orleans,
and another at Natchez. The former defigns to pub-
lifii a monthly magazine for the purpofe of diffufing a
knowledge of the country, and to amufe the readers
of it with a variety of ufeftil fubjefts. The latter,
which was eftabliffied in 1803, called the Miffiffippi
Society for the Acquirement and Diffemination of u(e-
ful Knowledge, confifts of near 40 members, and has
correfpondents in various parts of the United States.
The American government has granted it a charter of
incorporation.
LOUSF.. See Pediculus, Entomology Indtx.
LOUSY disease. See Medicine Index.
LOUTH, a town of Lincolnlhire in England, 156
miles from London. It is a town corporate, contains
4000 inhabitants, and has two weekly markets. Here
are feveral handfome houfes. From hence there is a
canal to the fea at Tilney, about eight miles. Be-
fides a charity fchool for 40 children, it has a free
fchool founded by Edward VI. with a large church,
and a fine fteeple, which fome think is as high as
Gratham fpire, which is 288 feet. Louth is 156 miles
north from London.
LoUTH, a county in the eaftern part of Ireland,
which extends in the form of a bow or half-moon, on
the fide of the ocean, being much longer than it is
broad j it is bounded on the fouth and fouth-weft by
the county of Eaft Meath, on the north-weft by Mo¬
naghan, on the north by Armagh, and on the north.
eaft
L O. U [34
Louth, eail by the bay of, Carlingford, which parts it from the
,ouva n. county of D>>wn : it is watered by feveral fmail rivers
which fall into the fea j and its fuuth frontiers are watered
by the river Boyne. Its chief towns are Dundalk and
Carlingford; unlefs we include Drogheda, a part
whereof is in this county. It is the fmalled county in
the kingdom •, but very fertile and pleafant, and
abounding with many remains of antiquities, of which
Mr Wright, in his Louthiana, has given a very ample
defeription. It contains 111,180 Irilh plantation acres,
50 parifhes, five baronies, and five boroughs *, and
formerly returned 10 members to the Irilh parliament:
it is about 22 miles long, and 14 broad.
Louth, a town in the above county, having a
yearly fair.
LOUVAIN, a city in the Auftrian Netherlands,
in the province of Brabant, pleafantly feated on the river
Dyle, in a plentiful and agreeable country. The
walls are about eight or nine miles in circumference j
but they include feveral fields and vineyards. I he
callle Hands on a high hill, furrounded with fine gar¬
dens, and has a charming profpedt all over the country.
This town contains nine market places, 14 water-mills,
126 llreets, 16 Hone bridges, and feveral handiome
palaces. The town-houfe is a venerable old building,
adorned with Hatues on the outfide ; and the churches
are very handfome, particularly the collegiate church
of St Peter •, but the principal ornament is the univer-
fity, founded only in 1426 by John I\ . duke of Brabant,
with the concurrence of Pope Martin V. It contains
about 40 colleges, four of w-hich are called Pedagogia.
There is in the number alfo an Englilh college of friars-
preachers, which owes its eHablifhment to the liberali¬
ties of Cardinal Philip Howard, brother to the duke
of Norfolk, who, before he was raifed to the purple,
had been private chaplain to Qyieen Catherine, con-
fort to Charles II. ”1 he IriHr have likewiie a femi-
nary, erected in part under the care of Eugenius Mat-
theus, titular archbifhop of Dublin, anno 1623, which
receives its appointments from the Propaganda at
Rome. Befides the above, there are two convents for
the Irifh, one of Recollefts and the other of Domini¬
cans, where divinity and the mathefis are taught. In the
lafl century the number of fcholars exceeded 4000 5 but
in the year 1744 the inhabitants amounted to 12,000,
including 2000 fludents only.—At the beginning of
the 14th century, under John III. it flouriihed con-
fiderably in the manufacture of woollen cloth : 400
houfes were then occupied by fubHantial clothiers, who
gave employment to an incredible numoer of weavers,
fo great, it is faid, that a bell w as rung to prevent any
injuries which the children in the Hreet might receive
from the crowd and hurry on their returning from work.
In 1382, thefe weavers, however, took up arms, and
rebelled againH their fovereign Prince Wenceflaus,
throwing from the windows of the town hall 17 °f the
aldermen and counfellors, and afterwards proceeded to
lay waHe great part of Brabant; but being befieged
and reduced to great extremities, they fubmiflively
implored his clemency j which was granted after the
execution of fome of the principal ringleaders. The
weavers, the chief inftigators to this revolt, were
baniflied, the greater part of whom took refuge in
England 5 where they firH introduced, or at leaH
augmented very much, the woollen manufacture. I he
4
7 ] L O W
town, by this circumHance, being almoft depopulated, ^cu',a‘u
the uniyerfity was eftablifhed to fupply in fome meafure Low_bept
the lofs of. the rebellious clothiers'. Since that time _ v ;
the manufacture gradually declined, no cloth of any
account being made there at prefent. This impolitic
Hep of the duke Wenceflaus fent treafures to England,
through the hands of thefe exiled people : an import¬
ant ItiTbn to governors, that they Humid deal with
great precaution refpeCting fuch uieful members of the
community. Upon the ruins of thefe looms was form¬
ed the cloth manufacture of Limbourg, which is. car¬
ried on with good advantage to this day. ihere is yet
Handing at Louvain part of the old drapers-hall, now
converted into four public fchools, where ItCtures in
divinity, pjjilofophy, law, and phyfic, are given, and
the public a£ts are made. Adjoining to the fchools
is the univerfity library, which altogether coinpofe
a large pile of building. Over the door of the chief
entrance we read thele words, Sopuntia cedijicavit Jibi
dotnum. The principal church is collegiate, dedicated
to St Peter, which had formerly three very large towers
with elevated fpires, one conHderably higher than the
two collaterals j thefe were blown down in the year
recorded by this chronogram, oMnla CaDVnt. Irom
the name of this church, the burghers have acquired
the nickname of Peter men, whofe anceHors having
clothed the back by a noble woollen manufacture, the
modern Petermen now compofe an ignoble mixture for
the belly, called after them Peterman beer, a fort of
whitifli muddy ale, which they notwilhHanding fend in
large quantities to all parts of the country, as well as
to Holland, by the canals. Louvain was anciently the
capital of the province, long before Bruffels had any
claim to that title. It was taken by the French in
] 792, afterwards lod, and retaken in 1794*
4. 40. N. Lat. 51. 12.
LOUYS, or Louis, John, an engraver of confider-
able eminence, who flourifhed about the middle of the
16th century. According to Bafan he was a native
of Flanders. He learned the art of engraving from
Peter Soutman, at the time that Suyderhoef ftudied
under the lame mafler j and his ufual flyleof engraving
bears fome refemblance to that of his mafler’s. One
of his befl prints is Diana, with her nymphs, repefing
after the chafe, a middling-fized plate, lengthwiie,
from Rubens.
LOW-BELL, in birding, a name given to a bell, by
means of which they take birds in the night,, in open
champaign countries, and among Hubble, in Octo¬
ber. The method is to go out about nine, o’clock at
night in a Hill evening, when the air is mild and the
moon does not Hvine. Ihe low-bell Ihould be of a deep
and hollow found, and of fuch a fize that a man may
conveniently carry it in one hand. The perfon who -
carries it is to make it toll all the way he goes, as
nearly as may be, in that manner in which the bell on
the neck of a flieep tolls as it goes on and feeds.
There mufl alfo be a box made like a. large lanthorn,
about a foot fquare, and lined with tin, but with one
fide open. Two or three great lights are to be fet in
this; and the box is to be fixed to the perfon’s breaft,
with the open fide forwards, fo that the light may be
cafi forward to a great diflance. It will fpread as it
goes out of the box 5 and will difiimftly fhow to the per¬
fon that carries it whatever there is in the large fpace
Low-beil
II
Lower.
[
O W
of ground over which it extends, and confequently all
the birds that rooft upon the ground# Two perfons
muft follow him who carries the box and bell, one on
each fide, fo as not to be within the reach of the light
to (how themfelves. Each of thefe is to have a hand-
net of about three or four feetfquare, failenedto a long
flick or pole; and on whichever fide any bird is feen
at rooft, the perfon who is neareft is to lay his net
over it, and take it with as little noife as poffible.
vVhen the net is over the bird, the perfon who laid it
is not to be in a hurry to take the bird, but muft ftay
till he who carries the light is got beyond it, that the
motions may not be difcovered. The blaze of the
light and the noife of the bell terrify and amaze the
birds in fuch a manner that they remain ftill to be
taken ; but the people who are about the work muft
keep the greateft quiet and ftillnefs that may be.
Some people are fond of going on this fcheme
alone. The perfon then fixes the light box to his
bread, and carries the bell in one hand and the net
in the other j the net in this cafe may be fomewhat
fmaller, and the handle (horter. When more than
one are out at a time, it is always proper to carry a
gun ; as it is no uncommon thing to fpy a hare when
on this expedition.
X.O\V, East, a town of Cornwall in England,
231 miles from London, in the poll road from Ply¬
mouth. It is an ancient borough by prescription,
made a corporation by charter of Queen Elizabeth,
confiding of nine burgefles (one of whom is yearly
chofen mayor), a recorder, aldermen, See. 5 and the
mayor, magiftrates, and freemen, who are about 68,
choofe the members of parliament. This being a ma¬
nor of the duchy of Cornwall, was fettled by King
W illiam on Lord Somers, and is now held by the cor¬
poration at the fee-farm rent of 20s. a-year. It isfeat-
ed pretty commodioufly on a creek of the fea, over
which there is a large ftone bridge, fupported by 15
arches, which leads to AVeft Low, (landing between
two hills. The chief benefit which the inhabitants
have is in their fifhery. Here is a battery of four
guns, and a fmall chapel.
Lon\ We/i, called alfo Port Pigham, a town of
Cornwall, divided from Eaft Low by a ftone bridge
of ij arches over the river Low, from whence both
towns receive their name, as the river does from the
lownefs of its current between its high banks. The
corporation, by charter of Queen Elizabeth, confifts
of 12 burgefies, one of whom is annually chofen
mayor, and, with the other burgefles, has power to
choofe a fteward. Its members, whom it has fent to
parliament ever fince the 6th of Edward VI. are ele&-
ed by the corporation and freemen, who are about
60. There was a chapel of eafe here in the reign of
Henry VIII. which was afterwards converted into a
town-hall •, and the town lying in the parifti of Talland,
the people go thither to church. There is a pretty
little harbour here ; near the mouth of which is a
(mall ifiand called St George’s^ which abounds with
fea pies. The river here is navigable for veflels of
100 tons.
LOWER, Richard, an eminent Englifii phyfician
in the 17th century, was born in Cornwall, and edu¬
cated at Weftminfter fchool and Oxford ; after which
-lie ftudied medicine, and praflifed under Dr Thomas
248 ] L O W
V illis, whom he inftrufled in feme parts of anatom\?
efpecially when the latter was writing his Cereln Ana-
tome. _ He, with Dr Willis, in 1674, difcovered the,
medicinal waters at Alhop in Northamptonfliire j
which, upon their recommendation, became very much
frequented. In 1666, he followed Dr Willis to Lon¬
don ; praftifed phyfic under him ; and became fellow
of the Royal Society, and of the College of Phyficians.
In 1669 he publiftied his TraBatus de Corde; and after
the death of Dr Willis in 1675, he vvas efteemed the
Lower
, II
JLowth.
mod eminent phyfician in London. Upon the break¬
ing out of the Popiflr plot in 1678, fays Mr Wood
in his Athena; Oxonienjis, he clofed with the Whigs
fuppofing that party would carry all before them ; but*
being miftaken, he loft his credit and pra<Rice. He
died in 1691.
LOWERING, among diftillers, a term ufed to
exprefs the debafing the (Length of any fpirituou*
liquor, by mixing water with it. The ftandard and
marketable price of thefe liquors is fixed in regard to
a certain (Length in them called proof; this is that
(Length which makes them, when fiiaken in a phial or
poured from on high into a glafs, retain a froth or
crown of bubbles for fome time. In this (late, fpirits
confift of about half pure or totally inflammable fpirit,
and half water j and if any foreign or home fpirits are
to be expofed to fale, and are found to have that
proof wanting, fcarce any body will buy it till it has
been diftilled again and brought to that (Length ; and
if it is above that (Length, the proprietor ufually adds
water to it to bring it down to that ftandard. See the
article Proof.
There is another kind of lowering among the re¬
tailers of fpirituous liquors to the vulgar, by reducing
it under the ftandard proof. WRoever has the art of
doing this without deftroying the bubble proof, which
is eafily done by means of fome addition that gives a
greater tenacity to the parts of the fpirits, will de¬
ceive all that judge by this proof alone. In this cafe,
the bed way to judge of liquors is by the eye and.
tongue, and efpecially by the inftrument called Hy¬
drometer.
LOWTH, William, D. D. a learned divine, bom
at London in 1661, was the fon of an apothecary, and
took his degrees at Oxford. His eminent worth and
learning recommended him to Dr Mew bifliop of
Winchefter, who made him his chaplain, gave him
two livings in Hampfhire, and conferred on him a
prebend in the cathedral of ^Vinchefter. He acquired
an unufual (hare of critical learning. Thus fituated
in life, the labours of Mr Lowth appear to have been
ftrnflly confined within the limits of his own province,
and applied folely to the peculiar duties of his func¬
tion 4 yet, in order that he might acquit himfelf the
better in theology, he had purfued his ftudies with a
more general and extenlive view. Few were more
deeply verfed in critical learning 5 there being fcarcely
any ancient author, Greek or Latin, profane or eccle-
fiaftical, efpecially the latter, but what he had read
with accuracy, conftantly accompanying his reading
with critical and philological remarks. Of his col¬
lections in this way he was upon all occafions very
communicative. Hence his notes on Clemens Alexan-
drinus, which are to be met with in Potter’s edition
of that father. Hence his remarks on Jofephus, com¬
municated
LOW [ 249 ] L O W
Lowth. mumcated to Hudfon for his edition, and acknow-
  ledged in the preface j as alfo thofe larger and more
numerous annotations on the Ecclefiaftical Hiftorians,
inferted in Reading's edition of them at Cambridge.
The author of Bibliotheca Biblica was indebted to him
for the fame kind of affiftance. Chandler, late bithop
of Durham, while engaged in his “ Defence of Chrifti-
anity, from the Prophecies of the Old Teftament,
againft the Difcourfe of the Grounds and Reafons of
the Chriflian Religion,” and in his “ Vindication of
the Defence, in anfwer to The Scheme of Literal
Prophecy confidered,” held a conftant correfpondence
with him, and confulted him upon many difficulties
that occurred in the courfe of that w'ork. The molt
valuable part of his chara&er was that which leaf! ap¬
peared in the eyes of the world, the private and re¬
tired part, that of the good Chriftian and the ufeful
pariffi pried. His piety, his diligence, his hofpitali-
ty and beneficence, rendered his life highly exem¬
plary, and greatly enforced his public exhortations.
He married Margaret, daughter of Robert Pitt, Efq.
of Blandford, by whom he had two fbns and three
daughters. (See the next article). He died in 1732,
and was buried by his own orders in the churchyard
at Buriton. He publiffied, 1. A Vindication of the
Divine Authority and Infpiration of the Old and New
leftamentsj 2. Direflions for the profitable reading
of the Holy Scriptures; 3. Commentaries on the Pro¬
phets ; and other works.
Lowth, Robert^ D. D. fecond fon of the preced¬
ing Dr^ W illiam Lowth, and biffiop fucceffively of
St David’s, Oxford, and London, was born on the
29th of November 1710, probably at Buriton in the
county of Hants. He received the rudiments of his
education at Winchefter college, wffiere his fchool ex-
ercifes were diftinguiffied by uncommon elegance *,
and having refided the requifite number of years in
that feminary, in 173^ fucceeded on the founda¬
tion at New College, Oxford. Pie took the degree
of M. A. June 8. 1737. Though his abilities muft
have been known to thofe with whom he was connect¬
ed, he w'as not forward to appear before the w'orld as a
writer. At Oxford he continued many years improv¬
ing his talents, with little notice from the great, and
with preferment 10 fmall as to have at prefent efcaped
the diftinCt recollection of iome of his contemporaries.
He was not, however, fuffered to languiih for ever
in obfcurity. His genius and his learning forced them-
felves upon the notice of the illuitrious fociety of
which he was a member ; and he was placed in a fta-
tion where he was eminently qualified to fliine. In
1741 he w'as eleCted by the univerfity to the profef-
forffiip of poetry, re-ele£ted in 1743, and whilft he
held that office he read his admirable leCtures De facra
poeji Hebrceorum. In 1744 Biffiop Hoadley collated
him to the reCtory of Ovington in the county of
Hants; added to it, nine years afterwards, the rcCtory
of Eait Weedhay in the fame county ; and in the in¬
terim railed him to the dignity of archdeacon of V/in-
chefter. Thefe repeated favours he fome years after¬
wards acknowledged in the following manly and re-
fpeftful terms of gratitude : “ This addrefs, my Lord,
is no* more neceffarv on account of the fubjedt, than
it is in refpedl of the author. Your Lordffiip, unfo-
licited and unalked, called him from one of thofe col-
Vol. XII. Part I.
leges to a ftation of the firft dignity in your diocefe,
and took the earlieft opportunity of accumulating your
favour upon him, and of adding to that dignity a fuit-
able fupport. Thefe obligations he is now the more
ready thus publicly to acknowledge, as he is removed
out of the reach of further favours of the like kind.
And though he hath relinquiffied the advantages fo
generoufly conferred on him, yet he ffiall always efteem
himfelf highly honoured in having once enjoyed the
patronage of the great advocate of civil and religious
liberty.”
On the 8th of July 1754 the univerfity of Oxford
conferred upon him the degree of D. D. by diploma j
an honour which, as it is never granted but to diftin-
guithed merit, was probably' conferred on Mr Lowth
in confequence of his preledlions on the Hebrew' poetry,
which had then been lately publiffied. Having in 1749
travelled with Lord George and Lord Frederick Ca-
vendiffi, he had a claim upon the patronage of the
Devonffiire family ; and in 1755, the late duke being
then lord lieutenant of Ireland, Dr Lowth w'ent to
that kingdom as his grace’s firft chaplain. Soon after
this appointment he was offered the biffiopric of Li¬
merick ; but preferring a lefs dignified ftation in his
own country, he exchanged it with Dr Leflie, preben¬
dary of Durham and redtor of Sedgefield, for thefe pre¬
ferments. In November 1765 he was chofen F. R. S.
In June 1766 he was, on the death of Dr Squire, pre¬
ferred to the biffiopric of St David’s ; wffiich, in the
October following, he refigned for that of Oxford, va¬
cant by the tranflation of Biffiop Hume to Saliffiury.
In April 1777’ was tranflated to the fee of London,
vacant by the death of Biffiop Terrick •, and in 1783
he declined the offer of the primacy of all England.
Having been long afflidted with the ftone, and having
long borne the fevereft fufferings of pain and ficknefs
wdth the moft exemplary fortitude and refignation, this
great and good man died at Fulham, Nov. 3 1787 j
and on the 12th his remains were privately interred in
a vault at Fulham church, near thofe of his predecef-
for. He had married in 1752, Mary, the daughter of
Laurence Jackfon of Chrift-church, Hants, Efq. by
whom he had two fons and five daughters. His lady
and twm children only furvived him.
His literary charadter may be eftimated from the
value and the importance of his works ; in the account
of which we may begin with his PreleBions on the He¬
brew Poetri/. The choice of fo interefting a fubjedt
naturally attradled general attention; and the work
ha^ been read with equal applaufe abroad and at home.
In thefe preledlions the author has acquitted himfelf
in the moft mafterly manner, as a poet, a critic, and
a divine j and fuch is the claffic purity of his Latin
ftyle, that though we have read the work with the
clofeft attention, and with no other view than to dif-
cover, if poffible, an Anglicifm in the compofition,
we never found a fingle phrafe to which, we believe,
a critic of the Auguftan age could poffibly have ob-
jedled. This is an excellence to which neither Milton
nor Johnfon has attained *, to which indeed no other
Englifti waiter of Latin with whom we are acquainted
has attained, unlefs perhaps Atterbury muft be ex¬
cepted. To the preledlions was fubjoined a (hort con¬
futation of Bifhop Hare’s fyfttm of Hebrew metre }
"which occafioned a Latin letter from Dr Edwards of
I i Clare-hall,
LOW [ 250 ] LOW
Lowth. Clare-hall, Cambridge, to Dr Lowth, in vindication
"—^ of the Harian metre. To this the author of the pre-
le&ions replied in a larger confutation, in which Bi-
fliop Hare’s fyllem is completely overthrown, and the
fallacy upon which it was built accurately inveftigated.
After much attentive confideration, Bilhop Lowth has
pronounced the metre of the Hebrews to be perfectly
irrecoverable.
In 1758 he publifhed The life of William of Wylte-
ham, bijhop of Winchejler, with a dedication to Bifhop
Hoadley ; which involved him in a difpute concerning
a decilion which that bifhop had lately made refpefting
the wardenfhip of Winchefter-college. This contro-
verfy was on both fides carried on with fuch abilities,
that, though relating to a private concern, it may yet
be read, if not with pleafure, at leaf! with improvement.
The life of Wykeham is drawn from the moft authentic
fources; and affords much information concerning the
manners, and feme of the public tranfaftions of the pe¬
riod in which Wykeham lived, whilft it difplays fame
private intelligence refpedling the two literary focieties
of which he was the founder. In thefe two focieties
Dr Lowth was educated, and he gratefully expreffeshis
obligations to them.
In 1762 was firft publifhed his Short IntroduBion to
EnglifJj Grammar, which has fince gone through many
editions. It was originally defigned only for private
and domeftic ufe : but its judicious remarks being too
valuable to be confined to a few, the book was given to
the world 5 and the excellence of its method, which
teaches what is right by (bowing what is wrong, has
infured public approbation and very general ufe. In
276^ Dr Lowth was engaged with Bifhop Warburton
in a controverfy, which made much noife at ,the time,
which attra&ed the notice even of royalty, and of
which the memory is dill recent. If we do not wifh
to dwell on the particulars of this controverfy, it is
becaufe violent literary contention is an evil, which
though like other war it may fometimes be unavoid¬
able, is yet always to be regretted j and becaufe the
characters of learned, ingenious, and amiable men,
never appear to lefs advantage than under the form
which that (late of hoffility obliges them to affume.
The two combatants indeed engaged with erudition
and ingenuity fuch as is feldom brought into conflidt $
but it appears that, in the opinion of Dr Johnfon,
Warburton had the mod fcholadic learning, and that
Lowth was the mod corredl fcholar ; that, in their con-
ted with each other, neither of them had much argu¬
ment, and that both were extremely abuffve. We have
heard, and we hope it is true, that they were afterwards
reconciled, and expreffed mutual regret for the violence
of their pad conduifL
In 1778 Biffiop Lowth publifhed his lad great work,
Tranjlation of Ifaiah. To his literary and theological
abilities, the tranflator joined the mod critical know¬
ledge of the charafter and fpirit of the eaffern poetry ;
and, accordingly, the prophecies of Ifaiah (which,
though almod always fublime or elegant, are yet fome¬
times obfeure) were tranflated in a manner adequate
to the highed expefrations of the public. Several
occadonal difeourfes, which the biffiop, by his dation,
was at different times called upon to deliver, were of
courfe publifhed, and are all worthy of their excellent
author ; but there is one on the kingdom of God, on the
extenfion and progreffive improvement of Chrid’s re- Lowth.
ligion, and on the means of promoting thefe by the''^-
advancement of religious knowledge, by freedom of
inquiry, by toleration, and mutual charity, which may
be didinguiffied above the red, as exhibiting a mod
comprehenfive view of the fucceflive dates of the Chrif-
tian church, and containing the trued principles of
Chridianity.
Of the bifhop’s poetical pieces, none difplay greater
merit than Verfes on the Genealogy of Chrid, and the
Choice of Hercules, both written very early in his life.
He wrote a fpirited Imitation of an Ode of Horace,
applied to the alarming fituation of this country in
I745 i and likewife fome verfes on the death of Frede¬
ric prince of Wales, with a few fmaller poems. The
following infeription on the tomb of his daughter,
beautifully difplays his paternal affedtion and cladic
tade. As it is (hort, and, in our opinion, has all the
merit of the ancient epitaph, the reader will probably
be pleafed with fuch a fpecimen of his lordffiip’s Lati-
nity.
Cara, vale, ingenio praflans, pietate, pudore,
Et plufquam natae nomine cara, vale.
Cara Maria, vale, sit veniet felicius cevum,
^ttando iterum tecum, Jim modo dignus, era.
Cara, redi, Iceta turn dicam voce, paternos,
Eja, age in amplexus, cara Maria, redi.
Learning and tade, hov’ever, did not condi tute Biffiop
Low th’s highed excellence. Eulogium itfelf can fcarce-
ly afeend to extravagance when fpeaking of him ei¬
ther as a private man, or as a pador of the church of
Chrid. His amiable manners rendered him an orna¬
ment to his high dation, whild they endeared him to
all with whom he converfed j and his zeal for the in-
tereds of true religion made him eager to promote to
places of trud and dignity fuch clergymen as he knew
were bed qualified to fill them. Of his modedy,
gentlenefs, and pleaffng converfation, we have the tedi-
mony of one wffiofe decifion w ill hardly be difputed.—
“ It would anfwer no end (fays Biffiop Warburton) to
tell you what I thought of the author of Hebrew poe¬
try, before I faw him. But this I may fay, I was never
more furprifed, when I did fee him, than to find him of
fuch amiable and gentle manners, of fo moded, fenfible,
and difengaged a deportment.” He united, indeed,
in an eminent degree, the qualities of the gentleman
with thofe of the fcholar : he converfed with elegance,
as he wrote with accuracy. As a hufband, a father,
or the mader of a family, he was as nearly faultlefs as
the imperfeftions of humanity will eafily permit. His
temper, when roufed by what he thought improper coi -
du£t was indeed fufceptible of confiderable warmth j
but if he could be highly offended, upon a flight con-
ceflion he could likewife forgive. His heart was tei »
der and fympathetic. Fie poffeffed a mind which felt
its own drength, and decided on whatever came before
it with promptitude and. firmnefs. In thofe trials
where afflidffion was to be fuffered or fubdued, he be¬
haved as a man and a Chriilian. His piety had no
tin&ure of morofenefs ; his charity no leaven of oflen-
tation. To his whole diocefe he was endeared by
his laudable diferetion and his ufeful zeal. To the
world he was a benefit by his exemplary life and his
fplendid abilities. And whild virtue and learning are
reverenced
L U B [2
Lowta reverenced among men, the memory of Lowth will b«
II refpecled and admired.
tubec, LOXIA., a genus of birds of the order of pafferes.
See Ornithology Index.
LOYOLA, Ignatius. See Ignatius.
LOZENGE, in Heraldry, a four-cornered figure,
refembling a pane of glafs in old cafements. See HE¬
RALDRY- Though all heralds agree, thatfingle ladies
are to place their arms on lozenges, yet they differ with
refpecl to the caufes that gave rife to it. Plutarch fays,
in the life of Thefeus, that in Megara, an ancient town
of Greece, the tomb-ftones under which the bodies of
the Amazons lay, were fhaped after that form ; which
fome conje&ure to be the caufe why ladies have their
arms on lozenges, S. Petra SanSa will have this
fhield to reprefent a cujhion, whereupon women ufed
to fit and fpin, or do other houfewifery. Sir J. Feme
thinks it is formed from the fhieid called tejjera, which
the Romans finding unfit for war, did allow to women
to place their enfigns upon, with one of its angles alw ays
juppermoft.
Lozenges, among jewellers, are common to bril¬
liant and rofe diamonds. In brilliants, they are form¬
ed by the meeting of the fkill and ftar facets on the
bezil ; in the latter, by the meeting of the facets in the
horizontal ribs of the crown. See Facets.
Lozenge is alfo a form of medicine, made into
fmall pieces, to be held or chewed in the mouth till
they are melted there; the fame with what are other-
wife called trochlfci, “ troches.”
LUBEC, a city and port-town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony and duchy of Holftein, in
E. Long. io. 35. N. Lat. 54. 20. It ftands at the
conflux of feveral rivers, the largeft of which is the
Trave, 12 miles from the Baltic, where it has a fine
harbour, and 40 north-eaft of Hamburgh. By the Stec-
kenitz, another of thofe rivers, it has a communica¬
tion with the Elbe, and confequently with the Ger¬
man ocean. The city lies on the fide of a hill, with
the Trave, increafed by the Steckenitz on the one fide,
and the Wakenitz on the other *, and is ftrongly for¬
tified with baftions, moats, walls, and ramparts $ the
laft of which are planted with trees, and form an a-
greeable walk. Lubec being formerly the chief of the
Hanfe towns, was very powerful in eonfequence of
the vaft trade it carried on ’, but a great part of that
trade is now' transferred to Hamburgh j however, it is
Rill feid to employ 150 of its own (hips, and has a
great (hare of the Baltic trade. It is about two miles
in length, and more than one in breadth. The houfes
are all of ftone, but old fafhioned. Several of the
Itreets have on each fide row’s of lime trees, with canals
jn the middle, like thofe of Holland. The public
Rruftures confifi of the ancient cathedral of the bifiiop-
ric of Lubec, and feveral other Lutheran churches $ a
nunnery for 22 ladies, with an abbefs and priorefs ; a
poor-houfe, an alms-houfe, and houfe of correction $
an orphan-houfe ; an hofpital dedicated to the Holy
Ghofi $ a houfe in which poor travellers are entertain¬
ed three days, and then fent forward with a pafs 5 but
fuch as happen to be fick, are provided with all necef-
faries till they recover or die the city armoury, a
grammar-fchool of feven ciafles, the Calvinifi church,
and the Popith chapel. The deputies of the Hanfe-
towns ufed to meet here formerly in the townheufe.
i ] L U B
An alliance ftill fubfifts between Lubec, Hamburgh, Hr e
and Bremen j and thefe cities, under the name of jujA,
Hanfe Towns, negotiate treaties with foreign powers. , T_^.—..
Here are divers manufactures, and the city’s territory
is about 60 miles in compals. In the diet of the em¬
pire Lubec is poflefled of the third feat among the Rhe-
nifii imperial cities 5 and among thofe of the circle, has
the fir ft. In the matricula, its affeffment is 480 flo¬
rins, and to the chamber of Wetzlar it pays 557 rix-
dollars and 88 kruilzers. The city is a republic with¬
in itlelf, and both makes and executes law's in regard
to civil and criminal matters, &c. A father and fon,
or two brothers, cannot be in the regency at the fame
time. The famous league of the Hanfe-towqs was be¬
gun here in 1164. This city had its charter of privi¬
leges from the emperor Frederic II. Formerly it car¬
ried on wars, both offenfive and defenfive, for feveral
years, not only againft the dukes of Mecklenburg, but
againft the kings of Sweden and Denmark j particu¬
larly in 1428, when it fitted out 250 (hips of force
againft Eric X. king of Denmark. There are about
20 churches in Lubec, with lofty fteeples or fpires.
The Trave brings (hips of burden into the very heart
of the city but the largeft unload at Travemunde,
i. e. the mouth of the Trave, eight or ten miles di-
ftant. Formerly it is faid to have employed no lefs
than 600 fhips. In the famous cellar here, it is faid,
there is wine 200 years old. The church of St Ma¬
ry’s, a noble lofty pile, is fupported by tall pillars,
all of one ftone each, and has a high Ipire, covered
with gilt lead. The town’s garrifon confifts of about
700 or 800 men. The revenue of its Lutheran bifhop,
though he is a prince of the empire, is laid not to ex¬
ceed 30OQL Lubec fell into the hands of the French
in 1806, when Bonaparte overran the Pruflian domi¬
nions j and many of the inhabitants were cruelly maf-
facred and plundered.
LUBEN, a town of Germany, in the marquifate of
Lower Lufatia. It is fituated on the river Spree, and
is the capital of a fmall circle of the fame name. It is
the feat of the diets, and of the chief tribunals and of¬
fices j and has feveral churches, with a noble land-
houfe and hofpital. E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat. 52.
LUBIENIETSKI, Stanislaus, a Polilh gentle¬
man, defeended from a noble family, and born at
Cracow in 1623, was educated by his father with
great attention. He became a celebrated Socinian mi-
nifter •, and took great pains to obtain a toleration
from the German princes for his Socinian brethren.
His labours, however, were ineffeflual 5 being himfelf
perfecuted by the Lutheran minifters, and banilhed
from place to place j until at length he was baniftied
out of the world, with his two daughters, by poifon,
his wife narrowly efcaping, in 1675. We have of big
writing A Hiftory of the Reformation in Poland j A
Treatife on Comets with other works, in Latin,
LURIN, Eilhard, was profefibr of poetry in the
univerfity of Roftock in 1595 j and ten years afterwards
was promoted to the profeflbrlhip of divinity. He
wrote notes on Anacreon, Juvenal, Perfius, £ic. and
feveral other works $ but that which made the moft
noife is a treatife on the nature and origin of evil, en¬
titled Phofphorus de Caufa prima et Natura Mali,
printed at Roftock in 1596 in which we have a cu¬
rious hypothefis to account for the origin of moral evil,
I i 2 He
Lubin
Lucanus.
LUC [ 25
He fuppofed two co-etemal principles, not matter and
vacuum, as Epicurus did j but God, and Whilum or
w Nothing. This being publiftied againft by Grawer, was
defended by Lubin ; but after all he is deemed better
acquainted with polite literature than with divinity.
He died in 1621.
LUBLIN, a handfome and conliderable town of
Poland, capital of the palatinate of the fame name,
with a citadel, a bilhop’s fee, an univerfity, and a
handfome Jewilh fynagogue. Here the judicial courts
for all Poland are held. It has three fairs, frequented
by merchants from all nations. It is feated on the ri¬
ver Byftrzna. E. Long. 22. 31. N. Lat. 51. 26.
LUCA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Etruria,
on the river Aufer j a colony and a municipium. Now
Lucca, capital of the republic of that name, near the
river Sechia. E. Long. 11. 20. N. Lat. 43. 45.
LUCANIA, a country of Italy, and a part of
Magna Graecia j bounded on the north by the river
wilarus by which it was feparated from the Picentmi,
and by the river Bradanus by which it was parted from
the Apuli Peucetii ; on the fouth by the Laiis, which
feparated it from the Bruttii ; on the eaft by the Sinus
Tarentinus ; and on the weft by the Tufcan fea. Lu-
cam, the people, defeendants of the Samnites. Luca¬
nus the epithet, (Horace). Lucce boves denoted ele¬
phants ; firft feen in Pyrrhus’s wars in Lucania, whence
the appellation (Pliny).
LUCANUS, Marcus Ann^us, a Latin poet, born
at Corduba in Spain, about A. C. 39* He was the
fon of Annaeus Mela, the youngeft brother of Seneca j
and was conveyed to Rome from the place of his na¬
tivity at the age of eight months ; a circumflance, as
his more indulgent critics obferve, which fufficiently
refutes the cenfure of thofe who confider his language
as provincial. At Rome he was educated under the
Stoic Cornutus, fo warmly celebrated by his difciple
Perfius the fatirift, who was the intimate friend of our
poet. In the clofe of his education, Lucan is faid to
have paffed fome time at Athens. On his return to
Rome he rofe to the office of quaeftor, before he had
attained the legal age. He was afterwards enrolled
among the augurs ; and married a lady of noble birth,
and of a moft amiable chara&er. Lucan had for fome,
time been admitted to familiarity • with Nero, when
the emperor chofe to contend for poetical honours by
the public recital of a poem he had compofed on Niobe j
and fome verfes of his imperial produ&ion are fup¬
pofed to be preferved in the firft fatire of Perfius. Lu¬
can had the hardinefs to repeat a poem on Orpheus,
in competition with that of Nero j and, what is more
remarkable, the judges of the conteft were juft and
bold enough to decide againft the emperor. From
^hence Nero became the perfecutor of his fuccefsful ri¬
val, and forbade him to produce any poetry in public.
1 he well known confpiracy of Pifo againft the tyrant
foon followed ; and Tacitus, with his ufual farcaflic
feverity, concludes that Lucan engaged in the enter-
prife from the poetical injuries he had received : “ a
remarK (fays Mr Hayley*, who has endeavoured to
Notei to his refute the imputation) which does little credit to the
Secorui E- candour of the hifiorian ; who might have found a
Epic Toe- nobler’ ai?d’ 1 wil1 add> a more probable motive
try. fjr f*15) condu(ft, in the generous ardour of his charafter,
and his paflionate adoration of freedom. In the fequel
* Is the
] LUC
of his narratiop, Tacitus alleges a charge againft our Lucanu.
poet, which, if it were true, muft lead us to deteft v —
him as the moft abjeft of mankind. The hiftorian af-
ferts, that Lucan, when accufed of the confpiracy, for
fome time denied the charge ; but corrupted at laft by
a promile of impunity, and defirous to atone for the
tardinefs of his confeflion, accufed his mother Atilla
as his accomplice. This circumflance is fo improbable
m itfelf, and fo little con fon ant to the general charafter
of Lucan, that fome writers have treated it with con¬
tempt, as a calumny invented by Nero, to vilify the
objedt of his envious abhorrence. But the name of
Tacitus has given fuch an air of authority to the ftory,
that it may feem to deferve a more ferious difeuflion'
particularly as there are two fubfequent events related
by the fame hiftorian, which have a tendency to inva¬
lidate the accufation fo injurious to our poet. The
events I mean are, the fate of Anmeus, and the efcape
of Atilla, the two parents of Lucan. The former died
in confequence of an accufation brought againft him
after the death of his fon, by Fabius Romanus, who
had been an intimate with Lucan, and forged fome let¬
ters in his name, with the defign of proving his father
concerned in the confpiracy. Thefe letters were pro¬
duced to Nero, who lent them to Annaeus, from an
eager defire, fays Tacitus, to get poffeflion of his wealth.
From this fad! two inferences may be drawn, accord¬
ing to the different lights in which it may be’eonfider-
ed :—If the accufation againft Annaeus was juft, it is
clear that Lucan had not betrayed his father, and he ap¬
pears the lefs likely to have endangered by his con¬
feflion the life of a parent, to whom he owed a ftill ten¬
derer regard .——If Annaeus w'as not involved in the con¬
fpiracy, and merely put to death by Nero for the fake
of his treafure, we may the more readily believe, that
the tyrant who murdered the father from avarice, might
calumniate the fon from envy. But the efcape of A-
tilla affords us the ftrongeft reafon to conclude that
Lucan was perfedtly innocent of the abje<ft and unna¬
tural treachery of which Tacitus has fuppofed him
guilty. . Had the poet really named his mother as an
accomplice, would the vindi&ive and fanguinary Nero
have fpared the life of a woman whofe family he de-
tefted, particularly when other females were put to death
for their fhare in the confpiracy ? That Atilla was not
in that number, the hiftorian himfelf informs us in the
following remarkable fentence, “ Atilla mater Annsei
Lucani, fine abfolutione, fine fupplicio, diflimulata
thus tianilated by Gordon : “ dhe information againft
Atilla, the mother of Lucan, was diffembled ; and,
without being cleared, {he efcaped unpunilhed.”
. The preceding remarks will, our author hopes, vin¬
dicate to every candid mind the honour of Lucan,
w hofe firmnefs and intrepidity of chara&er are indeed
very forcibly difplayed in that pifture of his death
which I acitus himfelf has given us. He was condemned
to have his veins cut, as his uncle Seneca had before
him. Lucan, while his blood iffued in ftreams, per¬
ceiving his feet and hands to grow cold and ft’iffen
and life to retire by little and little from the extremities^
while his heart was ftill beating with vital warmth]
and his faculties nowife impaired, recollefied fome
lines of his own, which deferibed a wounded foldier
expiring in a manner that refembled this. The lines
themfelves he rehearfed ; and they were the laft words
he
LUC f 253 1 LUC
Lucanus. he ever uttered.” The critics differ concerning the
-'■V’—' verfes of the Pharfalia which the author quoted in fo
memorable a manner. The two paffages he is fuppof-
ed to have repeated are the following } of which Lip-
lius contends for the latter.
Sanguis erant lachrymae : quaecunque foramina nova
Humor, ab his largus manat cruor : ora redundant,
Et patulee nares: fudor rubet: omnia plenis
Membra fluunt venis : totum eft pro vulnere corpus.
Lib. ix. v. 814.
Now the warm blood at once, from every part
Ran purple poifon down, and drain’d the fainting heart.
Elood falls for tears •, and o’er his mournful face
The ruddy drops their tainted paffage trace.
Where’er the liquid juices find a way,
There ftreams of blood, there crimfon rivers ftray,
His mouth and guthing noftrils pour a flood,
And e’en the pores ooze out the trickling blood 5
In the red deluge all the parts lie drown’d,
And the whole body feems one bleeding wound. ROWE.
Scinditur avulfus 5 nec ficut vulnere fanguis
Emicuit lentus $ ruptis cadit undique venis,
Difcurfufque animse, diverfa in membra meantis,
Interceptus aquis. Lib. iii. v. 638.
No Angle wound the gaping rupture feems,
Where trickling crimfon wells in flender ftreams j
But, from an op’ning horrible and wide,
A thoufand veffels pour the burfting tide:
At tu, feu rapidum poli per axem
Famae curribus arduis levatus,
Qua furgunt animae potentiores,
Terras defpicis et fepulchra rides :
Seu pads meritum nemus reclufae
Felix Elyfiis tenes in oris,
Quo Pharfalica turba congregatur }
Et te nobile carmen infonantem
Pompeii comitantur et Catones :
Tu magna facer et fuperbus umbra
Nefcis Tartaron, et procul nocentum
Audis verbera, pallidumque vifa
Matris lampade refpicis Neronem.
Adfis lucidus ; et vocante Polla
Unam, quaefo, diem deos filentum
Exores ; folet hoc patere limen
Ad nuptas redeuntibus maritis.
Haec te non thiafis procax dolofis
Falfi numinis induit figuras j
Ipfum fed colit, et frequentat ipfum
Imis altius infitum medullis j
Ac folatia vana fubminiftrat
Vultus, qui fimili notatus, auro
Stratis proenitet, excubatque fomno
Securse. Procul hinc abite mortes 5
Hcec vitae genitalis eft origo ;
Cedat luftus atrox, genifque manent
Jam dulces lachrymae, dolorque feftus
Quicquid fleverat ante nunc adoret.
But you, O ! whether to the Ikies
On Fame’s triumphant car you rife,
At once the winding channel’s courfe was broke, > Luc anus.
Where wand’ring life her mazy journey took 5 v
At once the currents all forgot their way,
And loft their purple in the azure fea. Rowe.
Such was the death of Lucan before he had completed
his 27th year.—His wife, Polla Argentaria, is faid to
have tranfcribed and correfted the three firft books of
the Pharfalia after his death. It is much to be re¬
gretted (Mr Kayley obferves) that we poffefs not the
poem which he wrote on the merits of this amiable
and accomplilhed woman ; but her name is immorta¬
lized by two furviving poets of that age. The vene¬
ration which (he paid to the memory of her hufband
is recorded by Martial 5 and more poetically defcribed
in that pleafing and elegant little production of Statius,
Genethliacon Lucani, a poem faid to have been written
at the requeft of Argentaria. The author, after in¬
voking the poetical deities to attend the ceremony,
touches with great delicacy and fpirit on the compo-
fltions of Lucan’s childhood, which are loft, and the
Pharfalia, the production of his early youth : he then
pays a ftiort compliment to the beauty and talents of
Argentaria j laments the cruel fate which deprived her
fo immaturely of domeftic happinefs ; and concludes
with an addrefs to the (hade of Lucan, which, with
Mr Hayley’s tranflation, we (hall fubjoin in a Note,
as it feems to furnilh a ftrong prefumption of Lucan’s
innocence in regard to one of the accufations mention¬
ed above (a). “ Had he been really guilty of bafely
endangering
(Where mightier fouls new life affume)
And mock the confines of the tomb $
Or whether in Elyfium bleft
You grace the groves of facred reft,
Where the Pharfalian heroes dwell j
And, as you ftrike your epic Ihell,
The Pompeys and the Catos throng
To catch the animating fong j
Of Tartarus the dread controul
Binds not your high and hallow’d foul:
Diftant you hear that wailing coaft,
And fee the guilty Nero’s ghoft
Grow pale with anguilh and affright,
His mother flalhing on his fight.
Be prefent to your Folia’s vows,
While to your honour’d name ihe bows !
One day let your entreaties gain
From thofe who rule the fliadowy train !
Their gates have op’d to blefs a wife,
And given a hulband back to life.
In you the tender fair invites
No fancied god with frantic rites:
You are the objeCt of her prayers.
You in her inmoft heart ftie bears :
And ftampt on mimic gold, your head
Adorns the faithful mourner’s bed,
And foothes her eyes before they clofe,
The guardian of her chafte repofe.
Away with all funereal ftate !
From hence his nobler life we date :
Let mourning change the pang fevere,.
To fond devotion’s grateful tear !
And feftal grief, its anguifli o’er,
What it lamented, now adore !
L U G
Luc anus
f 254 1
LUC
Lucaria,
endangering the life of his mother (fays Mr Hayley),
k is not probable that his wife would have honoured
„ his memory with fuch enthufiaftic veneration ; or that
Statius, in verfes defigned to do him honour, would
have alluded to the mother of Nero. If his charadter
as a man has been injured by the hiflorian (continues
Mr Hayley), his poetical reputation has been treated
not lefs injurioufly by the critics. Quintilian, by a
frivolous diftindlion, difputes his title to be clafled
among the poets •, and Scaliger fays, with a brutality
of language difgraceful only to himfelf, that he feems
rather to bar h than to Jiftg. But thefe infults may ap¬
pear amply compenfated, when we remember, that in
the moft polithed nations of modern Europe, the moft
elevated and poetic fpirits have been his warmeft ad¬
mirers; that in France he was idolized by Corneille,
and in England tranflated by Rowe.—-The fevered
cenfures on Lucan have proceeded from thofe who
have unfairly compared his language to that of Virgil :
but how uajuft and abfurd is fuch a comparifon ! It is
comparing an uneven block of porphyry, taken rough-
from the quarry, to the moft beautiful fuperficies of
polifhed marble. How differently ftiould we think of
Virgil as a poet, if we poffeffed only the verfes which
he wrote at that period of life when Lucan compofed
his Pharfalia ! In the difpofition of his fubjedl, in the
propriety and elegance of didlion, he is undoubtedly
far inferior to Virgil j but if we attend to the bold
originality of his defign, and to the vigour of his fen-
timents; if we confider the Pharfalia as the rapid and
uncorrefted ficetch of a young poet, executed in an age
when the fpirit of his countrymen was broken, and
their tafte in literature corrupted ; it may juftly be
efteemed as one of the moft noble and moft wonderful
produftions of the human mind.—Lucan wrote feveral
poems ; but we have none remaining befide his Phar~
folia, of which an excellent Engliflr verfton has been
given by Mr Nicholas Rowe.
LucaNUS, the Stag-Beetle, a genu’s of infefts of the
order of eoleoptera. See Entomology Index.
LUCAR DE Barameda (St), a handfome and
confiderable tow n of Spain, with [a very good harbour,
well defended, in Andalufia. It was once the greateft
port in Spain, before the galleons unloaded their trea-
fure at Cadiz. It is feated at the mouth of the river
Guadalquiver. V/. Long. 6. 5. N. Lat. 36, 40.
LuCAH de Guadiana (St), a ftrong town of Spain,
in Andalufia, on the confines of Algarve ; feated on
the river Guadiana, wdth a little harbour. W. Long.
5. 59. N. Lat. 37. 32.
Luc Alt la Major (St), a fmall town of Spain, in
Andalufia, with the title of a duchy. It is feated on
the river Guadiana, in W, Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 37. 21,
LUCARIA, a feaft celebrated at Rome on the
i8th of July, in memory of the flight of the Romans
into a great wood, where they found an afylum, and
faved themfelves from deftrudlion. This wood, in
which they found proteftion, was fituated between the
Tyber and the Via Salaria, The enemies from whom
the Romans fled were the Gauls.—On this feftival,
Plutarch tells us, it was cuftomary to pay the a<ftors,
and luch as contributed to the public amufement, with
the money arifing from the felling of wood. This
money was called lucar. It is obvious, from what has
2
been obferved, that lucar and lucaria are derived from
Incur, a grove.
LUCAS Jacobs, an eminent artift, more gene,
rally know n by the name of. Lucas van LETDEN, or
Ilugenfe, was born at Leyden in 1494* Jd" received
bis firft inftrudlions in the art of painting from his fa¬
ther Hugues Jacobs j but completed his ftudies in
the fchool of Cornelius Engelbreeht. He gained
much money by his profefiion ; and being of a gene¬
rous turn of mind, he fpent it freely, dreffed well, and
lived in a fuperior ftyle. It is faid, that, a few years
before his death, he made a tour into Zealand and
Brabant ; and during his journey, a painter of Flulh-
ing, envious of his great abilities, gave him poifon at
an entertainment ; which, though very flow, was too
fatal in its effeft, and put an end to his life, after fix
years, languilhing under its cruel influence. Others,
denying the ftory of the poifon, attribute his death
to his inceffant induftry. The fuperiority of this
artift’s genius manifefted itfelf in his infancy : for his
works, even from the age of nine, were fo excellent
as to excite the admiration of all cotemporary artifts $
and when he was about 15, he painted a St Hubert,
which gained him great applaufe. His tone of colour-
ing (Mr Pilkington obferves) is good 5 his attitudes
(making a reafonable allowance for the ftiff German
tafte) are well chofen ; his figures have a confiderable
expreflion in their faces, and his pictures are very
highly finiftied. He endeavoured to proportion the
(Length of his colouring to the different degrees of
diftance in which his objefts w-ere placed : for in that
early time, the true principles of perfpe&ive were but
little knowm, and the practice of it was much lefs
obferved. In the town hall at Leyden, the moft ca¬
pital pi&ure of Lucas, the fubjeft of which is the Laft
Judgment, is preferved with great care $ the magi-
ftrates having refufed very large fums which have been
offered for it.
This artift painted not only in oil, but alfo in dif-
temper and upon glafs. Nor was he lefs eminent for
his engraving than for his painting. He carried on a
familiar and friendly correfpondence with Albert Hu-
rer, who was his cotemporary j and, it is faid, that as
regularly as Albert Durer publiftied one print, Lu¬
cas publiftred another, without the leaft jealoufy on
either fide, or w-ifh to depreciate each other’s merit.
And when Albert came into Holland upon his travels,
he was received by Lucas in a moft cordial and affec¬
tionate manner. His ftyle of engraving, however, ac¬
cording to Mr Strutt, differed confiderably from that of
Albert Durer, “ and feemsevidently to have been found¬
ed upon the works of Ifrael van Mechlen, His prints
are very neat and clear, but without any powerful
effedft. The ftrokes are as fine and delicate upon the
objects in the front, as upon thofe in the diftances j
and this want of variety, joined with the feeblenefs of
the maffes of (hadow, give his engravings, with all
their neatnefs, an unfiniftied appearance, much unlike
the firm fubftantial effect which we find in the works
of Albert Durer, He was attentive to the minutiae
of his art. Every thing is carefully made out in his
prints, and no part of them is neglected. He gave great
charafter and expreflion to the heads of his figures ^
but on examination of his works, we find the faro©
heads
huoafls,
Lucas,
Lucas.
LUC [, 2
heads too often repeated. The hands and feet are
^ rather mannered than correct 5 and when he attempted
to draw the naked figure, he fucceeded but very indif¬
ferently. He affe&ed to make the folds of his dra¬
peries long and flowing ) but his female figures are
frequently fo exceffively loaded with girdles, bandages,
and other ornamental trappings, that much of the ele¬
gance of the defign is loft. He engraved on wood, as
well as on copper $ but his works on the former are by
no means numerous. They are, however, very fpirited j
though not equal, upon the whole, to thofe of his friend
Albert. The prints of this mafter are pretty numerous,
but very feldom met with complete ; efpecially fine
impreflions of them. For though they are, generally
fpeaking, executed with the graver only, yet, from
the delicacy of the execution, they foon fuffered in the
printing. Of his engravings the few following may
be mentioned as among th© principal. 1. Mahomet
Jleeping, with a priejl murdered by his Jide, and another
figure fealing his /word, a middling-fized upright plate,
dated 1508, faid to be one of his moft early produc¬
tions. 2. An eccc homo, a large plate, lengthwife,
dated 1510. 3. The crucifixion on Mount Calvary,
the fame. 4. The wife men's offering, the fame,
dated 1513. 5. Return of the prodigal fion, a mid¬
dling-fized plate, lengthwife, dated 1518. 6. A large
print, lengthwife, called the dance of Magdalen, dated
1519. 7. His own portrait, a fmall upright plate, dated
1525. 8. David playing before Saul, a middling-fized
upright plate, dated . This is a very fine
print j the expreflion of Saul’s countenance, in parti¬
cular, is admirable. 9. A print known by the name
of Ulefpiegle, which is the fcarceft of all the works of
this mafter. It is in the colledlion of the king of
France •, and faid by Marolles, and other mafters, to
be unique. But Bafan informs us, that M. Mariette
had alio an impreflion of this plate j and it has been
fince found in one or two other colle£lions. It repre-
fents a travelling bagpiper with his family himfelf
playing as he goes along, and carrying two children in
a balket at his back ; his wife trudging by his fide,
fupporting with one hand an infant on her fhoulder,
and with the other leading an afs loaded with two baf-
kets, having two children in each ; and another child
going before, with a little dog, completes the Angular
groupe. This rare print is dated 1520, and is known
to have been fold for 16 louis d’ors.—It is nearly 74-
inches high by 4-4- broad 5 and has been twice copied.
One of the copies is the reverfe way : but the other is
the fame way with the original ; and, though not fo
well executed, might without acomparifon be miftaken
for it.
Lucas, Richard, D. D. a learned Englifh divine,
was born in 1648, and ftudied at Oxford; after which
he entered into holy orders, and was for fome time
mafter of the free fchool at Abergavenny. Being ef-
teemed an excellent preacher, he became vicar of St
Stephen’s, Coleman ftreet, in London, and leflurer of
St Olave’s in Southwark. He was doftor of divinity;
and in 1696 was inftalled prebendary of Weftminfter.
His fight began to fail him in his youth ; and he total¬
ly loft it in his middle age. He was greatly efteemed
for his piety and learning; and publiftied feveral works,
particularly, j. Pradtica'l Chriftianity. 2. An Inquiry
after Happinefs. 3. Several fermons. 4. A Latin
Lucerne.
55 1. LUC
tranflation of the Whole Duty of Man. He died in Lucas
I7I5< r . , "
LUCCA, a fmall republic of Italy, on the coaft of
the Mediterranean, between the territory of Genoa
on the weft, Modena on the north, and Tufcany on
the eaft. According to Keyfler, it is only about 30
miles in circumference, but is exceeding fertile and
populous. It contains, befides the city of Lucca, 150
villages. The number of inhabitants is computed at
120,000. The government is lodged in a gonfalonier,
whofe power is much the fame with that of the doges
of Venice and Genoa. He is aflifted by nine coun-
fellors: but the power of all the ten continues only for
two months ; during which time they live in the ftate-
palace, and at the public expence. They are chofen
out of the great council, which confifts of 240 nobles ;
but even this council is changed by a new eleftion
every two years. The revenues of the republic are
about 400,000 fcudi or crowns ; out of which they
maintain 500 men by way of regular force, and 70
Swifs as a guard to their adling magiftrates. The city
of Lucca is fituated in a plain, terminating in moft de¬
lightful eminences, adorned with villas, fummer-houfes,
corn-fields, and plantations of every kind ; fo that no¬
thing either for ufe or for pleafure is here wanting.
The city, which is about three Italian miles in circum¬
ference, has regular well-lined fortifications ; and its
ftreets though irregular, are wide, well paved, and full
of handfome houfes. The number of its inhabitants \i
computed to be above 40,000 ; and they carry on large
manufaftures, efpecially of filk fluffs. Lucca has a bi-
fhop, who enjoys feveral extraordinary privileges; and
its cathedral is Gothic. The city ftands in E. Long.
11. 27. N. Lat. 43. 52.
LUCENTI, Lucentia, or Lucentum, a town of
the Hither Spain, now Alicant, a fea-port of Valencia.
W. Long. 32. Lat. 38. 37. . .
LUCERES, in Roman antiquity, the third in order
of the three tribes into W'hich Romulus divided the peo¬
ple ; including all foreigners : fo called from the lucus
or grove, where Romulus opened an afylum.
LUCERIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apu¬
lia in Italy; which in Strabo’s time ftill exhibited marks
of Diomed’s fovereignty in thofe parts. Ptolemy has
Nuceria ; whether from miftake, or the cuftom of his
time, uncertain. Now Nocera de Pagani, in the king¬
dom of Naples. E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 40. 40.
LUCERIUS, in Mythology, a name given to Jupi¬
ter, as Luceria was given to Juno, as the deities which
gave light to the world.
LUCERNE, one of the 13 cantons of Swiffer-
land. It holds the third place among the 13 ; and is -■
the head of the Catholic cantons. Though lefs than
Zurich, and confequently much lefs than Berne, it is, .
however, far more extenfive than any of the reft, be¬
ing 15 or 16 leagues long, and eight broad. The po¬
pulation is eftimated at 100,000. Even the moun¬
tainous part is not barren, but abundant in wood and
pafture, furnifhing cattle, hides, cheefe, and butter,
for exportation. All the north part is fertile in grain,,
fruit, and hay ; fupplying fufficient for the confump-
tion of the inhabitants; but as the mountaineers of
the little cantons come to their market for corn, the
people of Lucerne purchafe this commodity from other
parts of SwilTerland, but efpecially from Alface and
Suabia,,
[ 256 ] LUC
Lurerne. Suabia. Their manufaftnres are very inconfiderable j
v confifting only in a little filk and cotton thread. The
government is oligarchical. The councils are chofen
from among 500 citizens only. The great council of
64 members is the nominal fovereign j but in faft the
power refides in the fenate, or little council of 36,
having for their chiefs the two avoyers.—The whole
canton profeffes the Roman Catholic religion. The
pope’s nuncio, with the title of legate a latere, ufually
refides at Lucerne.—They threw off the Auftrian yoke
in 1352, and by entering into a perpetual alliance
with the three ancient cantons, they gave fuch weight
to the confederacy, as to enable it in 1386 to refift
all the efforts of the enemy at the bloody battle of
Sempach.
The town of Lucerne is fituated at the extremity of
a mod beautiful lake of the fame name, where the
river Reufs iffues from it. The buildings are ancient,
and the ftreets narrow ; nor is Lucerne populous in
proportion to its extent, the inhabitants being only
between 3000 and 4000. Since this is the great paf-
fage to Italy by Mount St Gothard, and the merchan-
dife which paffes the Alps on mules, and is to be tranf-
ported by the rivers Reufs, Aar, and Rhine, is all
depofited here, it might have a flourifliing trade if
arts and manufaftures w^ere attended to. The Reufs
feparates the town into two unequal parts, which are
conne&ed by three bridges : one wide for carriages ;
and two narrow covered ones for foot paffengers : be-
fides thefe, there is a fourth over an arm of the lake,
to pafs to the cathedral. Ihree of thefe bridges have
old bad paintings of the Dance of Death, and the Hi-
ftory of the Bible, and of Swifferland. They make
a commodious dry walk for the inhabitants.—Of re¬
ligious edifices, the principal are the cathedral, or col¬
legiate church of St Leger ; the convent of Corde¬
liers ; the college of the Jefuits ; the convent of Capu¬
chins •, and twm convents of nuns. Of the fecular
bmldings, the hotel de ville is the principal. The
anenal is well furnifhed. The water tower is remark¬
able only for its pofition and antiquity ; it is faid to
have been a pharos or lighthoufe. What greatly at-
trafts the notice of moft ftrangers is, a plan in relief
of part of the cantons of Lucerne, Zug, and Berne,
and the whole of Schweitz, Uri, and Underwald, exe¬
cuted by General Pfiffer on a large fcale. He has
completed about 60 fquare leagues 5 the plan is 12
leet long, and nine and a half broad : every mountain
is accurately meafured; and every objedl diftin<Rly
placed.
The lake of Lucerne exhibits greater variety and
more pidlurefque fcenery than any other of the Swifs
lakes. It is feven leagues long in a right line, and
three wide about Ruflnaeht} but the Ihape is very ir¬
regular. I he whole fouth fide is bordered by high
mountains 5 but the north exhibits hills of no great
height. The narrow' gulf that extends towards the
weft, is bordered on the weft and north-weft by Mount
Pilat, which is a fingle mountain rifing boldly more
than 6000 feet above the lake ; and on the fouth by
Mount Burgenberg. Stanz Stadt, belonging to the
canton of Underwald, is on this fide } and at this place
the lake is deepeft. Kuilnacht is on the point of the
other gulf, which extends towards the eaft, and is
ydder than the former. All the country to the weft
of thefe gulfs, and part of it to the north of the latter,
belongs to the canton of Lucerne j but that which is
to the fouth and north-eaft is dependent on the canton
of Zug. All the mountains on the left ftiore of the
lake belong to the canton of Underwald 5 thofe on the
right, partly to the canton of Uri, partly to that of
Schweitz, partly to the little republic of Gerfaw, but
principally to the canton of Lucerne.
Lucerne, in Botany. See Medicago, Botany
Index.—For the culture of this plant, fee Agricul¬
ture Index.
LUCIA, St, one of the Canbbee iflands in the
Weft Indies, about 22 miles long, and 11 broad, the
middle of it lying in N. Lat. 39. 14. W. Long. 27. o.
It was firft fettled by the French in 1650 \ but was
reduced by the Englifh in 1664, w’ho evacuated it in
1666. The French immediately refettled the ifland,
but were again driven away by the Caribbs. As foon
as the favages were gone, the former inhabitants re¬
turned, but only for a Ihort time 5 for being afraid of
falling a prey to the firft privateer that ftiould vifit
their coafts, they removed either to other French fet-
tlements that were ftronger, or which they might ex-
peft to be better defended. There was then no re¬
gular culture or colony at St Lucia j it was only fre¬
quented by the inhabitants of Martinico, who came
thither to cut wood, and to build canoes, and who
had confiderable docks on the illand. In 1718 it
w'as again fettled by the French ; but four years af¬
ter, it was given by the court of London to the duke
of Montague, who was fent to take poffeftion of it.
This occafioned fome difturbance between the two
courts 5 which was fettled, however, by an agreement
made in 1731, that, till the refipeftive claims fhould
be finally adjufted, the ifland fhould be evacuated by
both nations, but that both fhould wood and water
there. This precarious agreement furnifhed an op¬
portunity for private intereft to exeift itfelf. The
Englifh no longer molefted the French in their habi¬
tations ; but employed them as their afliftants in car¬
rying on with richer colonies a fmuggling trade, which
the fubjeifts of both governments thought equally ad¬
vantageous to them. This trade has been more or
lefs confiderable till the treaty of 1763, when the
property of St Lucia was fecured to the crown of
France. After that time the colony flouriihed confi-
derably. In the beginning of the year 1772, the
number of white people amounted to 2018 fouls, men,
women, and children 5 that of the blacks to 663 free
men, and 12,795 flaves. The cattle confifted of 928
mules or horfes, 2070 head of horned cattle, and 3184
ftieep or goats. There were 38 fugar plantations,
which occupied 978 pieces of land j coffee-
trees j 1,321,600 cocoa plants j and 367 plots of cotton.
There were 706 dwelling places. The annual revenue
at that time was about 175,000!. which, according to
the Abbe Raynal, muft have increafed one-eighth
yearly for fome time. It was taken by the Britifh in
1778? reftored to France in 17^3* It fell again into
the hands of the Britifh in 1794’ v>as evacuated in
I 795» ar|d was again retaken in 1796.
i he foil of St Lucia is tolerably good, even at the
fea fide ; and is much better the farther one advances
into the country. The whole of it is capable of culti¬
vation, except fome h:gh and craggy mountains which
bear
Lucerne
Lucia.
LUC [ 257 1 LUC
Lucia
II
Luciaiufts
bear evident marks of old volcanoes. In one deep
valley there are [till eight or ten ponds, the water of
__ which boils up in a dreadful manner, and retains fome
of its heat at the diftance of 6000 toifes from its re-
fervoirs. The air in the inland parts, like that of all
other uninhabited countries, is foul and unwholefomej
but grows lefs noxious as the woods are cleared and
the ground laid open. On fome parts of the fea
coaft, the air is Hill more unhealthy, on account of
fome fmall rivers which fpring from the foot of the
mountains, and have not fufficient Hope to wafli down
the fands with which the inllux of the ocean Hops
up their mouths, by which means they fpread them-
felves into unwholefome marlhes on the neighbouring
grounds.
Lucia, St, a high and mountainous ifland of Africa,
and one of thofe of Cape Verde, is about nine leagues
long, and lies in the latitude of 16° 18' N. according
to the Englilh geographers •, but according to all
others, it is a degree farther to the northward. On the
eaft-fouiL-eaft fide is a harbour, with a bottom and
ihore of white fand ; but its belt road is oppofite to St
Vincent’s to the fouth-weft, where there are at leaft 20
fathoms of water. On the weft fide there is no water :
it abounds with goats, fea and land fowl, tortoifes, &c.
but whether it hath any inhabitants is not certainly
known.
LUCIAN, a celebrated Greek author in the firft
century, was born at Samofata, of obfcure parents, in
the reign of the emperor Trajan. He ftudied law, and
praftifed fome time as an advocate j but growing wreary
of the wrangling oratory of the bar, he commenced
rhetorician. He lived to the time of Marcus Aure¬
lius, who made him regifler of Alexandria in Egypt j
and, according to Suidas, he was at laft worried by
dogs. Lucian was one of the fineft wits in all anti¬
quity. His Dialogues, and other works, are written
in Greek. In thefe he has joined the ufeful to the
agreeable, inftru&ion to fatire, and erudition to ele¬
gance ; and we everyw here meet with that fine and
delicate raillery which characterizes the Attic tafte. 
Thofe who cenfure him as an impious fcoflfer at reli¬
gion, have reafon on their fide, if religion confifted in
the theology of the Pagan poets, or in the extravagant
opinions of philofophers j for he perpetually throws
fuch ridicule on the gods and philofophers, with their
vices, as infpires hatred and contempt for them j but
it cannot be faid that he writes anywhere againfl; an
overruling providence.
LUCIANISTS, or Lucanists, a religious feft,
fo called from Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic of the
fecond century, being a difciple of Marcion, whofe
errors he followed, adding fome new ones to them. Epi-
phanius fays he abandoned Marcion ; teaching that
people ought not to marry, for fear of enriching the
Creator : a d yet other authors mention that he held
this error in common wdth Marcion and other Gno-
ftics. He denied the immortality of the foul 5 afiert-
ing it to be material.
.There wras another fe£I of Lucianifis, who appear¬
ed fome time after the Arians. They taught, that the
Father had been a father always, and that he had the
name even before he begot the Son ; as having in him
the power or faculty of generation ; and in this manner
they accounted for the eternity of the Son.
Vol. XII. Part I.
LUCID intervals, the fits of lunatics or maniacs,
during which the phrenzy leaves them in- poffeffion of
their reafon.
LUCIFER, according to the poets, was the fon
of Jupiter and Aurora. In aftronomy, Lucifer is the
bright planet Venus, which either goes before the fun
in the morning, for 290 days, and is our morning
ftar; or in the evening follow-s the fun, during the
fame time, and then is called Hefperus or the evening
liar.
LUCIFERA, in Mythology, a furname given to
Diana, under which title Ihe was invoked by the
Greeks in childbed. She was reprefented as covered
with a large veil, interfperfed with liars, bearing a cref-
cent on her head, and holding in her hand a lighted
flambeau.
LUCIFERIANS, a religious fe6f, who adhered
to the fchifm of Lucifer, bifhop of Cagliari, in the
fourth century, who was banilhed by the emperor
Conftantius, for having defended the Nicene dobhine
concerning the three Perfons in the Godhead.—St ,Au-
guftine feems to intimate, that they believed the foul,
which they confidered as of a carm.l nature, to be
tranfmitted to the children from their fathers. Theo-
doret fays, that Lucifer w as the author of a new error.
The Luciferians increafed mightily in Gaul, Spain,
Egypt, &c. The occafion of the fchifm was, that Lu¬
cifer would not allow' any abls he had done to be abo-
lifhed. There were but two Luciferian bifhops, but a
great number of priefts and deacons. The Luciferians
bore a peculiar averfion to the Arians.
LUCILIUS, Caius, a Roman knight, and a La¬
tin poet, was born at Suefla in Italy, about 140 B. C.
He ferved under Scipio Africanus in the war with the
Numantines j and was in great favour with that cele¬
brated general, and with Laelius. He wrote 30 books
of fatires, in which he lalhed feveral perfons of quality
very lharply. Some learned men afcribe the invention
of fatire to him ; but M. Dacier has maintained, with
great probability, that Lucilius only gave a better
turn to that kind of poetry, and wrote it with more
wit and humour than his predeceffors Ennius and Pa~
cuvius had done. His fragments have been carefully
collected by Francis Douza at Leyden in 1599, with
notes. But they require Hill to be better illuitrated by
fume b arned critic.
LUC IN A, a goddefs among the Romans, who
prefided over women in labour. Some take her to be
Diana, others Juno. She was called Lucina, becaufe (he
brought children to the light $ from the Latin word
lux, “ light.”
LUCIUS, the fpecific name of the pike. See Esox,
Ichthyology Index.
LUCONIA. See Manilla.
LUCRETTA, the famous Roman matron, wife of
Collatinus, and the caufe of the revolution in Rome
from a monarchy to a republic: this lady being ravifli-
ed by Sextus, the eldeft fon of Tarquin king of Rome,
ftabbed herfelf, 509 B. C. See the article Chastity.
The bloody poniard, with her dead body expofed to
the fenate, was the fignal of Roman liberty ; the ex-
pulfion of the Tarquins, and abolition of the regal dig-
nity, was inftantly refolved on, and carried into exe-
tion. See Rome.
LUCRETIUS, or Titus Lucretius, Caius, one
K k of
Lucid
Intervals
II
Lucretius.
LUC [ 25
Lucretius Gf the moll celebrated of the Latin poets, w&S born of
an ancient and noble Roman family, and ftudied at
v.Jii.ll Athens, where he became one of Epicurus’s fe£t. He
acquired great reputation by his learning and elo¬
quence ; but in the flower of his age fell into a frenzy,
occafioned by a philtre given him by his wife, who
was diflrafledly fond of him. Lucretius, during the
intervals of his madnefs, put Epicurus’s dobtrines into
verfe, and compofed his fix books De Rerum Natura,
which are fiill extant. It is faid that he killed him-
felf in a fit of madnefs, in the 54th year before the
Chriftian era, when 51 years old. The moft cor re ft
edition of Lucretius is that of Simon de Coline. The
cardinal de Polignac has refuted Lucretius’s arguments,
in his excellent Latin poem entitled Anti-Lucretius.
His poem De Rerum Natura has been tranflated into
Englifh by Mr Creech.
LUCRINUS lacus, in Ancient Geography, a lake
of Campania, between Baiae and Puteoli, famous for
its oyfters (Horace, Martial, Juvenal) ; Lucritienfes
(Cicero), the people dwelling on it. Now a perfeft
bay fince the earthquake in 1538.
LUCULLUS, Lucius Lucinius, a Roman gene¬
ral celebrated for his eloquence, his viftories, and his
riches. In his youth he made a figure at the bar ; and
being afterwards made quaeftor in Afia, and praetor in
Africa, governed thofe provinces with great modera¬
tion and juftice. Scarce was he known as a military
man, when he twice beat the fleet of Hamilcar, and
gained two great viftories over him. His happy ge¬
nius was greatly improved by ftudy ; for he employed
his leifure in reading the belt authors on military af¬
fairs. Being made conful with Aurelius Cotta, dur¬
ing the third war writh Mithridates king of Pontus,
he was fent againft this prince : and this expedition
was attended with a feries of viftories, which did him
lefs honour than an aft of generofity towards his col¬
league ; who, willing to take advantage of his abfence
to fignalize himfelf by fome great exploit, haftened to
fight Mithridates j but was defeated and fhut up in
Chalcedonia *, where he mull have perifhed, if Lucullus,
facrificing his refentment to the pleafure of faving a
Roman citizen, had not flown to his afliftance, and
difengaged htm. All Pontus then fubmitted to Lu¬
cullus } who being continued in his government of
Afia, entered the territories of Tigranes, the moft
powerful king in Afia. That prince marched with a
formidable army againft Lucullus: who defeated him
with a handful of men, and killed great numbers of
his forces $ took Tigranocertes, the capital of his king¬
dom j and was ready to put an end to the war, when
the intrigues of a tribune got him depofed, and Pompey
nominated in his room. Lucullus having brought home
prodigious riches, now gave himfelf up to exceflive lux¬
ury 5 and his table was ferved with a profufion till
that time unknown. He brought from the Eaft a great
number of books, which he formed into a library,
and gave admittance to all men of learning, who fre¬
quented it in great numbers. Toward the end of his
life, he fell into a kind of madnefs : and Lucullus, his
brother, was appointed his guardian. He is faid to
have been the firft who brought cherries into Europe,
having brought the grafts from the kingdom of Pon¬
tus.
LUC US, in general, denotes a wood or grove fa-
8 ] L U D
cred to a deity 5 fo called a lucetido, becaufe a great Lucns
number of lights were uiually burning in honour of li
the god (Ifidorus) 3 a practice common with idolaters. ^u^‘•
as we learn from Scripture : hence Homer’s etyXxtv y ~
LUD, a Britifti king mentioned in our old chro¬
nicles, and faid to have reigned about the year of the
world 3878. He is reported to have enlarged and wall¬
ed about Troynovant, or New Troy, where he kept his
court, and made it his capital. The name of London
is hence derived from I^udys town ; and Ludgate from
his being buried near it: but this is only one among
many other derivations of the name of London j which
are at leaf! equally probable. See London.
LUDAMAR, a Moorilh kingdom in the interior
part of Africa, the capital of which is fituated in N.
Lat. 15. c. W. Long. 60. 50. which Mr Park con-
fiders as little fuperior to a deiert. The Moors of Lu-
damar fubfift chiefly on the flefh of their cattle.
The barrenness of the country is luch, that it fur-
nithes few materials for manufacture : but the inhabi¬
tants contrive to weave a ftrong cloth, with which their
tents are covered j the thread is Ipun by the women
from goats hair, and with the hides of their cattle they
furnifh faddles, bridles, pouches, and other articles of
leather. They can alio convert the native iron pro¬
cured from the negroes into fpears, knives, and pets for
boiling their food j but they purchafe their fire-arms
and other weapons of a fimilar nature from the Euro¬
peans, in exchange for flaves.
Their ideas of female perfeftion are truly Angular,
fince a woman, to have the fmalleft preteniions to
beauty, muft be one who requires a flave under each
arm to fupport her as fire w alks ; and a perfeft beauty,
according to Mr Park, is a load for a camel.
The wealth of the Moors chiefly confiits in their
numerous herds of cattle, yet the majority of the people
fpend their days in a ftate of idleneis. The tent of the
king is the common place of rendezvous for the indo¬
lent, where they appear to enjoy an unlimited liberty
of fpeech ; yet in the praife of their fovereign they are
wholly unanimous, finging fongs to his honour, which
never fail to be filled with the groffeft adulation. The
king fometimes eats out of the fame bafon with the
driver of his camels, and during the heat of the day re-
pofes himfelf upon the fame bed.
Cavalry conftitute the chief military firength of Lu-
damar, which are well mounted, and are very expert
in attacking by furprife. The horfe of every loldier is
furniihed by himfelf, as alfo his military implements,
confifting of a large fabre, a double-barrelled gun, a
red leather bag for holding his balls, and a powder-
horn flung over his ftioulder. He has no pay, and his
only compenfation arifes from plunder.
They have no intercourfe with civilized nations, yet
they boaft an advantage over the negroes, as they pof-
fefs, though in a very limited degree, the knowledge
of letters. They are efteemed the vaineft, proudeft,
and moft bigotted, ferocious, and intolerant of all the
nations of the earth, blending in their charafter the
blind fuperftition of the negro with the favage cruelty
and treachery of the Arab. It was with the utmoft
difficulty that Mr Park made his efcape from this cruel
and inhofpitable people.
LUDI, a term ufed for fliows and public reprefen-
tations
L U D [2
Lucii tations made by the Romans, for the entertainment of
il the people. See Games.
.udlow. ^ p\)r an account of the particular games of Greece
and Rome, as the Kthmian, Nemaean, Olympic, &c.
See Isthmian, &c.
LUDIUS, a celebrated painter, lived in the reign
of Augullus Caefar, and excelled in grand compofitions.
He was the fir it who painted the fronts of houfes in
the ftreets of Rome ; which he beautified with great
variety of landfcapes, and many other different fub-
je<5ts.
LUDLOW, Edmund, fon of Sir Henry Ludlow,
was born at Maidenhead, and educated in Trinity
college, Oxford. His father oppoling the king’s in-
teretf, Mr Ludlow joined with the fame party, and
was prelent at the battle of Edgehill as a volunteer un¬
der the earl of ElTex. Upon the death of his father,
he was chofen knight of the ihire for Wilts, and ob¬
tained the command of a regiment of horfe for the de¬
fence of that country. He was one of King Charles L’s
judges : after whofe death he was fent by the parlia¬
ment into Ireland, in quality of lieutenant-general of
the horfe which employment he dilcharged with di¬
ligence and fuccefs till the death of the lord-deputy
Ireton, when he acled for fome time as general, though
without that title ; Cromwell, who knew him to he
fincerely in the intereft of the commonwealth, always
finding out fome pretext to hinder the conferring of
that chara&er upon him. The laft llroke had been
given by Ludlow to the Irilh rebellion, if the ufurpa-
tion of Cromwell had not prevented it. Under his
power he never a<Red ; and though Cromwell ufed his
utmoft efforts, he remained inflexible. After Crom¬
well’s death, he endeavoured to reftore the common¬
wealth *, but Charles II. being recalled, he thought
proper to conceal himfelf, and efcaped into Switzer¬
land, where he fettled. After the revolution, he came
over into England, in order to be employed in Ire¬
land againft King James : but appearing publicly in
London, it gave great offence j and an addrefs was
prefented by Sir Edward Seymour to King William III.
for a proclamation in order to apprehend Colonel Lud¬
low, attainted for the murder of King Charles I. Up¬
on this he returned to Switzerland, where he died.
During his retirement in Switzerland he wrote his
Memoirs.
Ludlow, a town of Shropfhire in England, fitua-
ted at the conflux of the Teme and Corve, 18 miles
from Shrewlbury, and 138 from London. The preli-
dent of the council of the marches, eftabliflied by
Henry VIII. generally kept his courts in it, by which
the town was much benefited, thefe courts not having
been abolilhed till the iff of William and Mary. Its
neighbourhood to Wales makes it a great thorough¬
fare, and engages many of the Wellh to fend their
children of both fexes to it for education. It was in¬
corporated by Edward IV. and among other privi¬
leges has that of trying and executing criminals within
itfelf. It is one of the neateft towns in England,
with walls and feven gates. It is divided into four
wards j and is governed by 3 bailiffs, 12 aldermen, 25
common-council men, a recorder, a town-clerk, fteward,
chamberlain, coroner, &c. From the caflle on the top
of the hill on which the town Hands is a molt delight-
fill profpe£L In an apartment of the outer gatehoufe
59 ] L U D
Samuel Butler is faid to have written the firft part of Ludlow,
Hudibras. Of this caftle, which was befieged and ta- Ludolph.
ken by King Stephen, fome of the offices are fallen ' “ v~”
down, and great part of it turned into a bowling-green 5
but part of the royal apartments and the Iword of
ftate are Hill left. The walls were at firil a mile in
compafs, and there was a lawn before it for near two
miles, of which much is now enclofed. The battle¬
ments are very high and thick, and adorned with
towers. It has a neat chapel, where are the coats of
arms of abundance of Welffi gentry, and over the
ftable-doors are the arms of Queen Elizabeth, the earls
of Pembroke, &c. This cattle was a~ palace of the
prince of Wales, in right of his principality. The
river Teme has a good bridge over it, 1’everal wears
acrofs it, and turns a great many mills. Here is a
large parochial church, which was formerly collegiate ;
in the choir whereof is an infcription relating to Prince
Arthur, elder brother to King Henry VIII. who died
here, and whofe bowels were here depofited, though
it is faid his heart was taken up fome time ago in a
leaden box. In this choir is a clofet, commonly call¬
ed God's Houfe, where the priefts ufed to keep their
confecrated utenfils ; and in the market-place is a con¬
duit, with a long ftone crofs on it, and a niche wherein
is the image of St Laurence, to whom the church was
dedicated. On the north fide of the town there was a
rich priory, whereof there are few ruins to be feen ex¬
cept ^thofe of its church. Here are an alms-houfe for
30 poor people, and two charity-fchools where 50 boys
and 30 girls are both taught and clothed. It has a
market on Monday, and three leffer ones on Wednef-
day, Friday, and Saturday. Its fairs are on the Tuef-
day Eafter, Whit-Wednefday, Auguft 21. Sept. 2&.
and Dec. 8. Provifions are very cheap here ; and at
the annual horfe races there is the belt of company.
The country round is exceedingly pleafant, fruitful, and
populous, efpecially that part called the Corvefda/e, be¬
ing the vale on the banks of the river Corve. Ludlow
fends two members to parliament.
LUDOLPH, Job, a very learned writer of the 17th
century, was born at Erfurt in Thuringia. He tra¬
velled much, and was mailer of 25 languages, vifited
libraries, fearched after natural curiofities and anti¬
quities everywhere, and convevfed with learned men of
all nations. He publilhed a Hiftory of Ethiopia, and
other curi*us books.
Ludolph, Henry William, nephew of Job above
mentioned, was born at Erfurt in 1655. He came
over to England as fecrerary to M. Lenthe, envoy from
the court of Copenhagen to that of London 5 and be¬
ing recommended to Prince George of Denmark, was
received as his fecretary. He enjoyed this office for
fome years, until he was incapacitated by a violent dif-
order $ when he was difcharged with a handfome pen-
fion : after he recovered, he travelled into Mufcovy,
where he was well received by the czar, and where
his knowledge made the Mufcovite priefts fuppofe him
to be a conjurer. On his return to London in 1694,
he was cut for the ftone j and as foon as his health
would permit, in acknowledgement of the civilities he
had received in Mufcovy, he wrote a grammar of their
language, that the natives might learn their own tongue
in a regular method. He then travelled into the Eaft,
to inform himfelf of the ftate of the Chriftian church
K k 2
m
■k U G ' [ 260 ] L U L
Ludolph in the Levant j the deplorable condition of which in-
Luleus cluced hira» after his l'eturn» with the aid of the bilhop
Lacus. °f Worcefter, to print an edition of the New Tefta-
 s   ment in the vulgar Greek, to prefent to the Greek
church. In 1709, when fuch numbers of Palatines
came over to England, Mr Ludolph was appointed by
Queen Anne one of the commiflioners to manage the
charities raifed for them ; and he died early the fol¬
lowing year. His collected works were publilhed in
1712
LUDWIGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria cl a is, and in the natural method ranking
under the 17th order, Calycanthemce. See Botany
Index.
_ LUES, among phyficians, is in general ufed for a
difeafe of any kind ; but in a more particular fenfe is
retrained to contagious and peftilential difeafes; thus
the lues Gnllica, or venerea, fignifies the venereal dif¬
eafe. See Medicine Index.
LUFF, the order from the pilot to the fteerfman
to put the helm towards the lee-fvle of the (hip, in or¬
der to make the (hip fail nearer the diredtion of the
wind. Hence, luff round, or luff a-lee, is the excefs
of this movement, by which it is intended to throw the
{hip’s head up in the wind, in order to tack her, &c.
A ihip is accordingly faid to fpring her luff when (he
yields to the effort of the helm, by failing nearer to
the line of the wind than die had done before. See al-
fo Hauling the Wind.
LuFF-Tack/e, a name given by failors to any large
tackle that is not deftined for a particular place, but
may be varioufly employed as occafion requires. It
is generally fomewhat larger than the jigger tackle,
although fmaller than thofe which ferve to hoift the
heavier materials into and out of the veffel, which lat¬
ter are the main and fore tackles, the flay and quarter
tackles, &c.
LUG-sail, a fquare fail, hoifted occafionally on the
mail of a boat or fmall veffel upon a yard which hangs
nearly at right angles with the maft. Thefe are more
particularly ufed in the barca longas, navigated by the
Spaniards in the Mediterranean.
LUGDUNUM, in Ancient Geography, the capital
of the Segufiani in Gallia Celtica, fituated at the con-
dux of the Arar and Rhodanus, on an eminence, as the
Celtic term dune fignifies ; built by Manutius Plancus
under Auguftus, while commanding in that part of
Gaul; and whither he led a colony. Now Lyons, ca¬
pital of the Lyonnois.
Lug DUNUM Bavatorum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the Batavi in Gallia Belgica. Now Leyden in
Holland.
LUGDUNUM Converarum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Gaul in Aquitain, at the foot of the Pyrenees.
Now 9. Bertrand, in Gafcony.
LUGE US lacus, in Ancient Geography, a lake
of Japydia, the wefimoft diftrict of Ulyricum, to the
fouth of the Save, and near the head of the Arfia.
Now commonly called the Zirichnifz Lake, from a
fmall adjoining town. It is locked on every fide with
mountains j from which fcanty currents run down $ the
lefs in quantity their waters, becaufe drank up by the
earth; till at length they are fwallowed up in rocky
furrows, fo formed as to refemble artificial. In thefe
the water being fo redundant as to refufe receiving any Lugea,
more, they regurgitate, and return the water with ex- us
traordinary celerity, which thus ipreading itfelf, forms ■'
a lake, in moll places 18 cubits deep. Thtfe waters Lulli-
afterwards retire with no lefs celerity than they came
on, not only through the furrows, but pafs through
the whole of the bottom, as through a fieve ; which
when perceived by the inhabitants, they diredly Hop
up the larger apertures, and thus take large quantities
of fiih : when the lake is dry, they cut down their har-
veft on the fpot where they lowed, and fow again be¬
fore the inundation comes on : and grafs flioots fo quick
on it, that it may be cut down in three weeks time,
(Lazius, Wernherus).
LUGGERSHALL, a borough of Willlhire, 12
miles north of Salifbury, and 75 north by weft of Lon¬
don. It is an ancient borough by prefcription, though
but a fmall hamlet, near the forelt of Chute, in a de¬
lightful country 5 and was the refidence of feveral
kings. It had formerly a caftle. It is governed by a
bailiff chofen yearly at the lord of the manor’s court-
leet. On the neighbouring downs there ufed to be
horfe-races.
LUKE, St, the evangelift, and the difciple of the
apoftles, was originally of Antioch in Syria, and by
profelfion a phyfician. He particularly attached him-
felf to St Paul, and was his faithful companion in his
travels and labours. Fie went ivith him to Troas in
Macedonia about the year 51. He wrote his gofpel
in Achaia about the year 53 •, and, ten years after,
the a61s of the Apoftles, w'hich contains a hiftory of
30 years. Of all the infpired writers of the New Tef-
tament, his works are written in the moft elegant
Greek. It is believed that St Luke died at Rome, or
in Achaia.
^ Gofpel of St Luke, a canonical book of the New
Teftament. Some think that it was properly St
Paul’s Gofpel j and that, when the apoftle fpeaks of
his Gofpel, he means what is called St Luke's. Ire-
nseus fays, that St Luke digefted into writing what St
Paul preached to the Gentiles j and Gregory Nazian-
zen tells us, that St Luke wrote with the afliftance of
St Paul.
St Luke's the Evange/i/i's Day, a feftival in the
Chriftian church, obferved on the 18th of October.
LULA, a town of Swedilh Lapland ; feated at the
mouth of the river Lula, on the weft fide of the gulf
of Bothnia, 42 miles fouth-weft of Tornea. E. Long.
21. o. N. Lat. 64. 30.
Lula Lapmark, a province of Swedilh Lapland ;
bounded by that of Tornea on the north, by the Both-
nic gulf on the eaft, by Pithia Lapmark on the fouth,
and Norway on the weft.
LULLI, John Baptist, the moft celebrated and
moft excellent mufician that has appeared in France
fince the revival of learning, was born at Florence. He
was taken to France when very young by a perfon of
quality j and he carried the art of playing on the vio¬
lin to the higheft perfe&ion. Louis XIV. made him
fuperintendant of mufic. Some time after Perinna
having introduced operas into France, and quarrelling
with his company, he refigned his privilege to Lulli.
Operas were then carried to the utmoft perfedlion by
this celebrated mufician, and were attended with conti¬
nual
L U N
Lulli nual applaufe. Lull! every year, after this time, gave
!1 a piece of his own compofition, till his death, which
^un‘1' happened in 1687.
LULLY, Raymond, a writer on alchemy, fur-
named the Enlightened DoBor, was born in the ifland
of Majorca in 1225. He applied himfelf with indefa¬
tigable labour to the ftudy of the Arabian philofophy,
to chemiftry, phyfic, and divinity •, and acquired great
reputation by his works. He at length went to preach
the gofpel in Africa •, and was floned to death in Mau¬
ritania, at the age of 80. He is honoured as a martyr
at Majorca, whither his body was carried. He wrote
many treatifes on all the fciences, in which he (hows
much ftudy and fubtility, but little judgment or foli-
dity. A complete edition of his works has been printed
at Mentz.—He ought not to be confounded with Ray¬
mond Lully of Terraca, furnamed Neophyta, who from
being a Jew turned Dominican friar. This laft Lully
maintained feveral opinions that were condemned by
Pope Gregory XI.
LUMBAGO, a fixed pain in the fmall of the back.
See Medicine Index.
LUMBARIS, a name given to the arteries and
veins which fpread over the loins.
LUMBRiCAL, a name give to four mufcles of
the fingers and to as many of the toes.
LUMBRICUS, the Worm, a genus of animals be¬
longing to the order of vermes inteftina. See Helmin¬
thology Index.
LUMELLO, a village in Italy, which gives name
to the Lumellin, a fmall diftrift in the duchy of Mi¬
lan, lying along the river Po, and of which Mortaria
and Valencia are the principal places. It was ceded
to the duke of Savoy in 1707, and confirmed by the
treaty of Utrecht in 1713. E. Long. 8. 42. N. Lat.
45- 5*
LUMINOUS, an epithet applied to any thing that
Ihines or emits light.
LUMINOUS Emanations have been obferved from
human bodies, as alfo from thofe of brutes. The light
arifing from currying a horfe, or from rubbing a cat’s
back, are known to moft. Inftances of a like kind
have been known on combing a woman’s head. Bar¬
tholin gives us an account, which he entitles mulier
fplendens, of a lady in Italy whofe body would fhine
whenever (lightly touched with a piece of linen. Thefe
effluvia of animal bodies have many properties in com¬
mon with thofe produced from glafs •, fuch as their
being lucid, their fnapping, and their not being ex¬
cited without fome degree of friffion 5 and are un¬
doubtedly ele&rical, as a cat’s back has been found
ftrongly eleftrical when ftroaked. See Electricity
and Light.
LUMINOUSNESS of the Sea. See Light
and Sea.
Luminousness of Putrefcent Subjlances. See Light.
LUMP-fish. See Cyclopterus, Ichthyology
Index.
LUNA, in Ancient Geography, a foreft of Germany,
at no great diftance from the Hercynian; below which
were the Boemi: it was therefore in Moravia, near the
fprings of the Marus, now March, which runs into the
Danube over againft Carnutum.
Luna, or Lunna, a town of Gallia Celtica. Now
Clugny in Burgundy.
L U N
Luna, a town and port of Liguria, at the mouth Luna
of the Macra, The town was but fmall, but the port II .
large and beautiful, according to Strabo. Now extinft, Lunat.'.
and its ruins called Luna Dijlrutta. It was famous for
its quarries of white marble, thence called Lunenfe;
and for its cheefe, remarkable rather for its fize than
goodnefs, each being a thoufand weight.
Luna, in AJlronomy, the moon. See Astronomy,
pajfun,
Luna, in the jargon of the alchemifts, fignifies
Ji'ver ; lo called from the fuppofed influence of the moon
thereupon.
Luna Cornea, in Chsmiftry, is a compound of muri¬
atic acid with filver. See Silver, Muriate of?
Chemistry Index.
LUNACY, a fpecies of madnefs. See Lunatic,
and Medicine Index.
Lunacy, in Law. See Idiocy and Lunatic.
LUNAE MONS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of Lufitania. Now Rock of Lijbon. W. Long. 10.
N. Lat. 38. 50 Another Lunce Mans of Ethiopia,
from which the Nile was fuppofed to take its rife.
LuNJE Portus, a very extenfive port, or more truly
a bay, of Liguria, between Portus Veneris and Portus
Ericis, 20 miles in compafs. Now// Golf0 della Speosia,
on the eaft coaft of the territory of Genoa.
LUNAR, fomething relating to the Moon.
Lunar Month. See Month.
LUNAR Tear, confifts of 354 days, or I2fynodical
months. See Year.
Lunar Dial. See Dialling.
LUNARE os, in Anatomy, is the fecond bone in
the firlt row of the carpus. It has its name from the
Latin, luna, “ the moon,” becaufe one of its fides is in
form of a crefcent.
LUN ARIA, Satin flower, or Moonvjort; a genus
of plants belonging to the tetradynamia clafs ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 39th order,
Siliqnofcc. See Botany Index.
LUNARIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promon¬
tory of the Hither Spain, between Blanda and Bastulo.
Commonly called el Cabo de Palafugel, in Catalonia,
on the Mediterranean j or Cabo de Tofa, on the fame
coaft, and in Catalonia, 15 miles from the former, to
the weft.
LUNATIC, a perfon affefted with that fpecies of
madnefs termed lunacy. The word is indeed properly,
applied to one that hath lucid intervals j fometimes
enjoying his fenfes, and fometimes not •, and that
frequently fuppofed to depend on the influence of the>
moon.
Lunatic, in Law. Under the general term of non*
compos mentis (which Sir Edward Coke fays is the mofl;
legal name), are comprifed not only lunatics, but
perfons under frenzies, or who lofe their intelleds by
difeafe; thofe that deaf, dumb, and blind, not
being born fo ; or fuch, in (hort, as are judged by
the court of chancery incapable of conducing their
own affairs. To thefe alfo, as well as idiots, the king
is guardian, but to a very different purpofe. For the
law always imagines, that thefe accidental misfortunes
may be removed ; and therefore only conftitutes the
crown a truftee for the unfortunate perfons, to proteft
their property, and to account to them for all profits.
received, if they recover, or after their deceafe to their
reprefentatives*.
f 26l ]
Lunatic
II
Lundy.
L U N [2
re prefen tatives. And therefore it is declared by the
fiatute 17 Edvv. II. c. 10. that the king {hall provide
for the cudody and fuftentation of lunatics, and preferve
their lands, and the profits of them, for their ufe when
they come to their right mind; and the king {hall take
nothing to his own u!e : and if the parties die in fuch
eftate, the refidue lhall be diftributed for their fouls
by the advice of the ordinary, and of courfe (by the
fubfequent amendments of the law of adminiftrations)
{hall now go to their executors or adminiftrators.
On the firft attack of lunacy, or other occafional
infanity, when there may be hopes of a fpeedy reftitution
of reafon, it is ufual to confine the unhappy objedls in
private cuftody under the direftion of their neareft
friends and relations ; and the legiflature, to prevent all
abufes incident to fuch private cuftody, hath thought
proper to interpofe its authority, by 14 Geo. III. c.
49. for regulating private mad-houfes. But when the
diforder is grown permanent, and the circumftances of
the party will bear fuch additional expence, it is thought
proper to apply to the royal authority to warrant a
lading confinement.
The method of proving a perfon non compos is very
fimilar to that of proving him an idiot. The lord
chancellor, to whom, by fpecial authority from the
king, the cuftody of idiots and lunatics is intruded,
upon petition or information, grants a commiftion in
nature of the writ de idiota wquirendo, to inquire into
the party’s ftate of mind *, and if he be found non com-
pos, he ufually commits the care of his perfon, with a
fuitable allowance for his maintenance, to fome friend,
who is then called his committee. However, to pre¬
vent finifter praftices, the next heir isfeldom permitted
to be of this committee of the perfon ; becaufe it is his
intereft that the party {hould die. But it hath been
faid there lies not the fame objection againft his next
of kin, provided he be not his heir; for it is his intereft
to preferve the lunatic’s life, in order to increafe the
perfonal eftate by favings, which he or his family may
hereafter be entitled to enjoy. The heir is generally
made the manager or committee of the eftate, it being
clearly his intereft by good management to keep it in
condition : accountable, however, to the court of chan¬
cery, and to the non compos himfelf, if he recovers ; or
otherwife, to his adminiftrators. See Idiocy.
LUNATION, the period or fpace of time between
one new moon and another; d[{aca\\e&fynodicalmonth.
See Cycle and Epact.
L UNDEN, or LuND,a confiderable town of Sweden,
in Gothland ; and capital of the territory of Schonen,
with an archbilhop’s fee and an univerfity. It was
ceded to the Swedes by the Danes in 1658. E. Long.
13. 25. N. Lat. 55. 40.
LUNDY island, fituated 50 miles in the fea, off
the north-weft coaft of Devonftiire, is five miles long
and two broad, but fo encompaffed with inaeceflible
rocks, that it has but one entrance to it, fo narrow that
two men can fcarcely go abreaft. It is reckoned in the
hundred of Brandon. It had once both a fort and a
chapel. The fouth part of it is indifferent good foil,
but the north part of it is barren, and has a high pyra¬
midal rock called the Conflable. Here are horfes, kine,
hogs, and goats, ■with great ftore of ftieep and rabbits;
but the chief commodity is fowl, with which it abounds
muoh, their eggs being very thick on the ground at
3
62 ]
L U N
their feafon of breeding,
live in this ifland.
No venomous creature will Lund.
In the reign of Henry VIII. one || '
William Moriico, who had confpired to murder him at I'llnent)w
Woodftock, fled to this ifland, which he fortified, turn- ^
ed pirate, and did much damage to this coaft ; but was
taken by furprife at length, with 16 of his accomplices
and put to death.
LUNE, Lunula, in Geometry, a plane in form of a
crefcent or half-moon, terminated by the circumference
of two circles, that interfeft each other within.
LUNENBURG, or Lunenburg Zell, a principa¬
lity of Germany, bounded to the fouth by that of
Calenberg, the diocefe of Hildeftieim, and the duchy
of Brunfwic ; to the north, by the duchy of Lauenburg
and the Elbe, by the laft of which it is feparated from
the territory of the imperial city of Hamburgh ; to the
eaft, by the duchy of Brunfwic, the Alte Mark, and
the duchy of Mecklenburg ; and to the weft, by the
duchies of Bremen and Verden, the county of Hoya,
and the principality of Calenberg. The foil, except
along the Elbe, Aller, and Jetz, is either fand, heath,
or moor. In the more fruitful parts of it are produced
wheat, rye, barley, oats, peafe, buck-wheat, flax, hemp,
hops, pulfe, oak, beech, firs, pines, birch, and alder,
together with black cattle and horfes. The heaths
abound with bees and honey, and a fmall kind of {heep
whofe wool is long and coarfe. Lunenburg is well fur-
niftied with fait fprings and limeftone, and the foreft
of Gorde with venifon. The rivers Elbe, Ilmenau and
Aller, are navigable ; and confequently very advanta¬
geous to the country, independent of the filh which
they yield. The general diets of this principality are
convened by the fovereign twice a-year, and held at
Zell. They confift of the deputies of the nobility and
the towns of Lunenburg, Uelzen, and Zell, who have
the nomination of the members of the high colleges, and
other officers, jointly with the fovereign. There are
near 200 Lutheran churches in the country, under two
general and 15 fubordinate fuperintendants, feveral
grammar-fchools, two Calvinift churches at Zell, and
an academy of exercifes at Lunenburg. The manufac¬
tures are chiefly linen cloth, cottons, ribbons, {lockings,
hats, ftarch, bleached wax, refined fugar, gold and
filver wires, all kinds of wooden wares, barges, boats,
and fhips. The exports of thefe to Hamburgh, Lubec,
and Altona, are confiderable. The nighbourhood of
thefe cities, with the facility of conveying goods and
merchandife to them and other places, either by land
or water, is very advantageous to this country, and
contributes greatly to its fubfiftence. On account of
this principality, the king of Great Britain has a feat
and voice both in the college of the princes of the em¬
pire and of the circle of Lower Saxony. Its quota in
the matricula is 20 horfe and 120 foot, or 720 florins
in lieu of them. The revenues of the principality arife
chiefly from the demefnes, tolls on the Elbe, contribu¬
tions, duties on cattle, beer, wine, brandy, and other
commodities, which altogether muft be very confider¬
able, fome bailiwics alone yielding upwards of 20,000
rix-dollars.
Lunenburg, the capital of the principality of the
fame name, is a pretty large town of Germany, on the
river Elmen, or the Ilmenau, which is navigable from
the town to the Elbe, at the diftance of 13 miles. It
is 27 miles from Hamburgh, 43 from Zell, 65 from
Brunfwic,
L U N
[
jmenburg, Brunfwic, y 6 from Bremen, 68 from Hanover; and
Lunenfe flands jn E. Long. 10. 40. N. Lat. 53. 28. Its in-
I Harm or. ^ are reckoned at between 8000 and 9000.
""*"v Formerly this town was one of the Hanfe, and an im¬
perial city. Some derive its name from Lina, the
ancient name of the Ilmenau ; others from Luna, the
moon, an image of which is faid to have been wor-
fhipped by the inhabitants in the times of Paganifm.
Here were anciently feveral convents, viz. one of Mi¬
nims, another of Premonftratenfians, another of Be-
nediftines, and a fourth of Minorites. Out of the
revenues of the Bcnedidtine monaftery was founded an
academy for the martial exercifes, where young gentle¬
men of the principality of Lunenburg are maintained
gratis, and taught French, fencing, riding, and dan¬
cing ; but foreigners are educated at a certain fixed
price. A Latin fchool was alio founded, confifting of
four clafles, and well endowed out of thefe revenues.
The fuperintendency and management of thefe, and the
eftates appropriated to their maintenance, belongs to
the landfchaft dire&or, and the aufreiter, who are both
chofen from among the Lunenburg nobility. The firft
came in place of the Popilh abbot, and as fuch is head
of the Rates of the principality, and prefident of the
provincial college. He has the title of excellencij ; and
in public inftruments Ryles himfelf, by the t^race of God
landfchaft direBor, and lord of the manfon of St Michael
in Lunenburg. The chief public edifices are three pa-
rifli-churches, the ducal palace, three hofpitals, the
town-houfe, the falt-magazine, the anatomical theatre,
the academy ; the conventual church of St Michael, in
which lie interred the ancient dukes, and in which is
the famous table eight feet long, and four wide, plated
over with chafed gold, with a rim embellilhed with
precious Rones, of an immenfe value, which was taken
from the Saracens by the emperor Otho, and prefented
to this church : but in 1698, a gang of thieves Rripped
it of 200 rubies and emeralds, together with a large
diamond, and moR of the gold, fo that at prefent but a
fmall part of it remains. Here are fome very rich fait
fprings. Formerly, when there wfas a great demand
for the fait, upwards of 120,000 tons have been an¬
nually boiled here,' and fold off; but fince the com¬
mencement of the prefent century, the fait trade hath
declined greatly. A fifth of the fait made here belongs
to the king, but is farmed out. It is faid to excel all
the other fait made in Germany. This town is well
fortified ; and has a garrifon, which is lodged in bar¬
racks. In the neighbourhood is a good limefione
quarry ; and along the Ilmenau are warehoufes, in
which are lodged goods brought from all parts of Ger¬
many, to be forwarded by the Ilmenau to Hamburgh,
or by the Afche to Lubec, from whence other goods
are brought back the fame way. The town itfelf carries
on a confiderable traffic in wax, honey, wool, flax, linen,
fait, lime, and beer. .
LUNENSE marmor, in the natural hiRory of the
ancients, the name of that fpecies of white marble
now known among us by the name of the Carrara
marble, and diflinguiffied from the flatuary kind by its
greater hardnefs and lefs fplendour. It was ever great¬
ly effeemed in building and ornamental works, and is
fo Rill. It is of a very clofe and fine texture, of a very
pure white, and much more tranfparent than any
63 ] L U N
other of the white marbles. It has always been found Lunenfe
in great quantities in Italy, and is fo to this day. See MaJmor
Luna.
Lungs.
LUNETTE, in Fortification, an enveloped counter¬
guard, or elevation of earth, made beyond the fecond
ditch, oppofite to the places of arms ; differing from
the ravelins only in their fituation. Lunettes are ufually
made in ditches full of water, and ferve to .the fame
purpofe as fauffebrayes, to difpute the paffage of the
ditch. See Fortification.
Lunette, in the manege, is a half horfe-flioe, or
fuch a ffioe as wants the fponge, i. e. that part of the
branch which runs towards the quarters of the foot.
Lunette is alfo the name of two fmall pieces of
felt, made round and hollow, to clap upon the eyes
of a vicious horfe that is apt to bite, and flrike with
his fore feet, or that will not fuffer his rider to mount
him.
LUNGS, in Anatomy, a part of the human body,,
ferving for refpiration. See Anatomy, N° 117.
In the Journal de Medicine for June 1789, is a de-
fcription of an
Inftrument for Inflating the LlJNGS, invented by M.
Gorcy,phyfician to the military hofpital at Neufbrifack,
which appears to be extremely well adapted to the pur¬
pofe, whilfl it may be ufed with the greateR eafe and
facility.
This inflrument, which the inventor Ryles apodopic,
that is, “ reflorer of refpiration,” confifls of a double Plate
pair of bellows, BCLM, fig. 1. the two different parts CLXCVITIt
of which have no communication with each other. In *•
the lower fide BM, is an aperture A for a valve con-
flrudled on the principles of thofe of Mr Nairne’s air-
pump. It confiRs of a rim of copper, clofed at one
end by a plate of the fame metal, in which plate are
feven fmall holes placed at equal diflances. This plate is
covered with pieces of filk coated with elaflic gum, in
which are fix tranfverfe incifions of two or three lines in
length. Each incifion is fo made as to be fituated be¬
tween two of the holes, and at an equal diRance from
each : fee D, fig. 2. The filk muff be made very ie- Fig. 2.
cure by a thread palling feveral times round the rim.
It is obvious, that a flream of air applied to that fide of
the plate which is oppofite the filk, will pafs through
the holes, and, lifting up the filk, efcape through the
incifions. On the contrary, a Rream of air applied to
the other fide will prefs the filk upon the plate, and thus
clofe the holes, fo that it will be impoflible for it to
pafs through them. This valve opens internally, fo as
to admit the air from without. At B is another valve,on
the fame conflru&ion, but opening in a contrary direc¬
tion, thus permitting the air to efcape out of the lower
part into the tube EF, but preventing its entrance. At
G is another valve, opening internally to admit the air
from the tube EF ; and at D there is a fourth, opening
externally to difcharge the air from the upper part.
The flexible tube EF, fcrewed on at the end CB,
being introduced into one of the nofirils, whilfl the
mouth and the other noflril are clofed by an afliflant,
if we feparate the two handles LM, which were clofe
together at the introduction of the tube, it is evident,
that the air in the lungs will rufh into the upper part
through the valve C, whilit the external air will fill
the lower part through the valve A : the two handles
being;
L UP f 2
tujgs bting again brought into contaft, the atmofpheric air
Lupinus. W1^ be forced into the lungs through the valve B, and
v    tbe lame time the air in the upper part will be dil-
charged at the valve D. Thus by the alternate play of
the double bellows, the lungs will be alternately filled
and emptied as in refpiration. In ufing the inftrument
care (hould be taken not to be too violent ; as the more
perfectly the natural motion of refpiration is imitated,
the better.
To prevent any fubftances from without injuring the
valves AD, fig. i. the rim is made with a ferew, B, fig.
Fig. 3. 3. in order to receive a cap A A, fig. 3. full of fmall
holes. I his ferew has alfo another ule. If air or oxy¬
gen gas be preferred, a bladder filled with it, fig. 4.
may, by means of the lerew' A, be falltned to the valve
A, fig. 1. •, and, to prevent wafte, as this air may ferve
feveral times, a flexible tube may be ferewed on the
valve D, fig. 1. communicating with the bladder by
JS- 4* means of the opening d, fig. 4. : thus it may be employ¬
ed as often as the operator thinks proper.
I here is a handle K to the partition in the middle,
in order that, if it be at any time neceffary toufe either
of the divifions alone, the other may be confined from
Tig- 5‘ a6ling. c, b, fig. 5. reprefent the two valves to be ap¬
plied at the end of the inftrument C, B, fig. 1. j and
fig. 6. is a fedtion of the end CB, fhowing the valves
in their proper places.
It is proper to add, that the capacity of the inftru¬
ment fliould be proportioned to the quantity of air re¬
ceived into the lungs in infpiration, which Dr Goodwyn
has afeertained to be twelve cubical inches or fomewhat
more. Each divifion of the inftrument, therefore,
fhould be capable of containing that quantity.
LuNG-Wort. See Pulmonaria, Botany Index.
LUNISOLAR year, in Chronology, the fpace of
532 common years 5 found by multiplying the cycle of
the fun by that of the moon.
LUNULA. See Lune.
LUPERCALIA, feafts inftituted in ancient Rome,
in honour of the god Pan. The word comes from Lu-
percal, the name of a place under the Palatine moun¬
tain, where the facrifices were performed.
The Lunercalia were celebrated on the 15th of the
kalends of March, that is, on the 15th of February, or,
as Ovid obferves, on the third day after the ides. They
are fuppofed to have been cftablilhed by Evander.
On the morning of this feaft, the Luperci, or prit fts
of Pan, ran naked through the ftreets of Rome, link¬
ing the married women they met on the hands and
belly wdth a thong or ftrap of goats leather, which was
held an omen promifing them fecundity and happy de¬
liveries. See Luperci.
This feaft w'as abolilhed in the time of Auguftus ;
but afterwards reftored, and continued to the time of
the emperor Anaftafius.—Baronius fays it wasaboliftied
by the pope in 496.
LUPERCI. a name given to the priefts of the god
Pan. See Lupercai ia.
The luperci were the moft ancient order of priefts in
Rome ; they wrere divided into two colleges or compa¬
nies, the one called Fobii and the other \uintilii. To
thefe Coe far added a third, which he called Julii.
LUPINUS, Lupine; a genus of plants belonging
to the diadelphia clafs; and in the natural method rank-
] L U S
ing under the 3 2d order, Papilionacece. See Botany
Index.
LUPULUS, the Hop plant. See Humulus, Bo¬
tany Index.
LUPUS, the Wolf. See Canis, Mammalia
Index.
Lupus Marinus, the Sea-ws(f, a filh. See Anar-
rhicas, Ichthyology Index.
Lupus, in Ajlronomy. See Astronomy Index.
LURCHER, a kind of hunting-dog, much like a
mongrel greyhound with pricked ears, a ftiagged coat,
and generally of a yellow ilh white colour : they are
very fwift runners, fo that if they get between the
burrows and the conies they feldom mifs ; and this
is their common practice in hunting : yet they ufe
other fubtilties, as the tumbler does, fome of them
bringing in their game, and thofe are the belt. It is
alfo obfervable, that a lurcher will run down a hare at
ftretch.
LURE, in falconry, a device of leather, in the Ihape
of tw’o wings, ftuck with feathers, and baited with a
piece of flelh, to call back a haw k when at confiderable
diftance.
LURGAN, a town in the county of Armagh and
province of Ulfter in Ireland, 67 miles from Dublin.
It is a flourilhing town, agreeably fituated in the midft
of a much improved country ; and the inhabitants are
extenfively engaged in the linen manufafture. It Hands
on a gentle eminence, about two miles from Lough-
Neagh, of which it commands a moft beautiful and ex-
tenfive profpeft. N. Lat. 54. 35. W. Long. 6. 31.
Lurgan green, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Louth and province of Leinfter, 37 miles from Dub¬
lin ; a mile beyond which is a handfome feat of the
earl of Charlemont.
LURIDAL, the name of the 28th order in Lin¬
naeus’s fragments of a natural method. See Botany,
Natural Orders.
L US APIA, a marquifate of Germany, in Upper
Saxony; bounded to the eaft by Silefia, to the weft by
Miinia, to the fouth by Bohemia, and to the north by
the marquifate of Brandenburgh. Till towards the
middle of the 15th century, the Upper Lufatia was
called, the Mark, i. e. the merquijate or the land of Bu-
difzin and Gorht'z ; and the Lower o-dy Lufatia, w hich
it is faid, in the Sclavonic, fignifies “ a woody or
marlhy country.” The air of the Upper Lufatia,
which is hilly or mountainous, is better than that of
the Lower, a great part of which is moorifli and bog¬
gy. Both abound in wood, efpecially the Lower, and
turf for fuel. The heathy and mountainous trafls are
generally barren ; but the lower champaign and marih
lands are tolerably fertile, producing pafture, wheat,
rye, oats, barley, buck-wheat, peafe, lentils, beans,
and millet; together with flax, hops, tobacco, fome
white and red wine, and what is called manna Of
feveral of thefe articles, however, confiderable quan¬
tities are imported. In this country are found alfo
quarries of ftone, medicinal fprings, baftard diamonds,
agates, and jafpers, earths and clays for tobacco-
pipes and all forts of earthen ware, alum, good iron
ftone, vitriolic and copper water ; nor is it deftitute
of cattle, filh, and venifon. The rivers Spree, th©
Schwarze or Black Elfter, and the Pulznitz, have
their
laipiim:
APPAKATl S FOH INFLATING THE LUNGS .
^ 3.
PLATE CCXCm.
/F/fryrJlzL ClLA xtezife •'
L U S { 265 ] L U S
Lufatia. their fources in the Lufatias, which are alfo watered
by the Neiffe and Queis. The ancient inhabitants of
this country were the Saxons, who were fucceeded by
the Vandals, and thefe by the Soher-Wends, a Scla-
vonian people. The prefent inhabitants, the descen¬
dants of the Wends, have an odd drefs j and the lan¬
guage is fo inarticulate and guttural, that it hath been
Said, it might be pronounced without lips, teeth, or
tongue } but the towns are altnoft wholly peopled by
Germans.
In the Upper Lufatia are fix towns which appear
at the land-diets, 16 fmaller country towns, and four
market towns. In the Lower are four diet towns, 13
country towns, and two market ones. Both marqui-
fates were formerly fubje6t either to the kings of Bo¬
hemia, the archdukes of Auftria, or eleTors of Bran-
denburgh j but, in 1636, both were abfolutely ceded
to the ele&or of Saxony, in lieu of the 72 tons of
gold which he expended in ailitting the emperor Fer¬
dinand II. againlt the Bohemians.
Chriilianity was firlt pianted in Lufatia in the fe-
venth century but it was feveral centuries after that
before Popery was fully erta’olHired. In the 11th cen¬
tury many cloifters were ereTed in the country j but
at the Reformation fuch numbers embraced Liftheran-
afm, that it became the predominant religion, and ftHl
continues, though there are ft ill feveral Roman Ca¬
tholic foundations, churches, market-towns, and vil¬
lages. The enthufiaftic feel of Hernhuters poffefTes
a great influence and efteem here. There are con-
fiderable manufactures of woollen and linen duffs in
the Lufatias, efpecially the Upper. At Budiffen, and
in the adjacent country, prodigious quantities of dock¬
ings, fpatterdafhes, caps, and gloves are made. The
linen manufactures alfo dourifh here, chiefly in the Up¬
per Lufatia, where all forts of linen are made, printed,
and dyed. Exclufive of thefe, there are confiderable
manufactures of hats, leather, paper, gunpowder, iron,
glafs, bleached wrax,- &c. Though the demand and ex¬
portation of thefe commodities, particularly linen and
woollens, is not fo great as formerly, yet it is dill con-
liderable, and more than overbalances their importa¬
tions in wool, yarn, dlk, wines, fpices, corn, frefh and
baked fruits, garden duff, and hops. Difputes of many
years danding have fubdded between the country ar¬
tificers and linen manufacturers on the one fide, and
the diet-towns on the other j the latter unjudly feek-
ing to exclude the former from any (hare in the linen
trade. The natives of this country are faid to have
quick natural parts, but to be fordidly penurious. We
are told they obferve the Saxon laws much better than
they did the Bohemian. Learning hath been much
edeemed and encouraged in both marquifates fince the
Reformation. The Ichools in the fix diet towns of Up¬
per Lufatia, particularly at Gorlitz, Budiffen, and
Zittau, greatly didinguilh themfelves, having hand-
fome dipends. In Lower Lufatia alfo are fome good
fchools, with dipends for the maintenance of dudents.
Printing is faid to belmuch followed, and brought to
great perfedion in this country.
In Upper Lufatia, the dates confid, id, of thofe
called yfote-Zon/j-; 2dly, of the prelates; fldly, of the
gentry and commonalty, under which are comprehend¬
ed the counts, barons, nobles, and burgeffes, poffef-
fors of fees and fief-edatesj and, 4thly, of the repre-
Vol. XII. Part I.
fentatives of the fix principal towns. Without the Lufatia
confent of thefe dates no taxes can be impcfed, nor any H
thing of importance, that regards the public, tranl-■ u ra
afted. The diets are ordinary or extraordinary. The
ordinary meet once in three years, and the extraordi¬
nary when fummoned by the fovereign upon particular
emergencies. As to ecclefiallical matters, the dean of
Budiffen and his confiffory exercife all manner of epif-
copal jurifdidion 5 and among the Protedants, the
jurifdiCtion belongs either to the fuperior, the upper-
office, or the patrons. The revenues arifing to the
fuperior or fovereign, from Upper Lufatia, confid
partly cf the fubddies granted by the dates, among
which, at prefent, are reckoned capitation and edate-
money j and partly of the beer-tax, excife, tolls, &c.
— Upper Lufatia is divided into two great circles, viz.
thofe of Budiffen and Gorlitz, which are again divided
into leffer circles.
The land dates of Lower Lufatia confid, like thofe
of the Upper, of prelates, lords, and knights, and
the reprefentatives of the date towns, which are Luc-
kau, Gubben-Lubben, and Kalau. Two land diets
are yearly held at Lubben, called voluntary-diets; but
vhen the fuperior caufes the dates to be fummoned
together at his difcretion, and propodtions to be laid
before them, by commiffaries deputed for that pur-
pofe, fuch convention is called a great land diet. The
marquifate is divided into five circles, each of which
holds a circle affembled in its circle town. The chief
officers appointed either by the fuperior or the dates
are, the prefident of the upper office, the land captain,
and the land judge. The principal tribunals are, the
land court, and the upper office, to which lie appeals
from the inferior judicatories. There are alfo officers
for the feveral circles. Spiritual matters belong here
to a confidory, ere&ed in 1668. The ordinary taxes
^re paid into the ched of the circle j and from thence
configned to the general ched, of which the upper
tax-receiver is fuperintendant. By him an annual ac¬
count of the receipts is made out, which is examined
and paffed by the deputies of the dates.
LUSITANIA, in /Indent Geography, one of the
divifions of Spain, extending to the north of the Ta¬
gus, quite to the lea of Cantabria, at lead to the Pro-
montorium Celticum. But Augudus, by a new regu¬
lation, made the Anas its boundary to the fouth, the
Durius to the north j and thus condituting only a part
of the modern Portugal. Lujitani the people, (Diodo¬
rus, Stephanus).
LUSTRAL, an epithet given by the ancients to
the water ufed in their ceremonies to fprinkle and pu¬
rify the people. From them the Romanids have bor¬
rowed the holy water ufed in their churches.
Lustral Day (Dies Lujlricus), that whereon , the
ludrations were performed for a child, and its name
given j which was ufually the ninth day from the birth
of a boy, and the eighth from that of a girl. Though
others performed the ceremony on the lad day of that
week wherein the child was born, and others on the
fifth day from its birth.
Over this fead-day the goddefs Nundina was fup
pofed to prefide j the midwives, nurfes, and domedics
handed the child backwards and forwards, around a
fire burning on the altars of the gods, after which they
fprinkled it with water j hence this feaft had the name
LI of
Xuflral,
Luftration.
of amphidromia.
with the water,
entertainment.
L U S [ 266
The old women mixed faliva and duft
The whole ended with a fumptuous
The parents received gifts from their
friends on this occafion. If the child was a male, their
door was decked with an olive garland 5 if a female,
with wool, denoting the work about which women
were to be employed.
L US IRA I ION, in antiquity, facrinces or cere¬
monies by which the ancients purified their cities,
fields, armies, or people, defiled by any crime or im¬
purity. Some of thefe luilrations were public, others
private. There were three fpecies or manners of per¬
forming Initiation, viz. by fire and fulphur, by water,
and by air} which laft was done by fanning and agi¬
tating the air round the thing to be purified. Some
of thefe luftratiohs were neceilary, i. e. could not be
difpenfed with } as 1 ullrations of houfes in time of a
plague, or upon the death of any perfon : others again
W'ere done put of choice, and at pleafure. The public
luflrations at Rome were celebrated every fifth year ;
in which they led a victim thrice round the place to
De purified, and in the mean time burnt a great quan¬
tity of perfumes. Their country luftrations, which
they called ambarvalia, were celebrated before they
began to reap their corn: in thofe of the armies, which
they called armilu/1 rin, fome chofen foldiers, crowned
with laurel, led the vidfims, which were a cow, a fheep,
and a bull, thrice round the army ranged in battle-
array in the field of Mars, to which deity the vidlims
were afterwards facrificed, after pouring out many
imprecations upon the enemies of the Romans. The
luflrations of their flocks were performed in this man¬
ner : the fhepherd fprinkled them with pure water,
and thrice furrounded his flieepfold with a compofition
of favin, laurel, and brimftone fet on fire j and after¬
wards facrinced to the goddefs Pales an offering of
milk boiled, wine, a cake, and millet. As for private
houfes, they were luftrated with water, a fumigation
of laurel, juniper, olive tree, favin, and fuch like j and
the yidlim commonly was a pig. Luftrations made for
particular perfons were commonly called expiations, and
the vidlims piactila. There was’alio a kind of luftra¬
tion ufed for infants, by which they were purified, girls
the third, and boys the ninth, day after their birth \
which ceremony was performed with pure water and
fpittle. See the article Ambarvalia.—In their luf-
tratory faerifices, the Athenians facrificed tvro men, one
for the men of their city, and the other for the women.
Divers of thefe expiations were auftere : fome fafted ;
others abftained from all fenfual pleafures, and fome,
as the priefts of Cybele, caftrated themfelves. The
poftures of the penitents were different according to
the different facrifices. The priefts changed their ha¬
bits according to the ceremony to be performed } white,
purple, and black, were the moft ufual colours. They
caft into the river, or at leaf! out of the city, the ani¬
mals or other things that had ferved for a luftration or
facrifice of atonement j and thought themfelves threat¬
ened with fome great misfortune when by chance they
trod upon them. Part of thefe ceremonies were abo-
lifhed by the emperor Conftantine and his fucceffors :
the reft fubfifted till the Gothic kings were mafters of
Rome : under whom they expired, excepting what the
popes thought proper to adopt and bring into the
churcho
Lute.
] L U T
For the luftration, or rather expiation, of the ancient Luftratb
Jews, fee Expiation. 11“
LUSTRE, the glofs or brightnefs appearing on any
thing, particularly on manufactures of filk, wool, or
fluff. It is likewife uied to denote the compofition or
manner of giving that glofs.
I he luftre of filks is given them by wafhing in foap,
then clear water, and dipping them in alum water cold.
1 o give fluffs a beautiful luftre: For every eight pounds
of fluff allow a quarter of a pound of linfeed ; boil it
half an hour, and then ftrain it through a cloth, and
let it (land till it is turned almoft to a jelly : after¬
wards put an ounce and a half of gum to diffolve 24
hours j then mix the liquor, and put the cloth into
this mixture; take it out, dry it in the fliade, and prefs
it. If once doing is not fufficient, repeat the opera¬
tion. Curriers give a luftre to black leather firft with
juice of barberries, then with gum-arabic, ale, vinegar,
and Flanders glue, boiled together. For coloured lea¬
ther, they ufe the white of an egg beaten in water.
Moroccoes have their luftre from juice of barberries,
and lemon or orange. For hats, the luftre is frequently
given with common water: fometimes a little black
dye is added : the fame luftre ferves for furs, except
that for very black furs they fometimes prepare a luflre
of galls, copperas, Roman alum, ox’s marrow, and other
ingredients.
_ Lustre, an appellation given to a branched candle-
flick, when made of glais. See Branch and Jesse.
LUS1 RINGS. A company was incorporated for
making, dreflmg, and luftrating alamodes and luftrings
in England, who were to have the foie benefit thereof,
by flat. 4 imd j W illiam and Mary. And no foreign
filks known by the name of lujlrings or alamodes are to
be imported but at the port of London, &c. Stat,
9 and 10 William III. c. 43. See Silk.
LUSIRUM, in Roman antiquity, a genera] mufter
and review of all the citizens and their goods, which
was performed by the cenfors every fifth year, who
afterwards made a fokmn luftration. See the article
Lustration.
This cuftom was firft inftituted by Servius Tullius,
about 180 years after the foundation of Rome. In
courfe of time the luftra were not celebrated fo often ;
for we find the fifth luftrum celebrated at Rome only
in the 574th year of that city.
LUiE, or Loting, among chemifts, a mixed, te¬
nacious, duflile fubftance, which grows folid by drying,
and, being applied to the juncture of veffels, flops them
up fo as to prevent the air from getting in or out.
Lute is alfo a mufical inftrument with firings.-—
The lute confifts of four parts, viz. the table, the body
or belly, which has nine or ten lides : the neck, which
has nine or ten flops or divifions, marked with firings :
and the head or crofs, where the ferews for raifing and
lowering the firings to a proper pitch of tone are fixed.
In the middle of the table there is a rofe or pafiage for
the found ; there is alfo a bridge that the firings are
faftened to, and a piece of ivory between the head and
the neck to which the other extremities of the firings
are fitted. In playing, the firings are Truck with the
right hand, and with the left the flops are prefieck
The lutes of Bologna are efleemed the beft on account
of the wood, which is faid to have an uncommon difpo-
Sticti for producing a fweet found.
LUTETIAj
L U T [ 267 ] L U T
tutetia, LUTETI A PARISIORUM, in Ancient Gcag; afihi], a
Luther- town of the Parifii, in Gallia Celtica, fituated in an
jfland in the Sequana or Seine. It received its name,
as fome luppofe, from the quantity of clay, lutum, > hich
is in its neighbourhood. J. Ctefar fortified and embel-
liihed it, from which circumftance fome authors call it
Juki Civitas. Julian the apottate refided there for iome
time. It is now PARIS, the capital of France j fo call¬
ed from its name Pa^ijis in the lower age.
LUTHER, Martin, the celebrated author of the
Reformation, was a native of Eifleben in Saxony, and
born in 14S3. Though his parents were poor, he re¬
ceived a learned education j during the progrefs of
which, he gave many indications of uncommon vigour
and acutenefs of genius. As his mind was naturally
fufceptible of ferious impreffions, and tinidured with
fome what of that religious melancholy which delights
in the folitude and devotion of a monadic life, he re¬
tired into a convent of Augullinian friars ; where he
acquired great reputation,- not only for piety, but for
love of knowledge and unwearied application to idudy.
The caufe of this retirement is faid to have been, that
he was once ftruck by lightning, and his companion
killed by his fide by the fame flafh. He had been taught
the fcholaftic philofophy which was in vogue in thofe
days, and made confiderable progrefs in it : but hap¬
pening to find a copy of the Bible which lay neglefted
in the library of his monaltery, he applied himfelf to
the ftudy of it with fuch eagernefs and affiduity, as
quite aftonilhed the monks ; and increafed his reputa¬
tion for fanfdity fo much, that he was chofen profefior
firft of philofophy, and afterwards of theology, at Wit-
teroberg on the Elbe, where Frederic eleftor of Saxony
had founded an univerfity.
\fyhile Luther continued to enjoy the higheft repu¬
tation for fanftity and learning, Tetzel, a Dominican
friar, came to Wittemberg in order to publilh indul¬
gences. Luther beheld his fuccefs with great con¬
cern ; and having firft inveighed againft indulgences
from the pulpit, he afterwards publiihed 95 thefes,
containing his fentiments on that fubje£L Thefe he
propofed, not as points fully eftablilhed, but as fub-
je&s of inquiry and difputation. He appointed a day
on which the learned were invited to impugn them ei¬
ther in perfon or by writing 5 and to the whole he
fubjoined folemn protellations of his high refpeft for
the apoftolic fee, and of his implicit fubmilfion to its
authority. No opponent appeared at the time pre¬
fixed *, the thefes fpread over Germany with aftonifii-
ing rapidity, and were read with the greateft eager¬
nefs.
Though Luther met with no opposition for fome
little time after he began to publish his new- doctrines,
it was not long before many zealous champions arofe
to defend thofe opinions with which the wealth and
power of the clergy were fo ftri&ly conne&ed. Their
caufe, however, w-as by no means promoted by thefe
endeavours j the people began to call in queftion even
the authority of the caflon law and of the pope him-
fclf.— I he court of Rome at firft defpifed thefe new
doftrines and difputes ; but at laft the attention of
the pope being railed by the great fuccefs of the re¬
former, and the complaints of his adverfaries, Luther
was fummoned in the month of July 1518, to ap¬
pear at Rome, within 60 clays, before the auditor of
the chamber. One of Luther’s adverfaries, named
Prierias, who had written againft him, was appointed
to examine his doftrines, and to decide concerning
them. The pope wrote at the fame time to the elec¬
tor of Saxony, befteching him not to proteft a man
whofe heretical and profane tenets were fo Shocking to
pious ears ; and enjoined the provincial of the Au-
guftinians to check by his authority the raftinefs of an
arrogant monk, which brought difgrace upon their
order, and gave offence and disturbance to the whole
church.
From thefe letters, and the appointment of his open
enemy Prierias to be his judge, Luther eafily favv
what fentence he might expeft at Rome j and there¬
fore discovered the utmoft folicitude to have his caufe
tried in Germany, and before a lefs fufpefted tri¬
bunal. He wrote a fubmiSTive letter to the pope, in
which he premifed an unreferved obedience to his will,
for as yet he entertained no doubt of ihe divine ori¬
ginal of the pope’s authority ; and by the interceSIion
of the other profeffors, Cajetan the pope’s legate in
Germany was -appointed to hear and determine the
caufe. Luther appeared before him without hesita¬
tion : but Cajetan thought it below his dignity to
difpute the point with a per ion fo much his inferior in
rank j and therefore required him by virtue of the
apoftolic powers with which he was clothed, to retraft
the errors w-hich he had uttered with regard to indul¬
gences and the nature of faith, and to abftain for the
future from the publication of new and dangerous
opinions 5 and at the lait forbade him to appear in his
prefence, unlefs he propofed to comply with w-hat had
been required of him.
This haughty and violent manner of proceeding,
together with fome other circumSfances, gave Luther’s
friends fuch ftrong reafons to fufpeft that even the
imperial fafe-conduft would not be able to proteft
him from the legate’s power and refentment, that
they prevailed on him fecretly to withdraw from
AugSburg, where he had attended the legate, and to
return to his own country. But before his departure,
according to a form of which there had been fome
examples, he prepared a folemn appeal from the pope,
ill-informed at that time concerning his caufe, to the
pope, when he Should receive more full intimation
with refpeft to it.—Cajetan, enraged at Luther’s
abrupt retreat, and at the publication of his appeal,
wrote to the eleftor of Saxony, complaining of both ;
and requiring him, as h.e regarded the peace of the
church, or the authority of its head, either to fend
that feditious monk a prifoner to Rome, or to baniSh
him out of his territories. Frederick had hitherto, from
political motives, protefted Luther, as thinking he
might be of ufe in checking the enormous power of
the fee of Rome; and though all Germany refounded
with his fame, the eleftor had never yet admitted
him into his prefence. But upon this demand made
by the cardinal, it became neceffary to throw off-
fomewhat of his former referve. He had been at
great expence and beftowed much attention on found¬
ing a new univerfity, an objeft of confiderable import¬
ance to every German prince ; and forefeeing how
fatal a blow the removal of Luther would be to its
L I 2 reputation,
T.ntKer.
l u t r 268 ]
reputation, he not only declined complying with either difference
of the pope’s rtquefts, but openly difcovered great con¬
cern for Luther’s fafety.
Ihe fftuation. of our reformer, in the mean time,
became daily more and more alarming. He knew
very well what were the motives which induced the
elector to afford him proteftion, and that he could by
no means depend on a continuance of his friendfhip.
If he fhould be obliged to quit Saxony, he had no
other afylum, and muff {land expofed to whatever
punilhment the rage or bigotry of his enemies could
inihdt j and fo ready were his adverfaries to condemn
him, that he had been declared a heretic at Rome
before the expiration of the 60 days allowed him in
the citation for making his appearance. Not with-
ffanding all this, however, he difcovered no fymptoms
of timidity or remiffnefs j but continued to vindicate
his own conduft and opinions, and to inveigh againft
thofe of his adverfaries with more vehemence^than
ever. Being convinced, therefore, that the pope would
toon proceed to the moft violent mealures againft him,
he appealed to a general council, which he affirmed
to be the. reprefentative of the Catholic church, and
iuperior in power to the pope, who being a fallible
man, might err, as St Peter, the moft perfed of his
predeceffors, had done.
I he. court of Rome were equally afliduous in the
mean time to crulh the author of thefe new doflrines
which gave them fo much uneafinefs. A bull was
iffued. by the pope, of a date prior to Luther’s ap¬
peal, in which he magnified the virtues of indulgences,
and fubjedted to the heavieft ecclefiaftical cenfures all
who prefumed to teach a contrary dodlrine. Such a
clear decifion of the fovereign pontiff againft him
might have been very fatal to Luther’s caufe, had not
the death of the emperor Maximilian, which happened
on January 17. 1519, contributed to give matters a
different turn. Both the principles and intereft of
Maximilian had prompted him to fupport the authori¬
ty of the fee of Rome : but, in confequence of his
death, the vicariate of that part of Germany which is
governed by the Saxon laws devolved to the eledtor
of Saxony j and, under the fhelter of his friendly ad-
miniftration, Luther himfelf enjoyed tranquillity j and
his opinions took fuch root in different places, that
they could never afterwards be eradicated. At the
fame time, as the eledtion of an emperor was a point
more interefting to the pope (Leo X.) than a theolo¬
gical controverfy which he did not underftand, and of
which he could not forefee the confequences, he was
fo extremely folicitous not to irritate a prince of fuch
confiderable influence in the eledloral college as Fre¬
derick, that he difcovered a great unwillingnefs to pro¬
nounce the fentence of excommunication againft Lu¬
ther, which his adverfaries continually demanded with
the moft clamorous importunity.
From the reafon juft now given, and Leo’s natu¬
ral averfion to fevere meafures, a fufpenfion of pro¬
ceeding againft Luther took place for 18 months,
though perpetual negociations were carried on during
this interval in order to bring the matter to an ami¬
cable iffue. The manner in which thefe were con-
dudled having given our reformer many opportunities
of obferving the corruption of the court of Rome, its
©bftinacy in adhering to eftablifhed errors, and its in-
3
L U T
about truth, however clearly propofed or Lntber.
ftrongly proved, he began, in 1520, to utter feme' r—
doubts, with regard to the divine original of the papal
authc’ity, which he publicly dilputed with Eccius, one
of his moft learned and formidable antagonifts. The
dilpute w'as indecifive, both parties claiming the vic¬
tory.^ but it muff; have been very mortifying to the
partizans of the Romifti church to hear fuch an effen-
tial point of their doftrine publicly attacked.
I he papal authority being once fulpefted, Luther
proceeded to pulh on his inquiries and attacks from
one dodfrme to another, till at laft he began to ftiake
the firmeft foundations on which the wealth and power
of the church were eftabliftied. Leo then began to
perceive that there were no hopes of reclaiming fuch
an incorrigible heretic; and therefore prepared to de¬
nounce the fentence of excommunication againft him.
The college of cardinals was often affembled, in order
to prepare the fentence with due deliberation ; and the
ableft canonifts were confulted how it might be ex-
preffed with unexceptionable formality. At laft it was
iffued on the 15th of June 1520. Forty-one propofi-
tions, extracted out of Luther’s works, were therein
condemned as heretical, feandalous, and offenfive to
pious ears ; all perfons were forbidden to read his writ-
ings, upon pain of excommunication : fuch as had any
of them in their cuftody were commanded to commit
them to the flames j he himfelf, if he did not, within
60 days, publicly recant his errors, and burn his books,
■was pronounced an obftinate heretic, excommunicated,
and delivered to Satan for the deftruftion of the flelh:
and all fecular princes were required, under pain of in¬
curring the fame cenfure, to feize his perfon, that he
might be puniftied as his crimes deferved.
Luther was not in the leaft difconcerted by this fen¬
tence, which he had for fome time expefled. He re¬
newed his appeal to a general council j declared the
pope to be that antichrift, or man of fin, whofe ap¬
pearance is foretold in the New Teftament j declaim¬
ed againft his tyranny with greater vehemence than
ever j and at laft, by way of retaliation, having aflem-
bled all the profefibrs and ftudents in the univerfity
of Wittemberg, with great pomp, and in the prefence
of a vaft multitude of fpe&ators, he caft the volumes of
the oanon law, together with the bull of excommuni¬
cation, into the flames. The manner in which this ac¬
tion w as juftified gave ftill more offence than the a&ion
itfelf. Having colle&ed from the canon law fome of
the moft extravagant propofitions with regard to the
plenitude and omnipotence of the pope’s power, as well
as the fubordination of all lecular jurildiftion to his
authority, he publiflied thele w'ith a commentary, point¬
ing out the impiety of fuch tenets, and their evident
tendency to fubvert all civil government.
On the acceflion of Charles V. to the empire, Lu¬
ther found himfelf in a very dangerous fituation.
Charles, in order to fecure the pope’s friendfhip,. had
determined to treat him with great feverity. His ea-
gernefs to gain this point, rendered him not averfe to
gratify the papal legates in Germany, who infifted, that
without any delay or formal deliberation, the diet then
fitting at Worms ought to condemn a man whom the
pope had already excommunicated as an incorrigible
heretic. Such an abrupt manner of proceeding, how¬
ever, being deemed unprecedented and unjuft by the
members
L U T [ 269 ] L U T
tuthcr. members of the diet, they made a point of Luther’s
appearing in perfon, and declaring whether he adhered
or not to thofe opinions which had drawn upon him
the cenfures of the church. Not only the emperor, but
all the princes through whoffe territories he had to
pafs, granted him a fafe-conduit j and Charles wrote
to him at the fame time,, requiring his immediate at¬
tendance on the diet, and renewing his promiles of pro-
teition from any injury or violence. Luther did not
hefitate one moment about yielding obedience j and
fet out for Worms, attended by the herald who had
brought the emperor’s letter and fafe-conduit. While
on his journey, many of his friends, whom the fate of
Hufs, under fimilar circumftances, and notwithftand-
ing the fame fecurity of an imperial fafe-condu£t, fill¬
ed with folicitude, advifed and entreated him not to
rulh wantonly into the midft of danger. But Luther,
fuperior to fuch terrors, filenced them with this reply,
“ I am lawfully called (faid he) to appear in that
city $ and thither will I go in the name of the Lord,
though as many devils as there are tiles on the houfes
were there combined againft me.”
The reception which he met with at Worms, was
fuch as might have been reckoned a full reward of all
his labours, if vanity and the love of applaufe had been
the principles by which he was influenced. Greater
crowds aflembled to behold him than had appeared
at the emperor’s public entry; his apartments w’ere
daily filled with princes and perfonages of the higheft
rank 5 and he was treated with an homage more fin-
cere, as well as more flattering, than any which pre¬
eminence in birth or condition can command. At his
appearance before the diet, he behaved with great de¬
cency, and with equal firmnefs. He readily acknow¬
ledged an excefs of acrimony and vehemence in his
ccntroverfial writings j but refufed to retraft his opi¬
nions unlefs he were convinced of their falfehood, or
to confent to their being tried by any other rule than
the word of God. When neither threats nor intreaties
could prevail on him to depart from this refolution,
fome of the eeclefiaftics propofed to imitate the ex¬
ample of the council of Conflance, and by punithing
the author of this peftilent herefy, who was now in
their power, to deliver the church at once from fuch
an evil. But the members of the diet refufing to ex-
pofe the German integrity to frefh reproach by a fe-
cond violation of public faith, and Charles being no
lefs unwilling to bring a ftain upon the beginning ^)f
his adminiftration by fuch an ignominious action, Lu¬
ther was permitted to depart in fafety. A few days
after he left the city, a fevere edibt w as publifhed in
the emperor’s name, and by authority of the diet, de¬
priving him, as an obftinate and excommunicated cri¬
minal, of all the privileges which he enjoyed as a fub-
jeft of the empire, forbidding any prince to harbour
or protect him, and requiring all to fejze his perfon as
foon as the term fpecified in his protection fhould be
expired.
But this vigorous dfcree had no confiderable efleCt \
the execution of it being prevented partly by the mul¬
tiplicity of occupations which the commotions in Spain,
together with the wars in Italy and the Low Coun¬
tries, created to the emperor \ and partly by a pru¬
dent precaution employed by the eltftor of Saxony,
Luther’s faithful patron. As Luther, on his' return
from Worms, was palling near Altenftrain in Thurin- Luther,
gia, a number of horfemen in malks rulhed fuddenly '
out of a wood, where the eleCtor had appointed them
to lie in wait for him, and furrounding his company,
carried him, after difmifling all his attendants, to
Wortburg, a ftrong caftle not far diftant. There the
eleCtor ordered him to be fupplied with every thing
neceflary or agreeable ; but the place of his retreat w as
carefully concealed, until the fury of the prefentitorm
againft him began to abate, upon a change in the po¬
litical fyftem of Lurope. In this folitude, where he
remained nine months, and which he frequently called
his PatmoSy after the name of that ifland to which the.
apoftle John was banilhed, he exerted his ufual vigour
and indullry in defence of his doCtrines, or in confu¬
tation of his adverfaries, publifliing feveral treatifes,
which revived the fpirit of his followers, aftonilhed to
a great degree and difheartened at the fudden difap-
pearance of their leader.
Luther weary at length of his retirement, appeared
publicly again at Wittemberg, upon the 6th of March
1522. He appeared indeed without the elector’s leave)
but immediately wrote him a letter to prevent his tak¬
ing it ill. The ediCt of Charles V. as fevere as it was,
had given little or no check to Luther’s doCtrine j for
the emperor was no fooner gone to Flanders, than
his ediCt was negleCted and defpifed,. and the doCtrine
feemed to fpread even fafter than before. Carolofta-
dius, in Luther’s abfence, had puihed things on fafter
than his leader 5 and had attempted to abolifh the ufe
of mafs, to remove images out of the churches, to fet
afide auricular confeflion, invocation of faints, the ab-
ftaining from meats ; had allowed the monks to leave
their monafteries, to negleCt their vows, and to marry j
in fhort, had quite changed the doCtrine and difcipline
of the church at Wittemberg : all which, though not
againft Luther’s fentiments, was yet blamed by him,
as being raflily and unfeafonably done.. Lutheranifm
was ftill confined to Germany : it was not got to
France ; and Henry VII I. of England made the moft
rigorous aCts to hinder it from invading bis realm.
Nay, he did fomething more : to {how his zeal for reli¬
gion and the holv fee, and perhaps his fkill in theo¬
logical learning, he wrote a treatife Of the /even faora-
ments, againft Luther’s book Of the captivity of Babylon;
which he prefented to Leo X. in October 1521. The
pope received it very favourably \ and was fo well,
pleafed with the king of England, that he compliment¬
ed him with the title of Defender of the Faith. Luther,
however, paid no regard to his kingfhip : but anfwer-
ed him with great fharpnefs, treating both his perfon
and performance in the moft contemptuous manner.
Henry complained of Luther’s rude ufage of him to
the princes of Saxony j and Fiflrer, hi (hop of Rochef-
ter, replied to his anfwer, in behalf of Henry’s treatife j
but neither the king’s complaint, nor the bifhop’s re¬
ply. was attended with any vifible effcCts.
Luther, though he had put a flop to the violent
proceedings of Caroloftadius, now made open war w ith
the pope and bifhops: and, that he might make the
people defpife their authority as much as poflible,
he wrote one book againft the pope’s bull, and
another again ft the order falfely called the order of bi¬
fhops. The fame year, 1522, lie wrote a letter, dated
July the 29th to the affembly of the ftates of Bohemia;
in
Luther.
L U
in which he affured them
T
r
that lie was labouring to
eftaolilh their do&rine in Germany, and exhorted them
not to return to the communion of the church of Rome j
and he publiihed alfo this year, a tranllation of the
New ieftament in the German tongue, which was af¬
terwards correfted by himfelf and Melanfthon. This
tranflation having been printed feveral times, and be¬
ing in every body’s hands, Ferdinand archduke of Au-
itria, the emperor’s brother, made a very fevere edi6f,
to hinder the farther publication of it ; and forbade all
the fubje6ls of his imperial majefty to have any copies
or it, or of Tuther’s other books. Some other princes
followed his example ; and Luther was fo angry at it,
that he wrote a treatife Of the feculxir power, in which
he accufes them of tyranny and impiety. The diet of
the empire was held at Nuremberg, at the end of the
year; to which Hadrian VI. fent his brief, dated No¬
vember the 25th : for Leo X. died upon the 2d of De¬
cember 1521, and Hadrian had been elefted pope up¬
on the 9th of January following. In this brief, among
other things, he obferves to the diet, how he had heard
with grief, that Martin Luther, after the fentence of
Leo X. which was ordered to be executed by the edift
of Worms, continued to teach the fame errors, and
daily to publilh books full of herefies : that it appear¬
ed 11 range to him, that fo large and fo religious a na¬
tion could be feduced by a wretched apoflate friar :
that, nothing, however, could be more pernicious to
Chtiftendom ; and that therefore he exhorts them to
ufe their utmoft endeavours to make Luther, and the
authors of thefe tumults, return to their duty : or, if
they refufe and continue obftinate, to proceed againft
them according to the laws of the empire, and the fe-
. verity of the laft edicL
The refolution of this diet was publilhed in the form
of an eoift, upon the 6th of March 1523 ; but it had
no effect in checking the Lutherans, who ftill went on
m the fame triumphant manner. This year Luther
wrote a great many pieces : among the reft, one upon
the dignity and office of the fupreme magiftrate ;
which Frederic ele&or of Saxony is faid to have been
highly pleafed with. He lent, about the fame time,
a writing in the German language to the Waldenfes,5
or. Pickards, in Bohemia and Moravia, who had ap¬
plied to him “ about war {hipping the body of Chrift
in the eucharift.” He wrote alfo another book, which
he dedicated, to the fenate and people of Prague,
“about the inftitution of minifters of the church.’’
He drew up a form of faying mafs. He wrote a piece.,
entitled, An example of popifh dottrine and divinity';
which Dupin calls a fatire again/} nuns and thofe who
profefs a monajiic life. He wrote alfo againft the vows
of virginity, in his preface to his commentary on
1 Cor. viii. And his exhortations here were, it feems
followed with eff.;<fts ; for foon after, nine nuns, among
whom was. Catharine de Bore, eloped from the nun¬
nery at Nimptfchen, and were brought, by the affift-
ance of Leonard Coppen, a burgefs of Torgau, toWit-
temberg. Whatever offence this proceeding might cive
to the Papifts, it was highly extolled by Luther; who,
*n a book written in the German language, compares
the deliverance of thefe nuns trom the flavery of a mo¬
nadic life to that of the fouls which Jefus Chrift has
delivered by b:s death, I his year Luther had occa¬
sion to canonize two of his followers, who, as Melchior
7° .1 L U T
Adam relates, were burnt at Bruffels in the beginning r »r
of July, and were the firft who luffered martyrdom for
his doctrine. He wrote alfo a confolatory epiftle to
three noble ladies at Mifnia, who were baniftied from
the duke of Saxony’s court at Friburg, for reading his
books. &
In the beginning of the year 1524, Clement VII.
fent a legate into Germany to the diet, which was to
be.held at Nuremburg. Hadrian VI. died in Odober
1523, and was fucceeded by Clement upon the 19th of
November. A little before his death he canonized
Benr.o, who was biffiop of Meiffen in the time of Gre¬
gory VII. and one of the moft zealous defenders of
the holy fee. Luther, imagining that this was done
direftly to oppofe him, drew up a piece with this title
Agamf the New Idol and Old Devil Jet up at Meijftn ;
in which he treats the memory of Gregory with great
freedom, and does not fpare even Hadrian. Cle¬
ment VII.’s legate reprefented to the diet of Nurem¬
burg the neceffily of enforcing the execution of the
edict of Worms, which had been ftrangely neglefted
by the princes of the empire ; but, notwithftanding
the legate’s felicitations, which were very prefling, the
decrees «f that diet were thought fo ineffeaual/that
they were condemned at Rome, and rejected by the
emperor. It was in this year that the difpute between
Luther and Erafmus, about free-will, began. Erafmus
had been much courted by the Papifts to write againft;
Luther ; but he was all along of opinion, that writing
would not be found an effe&ual way to end the differ¬
ences and eftabliffi the peace of the church. Howr-
ever, tired out at length with the importunities of the
pope and the Catholic princes, and defirous at the fame
time to clear himfelf from the fufpicion of favouring
a caufe which he would not feeni to favour, he re^
folved to write againft Luther, though, as he tells Me-
lanfthon, it wajs with feme reluflance, and chofe free¬
will for the fubjeft. His book was entitled, A Diatri.
ba, or Conference about Free-will; and was written with
much moderation, and without perfonal refledions.
He tells Luther in the preface, “ That he ought not
to take his diffenting from him in opinion ill, becaufe
he had allowed himfelf the liberty of differing from the
judgment of popes, councils, univerfities, and dodors
of the church.” Luther was feme time before he an-
fwered Erafmus’s book; but at laft publiffied a treatiie
De Servo Arbitrio, or Of the Servitude of Man's Will;
and though Melandhon had promifed Erafmus, that
Luther ffiould anfwer him with civility and modera¬
tion,, yet Luther had fo little regard to Melandhon’s
promife, that he never wrote any thing fharper. He
a.ccufed E.rafmus of being carelefs about religion, and
little felicitous what became of it, provided the world
continued in peace ; and that his notions were rather
philofophical than Chriftian, Erafmus immediately re¬
plied to Luther in a piece called Hypercfpifes; in the
firft; pa 11 of .which he anfwers his arguments, and in
the fecond his perfonal refledions.
. In October 1524, Luther threw off the monadic ha¬
bit ; which, though not premeditated and defigned,
was yet a very proper preparative to a ftep he took
the year after; we mean, his marriage with Catharine
de Bore. Catharine de Bore was a gentleman’s daugh¬
ter, who had been a nun, and was taken, as we have
obferved, out of the nunnery of Nimptfchen, in the
year
L U T
Luther, year 1523. Luther had a delign, as Melchior Adam
—related, to marry her to Glacius, a minifter of Orta-
munden j but (he did not like Glacius 3 and fo Luther
married her himfelf upon the 13th of June 1325.
This conduct of his was blamed not only by the Ca¬
tholics, but, as Melan&hon fays, by thofe of his own
party. He was even for fome time alhamed of it him¬
felf 3 and owns, that his marriage had made him fo
defpicable, that he hoped his humiliation would rejoice
the angels, and vex the devils, Melanfthon found him
fo afflicted with what he had done, that he wrote fome
letters of confolation to him. It was not fo much the
marriage, as the circumfiances of the time, and the pre¬
cipitation with which it was done, that occafioned the
cenfures paffed upon Luther. He married all of a fud-
den, and at a time when Germany was groaning under
the miferies of a war which was faid at lead; to be
owing to Lutheranifm. Then, again, it was thought
an indecent thing in a man of 42 years of age, who
was then, as he pretended, reftoring the Gofpel, and
reforming mankind, to involve himfelf in marriage with
a woman of 26, either through incontinence, or any
account whatever. But Luther, as foon as he had re¬
covered himfelf a little from this abafhment, affumed
his former air of intrepidity, and boldly fupported what
he had done with reafons. “ I t<*>k a wife (fays he),
in obedience to my father’s commands; and haftened
the confummation, in order to prevent impediments,
and flop the tongues of flanderers.” It appears from
his own confeffion, that this reformer was very fond
of Mrs de Bore, and ufed to call her his Catharine,
which made prophane people think and fay wicked
things of 'him : “ And therefore (fays he) I mar¬
ried of a fudden, not only that I might not be obliged
to hear the clamours which 1 knew would be raifed
againft me, but to flop the mouths of thofe who re¬
proached me with Catharine de Bore.” Luther alfo
gives us to underfland, that he did it partly as con¬
curring with his grand fcheme of oppofing the Catho¬
lics.
Luther, notwithftanding, was not himfelf altogether
fatisfied with thefe reafons. He did not think the Hep
he had taken could be fufficiently juftified upon the
principles of human prudence 3 and therefore we find
him, in other places, endeavouring to account for it
from a fupernatural impulfe. But whether there was
any thing divine in it or not, Luther found himfelf
extremely happy in his new Hate, and especially after
his wife had brought him a fon. “ My rib Kate (fays
3:e in the joy of his heart) defires her compliments to
you, and thanks you for the favour of your kind let¬
ter. . She is very well, through God’s mercy. She is
obedient and complying with me in all things 3 and
more agreeable, I thank God, than I could have ex¬
pelled 3 fo that I would not change my poverty for
the wealth of Croefus.” He was heard to fay (Seek-
endorf tells us), that he would not exchange his wife
for the kingdom of Framce, nor for the riches of the
Venetians 3 and that for three reafons : Becaufe (he had
been given him by God, at the time when he implored
the affilfance of the Holy Ghoft in finding a good
wdfe 3 fecondly, Becaufe, though (lie was not without
faults, yet (he had fewer than other women 3 and,
thirdly, Becaufe (he religioufly obferved the conjugal
fidelity (he owed him. There went at (lift a report,
L U T
that Catharine de Bore was brought to bed foon after Luther.
her marriage with Luther 3 but Erafmus, who had   v  
wrote that news to his friends, acknowledged the
falfity of it a little after.
His marriage, however, did not retard his a&ivity
and diligence in the work of reformation. He revifed
the Augfburg confeflion of faith, and apology for the
Proteftants, when the Proteftant religion was firft efta-
blifhed on a firm bafis. See Protestants and Re¬
formation.
After this, Luther had little elfe to do than to fit
down and contemplate the mighty work he had finifh-
ed : for that a fingle monk (hould be able to give the
church fo rude a (hock, that there needed but fuch
another entirely to overthrow it, may very well feem a
mighty work. He did indeed little elfe : for the re¬
mainder of his life was fpent in exhorting princes,
dates, and univerfities, to confirm the reformation
which had been brought about through him 3 and pub-
lidiing from time to time fuch writings as might en¬
courage, direft, and aid, them in doing it. The em¬
peror threatened temporal punifhment with armies, and
the pope eternal with bulls and anathemas 3 but Luther
cared for none of their threats. His friend and co¬
adjutor Melandthon was not fo indifferent 3 for Me-
lanflhon had a great deal of foftnefs, moderation, and
diffidence in his make, which made him very uneafy,
and even forrowful, in the prefent diforders. Hence
we find many of Luther’s letters written on purpofe to
fupport and comfort him under thefe feveral didreffes
and anxieties.
In the year 1533, Luther wrote a confolatory
epidle to the citizens of Ofchatz, who had fuffered
fome hardfhips for adhering to the Augfburg confef¬
lion of faith 3 in which, among other things, he fays 3
“ Ihe devil is the hod, and the world is his inn 3 fo
that wherever you come, you fliall be fure to find this
ugly hod.” He had alfo about this time a terrible
controverfy with George duke of Saxony, who had
fuch an averfion to Luther’s doftrine, that he obliged
his fubje&s to take an oath that they would never em¬
brace it. However, 60 or 70 citizens of Leipfic were
found to have deviated a little from the Catholic way
in fome point or other, and they were known previ-
oudy to have confulted Luther about it 3 upon which
George complained to the eleftor John, that Luther
had not only abufed his perfon, but alfo preached up
rebellion among his fubjefts. The eleftor ordered Lu¬
ther to be acquainted with this 3 and to be told at the
fame time, that if he did not clear himfelf of the
charge, he could not poffibly efcape puniffiment. But
Luther eafily refuted the accufation, by proving, that
he had been fo far from dirring up his fubjefils againtt
him, on the fcore of religion, that, on the contrary, he
had exhorted them rather to undergo the greated hard-
(hips, and even fuffer themfelves to be baniffied.
In the year 1534, the Kible tr an dated by him into-
German was fird printed, as the old privilege, dated
at Bibliopolis, under the ele&or’s hand, diows : and
it was publiffied the year after. He alfo publiffied
this year a book againd maffes and the confecration of
prieds, in which he relates a conference he had with
the devil upon thofe points 3 for it is remarkable in
Luther’s whole hidory, that he never had any conflicts
of any kind within, but the devil was always his anta-
goni(L,»
( 27i 1
L U T
{
Luther, ^onift. In February 1537, an aflembly was held at
Smalkald about matters of religion, to which Luther
and Melan&hon were called. At this meeting Lu¬
ther was feized with fo grievous an illnefs, that there
wrere no hopes of his recovery. He was afflicted with
the ftone, and had a ifoppage of urine for u days. In
this terrible condition he w'ould needs undertake to tra¬
vel, notwithftanding all that his friends could fay or do
to prevent him : his refolution, however, was attend-
ed with a good effeftj for the night after his departure
he began to be better. As he wras carried along, he
made his will, in which he bequeathed his deteftation
of Popery to his friends and brethren j agreeably to
what he often ufed to fay : Pejiis eram vivus., moriens
era mors tua, papa; that is, “ I was the plague of
Popery in my life, and lhall continue to be fo in my
death.”
This year the pope and the court of Rome, finding
it impoffible to deal with the Proteflants by force, be¬
gan to have recourfe to ftratagem. They affedted
therefore to think, that though Luther had indeed car¬
ried things on with a high hand and to a violent ex¬
treme, yet what he had pleaded in defence of thefe
meafures w-as not entirely without foundation. They
talked with a feeming Ihow of moderation : and Pius
III. who fucceeded Clement VII. propofed a reforma¬
tion firft among themfelves, and even went fo far as to
fix a place for a council to meet at for that purpofe.
But Luther treated this farce as it deferved to be treat¬
ed 3 unmalked and detefted it immediately 3 and, to
ridicule it the more ftrongly, caufed a pi£l:ure to be
drawn, in which was reprefented the pope feated on
high upon a throne, fome cardinals about him with
foxes tails on, and feeming to evacuate upwards and
downwards (furfum deorfum repur gave, as Melchior
Adam expreffes it). This was fixed over againft the
title-page, to let the readers fee at once the fcope and
defign of the book 3 which was, to expofe that cunning
and artifice with which thofe fubtile politicians aifeft-
ed to cleanfe and purify themfelves from their errors
and fuperftitions. Luther publilhed about the fame
time A Confutation of the pretended Grant of Con-
ftantine to Sylvefler Bilhop of Rome 3 and alfo fome
letters of John Hufs, written from his prifon at Con-
ftance to the Bohemians.
In this manner was Luther employed till his death,
which happened in the year 1546. That year, accom¬
panied by Melandlhon, he paid a vifit to his own coun¬
try, w’hich he had not feen for many years, and re¬
turned again in fafety. But foon after he was called
thither again by the earls of Mansfeldt, to compofe
fome differences which had arifen about their bounda¬
ries. Luther had not been ufed to fuch matters 3 but
becaufe he was born at Eifieben, a town in the territory
of Mansfeldt, he was willing to do his country what
fervice he could, even in this way. Preaching his laft
fermon therefore at Wittemberg, upon the 17th of
January, he fet off on the 23d 3 and at Hall in Saxony
lodged with Juflus Jonas, with w'hom he ftaid three
days, becaufe the waters were out. Upon the 28th,
be paffed over the river with his three fons and
X)r Jonas 3 and being in fome danger, he faid to the
Hodtor, “ Do not you think it wmuld rejoice the
devil exceedingly, if I and you, and my three fons,
fhould be drowned ?” When he entered the territories
72 ] L U T
of the earls of Mansfeldt, he wras received by 100
horfemen or more, and conduded in a very honour-
able manner 3 but wras at the fame time fo very ill
that it was feared he would die. He faid, that thefe
fits of ficknefs often came upon him when he had any
great bufinefs to undertake : of this, however, he did
not recover 3 but died upon the 18th of February, in
the 63d year of his age. A little before he expired,
he admonilhed thofe that wrere about him to pray to
God for ^ the propagation of the Gofpel: “ becaufe
(laid he) the council of Trent, which had fat once or
twice, and the pope, would devife ftrange things again!!
it.” Soon after, his body was put into a leaden cof¬
fin, and carried with funeral pomp to the church at
Eifleben, when Dr Jonas preached a fermon upon the
occafion. The earls of Mansfeldt defired that his
body fliould be interred in their territories 3 but the
eleftor of Saxony infifted upon his being brought back
to Wittemberg 3 which was accordingly done : and
there he was buried with the greatell pomp that
perhaps ever happened to any private man. Princes,
earls, nobles, and ftudents without number, attended
the proceffion ; and Melan&hon made his funeral ora¬
tion.
A thoufand lies w’ere invented by the Papifts about
Luther’s death. Some faid that he died fuddenly 3
others, that he killed himfelf 3 others, that the devil
ftrangled him : others, that his corpfe flunk fo abomi¬
nably, that they were forced to leave it in the way, as
it was carried to be interred. Nay, lies were invented
about his death, even while he was yet alive. Luther,
however, to give the moft effe&ual refutation of this
account of his death, put forth an advertifement of his
being alive 3 and, to be even with the Papifts for the
malice they had fhown in this lie, wrote a book at the
fame time to prove, that “ the papacy was founded by
the devil.”
Luther’s works w'ere colle&ed after his death and
printed at Wittemberg in 7 vols folio. Catharine de
Bore furvived her hulband a few years 3 and continued
the firft year of her widowhood at Wittemberg, though
Luther had advifed her to feek another place of refi-
dence. She went from thence in the year 1547, when
the town was furrendered to the emperor Charles V.
Before her departure, ftie had received a prefent of 50
crowns from Chriftian HI. king of Denmark 3 and
the elector of Saxony, and the counts of Mansfeldt,
gave her good tokens of their liberality. With thefe
additions to what Luther had left her, ftie had where¬
withal to maintain herfelf and her family handfomely.
She returned to Wittemberg, when the town was re-
ftored to the eleftor 3 where ftie lived in a very devout
and pious manner, till the plague obliged her to leave
it again in the year 1552. She fold what ftie had at
Wittemberg : and retired to Torgau, with a refolu¬
tion to end her life there. An unfortunate mifchance
befel her in her journey thither, which proved fatal to
her. The horfes growing unruly, and attempting to
run away, ftie leaped out of the vehicle ftie was convey¬
ed in 3 and, by leaping, got a fall, of which ftie died
about a quarter of a year after, at Torgau, upon the
20th of December 1552. She was buried there in the
great church, where her tomb and epitaph are ftill to
be feen 3 and the univerfity of Wittemberg, which was
then at Torgau becaufe the plague raged at Wittem¬
berg,
Luther.
L U T [ 273 ] LUX
Imher berg, made a public programma concerning the funeral
rl pomp.
^ut^ern‘, LUTHERANISM, the fentiments of Martin Lu-
“ v ther with regard to religion. See Luther.
Lutheranifm has undergone fome alterations fince
the time of its founder.—Luther rejected the epiftle of
St James as inconfillent with the doftrine of St Paul,
in relation to juflification j healfo fet afide the Apoca-
lypfe : both which are now received as canonical in the
Lutheran church.
Luther reduced the number of facraments to two,
viz. baptifm, and the eucharilt: but he believed the
impanation, or confubftantiation, that is, that the
matter of the bread and wine remain with the body
and blood of Chritt ; and it is in this article that the
main difference between the Lutherans and Englilh
churches confifts.
Luther maintained the mafs to be no facrifice j ex¬
ploded the adoration of the hoft, auricular confeflion,
meritorious works, indulgences, purgatory, the worfhip
of images, &c. which had been introduced in the cor¬
rupt times of the Romifh church. He alfo eppofed the
dodtrine of free will, maintained predeftination, and af-
ferted our juftification to be folely by the imputation
of the merits and fatisfadlion of Chrift. He alfo op-
pofed the fallings in the Roman church, monaftical
vows, the celibate of the clergy, &c.
LUTHERANS, the Chrillians who follow the opi¬
nions of Martin Luther, one of the principal reformers
of the church in the 16th century. See Luther.
The Lutherans, of all Proteftants, are thofe who
differ lead from the Romilh church ; as they affirm,
that the body and blood of Chrill are materially pre-
fent in the facrament of the Lord’s fupper, though in
an incomprehenfible manner 5 and likewife reprefent
fome religious rites and inftitutions, as the ufe of
images in churches, the diftinguiffiing vedments of the
clergy, the private confeffion of fins, the ufe of wafers
in the adminiftration of the Lord’s fupper, the form of
exorcifm in the celebration of baptifm, and other ce¬
remonies of the like nature, as tolerable, and fome of
them as ufeful. . The Lutherans maintain, with regard
to the divine decrees, that they refpedl the falvation
or mifery of men, in confequence of a previous know¬
ledge of their fentiments and characters, and not as
free and unconditional, and as founded on the mere
will of God. Towards the clofe of the laft century,
the Lutherans began to entertain a greater liberality
of fentiment than they had before adopted though
in many places they perfevered longer in fevere and
defpotic principles than other Proteftant churches.
Their public teachers now enjoy an unbounded liberty
of diffenting from the decifions of thofe fymbols or
creeds which were once deemed almoft infallible rules
of faith and pradlice, and of declaring their diffent in
the manner they judge the moft expedient. Molheim
attributes this change in their fentiments to the maxim
which they generally adopted, that Chriftians were ac¬
countable to God alone for their religious opinions j
and that no individual could be juftly puniffied by the
magiftrate for his erroneous opinions, while he con¬
ducted himfelf like a virtuous and obedient fubjeft,
and made no attempts to difturb the peace and order
of civil fociety.
LUTHERN, in ArchiteSure. a kind of window
Vol. XII. Part I,
over the cornice, in the roof of a building *, Handing
perpendicularly over the naked of a wall, and ferving
to illuminate the upper ftory.
^ Lutherns are of various forms j as fquare, femicir- '
cular, round, called bull's eyes, flat arches, &c.
LUTRA, in Zoology. See Mustela, Mammalia
Index.
LUTTI, Beneditto, an eminent painter, born at
Florence in 1666. He was the difciple of Antonio
Dominico Gabiani, and his merit was judged equal to
that of his mafter : he painted few befide eafel pieces}
and his works were much valued and fought for in
England, France, and Germany. The emperor knight¬
ed him j and the eleCtor of Mentz, together with his
patent of knighthood, fent him a crofs fet with dia¬
monds. Lutti was never fatisfied in finiffiing his pic¬
tures j yet though he often retouched them, they never
appeared laboured. He died in 1724.
LUTZEN, a town of Upper Saxony in Germany j
famous for a battle fought here in 1632, when Gufta-
vus Adolphus king of Sweden was killed. It is fituated
on the river Elfier, in E. Long. 12. 37. N. Lat. 51. 20.
LUXATION, is when any bone is moved out of
its place of articulation, fo as to impede or deftroy its
proper office or motion. See Surgery.
LUXEMBURG, a city of the Auffrian Nether¬
lands, and capital of a duchy of the fame name. It is
feated partly on a hill, and partly on a plain $ it is
very ftrong both by art and nature. It is but indiffer¬
ently built, though there are fome good ftone houfes in
it. There is nothing very remarkable among the ftruc-
tures but the Jefuits church ; which is a handfome
edifice, after the modern tafte. It was taken by
Louis XIV. in 1684; who fo augmented the fortifica¬
tions, that it is now one of the ftrongeft towns in Eu¬
rope. It was ceded to Spain by the treaty of Ryf-
wick j but the French took it again in 1701, and gave
it up to the houfe of Auftria by the treaty of Utrecht.
It is 25 miles fouth-weft of Treves, and 100 weft of
Mentz. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. 49. 52.
Luxemburg, the duchy of, is one of the 17 pro¬
vinces of the Netherlands. It is bounded on the eaft
by the archbilhopric of Treves $ on the fouth by
Lorrain 5 on the weft, partly by Champagne, and
partly by the bilhopric of Liege, which likewife, with
part of Limburg, bound it on the north. It lies in
the foreft of Ardenne, which is one of the moft famous
in Europe. In fome places it is covered with moun¬
tains and w'oods, and in general it is fertile in corn
and wine \ and here are a great number of iron mines.
The principal rivers are the Mofelle, the Sour, the
Ourte, and the Semoy. It belongs partly to the houfe
of Auftria, and partly to the French j and Thionville
is the capital of the French part.
Luxemburg, Franpois Henry de Montmorenci, duke
of, and marffial of France, a renowned general in the
fervice of Louis XIV. was born in 1628. He was
with the prince of Conde at the battle of Rocroy, in
1643 ; and in 1668 diftinguilhed himfelf at the con-
quelt of Tranche Compte. In 1672, he commanded
in chief the French army in Holland 5 when he de¬
feated the enemy near Woerden and Bodegrave, and
was univerfally admired for the fine retreat he made
in 1673. He became marftial of France in 1675 j
gained the battle of Fleurs in 1690, that of Steenkirk
Mm in
Luthern
II
Luxem¬
burg.
 * '
LUX
Lv xc m
burg
II
Luxury.
[
died in
in 1692, and that of Nerwind in 1 693. He
Verfaiiles in 1695.
LUXURIANS FLOS, “ a luxuriant or double
flower 5” a flower, fome of whofe parts are increafed
in number, to the diminution or entire exclufion of
others.
-The parts that are augmented or multiplied in luxu¬
riant flowers, are the flower-cup and petals, which
Linnaeus confiders as the teguments or covers of the
flower y the parts that are diminilhed, or entirely ex¬
cluded, are the ftamina or chives, which the fame au¬
thor denominates the male organs of generation.
Luxuriance in flowers is capable of the three follow¬
ing varieties.
1. A flower is faid to be MULTIPLIED (JIos multiple
catus), when the increafe of tf|e petals is not fuch as to
exclude all the ftamina: in this fenfe, flowers are pro¬
perly faid to be double, triple, or quadruple, according
to the number of multiplications of the petals.
2. A flower is faid to be full (Jlos p/enus), when,
by the multiplication of the petals, all the ftamina are
excluded. Such are moft of the double flowers that
engage the attention of florifts.
3. A flower is faid to be PROLIFIC (Jlos prolifer),
which produces flowers, and fometimes leaves, from its
centre.
For a particular defcription of each of thefe kinds
of luxuriance in flowers, fee the articles MuLTIPLICA-
TUS Flos, PLENUS Flos, and PROLIFER Flos.
Many natural orders of plants do not in any circum-
ftances produce luxuriant flowers. Of this kind are
the mafqued flowers of Tournefort, excepting calve’s-
fnout; the rough-leaved, umbelliferous, ftarry plants,
and fuch as flower at the joints, of Ray : fome umbel¬
liferous flowers, however, zxe prolific.
The pea-bloom, or butterfly-fhaped flowers, are rare¬
ly rendered double j fome inftances, however, of luxu¬
riance, are obferved in a fpecies of lady’s finger, coro-
nilla, and broom.
All luxuriant flowers are vegetable monfters. Such
as are perfe&ly full, by which we mean the greateft
degree of luxuriance, cannot be propagated by feeds ;
becaufe thefe, for want of impregnation, can never ri¬
pen. Full flowers therefore are very properly deno¬
minated by Linnaeus eunuchs. This higheft degree of
luxuriance is very common in carnation, lychnis, ane¬
mone, flock, Indian crefs, rofe, marfh marigold, ra¬
nunculus, violet, peony, and narciffus.
Flowers which do not exclude all the ftamina, per-
fe£l their feeds. Of this kind are poppy, fennel-flower,
campanula, and fome others.
Some flowers, as thofe of the water-lily, fig-mari¬
gold, and cadlus, have many rows or feries of petals,
without the number of ftamina being in the leaft dimi-
niftied. Such flowers are by no means to be reckoned
luxuriant, in the flighteft degree.
Luxuriance in flowers is generally owing to excefs of
nourifhment.
LUXURY j voluptuoufnefs, or an extravagant in¬
dulgence in diet, drefs, and equipage.
Luxury, among the Romans, prevailed to fuch a
degree, that feveral laws were made to fupprefs, or
at leaft limit it. The extravagance of the table be¬
gan about the time of the battle of A6fium, and con¬
tinued in great excefs till the reign of Galba. Pea-
274 1 LUX
cocks, cranes of Malta, nightingales, venifon, wild
and tame fowl,, were confidered as delicacies. A pro-'
fufion of provifions was the reigning tafte. Whole
wild boars were often ferved up, and fometimes they
were filled with various fmall animals, and birds of
different kinds: this difh they called the Trojan horfe,
in allufion to the wooden horfe filled with foldiers!
Fowls and game of all forts were ferved up in whole
pyramids, piled up in difhes as broad as moderate
tables. Lucullus had a particular name for each
apartment ; and in whatever room he ordered his fer-
vants to prepare the entertainment, they knew by the
direftion the expence to which they were to go.
When he flipped in the Apollo, the expence was fix¬
ed at 50,000 drachmce, that is 1250L M. Antony
provided eight boars for 12 guefts. Vitellius had a
large filver platter, faid to have coft a million of fe-
Jlerces, called Minerva's buckler. In this he blended
together the livers of gilt-heads, the brains of phea-
fants and peacocks, the tongues of phenicopters, and
the milts of lampreys. Caligula ferved up to his guefts
pearls of great value diffolved in vinegar ; the fame
w^as done alfo by Clodius the fon of iEfop the trage¬
dian. Apicius laid afide 90,000,000 of fejlerces, be-
fides a mighty revenue, for no other purpofe but to be
facrificed to luxury j finding himfelf involved in debt,
he looked over his accounts, and though he had the
fum of 10,000,000 of fejlerces ftill left, he poifoned
himfelf for fear of being ftarved to death.
The Roman laws to reftrain luxury were Lex Orchia,
Fannia, Didia, Licinia, Cornelia, and many others :
But all thefe were too little j for as riches increafed
amongft them, fo did fenfuality.
What were the ideas of luxury entertained in Eng¬
land about two centuries ago, may be gathered from
the following paffage of Holinftied j who, in adifcourfe
prefixed to his Hiftory, fpeaking of the increafe of
luxury, fays, “ Neither do I fpeak this in reproach
of any man, God is my judge j but to (how, that
I do rejoice rather to fee how God has bleffed us with
his good gifts, and to behold how that in a time
wherein all things are grown to the moft exceflive
prices, we yet do find means to obtain and atchieve
fuch furniture as heretofore was impoffible. There
are old men yet dwelling in the village where I remain,
which have noted three things to be marveloufly al¬
tered in England within their found remembrance. One
is the multitude of chimneys lately erefted ; whereas
in their young days there w ere not above two or three,
if fo many, in moft uplandilh towns of the realm (the
religious houfes, and manor places of their lords, al¬
ways excepted, and peradventure fome great perfon-
ages), but each made his fire againft a reredofs
[fkreen] in the hall, where he dreffed his meat and
dined.—The fecond is the great amendment of lodg¬
ing j for, faid they, our fathers and w7e ourfelves have
lain full oft upon ftraw pallets covered only with a
ftieet, under coverlits made of a dogfwaine or horhar-
riots (to ufe their own terms), and a good log under
their head inftead of a bolfter.—If it were fo that
the father or goodman of the houfe had a mattrafs,
or flock bed and {fleets, a fack of chaff to reft his
head upon, he thought himfelf to be as well lodged
as the lord of the town. So well were they con¬
tented, that pillows (faid they) were thought meet
only
Luxury,
LUX [ 275 ] LUX
Luxury, only for women in childbed $ as for fervants, if they
—■v had any (heel above them it was well $ for feldom had
they any under their bodies to keep them from prick¬
ing draws,' that ran oft through the canvas and their
hardened hides.—The third thing they tell of, is the
exchange of treene [wooden] platters into pewter, and
wooden fpoons into diver or tin j for fo common were
all forts of treene veflels in old times, that a man fhould
hardly find four pieces pewter (of which one was per-
adventure a fait) in a good farmer’s houfe. Agajn, In
times paft, men were contented to dwell in houfes
budded of fallow, willow, &c. fo that the ufe of oak
was in a manner dedicated wholly unto churches, reli¬
gious houfes, princes palaces, navigation, &c. But
now willow, &c. are reje&ed, and nothing but oak
anywhere regarded ; and yet fee the change, for when
our houfes were builded of willow, then had we oaken
men $ but now that our houfes are come to be made of
oak, our men are not only become willow, but a great
many altogether of ftraw, which is a fore alteration.
In thefe the courage of the owner was a fufficient de¬
fence to keep the houfe in fafety j but now the affurance
of the timber mufl: defend the men from robbing. Now
have we many chimneys, and yet our tenderlins com¬
plain of rheums, catarrhs, and pofes j then had we
none but reredofes, and our heads did never ach. For
as the fmoke in thofe days were fuppofed to be a fuffi¬
cient hardening for the timber of the houfe j fo it was
reputed a far better medicine to keep the goodman and
his family from the quacks or pofe $ wherewith, as then,
very few were acquainted. Again, Our pewterers in
time-paft employed the ufe of pewter only upon diffies
and pots, and a few other trifles for fervice ; whereas
now they are grown into fuch exquifite cunning, that
they can in a manner imitate by infufion any form or
fafhion of cup, difti, fait, bowl, or goblet, which is
made by the goldfmith’s craft, though they be ever fo
curious and very artificially forged. In fome places
beyond the fea, a garniffi of good flat Engliffi pewter
(I fay flat, becaufe difhes and platters in my time be¬
gan to be made deep, and like bafons, and are indeed
more convenient both for fauce and keeping the meat
warm) is efteemed fo precious as the like number of
vefiels that are made of fine filver.”
Particular inftances of luxury, in eating, however,
might be adduced from an earlier period, furpaffing
even the extravagance of the Romans. Thus, in the
10th year of the reign of Edward IV. (1470), George
Nevill, brother to the earl of Warwick, at his inftal-
ment into the archiepifcopal fee of York, entertained
moft of the nobility and principal clergy, when his
bill of fare was 300 quarters of wheat, 350 tuns of
ale, 104 tuns of wine, a pipe of fpiced wine, 80 fat
oxen, fix wild bulls, 1004 weathers, 300 hogs, 300
calves, 3000 geefe, 3000 capons, 300 pigs, 100 pea¬
cocks, 200 cranes, 200 kids, 20P0 chickens, 4000
pigeons, 4000 rabbits, 204 bitterns, 4000 ducks, 200
pheafants, 500 partridges, 200 woodcocks, 400 plo¬
vers, too curlews, 100 quails, 1000 egrets, 200 rees,
400 bucks, does, and roebucks, 1506 hot venifon paf-
ties, 4000 cold ditto, iooq difhes of jelly parted, 4000
diihes of jelly plain, 4000 cold cuftards, 2000 hot cuf-
tards, 300 pikes, 300 breams, eight feals, four porpuf-
fes, 400 tarts. At this feaft the earl of Warwick was
fie ward, the earl of Bedford treafurer, and Lord Haf-
tings comptroller, with many more noble officers j 1000 luxury. ^
fervitors, 62 cooks, 515 menial apparitors in the '
kitchen.—But fuch was the fortune of the man, that
after his extreme prodigality he died in the moft abje£l
but unpitied poverty, vinSius jacuit in fumma inopia.
And as to drefs, luxury in that article feems to have
attained a great height long before Holinffied’s time :
For in the reign of Edward III. we find no fewer than
feven fumptuary laws paffed in one feffion of parliament
to reftrain it. It was enafted, that men fervants of
lords, as alfo of tradefmen and artifans, fhallbe content
with one meal of fiffi or fleffi every day j and the other
meals, daily, fliall be of milk, cheefe, butter and the
like. Neither ffiall they ufe any ornaments of gold,
filk, or embroidery j nor their wives and daughters any
veils above the price of twelvepence. Artifans and
yeomen ffiall not wear cloth above 40s. the whole piece
(the fineft then being about 61. per piece), nor the or¬
naments before named. Nor the women any veils of
filk, but only thofe of thread made in England. Gen¬
tlemen under the degree of knights, not having 100I.
yearly in land, ffiall not wear any cloth above 44-
marks the whole piece. Neither ffiall they or their fe¬
males ufe cloth of gold, filver, or embroidery, &c.
But efquires having 2Col. per annum or upwards of
rent, may wear cloths of five marks the whole piece of
cloth *, and they and their females may alfo wear fluff
of filk, filver, ribbons, girdles, or furs. Merchants,
citizens, burghers, and artificers or tradefmen, as well
of London as elfewhere, who have goods and chattels
of the clear value of 500I. and their females, may wear
as is allowed to gentlemen and efquires of tool, per an¬
num. And merchants, citizens, and burgeffes, worth
above locol. in goods and chattels, may (and their fe¬
males) wear the fame as gentlemen of 200I. per annum.
Knights of 200 marks yearly may w'ear cloth of fix
marks the cloth, but no higher j but no cloth of gold,
nor furred with ermine : but all knights and ladies ha¬
ving above 400 marks yearly, up to 1000I. per annum,
may wear as they pleafe, ermine excepted j and they
may wear ornaments of pearl and precious ftones for
their heads only. Clerks having degrees in cathedrals,
colleges, &c. may wear as knights and efquires of the
fame income. Plowmen, carters, ftiepherds, and fuch
like, not having 40s. value in goods or chattels, fliall
wear no fort of cloth but blanket and fuffet lawn of 12d.
and ffiall wear girdles and belts; and they fliall only
eat and drink fuitable to their ftations. And whofo-
ever ufes other apparel than is preferibed by the above
laws ffiall forfeit the fame.
Concerning the general utility of luxury to a ftate,
there is much difference of opinion among political
writers. Baron Montefquieu aflerts, that luxury is ne-
ceffary in monarchies, as in France \ but ruinous to de¬
mocracies, as in Holland. With regard therefore to
Britain, whofe government is compounded of both fpe-
cies, it is held to be a dubious queftion, how far private
luxury is a public evil 5 and, as fuch, cognizable by
public laws. And indeed our legiflators have feveral
times changed their fentiments as to this point *, for for¬
merly there were a number of penal laws exifting t,o re¬
ftrain excefs in apparel, chiefly made in the reigns of
Edward III. IV. and Henry VIII. a fpecimen of which
we have inferted above. But all of them it appeared
expedient to repeal at an after period. In fa<ft, although
Mm2 luxury
L Y C r 2
luxury will of neceflity increafe according to the influx
of wealth, it may not be for the general benefit of com¬
merce to impofe, as in the above cited laws, an abfo-
Jute prohibition of every degree of it j yet, for the good
of the public, it may be neceffary that fuch as go be¬
yond proper bounds in eating, drinking, and wearing
what by no means is fuitable to their ftation, Ihould be
taxed accordingly, could it be done without including
thofe who have a better title to fuch indulgence. This
is certainly, however, a point which Ihould be maturely
weighed before executed j and, in mercantile countries
at lead:, fuch reftraints may be found prejudicial, mod
likely impracticable, efpecially wrhere true liberty is
edablifhed. Sir William Temple obferves, fpeaking
of the trade and riches, and at the fame time of the
frugality of the Hollanders, “ That fome of our max.-
ims are not fo certain as current in politics : as that en¬
couragement of excefs and luxury if employed in the
confumption of native commodities, is of advantage to
trade. It may be fo to that which impoverilhes, but
not to that which enriches a country. It is indeed lefs
prejudicial, if it lies in native than in foreign wares :
but the humour of luxury and expence cannot dop at
certain bounds j what begins in native will proceed to
foreign commodities j and though the example arife
among idle perfons, yet the imitation will run into all
degrees, even of thofe men by whofe indudry the na¬
tion dibfids. And befides, the more of our own we
fpend, the lefs (hall we have to fend abroad j and fo it
will come to pafs, that while we drive a vad trade,
yet, by buying much more than we fe/lt we fliall come
to be poor at lad.”
LYBIA, or Libya, a name anciently given to all
that part of Africa lying between the border of E-
gypt and the river Triton ; and comprehending Cyre-
naica, Marmarica, and the Regio Syrtica. See thefe
articles.
LYCyEUM, Avkum, in antiquity, the name of a
celebrated fchool or academy at Athens, where Ari-
dotle explained his philofophy. The place was com-
pofed of porticoes and trees planted in the quincunx
form, where the philofophers difputed walking. Hence
philofophy of the Lycceutn is ufed to fignify the philofo¬
phy of Aridotle, or the Peripatetic philofophy. Suidas
obferves, that the Lycseum took its name from its hav¬
ing been originally a temple of Apollo Lycasus $ or
rather a portico er gallery built by Lycaeus fon of
Apollo j but others mention it to have been built by
Pifidratus or Pericles.
LYCyEUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Arcadia, facred to Jupiter ; whence Jupiter Lyeceus
(Pliny). Sacred alfo to Pan (Virgil) j and hence Ly-
Ccea, the rites performed to Pan on this mountain ;
which Evander carrying with him to Latium, were
called Lupercalia (Virgil).
LYCAON, in fabulous hiflory, the fird king of
Arcadia, fon of Pelafgus and Meliboea. He built a
town called Lycofura, on the top of Mount Lycaeus,
in honour of Jupiter. He had many wives, by whom
he had a daughter called Callido, and 50 fans. He
was fucceeded on the throne by Nyflimus, the elded of
his fons. He lived about 1820 years before the Chrif-
tian era.—Another king of Arcadia, celebrated for his
cruelties. He was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, be-
cqufe he oflered human viilims on (he altar of the god
3
7^ 1
L Y C
Pan. Some attribute this metamorphofis to another Lyraois
caufe. 1 he fins of mankind, as they relate, were be- II
come fo enormous, that Jupiter vifited the earth to pu-Lyconie(H
nidi wickednefs and impiety. He came to Arcadia, v_
where he was announced as a god, and the people be¬
gan to pay proper adoration to his divinity. Lycaon,
however, who ufed to facrifice all drangers to his wan¬
ton cruelty, laughed at the pious prayers of his fubje6ts 5
and to try the divinity of the god, he ferved up human
flefli on his table. This impiety fo irritated Jupiter,
that he immediately dedroyed the houfe of Lycaon|
and changed him into a wolf.
LYCAONI A, in Ancient Geography, a fmall coun¬
try of the Hither Afia, contained between Pamphylia
to the fouth, Cappadocia to the north, Pifidia and Phry¬
gia to the wed, and Armenia Minor to the ead. Ly-
caones, the people. This country, though fituated
very near Mount Taurus, and part of it on it, yet the
Romans reckoned it in Afia intra Taurum. Area-
dia, anciently called Lycaonia (Stephanus.)—Alfo an
ifland in the Tiber, joined to Rome by a bridge, and
to the land by another, namely, the Cedius and Fabri-
cius.
LYCHNIS, Campion, including alfo Catch-fly,
&c. j a genus of plants belonging to the decandria
clafs, and order pentagynia ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 22d order, CaryophylU. See Bo¬
tany Index.
LYCIA, a country of Afia Minor, bounded by the
Mediterranean on the fouth, Caria on the wed, Pam¬
phylia on the ead, and Phrygia on the north. It was
anciently called Milyas and Tremile, from the Milya*,
or Solymi, a people of Crete, who came to fettle there.
The country received the name of Lycia from Lycus
the fon of Pandion, who edablidied himfelf there.
The inhabitants have been greatly commended by all
the ancients for their fobriety and judice. They were
conquered by Crcefus king of Lydia, and afterwards
by Cyrus. Though they were fubjed to the power of
Perfia, yet they were governed by their own kings,
and only paid a yearly tribute to the Perfian monarch.
They became part of the Macedonian empire when A-
lexander came into the ead, and afterwards were ceded
to the houfe of the Seleucidae. The country was
reduced into a Roman province by the emperor Clau¬
dius.
LYCIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 28th order, Lurid*. See Botany Index.,
LYCODONTES, the petrified teeth of the lupus-
pifeis, or wolf-filh, frequently found foffile. They are
of different fliapes j but the mod common kind rife into »
a femiorbicular form, and are hollow within, fomewhat
refembling an dcorn-cup j this hollow is found fome-
times empty, and fometimes filled with the dratum in
which it is immerfec}. Many of them have an outer
circle of a different colour from the red.
LYCOMEDES, in fabulous hiflory, a king of Scy-
ros, an ifland in the ^Egean fea. He rvas fon of Apol’la
and Parthenope. He was fecretly intruded with the
care of young Achilles, whom his mother Thetis had
difguifed in woman’s clothes, to remove him from the
Trojan wfar, where die knew he mud unavoidably pe-
rifli. Lycomedes has rendered hirofelf famous for his
treachery to Thefeus, who had implored his protection
when
L Y C
Lycoraedes when driven from his throne of Athens by the ufurper
II Mneftheus. Lycomedes, as it is reported, either en-
lycurgus.^ vjous 0f the fame of his illuftrious gueft, or bribed by
’ the emifTaries of Mneftheus, led Thefeus to an elevated
place, on pretence to fhow him the extent of his domi¬
nions, and perfidiouily threw him down a precipice,
where he was killed.
LYCOPERDON, a genus of plants belonging to
the cryptogamia clafs. See Botany Index.
LYCOPERSICON. See Solanum, Botany In¬
dex.
LYCOPHRON, a famous Greek poet and gram¬
marian, born at Colchis in Euboea, flouriftied about
304 B. C. and, according to Ovid, was killed by an
arrow. He wrote 20 tragedies j but all his works are
toft, except a poem entitled Cajfandra, which contains
a long train of predi&ions, w'hich he fuppofes to
have been made by Caffandra, Priam’s daughter.
This poem is extremely obfcure. The belt edition of
it is that of Hr Potter, printed at Oxford in 1697,
folio.
LYCOPODIUM, or Club-moss ; a genus, of plants
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs. See Botany
Index.
LYCOPOLIS, or Lycon, in Ancient Geography,
fo called from the worlhip of wolves. Lycopolitce, the
people j Lycopoiites, the diftriCt. There were two
towns of this name, one in the Delta, or Lower Egypt,
near the Mediterranean j the other in the Thebais, or
Higher Egypt, in the northern part, to the weft of the
Nile-
LYCOPSIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the 41ft order, Afperifolice. See Botany Index.
LYCOPUS, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
andria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 4 2d order, Verticillatce. See Botany Index.
LYCURGIA, a feftival obferved by the Spartans,
in memory of their lawgiver Lycurgus, whom they ho¬
noured with a temple and anniverfary facrifice.
LYCURGUS, the celebratedlegiftat or of the Spar¬
tans, was the fon of Eunomes king of Sparta. —He
travelled to Greece to the ifle of Crete, to Egypt, and
even to the Indies, toconverfe w-ith thefages and learn¬
ed men of thofe countries, and to learn their manners,
their cuftoms, and their laws. After the death of his
brother Polydeftes, who was king of Sparta, his wi¬
dow offered the crown to Lycurgus, promifing that the
would make herfelf mifcarry of the child of which Are
was pregnant, provided he would marry her j but Ly¬
curgus nobly refufed thefe advantageous offers, and af¬
terwards contented himfelf with being tutor to his ne¬
phew Charillus, and reftored to him the government
w’hen he came of age j but notwithftanding this regular
and generous conduCl, he was accufed of a defign to
ufurp the crown. This calumny obliged him to retire
to the iftand of Crete, where he applied himfelf to the
ftudy of the laws and cuftoms of nations. At his return
to Lacedaemon, he reformed the government : and, to
prevent the diforders occafioned by luxury and the love
of riches, he prohibited the ufe of gold and filver j pla¬
ced all the citizens in a ftate of equality •, and intro¬
duced the ftrifteft temperance, the molt exaft dif-
eipline, and thofe admirable laws which (a few except¬
ed) have been celebrated by all hiftorians. It is faid,
t 277 1
L Y D
Lydia.
that, to engage the Lacedaemonians to obferve them hycurgns
inviolably, he made them promife with an oath not to 11
change any part of them till his return j and that he ,
afterwards went to the ifland of Crete, where he killed
himfelf, after having ordered that his allies ftiould be
thrown into the fea, for fear left if his body ftiould be
carried to Sparta the Lacedaemonians would think them-
felves abfolved from their oath. He flouriftied about
870 B. C.
LYDD, a town of England, in Kent, two miles
and a half fouth-weft of Romney, of which town and
port it is a member, and 71 miles from London. It is
a populous town, and is incorporated by the name of a
bailiff, jurats, and commonalty. In the beach near
Stone-end, is a heap of ftones, fancied to be the tomb
of Crifpin and Crifpianus j and near the fea is a place
called Holmjlone, confifting of beach and pebble-ftones,
which abounds with holm trees.
LYDGATE, John, called the Monk of Bury ; not,
as Cibber conjectures, becaufe he was a native of that
place, for he was born about the year 1380, in the vil¬
lage of Lydgate : but becaufe he was a monk of the
BenediCline convent at St Edmund’s-Bury. After ftu-
dying fome time in our Englifli univerfities, he travel¬
led to France and Italy : and, having acquired a com¬
petent knowledge of the languages of thofe countries,
he returned to London, where he opened a fchool, in
which he inftruCted the fons of the nobility in polite li¬
terature. At what time he retired to the convent of
St Edmund’s-Bury, does not appear j but he w'as cer¬
tainly there in 1415. He was living in 1446, aged
about 66 j but in what year he died is not known.
Lydgate, according to Pits, was an elegant poet, a
perfuafive rhetorician, an expert mathematician, an
acute philofopher, and a tolerable divine. He was a
voluminous writer ; and, confidering the age in which
he lived, an excellent poet. His language is lefs obfo-
lete, and his verfification much more harmonious, than
the language and verlification of Chaucer, who wrote
about half a century before him. He wrote, 1. Hiftory
of the Theban war, printed at the end of Chaucer’s
works, 1561, 1602, 1687. 2. Poemation of good
counfel $ at the end of Chaucer’s works. 3. The life of
HeClor j London 1594, folio, printed by Grofs, dedi¬
cated to Henry V. 4. Life of the bleffed Virgin j
printed by Caxton. 5. The proverbs of Lydgate upon
the fall of princes $ printed by Wink. Word. London,
4to. 6. Difpute of the horfe, the flieep, and the goofe;
printed in Caxton’s Colled. 4to. 7. The temple of
brafs ; among the wwks of Chaucer. 8. London lick-
penny $ vide Stow’s hiftory, &c. &c. Befides an in¬
credible number of other poems and tranflations prefer-
ved in various libraries, and of which -the reader will
find a catalogue in Bifhop Tanner.
LYDIA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated king¬
dom of Afia Minor.—All the ancient writers tell us,
that Lydia wras firft called Mceonia or Meonia, from
Meon king of Phrygia and Lydia ; and that it was
known under no other denomination till the reign of
Atys, when it began to be called Lydia from his fon
Lydus. Bochart finding in his learned colledion of
Phoenician words the verb lu%, fignifying “ to wind,”
and obferving that the country we are fpeaking of is
watered by the Mseander fo famous for its windings,
concludes that it was thence named Lydia, or Ludia.
As
L Y D C 278 ] L Y D
Lydia, As to th6 ancient name of Mseonia, he takes it to be a
Greek tranflation of tlie Phoenician word /uc/; wherein
he agrees in fome meafure with Stephanus, who derives
the name of Maeonia from Mason the ancient name
of the Maeander. Some take the word mceonia to be
a tranflation of a Hebrew word fignifying “ metal,”
becaufe that country, fay they, was in former times
enriched above any other with mines. Though Lydia
and Maeonia are by moft authors indifferently ufed for
one and the fame country, yet they are fometimes
diftinguithed j that part where Mount Tmolus flood,
watered by the Paftolus, being properly called Mceo¬
nia; and the other, lying on the coaft, Lydia. This
diftinftion is ufed by Homer, Callimachus, Dionyfius,
and other ancient writers. In after ages, when the
lonians, who had planted a colony on the coaft of the
Egean fea, began to make fome figure, that part was
called Ionia, and the name of Lydia given to the an¬
cient Masonia.—Lydia, according to Pliny, Ptolemy,
and other ancient geographers, was bounded by My-
fia Major on the north, by Caria on the fouth, by
Phrygia Major on the eaft, and Ionia on the w-eft, ly¬
ing between the 37th and 39th degrees of north lati¬
tude. What the ancients ftyle the kingdom of Lydia
was not confined within thefe narrow boundaries, but
extended from Halys to the Egean fea. Pliny’s de-
fcription includes iEolia, lying between the Hermus
and the Caicus.
As to the origin of the Lydians, Jofephus, and
after him all the ecclefiaftical writers, derive them
from Lud, Shem’s fourth fon j but this opinion has
no other foundation than the fimilitude of names.
Some of the ancients will have the Lydians to be a
mixed colony of Phrygians, Myfians, and Carians.
Others finding fome conformity in religion and reli¬
gious ceremonies between the Egyptians and Tufcans
« who were a Lydian colony, conclude them, without
any farther evidence, to be originally Egyptians. All
w'e know for certain is, that the Lydians were a very
ancient nation, as is manifeft from their very fables;
for Atys, Tantalus, Pelops, Niobe, and Arachne, are
all faid to have been the children of Lydus. And Zan-
thus in his Lydiaca, quoted by Stephanus, informs us,
that the ancient city of Afcalon, one of the five fa-
trapies of the Philiftines, mentioned in the books of
Jofhua and the Judges, was built by one Afcalus a Ly¬
dian, whom Achiamus king of Lydia had appointed to
command a body of troops which he fent, we know
not on what occafion, into Syria. The Heraclidse,
or kings of Lydia defcended from Hercules, began to
reign before the Trojan war; and had been preceded
by a long feries of fovereigns fprung from Atys, and
hence ftyled Atyadce; a ftrong proof of the antiquity
of that kingdom.
The Lydians began very early to be ruled by kings,
whofe government feems to have been truly defpotic,
and the crown hereditary. We read of three diftinft
races of kings reigning over Lydia, viz. the Atyadae,
the Heraclidae, and the Mermnadse.
The Atyadce were fo called from Atys the fon of Co-
tys, and grandfon of Manes the firft Lydian king. But
the hiftory of this family is obfcure and fabulous.
The Atyadse were fucceeded by the Heraclidce, or
the defendants of Hercules. For Hercules being,
by the dire&ian of the oracle, fold as a Have to Om-
4
phale a queen of Lydia, to expiate the murder of
Iphitus, had, during his captivity, by one of her
Haves, a fon named Cleolaus, whofe grandfon Argon
was the firft; of the Heraclidse that afcended the throne
of Lydia. This race is faid to have reigned 505
years j the fon fucceeding the father for 22 gene¬
rations. They began to reign about the time of the
Trojan war. The laft of the family was the unhappy
Candaules, who loft both his life and kingdom by his
imprudence : an event of which we have the following
account by Herodotus. Candaules had a wife whom
he paffionately loved, and believed the moft beautiful
of her fex. He extolled her charms to Gyges his fa¬
vourite, whom he ufed to intruft with his moft important
affairs j and the more to convince him of her beauty,
refolved to (how her to him quite naked : he accord-
ingly placed him in the porch of her chamber where
the queen ufed to undrefs when (he went to bed, or¬
dering him to retire after he thould have feen her,
and take all poflible care not to be obferved. But
notwithftanding all the caution he could ufe, the plain¬
ly difcovered him going out j and though the did not
doubt but it was her hutband’s contrivance, yet the
patfed that night in a feeming tranquillity, fuppref-
fing her refentment till next morning, when the fent
for Gyges, and refolutely told him that he muft either
by his death atone for the criminal aftion he had been
guilty of, or put to death Candaules the contriver of
it, and receive both her and the kingdom of Lydia
for his reward, Gyges at firft: earneftly begged of
her that the would not drive him to the neceflity of
fuch a choice. But finding that he could not prevail
with her, and that he muft either kill his matter or
die himfelf, he chofe the former part of the alterna¬
tive. Being led by the queen to the fame place where
her hutband had potted him the night before, he ftab-
bed the king while he was atleep, married the queen,
and took poffeflion of the kingdom, in which he was
confirmed by the anfwer of the Delphic oracle. The
Lydians having taken up arms to revenge the death
of their prince, an agreement was made between them
and the followers of Gyges, that if the oracle thould
declare him to be lawful king of Lydia, he thould be
permitted to reign $ if not, he thould refign the crown
to the Heraclidse. The anfwer of the oracle proving
favourable to Gyges, he was univerfally acknowledged
for lawful king of Lydia. Candaules is faid to have
purchafed a picture painted by Bularchas, reprefenting
a battle of the Magnetes, for its weight in gold j a
circumftance which (hows how early the art of paint¬
ing began to be in requeft, for Candaules was cotem¬
porary with Romulus.
Gyg es having thus poffeffed himfelf of the kingdom
of Lydia, fent many rich and valuable prefents to
the oracle of Delphos ^ among others, fix cups of
gold weighing 30 talents, and greatly efteemed for
the workmanthip. He made war on Miletus and
Smyrna, took the city of Colophon, and fubdued the
whole country of Troas. In his reign, and by his
permiflion, the city of Abydus was built by the Mi-
lefians. Plutarch and other writers relate his accef-
fion to the crown of Lydia in a quite different man¬
ner, and tell us, without making any mention of the
queen, that Gyges rebelled againft Candaules and flew
him in an engagement. In Gyges began the third
race.
L Y D [ 279 ] L Y D>
Lydia, race, called Mertnnadce ; who were alfo, properly fpeak-
- » ' ing, Heraclidse, being defcended from a fon of Her¬
cules by Omphale. Gyges reigned 38 years, and was
fucceeded by his fon Ardyes.
This prince carried on the war againft the Milefians
which his father had begun, and poffeffed himfelf of
Priene, in thofe days a ftrong city. In his reign the
Cimmerians invaded and overran all Alia Minor j but
what battles were fought between the Lydians and
thefe invaders, and with what fuccefs, we find no where
mentioned. Herodotus only informs us, that in the
time of Ardyes they pofieffed themfelves of Sardis, the
metropolis of Lydia, but could never reduce the caftle.
Ardyes reigned 49 years, and was fucceeded by his fon
Sadyattes, who reigned 12 years, and warred moft part
of his reign with the Milefians.
After him came his fon Alyattes, who for the fpace
of five years continued the war which his father had
begun againft the Milefians, ravaging their country,
and about harveft time carrying away all their corn
yearly, in order to oblige them, for want of provifions,
to furrender their city, which he knew he could not
reduce any other way, the Milefians being at that time
matters of the fea. In the I 2th year of this war the
Lydians having fet fire to the corn in the fields, the
flames wrere carried by a violent wind, which happened
to blow at that time, to the temple of Minerva at
Affefus, and burnt it down to the ground. Not long
after, Alyattes falling fick, fent to confult the oracle
at Delphos; which refufed to return any anfwer till
fuch time as the king fhould rebuild the temple of
Minerva at Aflefus. Alyattes, thus warned, defpatched
ambafladors to Miletus, enjoining them to conclude
a truce with the Milefians till the temple fhould be
rebuilt. On the arrival of the ambaffadors, Thrafy-
bulus, then king of Miletus, commanded all the corn
that was at that time in the city to be brought into
the market-place, ordering the citizens 'to banquet
in public, and revel as if the city w'ere plentifully
ftored with all manner of provifions. This ftratagem
Thrafybulus praflifed, to the end that the ambaffadors
feeing fuch quantities of com, and the people every¬
where diverting themfelves, might acquaint their mafter
with their affluence, and divert him from purfuing the
war. As Thrafybulus had defigned, fo it happened j
for Alyattes, who believed the Milefians greatly dif-
treffed for provifions, receiving a different account from
his ambaffadors, changed the truce into a lafting peace,
and ever afterwards lived in amity and friendfhip with
Thrafybulus and the Milefians. He was fucceeded,
after a reign of 57 years, by his fon Crcefus, whofe
uninterrupted profperity, in the firft years of his reign,
far eclipfed the glory of all his predeceffors. He was the
firft that made war on the Ephefians, whofe city he
befieged and took notwithftanding their confecrating it
to Diana, and fattening the walls by a rope to her
temple, which was feven ftadia diftant from the city.
After the reduction of Ephefus he attacked, under
various pretences, the lonians and Alolians, obliging
them, and all the other Greek ftates of Afia, to pay him
a yearly tribute. Having met with fuch extraordinary
fuccefs by land, the Lydian prince determined to render
his power equally confpicuous by fea. For this purpofe
he thought ferioufly of equipping a fleet j with which
he purpofed to invade and conquer the Grecian iflands
dire&ly fronting his dominions. But this defign, which,
confidering the flow progrefs in maritime power among
the nations moft diligent to attain it, rvould probably
have failed of fuccefs, was prevented by the advice of
a philofophical traveller, conveyed in fuch a lively turn
of wit as ealily changed the refolution of the king.
Bias of Priene in Ionia, fome fay Pittacus of Mitylene
in the ifle of Lelbos, while he travelled after the
Grecian cuftom, from curiofity and a love of knowledge,
was prefented to Crosfus at the Lydian court j and
being alked by that prince what news from Greece $
he anfwered with a republican freedom, that the iflanders
had collefted powerful fquadrons of cavalry wdth an
intention of invading Lydia. “ May the gods grant
(faid Croefus), that the Greeks, who are unacquainted
with horfemanfliip, fliould attack the difeiplined valour
of the Lydian cavalry; there would foon be an end to
the conteft.” “ In the fame manner (replied Bias), as
if the Lydians, who are totally unexperienced in naval
affairs, fhould invade the Grecians by fea.” Struck
by the acutenefs of this unexpefted obfervation, Crcefus
defifted from his intended expedition againft the iflands,
and inftead of employing new means for extending
his conquefts, determined peaceably to enjoy the lau¬
rels which he had won, and to difplay the grandeur
which he had attained. But his happinefs was foon
after allayed by the death of his favourite fon Atys,
who was unfortunately killed at the chafe of a wild
boar. For this lofs he continued difconfolate for two
years and in a ftate of inaftion, till the conquefts of
Cyrus, and growing power of the Perfians, roufed up
his martial fpirit, and diverted his mind to other
thoughts. He apprehended that the fuccefs which
attended Cyrus in all his undertakings, might at laft
prove dangerous to himfelf, and therefore refolved to
put a flop, if poflible, to his progrefs. In taking this
refolution, which might probably be attended with
the moft important confequences, he was defirous to
learn the will of heaven concerning the iffue of the war.
The principal oracles which he confulted were thofe
of Branchis in Ionia, of Hammon Jn Libya, and of
Delphi in Greece. Among thefe refpedted Ihrines,
the oracle of Delphi maintained its afeendant, as
the moft faithful interpreter of fate. Croefus was
fully perfuaded of its veracity $ and defirous generoufly
to compenfate for the trouble which he had already
given, and ftill meant to give, the priefts of Apollo,
he facrificed 3000 oxen to the god, and adorned his
Ihrine with dedications equally valuable for the work-
manftiip and for the materials; precious veffels of
filver, ewers of iron beautifully inlaid and enamelled j
various ornaments of pure gold, particularly a golden
lion weighing ten talents, and a female figure three
cubits or near five feet high. In return for thefe mag¬
nificent prefents, the oracle, in ambiguous language,
flattered Crcefus with obtaining an eafy viftory over
his enemies, and with enjoying a long life and a pro-
fperous reign. The god at the fame time enjoined
him to contract an alliance with the moft powerful of
the Grecian ftates.
Elevated with thefe favourable predictions of Apollo,
Croefus prepared to yield a ready obedience to the only
condition required on his part for the accomplifhment
of his afpiring purpofe. Not deeming himfelf fufficiently
acquainted with the affairs of Greece, to know what
partiQulaj-
L Y jy r 280 ] LTD
Lydia, particular republic was meant by the oracle, he made
particular inquiry of thofe beft informed concerning
the ftate of Europe j and difcovered, that among all
the members of the Grecian confederacy, the Athenians
and Lacedtemonians were juftly entitled to the pre¬
eminence. In order to learn which of thefe communi¬
ties deferved the epithet of tnnjl powerful^ it was
neceffary to fend ambaffadors into Greece. The
Lydians defpatched with this important commiffion,
foon difcovered that the Athenians after having been
long haraffed by internal diflenfions, were actually
governed by the tyrant Pififtratus. The Spartans, on
the other hand, though anciently the worft regulated
of all the Grecian communities, had enjoyed domeftic
peace and foreign profperity ever fince they had
adopted the wife inftitutions of Lycurgus. After that
memorable period, they had repeatedly conquered the
warlike Argives, triumphed over the hardy Arcadians j
and notwithilanding the heroic exploits of Ariftomenes,
fubduedand enflaved their unfortunate rivals of Meffene.
To the Lydian ambaffadors, therefore, the Spartan
republic appeared to be pointed out by the oracle as
the community whofe alliance they were enjoined to
folicit. Having repaired accordingly to Sparta, they
were introduced not only to the kings and fenate,
but, as the importance of the negociation required,
to the general affembly of the Lacedaemonians, to
whom they, in few words, declared the obje£l of their
commiflxon ; “ We are fent, O Lacedaemonians! by
Croefus, king of the Lydians and of many other nations,
who being commanded by the oracle of Apollo to feek
the friendlhip of the moft powerful people of Greece,
now fummons you, who juftly merit that epithet, to
become his faithful allies, in obejlience to the will of
the god whofe authority you acknowledge.” The
Lacedasmonians, pleafed with the alliance of a warlike
king, and ftill more with the fame of their valour,
readily accepted the propofal. To the ftrift connexion
of an offenfive and defenlive league, they joined the
more refpefted ties of facred hofpitality. A few years
before this tranfa&ion, they had fent to purchafe gold
at Sardis for making a ftatue of Apollo. Croefus
had on that occafion gratuitoufly fupplied their want.
Remembering this generofity, they gave the Lydian
ambafladors at their departure, as a prefent for their
mafter, a veffel of brafs containing 300 amphoras
(above 12 hogfheads), and beautifully carved on the
outfide with various forms of animals.
Croefus, having thus happily accompliftied the de-
Egn recommended by the oracle, was eager to fet out
upon his intended expedition. He had formerly en¬
tered into alliance with Amafis king of Egypt, and
Labynetus king of Babylon. He had now obtained
the friendftiip of the moft warlike nation of Europe.
The newly raifed power of Cyrus and the Perfians
feemed incapable ef refilling fuch a formidable confe¬
deracy.
Elevated with thefe flattering ideas of his own in¬
vincible greatnefs, Croefus waited not to attack the
Perfian dominions until he had collefted the ftrength
of his allies. The fanguine impetuofity of his temper,
unexperienced in adveriity, unfortunately precipitated
him into meafures no lefs ruinous than daring. At¬
tended only by the arms ef Lydia, and a numerous
band of mercenaries, whom his immenfe wealth enabled
him at any time to call into his fervice, he marched Ljdi*.
towards. the river Halys j and having crofled ^with
much difficulty that deep and broad ftream, entered
the province of Cappadocia, which formed the weftern
frontier of the Median dominions. That unfortunate
country foon experienced all the calamities of invafion.
The Pterian plain, the moft beautiful and the moft
fertile diftridt of Cappadocia, was laid wafte; the
ports of the Euxine, as well as feveral inland cities,
w^ere plundered j and the inoffenfive inhabitants were
either put to the fword or dragged into captivity.
Encouraged by the unrefifting foftnefs of the natives
of thofe parts, Croefus was eager to puffi forwards j
and if Cyrus did not previoufly meet him in the field,
he had determined to proceed in triumph to the moun¬
tains of Perfia. Againft this dangerous refolution
he was in vain exhorted by a Lydian named Sandanisj
who, when alked his opinion of the war, declared it
with that freedom which the princes of the eaft have
in every age permitted, amidft all the pride and ca¬
prices of defpotic power, to men diftingulhed by the
gifts of nature or education. “ You are preparing,
O king, to march againft a people who lead a labo*
rious and a miferable life j whole daily fubfiftence is
often denied them, and is always fcanty and precarious j
who drink only water, and who are clothed with the
ikins of wild beafts. What can the Lydians gain by
the conqueft of Perfia j they who enjoy all the ad¬
vantages of which the Perfians are deftitute ? For my
part, I deem it a bleffing of the gods, that they have
not excited the warlike poverty of thefe miferable bar¬
barians to invade and plunder the luxurious wealth of
Lydia.” The moderation of this advice was rejected
by the fatal prefumption of Croefus ; who confounding
the dictates of experienced wifdom with the mean fug-
geftions of pufillanimity, difmiffed the counfellor with
contempt.
Meanwhile, the approach of Cyrus, who was not of
a temper to permit his dominions to be ravaged with
impunity, afforded the Lydian king an opportunity of
bringing the war to a more fpeedy iffue than by his in¬
tended expedition into Perfia. The army of Cyrus
gradually augmented on his march : the tributary
princes cheerfully contributing with their united
ftrength towards the affiftance of a mafter whofe va¬
lour and generofity they admired, and who now took
arms to protect the fafety of his fubje&s, as well as to
fupport the grandeur of his throne. Such was the ra¬
pidity of his movement, efpecially after being inform¬
ed of the deftru&ive ravages of the enemy in Cappa¬
docia, that he arrived from the fliores of the Cafpian
to thofe of the Euxine fea before the army of Croefus
had provided the neceffaries for their journey. That
prince, when apprifed of the neighbourhood of the
Perfians, encamped on the Pterian plain ; Cyrus like-
wife encamped at no great diflance j frequent Ikirmilhes
happened between the light troops ; and at length a
general engagement was fought with equal fury and
perfeverance, and only terminated by the darknefs of
night. The lofs on both fides hindered a renewal of
the battle. The numbers, as well as the courage of
the Perfians, much exceeded the expectation of Croe¬
fus. As they difcovered not any intention to harafe
his retreat, he determined to move back towards Sar¬
dis, to fpend the winter in the amufements of his pa¬
lace j
Lydia.
L Y D [ 281 ] L Y D
lace j and after fummoning his numerous allies to his
ftandard, to take the field early in the fpring with fuch
increafe of force as feemed fufficient to overpower the
Perfians.
But this defign was defeated by the careful vigilance
of Cyrus. That experienced leader allowed the ene¬
my to retire without moleftation ; carefully informing
himfelf of every ftep which they took, and of every
meafure which they feemed determined to purfue.
Patiently watching the opportunity of a juft revenge,
he waited until Croefus had re entered his capital, and
had diihanded the foreign mercenaries, who compofed
the molt numerous divifion of his army. It then feem¬
ed the proper time for Cyrus to put his Perfians in
motion \ and fuch was his celerity, that he brought
the firlt news of his own arrival in the plain of Sardis.
Croefus, whofe lirmnefs might well have been lhaken
by the imminence of this unforefeen danger, was not
wanting on the prefent occafion to the duties which he
owed to his fame and the luftre of the Lydian throne.
Though his mercenaries were difbanded, Iws own lub-
jefts, who ferved him from attachment, who had been
long accuftomed to victory, and who were animated
with a high fenfe of national honour, burned with a
defire of enjoying an opportunity to check the daring
in foie nee of the invaders. Croefus indulged and en¬
couraged this generous ardour. The Lydians in that
age fought on horfeback, armed with long fpears ; the
ft length of the Perfians confided in infantry. They
were fo little accullomed to the ufe of horfes, that ca¬
mels were almolt the only animals which they employ¬
ed as hearts of burden. This circumrtance fug gelled
to a Mede, by name Harpagu/, a ftratagem, which
being communicated to Cyrus, was immediately adopt¬
ed with approbation by that prince. Harpagus, hav¬
ing obferved that horfes had a ftrong averfion to the
ftiape and fmell of camels, advifed the Perfian army to
be drawn up in the following order : All the camels
which had been employed to carry baggage and pro-
vifions were colledfed into one body, arranged in a long
line fronting the Lydian cavalry. The foot foldiers ot
the Perfians were polled immediately behind the line,
and placed at a due dirtance. The Median horfe (for
a few fquadrons of thefe followed the rtandard of Cy¬
rus) formed the rear of the army. As the troops on
both Tides approached to join battle, the Lydian caval¬
ry, terrified at the ur.ufual appearance of the camels,
mounted with men in arms, were thrown into diior-
der, and turning their heads, endeavoured to efeape
from the field. Crocfus, who perceived the eonfuliun,
was ready to defpair of his fortune ; but the Lydians,
abandoning their horfes, prepared with uncommon
bravery to attack the enemy on foot. Their courage
deferved a better fate ; but unaccuftomed as they were
to this mode of fighting, they were received and repel¬
led by the experienced valour of the Perfian infantry,
and obliged to take refuge within the fortified ftrength
of Sardis, where they imagined themfelves fecure. The
walls of that city bid defiance to the rude art of at¬
tack, as then praftifed by the moil warlike nations.
If the Perfian army ihould invert it, the Lydians were
provided with provifions for feveral years •, and there
was reafon to expect, that in a few months, and even
weeks, they would receive fuch affillance from Egypt,
.Babylonia, and Greece (to which countries, they had
Vol. XII. Part I.
already fent ambaffadors), as would oblige the Fenians
to raife the fiege.
The Lydian minifters defpatched into Greece met
with great fympathy from the Spartans. That people
were particularly gbfervant of the faith of treaties 5 and
while they punithed their enemies with unexampled fe-
verity, they behaved with generous companion towards
thofe whom they had once accepted for allies. I hey
immediately retolved therefore to fend him a fpeedy
and effectual relief-, and for this purpofe affembled
their troops, made ready their vtffels, and prepared
every thing neceflary for the expedition.
The valour of the Spartans might perhaps have
upheld the finking empire of Lydia j but before their
armament could let fail, Crccfus was no longer a love-
reign. Notwithftanding the ifrength of Sardis, that
city had been taken by ftorm on the 20th day of the
fiege ; the wallshaving been fealed in a quarter, which,
appearing altogether inaccefiible, was too carelefsly
guarded. This was effected by the enterprife of Hy-
reades a Mede, who accidentally obferved a centinel
defeend part of the rock in order to recover his hel¬
met. Hyreades was a native of the mountainous pro¬
vince of Mardia, and being aceudomed to clamber
over the dangerous precipices of his native country,
refolved to try his activity in parting the rock upon
which he had difeovered the Lydian. The delign was
more eafily accomplifhed than he had reafon to ex¬
pert : emulation and fuccefs encouraged the braveft of
the Perfians to follow his example j thefe were fup-
ported by greater numbers of their countryn'en ; the
garrifon of Sardis was furprifed ; the citadel stormed }
the rich capital of Lower Alia 1'ubjeCted to the venge¬
ful rapacity of an indignant vihior. Thus, ended the
ancient kingdom of Lydia, which continued fubjeft to
the Perfians till they alfo were conquered by the Ma¬
cedonians. For the fate of the Lydian monarch, fee
the article Croksus.
LYDIAT, Thomas, a learned Englifli divine,
born in 1572, and educated at Oxford. About the
year 1609, he became acquainted with Dr James
Ufher, afterwards arc’.ibilhop of Armagh, who carried
him to Ireland. He was at Dublin college for. about
two years, after winch he returned to England ; and
the reftory of Alkrmgton becoming vacant, he was
prefented to it: but at length, being engaged for the
debts (if a near relation, which for the prefent he was
unable to pay, having before fpent his patrimony in
printing feveral books, he was lent to prifon } and was
confined at Oxford, in the King’s Bench,, and elfe-
where, till Sir William Bofwell, a generous patron of
learned men, Dr Robert Pink, warden of New college,
Bifhop IJlher, and Dr Laud difeharged the debt. In
the civil wars, he fullered much in his reflory of Alk-
ringt&n from the parliament party ; was four times
pillaged to the value of at leait 70I.; and was forced
for a quarter of a year together to, borrow a fhirt to
fhift himfelf. He died in 1646. He wrote fome pieces
in Englifh, and many works in Latin, on chronology
and natural hiflory.
LYDIUS lapis, in the natural hirtoty of the an¬
cients $ the name of the flone ufed by way of touehftone
for the trial of gold and filver, and called by fome He-
radius laf>ir; both of which names were alfo applied
by the ancients to the loadrtonej and lienee has ariferj,
N n n.a
Ly.i
II
Lydi
L Y M [ 2
Ly^us no fnaall mifunderflanding of their works. Pliny has
L)melUejs.0b‘'e.rvef^ V13*" h'adftone and touchftone were
——v—~ at tlfTie3 caii^d Lydius and Htradius lapis.
. * ae rue Lydius, or the touchilone, was an-
cientiV found only in the river 1 molus ; but was after¬
wards found in many other places, and is now very
common in many of the German rivers. The ancients
give us very remarkable-and circumftantial accounts of
tne ufes they made cf it; and it is plain they were able
to difcern the alloys of gold by means of it with very
great exaftnef?. \Ve at prefent ufe feveral different
Itones under this name, and for the fame purpofe. In
Italy, a green marble called verde/lo, is moft frequent¬
ly ufedj and with us, very frequently fmall pieces of
hafalt.
L V GEUM, a genus of plants belonging to the tri-
andria clafs y and in the natural method ranking under
the fourth order, Graminn. See Botany Index.
LYGII, Ligii, Lugii, or Logiones, in Ancient Geo-
gnaphy, a people of Germany, to the weft of the Viftu-
la, where it forms a bend like a crefcent 5 Ligri, (Dio);
Lugii, (Strabo) $ Logiones, (Zoftmus). I'heir name
Lug it is conjectured to be derived from their mutually
cone confederacy or league. The Viftula was their
boundary to the north, eaft, and fouth, with Mount
Afciburgius to the weft. Now the whole of that coun¬
try lies in Poland, on this fide the Viftula.
.LYING-in women. See Midwifery.
L TING-to, or Lying by, the fituation of a fhip, when
Ihe is retarded in her courfe, by arranging the fails in
fuch a manner as to counteract each other with nearly
an equal effort, and render the fhip almoft immoveable,
with refpect to her progreflive motion, or headway.
A fhip is ufually brought-to by the main and fore top
fails, one of which is laid aback, whilft the other is full;
fo that the latter pufhes the ftvip forward, whilft the
former refills this impulfe, by forcing her aftern. This
is particularly praftiied in a general engagement, when
hoftile fleets are drawn up in two lines of battle oppo-
fite each other. It is alfo ufed to wait for fome other
ftiip, either approaching or expedted ; or to avoid pur-
iuing a dangerous courfe, efpecially in dark or foggy
weather.
LYME-regis, a fea port town of Dorfetfhire in
England, 148 miles from London. It lies near the
fea, on the very borders of Devonfhire, in a cavity
between two rocky hdls, which makes it difficult of
accefs. As it lies on the declivity of a hill, the houfes
make a good fhow, rifing one above another y and
fome of them are built of free-ftone, and covered with
blue flate. The number of inhabitants in 1801 was
eftimated at 1451. The corporation confifts of a
mayor (who is juftice of peace during his mayoralty
and the year after, and in the third year both juftice
and coroner), a recorder, 15 capital burgeffes, and a
town clerk. I his place had formerly a very flourifh-
ing trade to France, Spain, the Straits, Newfound¬
land, and the Weft Indies; during which, the cuftoms
amounted fome years to i6,oool. But it Hands on
luch a high fteep rock, that the merchants are obliged
to load and unload their goods at a place a quarter of
a mile oft, called the Cobb, originally built in the
reign of Edward III. which cofts a great fum to main¬
tain, but forms fuch a harbour as perhaps is not to
be equalled in the world, the fhips being fheltered
82 ] L Y N
by a high thick Hone wall, raifed in the main fea Lvme.reci
a good way from the fhore, broad enough for carriages II
and warehoufes, and the cuftomhoufe officers have one Lyncurbra \
upon it. The cellars of the low part of the town, near
the fea, are however often overflowed by the fpring
tides 10 or 12 feet. There are guns planted for de¬
fence both of the Cobb and the town, the fhore here
being very proper for batteries. The cuftomhoufe
ftands on pillars, with the corn market under it. There
is an alms-houfe in Church-ftreet, alfo Prefhyterian and
Anabaptift meeting-houfes. The town hall is near
Broad-ftreet. The church ftands at the eaft end of
the town on a rifing ground. The market here is on
I riday, and there are two fairs in the year. We read
that in 774, the Saxon king Kinwulf gave land here¬
abouts to the church of Sherborn, for the boiling of fait
there to fupply its neceflities. At this place the duke
of Monmouth landed in 1685. A few years ago above
20ool. worth of gold and filver coin of Char. 1. and II.
were difeovered by feme labourers.
LYMINGTON, a borough town of Hampfhire in
England, 97 miles fouth-weft of London. It ftands
about a mile from the channel running between the
main land and the ifle ol Wight; and has a harbour
for yeflels of confiderable burden. The tide flows near
a mile above the town. It has a market on Saturdays;
and fends two members to parliament. The population
in 1801 was eftimated at 2378.
LYMPH, a fine colourlefs fluid, feparated in the
body from the mafs of blood, and contained in peculiar
veflels called lymphatics. See Anatomy.
LYMPH YE A, were artificial caves or grottos a-
mongft the Romans, furnifhed with a great many
tubes, canals, and various hydraulic apparatus, through-
which the water gufhed out upon the fpe&ators unex-
pefledly whilft they were admiring the beautiful ar-
ragement of the fhell-work in the grotto.
LYMPHATT, was a name given by the Romans
to fuch as were feized with madnefs. It is fuppoftd
to be ufed for Nymphati, becaufe the ancients imagined
that every perfon who had the misfortune to fee a
Nymph was inftantly ftruck with phrenzy. Lymphati
may indeed fignify “ madmen,” as derived from lym-
pha, “ water,” over which element the Nymphs were
thought to prefide r But it appears moft likely, that
diftrafted people were called lymphati, from the cir-
cumftance of madmen’s being affefled with the hydro-
phobia or dread cf Water after ‘he bite of a mad dug ^
for this peculiarity, in cafes of canine madnefs, was not
unknown to the Romans.
LYNCEUS, in fabulous hiftory, one of the 50 fons-
of EEgeus, married Hypermneftra, one of the 50 daugh¬
ters of Danaus. See Hyfermnestra.
Lynceus, in fabulous hiftory, one of the Argo¬
nauts, who went with Jafon in the expedition to ob¬
tain the golden fleece. He was of great ufe to the
Argonauts, by enabling them to avoid the fand banks
and rocks they found in their way. The poets fay, that
Lynceus had fo piercing a fight, that it could not only
penetrate to the bottom of the fea, but even to hell.
Some mythologifts fuppofe, that this fable is taken
from Lynceus’s fkill in obferving the ftars, and difeo-
vering the mines of gold and filver concealed in the
earth.
LYNCURIUM, a ftone thought to be the fame
with
L Y N [2
sncur‘mm, w'ltK tlie tourmalin. The name is derived from Xvyl,
lyncurius <t lynx,” and “ urine.”
lapis. L^NCURIUS lapis, a ftone capable of produ-
: ^ cing muflirooms.
In the Ephemerides of the Curious, \re find men¬
tion made of a ftone, fo called by Dr John George
Wolckamerus, who faw one in Italy, which never
ceafes to produce in a few days muihrooms of an
excellent flavour by the moft iimple and eafy pro-
cefs imaginable. “ It is (fays he) of the bignefs of
an ox’s head, rough and uneven on its furfaee, and
nn which alfo are perceived feme clefts and crevices.
It is black in fome parts, and in others of a lighter
and grayilh colour. Internally it is porous, and near¬
ly of the nature of the pumice-ftone, but much hea¬
vier ; and it contains a ftnall piece of flint, which is
fo incorporated with it as to appear to have been form¬
ed at the fame time the ftone itfelf received its form.
This gives room to judge, that thofe ftones have been
produced by a fat and vifcid juice, which has the pro¬
perty of indurating whatever matter it filtrates into.
The ftone here fpoken of, when it has been lightly
covered with earth, and fprinkled with warm water,
produces muflirooms of an exquifite flavour, which are
ufually round, fometimes oval, and whofe borders, by
their inflexions and different curvities, reprefent in fome
meafure human ears, ihe principal colour of thefe
muflirooms is fometimes yellowiih, and fometimes of a
bright purple •, but they are always diffeminated with
different fpots, of a deep orange colour, or red brown j
and w hen thefe fpots are recent, and ftill in full bloom,
they produce a very agreeable effeft to the fight. But
what appears admirable is, that the part of the ftalk
which remains adhering to the ftone, when the mufli-
room has been feparated from it, grows gradually hard,
and petrifies in time, fo that it feems that this fungites
reftores to the ftone the nutritive juice it received from
it, and that it thus contributes to its increafe.” John
Baptift Porta pretends, that this ftone is found in fe-
veral parts of Italy ; and that it is not only to be met
with at Naples, taken out of Mount Vefuvius, but al¬
fo on Mount Pantherico, in the principality of Arel-
lino *, on Mount Garganus, in Apulia •, and on the
fummits of fome other very high mountains. He adds,
that the muflirooms which grow on thofe forts of ftones,
and are ufually called fungi /yncurii, have the property
of diffolving and breaking the ftone of the kidneys and
bladder •, and that, for this purpofe, nothing more is
required than to dry them in the (hade, and being re¬
duced to powder, to make the patient, falling, take
a fuflicient quantity of this powder in a glafs of white
wdne, which will fo cleanfe the excretory dudls of the
urine, that no ftones will ever after be colledled in
them. As to the form of thofe muihrooms, their root
is (tony, uneven, divided according to its longitudinal
direction, and compofed of fibres as fine as hairs, in¬
terwoven one with another. Their form, on firft (hoot¬
ing out, refembles a fmall bladder, fcarce then larger
than the bud of a vine *, and if in this ftate they are
fqueezed between the fingers, an aqueous fubacid li¬
quor iffues out. When they are at their full growth,
their pedicle is of a finger’s length, larger at top than
at bottom, and becomes infenfibly flenderer in propor¬
tion as it is nearer the earth. Thefe muflirooms are
sdfo formed in an umbella, and variegated with an in-
83 1 L Y N
finity of little fpecks fitualed very near one another. LP^!as
They are fmooth and even on the upper part, but un- j
derneath leafy like the common muflirooms. Their _—^
tafte is likewife very agreeable, and the fick are not
debarred eating of them when they have been dreffed in
a proper manner. Curiofity having prompted fome
naturalifls and phyficians to fubmit thefe ftones to a
chemical analyfis, in order to be more competent judges
of the ufes they might be put to in medicine, there
firft came forth, by diftillation, an infipid water, and
afterwards 2 fpirituous liquor. I he retort having been
heated to a certain point, there arofe an oil, which had
nearly the fmell and tafte of that of guaiacum 5 and a
very acrid fait was extracted from the afties.
LYNN-RF.Gis, a town of Norfolk, in England,
diftant 98 miles from London. It is a handfome,
large, well-built place, and fends two members to par¬
liament. It was a borough by prefcription in 1298.
King John, on account of its adherence to him againft
the barons, made it a free borough, with large pri¬
vileges. He appointed it a provoft, and gave it a
large filver cup of 73 ounces doubly gilt and enamel¬
led, and a large filver fword that is carried before the
mayor ; though this laft, according to fome, is Hen¬
ry VIII.’s fword, which he gave to the town when it
came into his hands by exchange w ith the bifhop of
Norwich; after which it was called King’s Lynm,
whereas before it w'as Biftiop’s Lynn. Henry III. made
it a mayor town, for its ferving him againft the barons.
It has had 15 royal charters; and is governed by a
mayor, high-iteward, under-ftewrard, recorder, 12 aider-
men, and 18 common-council men. It has two churches,
befides St Nicholas, a chapel of eafe to St Margaret’s,
a Prelbyterian ^nd a Quakers meeting-houfe, u ith a
bridewell or workhoufe, and feveral alms-houfes, and
a free fchool. In September 1741 the fpires of its
twm churches were both blown down by a ftorm of
wind ; and that of St Margaret’s, which was 193 feet
in height, having beat in the body of the church, it
has been fince rebuilt, towards which King George II.
gave 1000I. and the late earl of Orford, then Sir
Robert Walpole, 500I. This church was formerly
an abbey, and afterwards one of the largeft parilh-
ehurches in England. The town-houfe, called Tri¬
nity-hall, is a noble old fabric; andfois the Exchange,
which is of free-ftone, with two orders of columns.
St Nicholas’s chapel is very ancient, and reckoned
one of the faireft and largeft of the Knd in England.
It has a bell tower of free ftone, and an otlagonal
fpire over it, both which together are 170 feet from
the ground. There is a library in it that was erected
by fubfcription ; and there is another at St Marga¬
ret’s. Here have been formerly feveral monafteries ;
but the only fabric remaining that belongs to any re¬
ligious order is the Gray-friars fteeple, a noted fea-
mark. The fituation of this town, near the fall of
the Oufe into the fea, after having received feveral
other rivers, of which fome are navigable, gives it an
opportunity of extending its trade into eight different
counties; by which many confiderable cities and
towns, viz. Peterborough, Ely, Stamford, Bedford,
St Ives, Huntingdon, St Neot’s, Northampton, Cam¬
bridge, St Edmundlbury, and the north parts of Bucks,
as well as the inland parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, are
fupplied with heavy goods, not only from our own
N n 2 produce^
regis.
L Y N
I»ynn-reg:s. produce, as coals and fait from Newcaftle, but alfo of
^ merchandife imported from abroad, efpecially rvine j
of winch two articles, viz. coals and wine, this is the
grcatcft port for importation of any place on all the
eallern coaft of England j and thofe wherein the Lynn
merchants deal more largely than any town in England,
except London, Briftol, and Newcaftle. In return
tor this, Lynn receives back all the corn which the
counties jui! mentioned produce, for exportation j and
therefore fends more of it abroad than any port except
Hull. The foreign trade of the merchants here, is
very confiderable, efpecially to Holland, Norway, and
the Baltic, and alfo to Spain and Portugal ; and for¬
merly they drove a good trade to France, til) it was
turned off, by treaties, on one hand, and by prohibi¬
tions,-high duties, &c. on the other, to Spain and
Portugal. The harbour is fafe when fliips are in it,
but difficult to enter by reafon of the many flats and
fhoals in the paffage; which, however, are well buoyed,
and good pilots are always ready. The town confifts of
about 2400 houfes j and appears to have been very
Prong, by the ruins of the works deraoliffied in the
civil wars. St Ann’s platform at the north end mounts
J 2 great guns, and commands all the {hips, paffing near
the harbour : and towards the land, befides the wall,
there is a ditch. Four rivulets run through the town;
and the t'de of the Oufe, which is about as broad
here as the Thames at London bridge, rifes 20 feet
perpendicular. In the great market-place a ftatue
was ere&ed in 1686 to the 'honour of King James II.
1. here is another fpacious market-place, adorned with
a llatue of King William III. and a fine crofs with a
dome and gallery round it, fupported by 16 pillars.
1 he market-houfe is of free-ftone, fupported by 16
columns, and is 70 feet high, erefred on four fteps, neat¬
ly adorned with ilatues, &c. Every firfi Monday in the
month, the mayor, aldermen, preachers, &c. meet to
hear and determine all controverfies amicably, for pre¬
venting law’-fuits. This was firft eftablifhed in 1 $88, and
is called The FeaJ} of Reconciliation. The markets are
on Tuefdays and Saturdays; and it has two,fairs;
one of which, beginning Feb. 14. lafis for a fortnight,
and is called Lynn mart; the other is a cheefe fair on
oa. 6. The adherence of this town to King John
and to Henry VIII. as above mentioned, are not the
only inftances of its loyalty to its fovereigns ; for, in.
the late civil v, jr , it held out for King Charles Land
luftained a formal fiege of above i8,qoq men of the
parliament army for above three weeks; but, for
want of relief, was obliged to furrender, and fubmit
to the terms of paying 10s. a-head for every inhabi¬
tant, and a month’s pay to the foldiers, to fave the
town from plunder. There are more gentry, and con-
lequentlv more gaiety, in this town than in Yarmouth
or even Norwich; there being fuch plenty of eatables
and drinkables, that Spelman fays, Ceres and Bacchus
teem to have efiabliffied their magazines at this place ;
theeaft fide abounding with corn, fheep, rabbits, hares,
&c. the weft fide with cheefe, butter, black cattle,
fwans, and the wild-fowl common to marlhes, befides
x the abundance of fea and river fifh ; fo that he thinks
there is no place in Great Britain, if in Europe, has
fuch a variety in fo fmall a compafs of ground. At
a fmall diftance from the town, Hands a mount, called
the Lady’s or Red Mount, which was once a chapel
[ 284 ]
L Y O
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, which was a refting- Lynn-regii
place for pilgrims on their way towards her convent I!
at Walfingham. The king’s ftaith-yard, or quay, L>,onet-
W'here the greatefl part of the imported wines is land- v ~
ed and put into large vaults, is a handlbme fquare.
People pafs hence into the fen country, and over the
famous wa{lies into Lincolnfliire in boats, which are
often loft, by venturing out at an improper feafon and
without guides. The population in 1801 exceeded
10,000.
LYNX. See Fklis, Mammalia Index.
LYON Ring of Arms. See King ; and Law
N° clviii. 16.
-I his office is of great antiquity and refpeft in Scot¬
land ; and although the prccife time of its inlfitution
is unknown, yet it muft have been as early as the in¬
troduction of armorial figures as hereditary marks of
gentility and diftinCtion into this country, which was
in the 12th century. His regalia are, a crown of gold,
with a crimfon velve^ cap, a gold tsflel, and an ermine
lining: a velvet robe reaching to his feet, with the arms
of the kingdom embroidered thereon before and be¬
hind in the proper tinCtures; a triple row of gold chain
round his neck, w ith an oval gold medal pendant there¬
to, on one fide of which is the royal bearing, and on
the other St Andrew with bis crofs enamelled in pro¬
per colours, and a baton of gold enamelled green, pow¬
dered with the badges of the kingdom. The lord
lyon’s rank is fuperior to that of any other king of
arms, as he holds his office immediately from the iove-
reign by comrniffion under the great feal; whereas the
kings of arms in England are deputies to the earl
marfhal, and aft under his authority. Formerly Scot¬
land was divided into two provinces, the one on the
north and the other on the fouth fide of Forth ; and
thefe provinces were under the management of two de¬
puties appointed by the lord lyon, to fuperintend the
execution of all the bufinefs of his office. Before the
Revolution, the lord lyoif, at his admifffion into office,
was moft folemnly crowned by the fovereign or his
commiflioner, in prefence of the nobility, the officers
of Hate, and other great men, after a fuitable fermorv
preached in the royal chapel ; and his crown was of
the fame form with the imperial crown of the king¬
dom. On folernn occafions he wears the regalia above
defcribed ; at all other times he wears the oval gold
medal or badge on bis breaft, fufpended" by a broad
green ribbon. He has the abfulute dilpofa! of all the
offices in his own court, and of the heralds and pur-
fuivants places. The meffengers at arms throughout
Scotland are alfo created by him, and are amenable to
his jurifdiftion. And the powers veiled in him by
bis commiffion are the fame with thofe of the fovereign
in all matters relative to the marks of gentility.
LYONET, Pli l’ER, an ingenious naturalift, and
member of feveral learned focieties, was born at Maef-
tricht, and was defeended from a very ancient and re-
fpeftable family of Lorrain. He had fcarcely attained
his feventh year before he displayed an uncommon
Hrength and agility in all bodily exercifes; but he was
not lefs diligent in the improvement of his mind. Be¬
ing placed at the Latin fchool, he learned chronology,
and exercifed himfelf in Latin, Greek, and French
poetry, as alfo in Hebrew, logic, and the Cartefian
phyfics. He was particularly fond of the Iludy of lan-
guages,
I> Y O [ 285 ] L Y O
Lyonet. guages, whereof he underflood no lefs than nine, li-
ving and dead. Having entered the univerfity of Ley¬
den, he ftudied the Newtonian philofophy, geometry,
algebra, &c.; but his father (who was a clergyman),
deiiring he fhould attach himfelf to divinity, he reluc¬
tantly abandoned the former ftudies, as his paffion for
them was not eafily to be overcome* Pie at the fame
time applied himfelf to anatomy, and alfo to mulic and
drawing. He began‘afterwards to pradtife fculpture :
and performed feVeral pieces in wood, fome of which
are preferved, and have been greatly admired by the
artills. After this* he betook himfelf to drawing
portraits of his friends from life ; wherein, after three
or four months practice* he became a great proficient.
Having attained the degree of candidate in divinity,
he refolved to ftudy law, to which he applied him¬
felf with fo much zeal, that he was promoted at the
end of the firlt year. Arrived at the Hague, he un¬
dertook the ftudy of decyphering ; and became fecre-
tary of the cyphers, ttantlator of the Latin and French
languages, and patent-mafter to their High Mighti-
nefies. Meanwhile* having taken a ftrcng liking to
the ftudy of infefts* he undertook an hiftorical de¬
fer! ption -of fuch as are found about the Hague, and
to that end collected materials for feveral volumes 5 and
having invented a method of drawing adapted thereto,
he. enriched this work with a great number of plates,
univerfally admired by all the connoifteurs who had
feen them. In the year 1724 was printed at the
Hague a French tranfiation of a German work, the
‘ Theology of Infects,’ by Mr Lefler. Love of truth
engaged Mr Lyonet to defer the publication of his
above-mentioned defcription, and to make fome obfer-
vations on that work, to which he has added two moft
beautiful plates, engraved from his defigns. This per¬
formance caufed his merit to be univerfally known and
admired. The celebrated M. de Reaumur had the
above tranflation reprinted at Paris, not fo much on
account of the work itfelf, as of Mr Lyonet’s obfer-
vations j and beftowed on it, as did alfo many other
authors, the higheft encomiums. He afterwards exe¬
cuted drawings of the freth water polypus for Mr
Trembley’s beautiful work, 1744. The ingenious
Wandelaar had engraved the firlt five plates j when Mr
Lyonet, who had never witneffed this operation, con¬
cerned at the difficulties he experienced in getting the
remaining eight finiihed in the fuperior ftyle he requir¬
ed, refolved to perform the talk himfelf. He ac¬
cordingly took a leffbn of one hour of Mr Wandelaar,
engraved three or four fmall plates, and immediately
began upon the work himfelf, which he performed in
fuch a manner as drew on him the higheft degree of
praife, both from Mr Trembley and from many
other artifts, particularly the celebrated Van Gool ;
who declared that the performance aftonilhed not
only the amateurs, but alfo the moft experienced
artifts. In 1748 he was chofen member of the Royal
Society of London. In 1749 began (by mere
chance) his amazing colleftion of horns and (hells,
which, according to the univerfal teftimony of all tra-‘
vellers and amateurs who have vifited it, is at prefent
the moft beautiful, and certainly one of the moft valu¬
able, in Europe. In 1753 became member of the
newly-eftablilhed Dutch Society of Sciences at Haer-
5
lem j and in I757» a^ter ^ie celebrated M. le Cat, Lyorret
profeffor in anatomy and furgery, and member of al- (1
moft all the principal focieties in Europe, had feen , Lyor‘‘:-
Mr Lyonet’s incomparable Traite Anatonuque de la Che¬
nille qui range le Bois de Saule, with the drawings be¬
longing to it (which work v/as afterwards publilhed),
he was elected member of the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences of Rome, whereof M. le Cat was perpetual fe-
cretary. After the publication of this treadle, he be¬
came, in 1760, member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Rerlin *, in 1761, of the Imperial Acade¬
my of Naturalifts •, and, in i 762, of the Imperial Aca¬
demy of Sciences at St Peterfburg. In order to en¬
able fuch as might be defirous of following him in his
intricate and moft aftonilhing difcoveries refpedfing the
ftrutture of this animal, Mr Lyonet publilhed, in the
Tranfaftions of the Dutch Society of Sciences at Haer-
1cm, a defcription and a plate (as he alfo afterwards did
in French at the beginning of his Traite Anatomique') of
the inftrument and tools he had invented for the pur-
pofe of diffeftion, and likewife of the method he ufed
to afeertain the degree of (Length of his magnifying
glafies. Not with Handing all this labour, which was
confiderably increafed by the extenfive correfpondence
which he for many years carried on with feveral learn¬
ed and refpeflable perfonages, he ftill found means to
fet apart a large proportion of his time (as he himfelf
mentions it in his preface) for the immediate fervice
of his country $ but was not fortunate enough (as ap¬
pears by his writings) to get any other recompenle
for his exertions than forrow and difappointment. 
During the laft fifteen or twenty years of his life, Mr
Lyonet added to the valuable treafure he had already
eolledled of natural curiofities, a moft fuperb cabinet
of paintings, confifting of more than 56c performances *
among which are many of the moft eminent works of
the firft Dutch mailers. He did this with a view to
procure himfelf fome amufement during the latter part
of his life, when old age and infirmities muft weaken
his powers, and fet bounds to his activity. He had al¬
ways indeed accuftomed himfelf to employment, info-
much that he has written fome pieces of Dutch poetry 5
and this difpofition remained with him till within a
fortnight of his death, when he was attacked with an
inflammation in his biesft, which, though apparently
cured, was, in the end, the caufe of his diffolution. He
died at the Hague in January 1789, aged 83 years,
leaving behind him a moft elliinable character.
LYONOIS, a large province of France j bound¬
ed on the north by Burgundy j on the eaft, by Dau-
phiny, Breffe, and the principality of Dombs; on
the fouth, by Vivarais and Velay j and on the weft by *
Auvergne and a linall part of Bourbonnois. It com¬
prehends Lower Lyonois, Beaujolois, and Forez ;
and it produces corn, wine, fruits, and more efpeci-
ally excellent chefnuts. The principal rivers are the
Saone, the Rhone, and the Loire. Lyons is the ca¬
pital town.
LYONS, a large, rich, handfome, ancient, and fa¬
mous tow n of Fiance, being the moft: confiderable in
the kingdom, next to Paris, with an archbilhop’s fee,
an academy of fciences and belles lettres, and an aca¬
demy of arts and fciences fettled here in 1736. It is
feated in the centre of Europe, on the confluence of
the
1
L Y R [2
Lyms the rivers Rhone and Saone : on the fide of it are two
T !re h'gh mountains ; and the mountain of St Sebaftian
---1- ■ ferves as a bulwark againft the north winds, which of¬
ten blow here with great violence. It contains nearly
100,000 inhabitants 5 and the houfes, in general, are
high and well built. It has fix gates, and as many
fuburbs. The town-houfe, the arfenal, the amphi¬
theatre built by the ancient Romans, the hofpital, and
the numerous palaces, are worthy of a traveller’s at¬
tention. The cathedral is a fuperb ftrufture, and the
canons that compofe the chapter are all perfons of di-
ftinflion. It is a place of very great trade, which is
extended through Europe. It derives vaft advantages
from the rivers near it; and is fituated in E. Long. 4.
59. N. Lat. 45. 46. Lyons was the feene of fome of
the horrid tranfaftions of the French revolution. See
France.
LYRA, a fpecies of filh. See Callyonimus, Ich¬
thyology Index.
Lyra, in AJlronomy, a conftellation in the north¬
ern hemifphere. The number of its ftars, in Ptole¬
my’s catalogue, is ten ; in Tycho’s eleven 5 in Heve-
lius’s feventeen ; and in the Britannic catalogue twen¬
ty one.
LYRE, a mufical inflrument of the ftringed kind,
much ufed by the ancients.
Concerning the number of firings with which this in¬
flrument was furnifhed, there is great controverfy. Some
affert it to be only three j and that the founds of the
two remote were acute, and that of the intermediate
one a mean between thofe two extremes; that Mercu¬
ry, the inventor, refembled thofe three chords to as
many feafons of the year, which were all that the Greeks
reckoned, namely, fummer, winter, and fpring : affign-
ing the acute to the firft, the grave to the fecond, and
the mean to the third.
Others affert that the lyre had four firings •, that the
interval between the firft and the fourth was an oflave ;
that the fecond was a fourth from the firft, and the fourth
the fame diftance from the third, and that from the fe¬
cond to the third was a tone.
Another clafs of writers contend that the lyre of
Mercury had feven firings. Nicomachus, a follower of
Pythagoras, and the chief of them, gives the follow¬
ing account of Ihe matter : “ The lyre made of the
Ihell was invented by Mercury j and the knowledge
of it, as it was conftrudled by him of feven firings, was
tranfmitted to Orpheus : Orpheus taught the ufe of it
to Thamyris and Linus \ the latter of whom taught it
to Hercules, who communicated it to Amphion the
Theban, who built the feven gates of Thebes to the
feveh firings of the lyre.” The fame author proceeds
to relate, “ That Orpheus was afterwards killed by the
Thracian women ; and that they are reported to have
call his lyre into the fea, which was afterwards thrown
up at Antiffa, a city of Lelbos : that certain fifhers
finding it, they brought it to Terpander, who carried
it into Egypt, exquifitely improved, and ftiowing it to
the Egyptian priefts, affumed to himfelf the honour of
its invention.”
This difference among authors feem to have arifen
from their confounding together the Egyptian and the
Grecian Mercuries.—The invention of the primitive
lyre with three firings was due to the firft Egyptian
2
86 ] L Y R
Hermes, as mentioned under that article.—The lyre Lyre.
attributed to the Grecian Mercury is deferibed by al-  v—
moft all the poets to be an inftrument of feven firings *. * See
Yincenzio Galilei has collected the various opinions of«/ry.
the leveral Greek writers who have mentioned the in¬
vention of the chelys or teftudo j and the late Mr
Spence has done the fame in a very circumftantial but
ludicrous manner. “ Horace talks of Mercury as a
wonderful mufieian, and reprefents him with a lyre.
"Ihere is a ridiculous old legend relating to this inven¬
tion, which informs us, that Mercury, after ftealmg
fome bulls from Apollo, reined to a fecret grotto,
which he ufed to frequent, at the foot of a mountain
in Arcadia. Juft as he was going in, he found a tor-
toife feeding at the entrance of his cave : he killed the
poor creature, and perhaps ate the fitftr of it. As he
was diverting himfelf with the (hell, he was mightily
pleafed rvith the noife it gave from its concave figure.
He had poffibly been cunning enough to find out, that
a thong pulled ftrait and faftened at each end, when
ftruck with the finger, made a fort of mufical found.
However that was, he went immediately to work, and
cut feveral thongs out of the hides he had lately
ftolen, and faftened them as tight as he could to the
ftiell of this tortoife 5 and, in playing with them, made
a new kind of mufic with them to divert himfelf in his/
retreat.” This, confidered only as an account of the
firft: invention of the lyre, is not altogether fo unna¬
tural.
The moft: ancient reprefentations of this inftrument
agree very well w ith the account of its invention : the
lyre, in particular on the old celeftial globes, was re-
prefented as made of one entire (hell of a tortoife ; and
that of Amphion in the celebrated group of the JJirce
or Toro, in the Farnefe palace at Rome, which is of
Greek fculpture, and very high antiquity, is figured in
the fame manner.
There have, however, been many other claimants to
the feven-ftringed lyre. For though Mercury invent¬
ed this inftrument in the manner already related, it is
faid he afterwards gave it to Apollo, who was the firft
that played upon it with method, and made it the con-
ftant companion of poetry. According to Homer’s
account of this tranfaftion, in his hymn to Mercury,
it was given by that god to Apollo, as a peace-offering
and indemnification for the oxen which he had ftolen
from him :
To Phoebus Maia’s fon prefents the lyre,
A gift intended to appeafe his ire,
The god receives it gladly, and effays
The novel inftrument a thoufand ways ;
With dext’rous Ikill the pleftrum wields ; and fings •
With voice accordant to the trembling firings,
Such {trains as gods and men approv’d, from whence
The fweet alliance fprung of found and fenfe.
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo foon repenting of
the cruelty with which he had treated Marfyas in con-
fequence of their mufical conteft, broke the firings of
the lyre, and by that means put a flop for a time to any
further progrefs in the praflice of that new inftrument.
“ The Mules (adds he) afterwards added to this in¬
ftrument the firing called mefe ; Linus, that of lickanos ;
and
L Y R ^ [ 287 ] L Y R
Lyre. and Orpheus and Thamyris, thofe ftrings which are
’—V——' named hypate and parhypate (a).
Again, Many ancient and refpe&able authors tell us,
that, before the time of Terpander, the Grecian lyre
had only four ftrings •, and, if we may believe Suidas,
it remained in this ftate 856 years, from the time of
Amphion, till Terpander added to it three new ftrings,
which extended the mufical fcale to a heptachord, or
feventh, and fupplied the player with two conjoint te-
trachords. It was about 150 years after this period,
that Pythagoras is faid to have added an eighth firing
to the lyre, in order to complete the odlave, which con¬
fided of two disjoint tetrachords.
Boetius gives a different hiftory of the fcale, and
tells us, that the fyftem did not long remain in fuch
narrow limits as a tetrachord. Choraebus, the fon of
Athis, or Atys, king of Lydia, added a fifth firing •,
Hyagnis, a fixth ; Terpander, a feventh ; and at length
Lychaon of Samos, an eighth. But all thefe accounts
are irreconcileable with Homer’s hymn to Mercury,
where the chelys, or teftudo, the invention of which he
afcribes to that god, is faid to have had feven ftrings.
There are many claimants among the muficians of an¬
cient Greece to the ftrings that w'ere afterwards added
to thefe, by which the fcale, in the time of Ariftoxenus,
was extended to two octaves. Athenaeus, more than
once, fpeaks of the nine-ftringed inftrument 5 and Ion
of Chios, a tragic and lyric poet and philofopher, who
firft recited his pieces in the Sad Olympiad, 452 B. C.
mentions, in feme verfes quoted by Euclid, the ten-
ftringed lyre; a proof that the third conjoint tetrachord
was added to the fcale in his time, which was about 50
years after Pythagoras is fuppofed to have conftrudled
the odtachord.
The different claimants among the Greeks to the
fame mufical difcoveries, only prove that mufic was cul¬
tivated in different countries, and that the inhabitants
of each country invented and improved their own in-
ftruments, fome of which happening to referable thofe
of other parts of Greece, rendered it difficult for hifto-
rians to avoid attributing the fame invention to differ¬
ent perfons. Thus the fingle flute was given to Mi¬
nerva and to Marfyas ; the fyrinx or fiftula, to Pan
and to Cybele ; and the lyre or cithara, to Mercury,
Apollo, Amphion, Linus, and Orpheus. Indeed, the
mere addition of a firing or two to an inftrumeyj with¬
out a neck, was fo obvious and eafy, that it is fcarce
poflible not to conceive many people to have done it at byre,
the fame time. ¥
With refpedl to the form of the ancient lyre, as little
agreement is to be found among authors as about the
number of ftrings. The beft evidences concerning it,
are the reprefentations of that inftrument in the hands of Plate
ancient flatues, bas-reliefs, &.c. See Plate CCXCVIII.CCXCVIIL
where,
Fig. 1. is a reprefentation of the teftudo, or lyre of Fig. 1.
Amphion, in front, as it appears on the bafe of the ce¬
lebrated Toro Earnefe at Rome. This admirable work,
conftfting of four figures bigger than the life, befides
the toro or bull, was found in Caracalla’s baths, where
the Farnefe Hercules was likewife difcovered : and, ex¬
cept the Laocoon, is the only piece of Greek fculpture
mentioned by Pliny that is now' remaining. The two
projections near the bottom, feem to have been faften-
ings for the ftrings, and to have anfwered the purpofe
of tail-pieces in modern inilruments.
Fig. 2. The lyre held by Terpfichore, in the picture Fig. a.
of that mufe dug out of Herculaneum.
Fig. 3. The Abyftinian teftudo, or lyre in ufe at pre-Fig. 3.
•fent in the province of Tigre, from a drawing of Mr
Bruce, communicated to Dr Burney. “ This inftru¬
ment (fays he) has fometimes five, fometimes fix, but
moft frequently feven ftrings, made of the thongs of
raw flieep or goat fkins, cut extremely fine, and twdlted;
they rot foon, are very fubjeCIto break in dry weather,
and have fcarce any found in wet. From the idea, how¬
ever, of this inftrument being to accompany and fuf-
tain a voice, one would think that it was better mounted
formerly. “ The Abyflinians have a tradition, that the
ftftrum, lyre, and tambourine, were brought from Egypt
into Ethiopia, by Thot, in the very firlt ages of the
world. The flute, kettle-drum, and trumpet, they fay,
were brought from Paleftine, with Menelek, the fon of
their queen of Saba by Solomon, who was their firft
Jewifh king.
“ The lyre in Amharic is called beg, ‘ the flieep
in Ethiopic it is called mejinho ; the verb Jinho fignifies
to ftrike firings with the fingers: no pleClrum is ever
ufed in Abyftinia ; fo that mefinko, being literally in¬
terpreted, will fignify the ‘ ftringed inftrument played
upon with the fingers.’
“ The fides which conftitute the frame of the lyre,
were anciently compofed of the horns of an animal of the
goat kind, called aga%en, about the fize of a fmall cow,
and
(a) It has been already related, that the lyre invented by the Egyptian Mercury had but three firings; and,
oy putting tbefe two circumflances together, Dr Burney obferves, we may perhaps acquire fome knowledge of
the progrefs of mufic, or, at lead, of the extenfion of its fcale, in the higheft antiquity.
Mefe, in the Greek mufic, is the fourth found of the fecund tetrachord of the great fyftem, and firft tetrachord
invented by the ancients, anfwering to our A, on the fifth line in the bafe. If this found then was added to the
former three, it proves two important points; firft, that the moft ancient tetrachord was that from E in the bafe
to A ; and that the three original ftrings in the Mercurian and Apollonian lyre were tuned E, F, G, w-hichthe
Greeks called Hypate Mefon, Parhypate Mefon, Mcfon Diatonos. The addition therefore of Mefe to thefe, com¬
pleted the firft and moft ancient tetrachord, E, F, G, A.
I he firing lichanos, then, being added to thefe, and anfwering to our D on the third line in the bafe, ex¬
tended the compafs downwards, and gave the ancient lyre a regular feries of five founds in the Dorian mode,.,
the moft ancient of all the Greek modes ; and the two firings called Hypate and Parhypate, correfponding
with our B and C in the bafe, completed the heptachord, or feven founds, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, a com¬
pafs that received no addition till after the time of Pindar, who calls the imftrument then in ufe the feven-
tongued tyre.
^ Y R [288
lyre. an(j common in the province of Tigre. I have feen fe-
v veral of thefe indruments very elegantly made of fuch
hoi ns, which nature feems to have thaped on purpofe.
Some of the horns of an African fpecies of this animal
may be feen in M. Buffon’s hiftory of the king of
trance’s cabinet. They are bent, and lefs regular than
the AbyiTinian ; but after fire-arms became common in
the province of i igre, and the woods were cut down,
this animal being more fcarce, the lyre has been made
of a light red wood ; however, it is always cut into a
Ipiral tw illed form, in imitation of the ancient mate-
rials of which the lyre rvas compofed. The drawing I
fend you was one of thefe inftruments made of wood.
“ The kingdom of Tigre, which is the larged and
mod populous province of Abyffinia, and was during
many ages the feat of the court, was the fird which
received letters, and civil religious government ; it
extended once to the Red fea : various reafons and re¬
volutions have obliged the inhabitants to refign their
fea coait to different barbarous nations, Pagan and Ma¬
hometan : while they were poffeffed of it, they fay that
the Red fea furnidiecl them with tortoife-d*dls, of which
they made the bellies of their lyres, as the Egyptians
did formerly, according to Apollodorm; and Lucian ;
but having now lod that refource, they have adopted
in its place a particular fpecies of gourd, or pumpkin,
very hard and thin in the bark, dill imitating with the
knife the fquares, compartments, and figure of the fhell
of the tortoife.
u The lyre is generally from three feet to three
fe:et fix inches high •, that is, from a line dravyn through
the point of the horns, to the lower part of the bafe of
the founding board. It is exceedingly light, and eafy
of carriage, as an indrument fliould naturally be in fo
rugged and mountainous a country.
“ When we confider the parts which cotnpofe this
lyre, we cannot deny it the earlied antiquity. Man in
his fird date was a hunter and a fidier, and the oldeil
indrument was that which partakes mod of that date.
The lyre, compofed of two principal pieces, owes the
one to horns of an animal, the other to the diell of
a fifh.
“ It is probable, that the lyre continued with the
Ethiopians in this rude date as long as they confined
themfelves to their rainy, deep, and rugged mountains ;
and afterwards, when many of them defeended along
the Nile into.Egypt, its portability would recommend
it in the extreme heats and wearinefs of their way. Up¬
on their arrival in Egypt, they took up their habita¬
tion in caves, in the fides of mountains, which are in¬
habited to this day. Even in thefe circumdances, an
indrument larger than the lyre mud have been in¬
convenient and liable to accidents in thofe caverns ; but
when thefe people inereafed in numbers and courage,
they ventured down into the plain, and built Thebes-
Being now at their eafe, and in a fine climate, all na¬
ture fmiling around them, mufic and other arts were
cultivated and refined, and the imperfect lyre was ex¬
tended into an indrument of double its compafs and
volume. The fize of the harp could be now no long¬
er an objedtion 5 the Nile carried the inhabitants every¬
where eafily, and without effort •, and we may naturally
fuppofe in the fine evenings of that country, that the
Nile was the favourite feene upon which this indru-
] L Y R
ment was pradtifed ; at lead the fphinx and lotus upon
its head, leem to hint that it was lomeway connedted
with the overdowings of that river.” See Harp.
F'g. 4. An Etrufcan lyre, with feven drings, in the plcr
collection of Etrufcan, Greek and Roman antiquities, 6’4*
publifhed from the cabinet of the Hon. Sir William
Hamilton, Vol. I. Naples 1766. Plate CIX. With re-
fpedl to this indrument, it is w'orthy of obfervation,
that though the vale upon which it is reprefented is of
fuch indifputable and remote antiquity, the tail-piece,
bridge, belly, and found-holes, have a very modern ap¬
pearance, and manifeft a knowledge in the condrudtion
of mufical inllruments among the Etrufcans fuperior to
that of the Greeks and Romans in much latter times.
The lower part of the indrument has much the appear¬
ance of an old bafs-viol, and it is not difficult to dif-
cover in it more than the embryo of the whole violin
family. The drings lie' round, as if intended to be
played on with a bow ; and even the crofi, lines on the
tail-piece are fuch as we frequently fee on the tail¬
pieces of old viols.
5- The Tripodian lyre of Pythagoras the Zacyn- Fig. 5.
thian, from a bafs-relief in the Maffei palace at Rome
reprefenting the whole choir of the mules. Athenasus
gives the following account of this extraordinary in-
llrument, Lib. XIV. cap. xv. p. 637. Many ancient
indruments are recorded (lays Artemon), of which
we have fo little knowledge, that we can hardly be
certain of their exidence $ fuch as the tripod of Py¬
thagoras the Zacynthian, which, on account of its
difficulty, continued in ufe but a ffiort time. It
refembled in form the Delphic tripod, whence it
had its name. The legs were equidillant, and fixed
upon a moveable bafe that was turned by the foot
of the player ; the firings were placed between the
legs of the ftool ; the vale at the top ferved for the
purpofe of a found-board, and the firings of the three
fides of the infirument were tuned to three different
modes, the Doric, Lydian, and Phrygian. The per¬
former fat on a chair made on purpofe ; firik/ng the
firings with the fingers of the left-hand, and ufing the
pledlrum with the right, at the fame time turning the
inftrument with his foot to whichever of the three
modes he pleadd ; fo that by great practice he was
enabled to change the modes with fuch velocity, that
thofe who did not fee him would imagine they heard
three different performers playing in three different
modes. After the dcaih of this admirable mufician,
no other inftrument of the fame kind was ever con-
ftrufted.”
Fig. 6. A lyfe in the famous ancient pi£ture dug
out of Herculaneum, upon which Chiron is teaching
young Achilles to play. See Chiron.
LYRIC POETRY, was fuch as the ancients fung to
the lyre or harp. — It was originally employed in ce¬
lebrating the praifes of gods and heroes, and its cha-
racteriitic was Iweetnefs. Who was the author of it is
not knovVn. It was much cultivated by the Greeks :
and Horace was the firft who attempted it in the La¬
tin language. Anacreon, Akteus, Stefichorus, Sap¬
pho, and Horace, Were the molt celebrated lyric poets
of antiquity.
LYRODI, among the ancients, a kind of muficians
who played on the lyre, and fung at the fame time.
This
L Y S t 289 1 L Y T
Lvrodi
il
Lyfippus.
This appellation was alfo given to fuch as naade it
their employment to fing lyric poems compofed by
others.
LYS, or Lis. See Lis.
Lys, the name of a meafure ufed by the Chinefe in
eftimating diftances. Two hundred lys make 60 geo¬
graphical miles, which are equal to one degree.
LYSANDER, a famous Spartan general. See
Sparta.
LYSANDRIA, a Samian feftival, celebrated with
games and facrifices in honour ef the Lacedaemonian
general Lyfander. It was anciently called herea :
but this name the Samians abolifiied by a public de¬
cree.
LYSIARCH, an ancient magiftrate, who fuperin-
tended the facred games, and prefided in matters of
religion in the province of Lycia. He was created
in a council confiding of deputies from all the pro¬
vincial cities, in number 23. The lyfiarchs were
both heads of the council and pontiffs of the pro¬
vince.
LYSIAS, an ancient Grecian orator, was born at
Syracufe in the 80th Olympiad. At 15, he went
to Thurion, a colony of the Athenians ; and when
grown up, affifted in the adminitfration of the go¬
vernment there many years. When about 47 years
of age, he returned to Athens •, whence, being after¬
wards banifhed by the 30 tyrants, he went to Mega-
ra. Upon his return, Thrafybulus would have had
him employed again in {late matters; but this not tak¬
ing place, he fpent the remainder of his life as a pri¬
vate man. He was very familiar with Socrates, and
other illuftrious philofophers. He profeffed to teach
the art of fpeaking *, not that he pleaded at the bar
himfelf, but he fupplied others with fpeeches. “ Fuit
Lyfias in caufis forenfibus non verfatus (fays Cicero),
fed egregie fubtilis fcriptor atque elegans, &c. Quin¬
tilian calls him, “ fubtilis atque elegans, et quo nihil,
fi oratorio fatis fit docere, quseras perfeilius. Nihil
enim eft inane, nihil arceffitum j puro tamen fonti,
quam magno flumini, proprior.” Plutarch and Pho-
tius relate, that 425 orations were formerly exhibited
under the name of Lyfias $ of which 34 only are
nowf extant. The beft edition of them is by Dr John
Taylor at London, 1739, 4to j Cambridge, 1740,
8vo.
LYSIMACHIA, Loosestrife, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs 5 and in the natural
method ranking under the 20th order, Rotacece. See
Botany Index.
LYSIPPUS, a celebrated Greek ftatuary, was born
at Sicyone, and firft followed the bufinefs of a lock-
Imith, which he quitted in order to praflife painting :
But he afterwards applied himfelf entirely to fculp-
ture; in which he acquired an immortal reputation,
and made a great number of ftatues that were the ad¬
miration of the people of Athens and Rome. Plis
grand ftatue of the Sun reprefented in a car drawrn by
four horfes, was worlhipped at Rhodes. He made fe-
veral ftatues of Alexander and his favourites, which
w’ere brought to Rome by Metellus after he had redu¬
ced the Macedonian empire ; and the ftatue of a man
wiping and anointing himfelf after bathing, being par¬
ticularly excellent, was placed by Agrippa before his
baths in that city. He lived in the time of Alexan-
Vol. XII. Parti.
der the Great, about 334 B. C.j and left three fons, Lyfippus
who were all famous ftatuaries. T A
LYTHRUM, Purple Loosetrife, a genus of _yt^Uon*
plants belonging to the decandria clafs \ and in the
natural method ranking under the 17th order, Caly-
canthemce. See Botany Index.
LYTTELTON, Edward, Lord Lyttelton, keep¬
er of the great feal in the reign of Charles I. was emi¬
nent for his probity and his moderation at the com¬
mencement of that monarch’s difputes with his fub-
je6ts. Without forfeiting his fidelity to the king, he
p^eferved the efteem of the parliament till 1644, when
he was made colonel of a regiment in the king’s army
at York. He died in 1645. Befides feveral of his
fpeeches which have been printed, he wrote reports
in the common pleas and exchequer, printed at Lon¬
don in 1683, in folio j feveral arguments and dif-
courfes, &c.
Lytteltoft, George Lord, eldeft fon of Sir Thomas
Lyttelton, Bart, defcended from the great judge Lyttel¬
ton, was born in ijco, at feven months j and the mid¬
wife, fuppofing him to be dead, threw him carelefsly
into the cradle 5 where, had not fome figns of life been
taken notice of by one of the attendants, he might
never have recovered. He received the elements of
his education at Eaton fchool, where he fhowed an
early inclination to poetry. His paftorals and fome
other light pieces were originally written in that femi-
nary of learning •, from whence he was removed to the
univerfity of Oxford, where he purfued his claflical
ftudies with uncommon avidity, and fketched the plan
of his Perfian Letters j a work which afterwards pro¬
cured him great reputation, not only from the elegance
ef the language in which they were compofed, but
from the excellent obfervations they contained on the
manners of mankind.
In the year 1728, he fet out on the tour of Europe ;
and, on his arrival at Paris, accidentally became ac¬
quainted with the honourable Mr Poyntz, then our
minifter at the court of Verfailles j who was fo ftruck
with the extraordinary capacity of our young traveller,
that he invited him to his houfe, and employed him in
many political negociations, which he executed with
great judgment and fidelity.
Mr Lyttelon’s condudl, while on his travels, was
a leflbn of inftrudlion to the reft of his countrymen.
Inftead of lounging away his hours at the coffee-houfes
frequented by the Englifh, and adopting the fafhion-
able follies and vices of France and Italy, his time was
paffed alternately in his library and in the fociety of
men of rank and literature. In this early part of his
life, he wrote a poetical epiftle to Dr Ayfcough, and
another to Mr Pope, which fhow Angular tafte and
corredlnefs.
After continuing a confiderable time at Paris with
Mr Poyntz, who, to ufe his own words, behaved like
a fecond father to him, he proceeded to Lyons and
Geneva ; and from thence to Turin, where he w as
honoured w'ith great marks of friendfhip by his Sardi¬
nian majefty. He then vifited Milan, Venice, Genoa,
and Rome, where he applied himfelf clofely to the
ftudy of the fine arts j and was, even in that celebrated
metropolis, allowed a perfeft judge of painting, fculp-
ture, and architedlure.
During his continuance abroad, he conflantly cor.
O 0 refponded
Lyttelton
L Y T
^ refponded with Sir Thomas, his father. Several of
' 1ns letters are yet remaining, and place his filial af-
fedlion in a very diftinguilhed light. He foon after
returned to his native country, and was elected re-
prefentative for the borough of Okehampton in Devon-
Ihiie} and behaved fo much to the fatisfaftion of
his conllituents, that they feveral times re-ele6led him
fer the fame place without putting him to the leaft
expence.
About this period, he received great marks of friend-
fhip from Frederic prince of Wales, father of his pre-
fent majefty j and was, in the year I737> appointed
principal fecretary to his royal highnefs, and continued
in the ftri£left intimacy with him till the time of his
death. His attention to public bufinefs did not, how¬
ever, prevent him from exercifing his poetical talent.
A moft amiable young lady, Mifs Fortelcue, inipired
him with a paflion, which produced a number of little
pieces, remarkable for their tendernefs and elegance j
and he had a happy facility of ftriking out an extem¬
pore compliment, which obtained him no fmall lhare
of reputation. One evening being in company with
Lord Cobham and feveral of the nobility at Stowe,
his lordlhip mentioned his defign of putting up a bull
of Lady Suffolk in his beautiful gardens; and, turning
to Mr Lyttelton, faid, “ George, you muff furnifti
me with a motto for it.” “ I will, my lord,” anfwered
Mr Lyttleton j and directly produced the following1
couplet: 5
r 290 i
L Y T
Her wit and beauty for a court were made,
But truth and goodnefs fit her for a lhade.
W hen Mr Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, loft his
commiftion in the guards, in confequence of his fpirited
condudl in parliament, Mr Lyttelton was in waiting
at Leicefter-houfe, and, on hearing the circumftance,
immediately wrote thefe lines :
Long had thy virtue mark’d thee out for fame,
Far, far fuperior to a cornet’s name ;
This generous Walpole faw, and griev’d to find
So mean a poft difgrace that noble mind j
The fervile ftandard from thy free-born hand
He took, and bade thee lead the patriot band.
In the year 1742, he married Lucy, the daughter
of Hugh Fortelcue, Efq. of Filleigh in the county
of Devon, the lady above mentioned, whole exemplary
conduft, and uniform practice of religion and virtue,
eftabliftied his conjugal happinefs upon the moft folid’
bafis.
.In 1744, he was appointed one of the lords com-
miflioners of the treafury ; and, during his continuance
in that ftation, conftantly exerted his influence in re¬
warding merit and ability. He was the friend and
patron of the late Henry Fielding, James Thomfon
author of the Seafons, Mr Mallet, Dr Young, Mr
Hammond, Mr Weft, Mr Pope, and Voltaire. On
the death of 1 homlon, who left his affairs in a very
emoarraffed condition, Mr Lyttelton took that poet’s
lifter under his protection. He revifed the tragedy of
Coriolanus, which that writer had not put the laft
hand to j and brought it out at the theatre-royal,
Covent garden, with a prologue of his own writing,
in which he fo affeCtingly lamented the lofs of that
delightful bard, that not only Mr Quin, who fpoke
4
the lines, but almoft the whole audience, fpontaneoufiy Lyttelto
bum into tears. J J ™
. In the beginning of the year 1746, his felicity was
interrupted by the lofs of his wife, who died in the
29th year of her age j leaving him one fon, Thomas,
the late Lord Lyttelton j and a daughter, Lucy, who
afterwards married Lord Vifcount Vaientia. The
remains of his amiable lady were depofited at Over.
Arley in Worcefterfhire j and an elegant monument
was ereCled to her memory in the church of Hagley,
which contains the following infcription written by
her hulband:
Made to engage all hearts, and charm all eyes:
Tho’ meek, magnanimous j tho’ witty, wife;
Polite, as all her life in courts had been ;
Yet good, as fhe the world had never feen :
The noble fire of an exalted mind,
With gentleft female tendernefs combin’d.
Her fpeech was the melodious voice of love,
Her fong the warbling of the Vernal grove.
Her eloquence was fweeter than her fong,
Soft as her heart, and as her reafon ftrong.
Her form each beauty of her mind exprefs’d,
Her mind was virtue by the Graces drefs’d.
Belides thefe beautiful lines, Mr Lyttelton wrote a
monody on the death of his lady, which will be re¬
membered while conjugal affedion and a tafte for
poetry exift in this country.
His mafterly obfervations on the converfion and
apoftlefhip of St Paul, were written at the defire of
Gilbert Weft, Efq. in confequence of Mr Lyttelton’s
afferting, that, befide all the proofs of the Chriftian
religion, which might be drawn from the prophecies
of the Old Teftament, from the neceflary connection
it has with the whole fyftem of the Jevvifh religion,
from the miracles of Chrift, and from the evidence
given of his refurreCtion by all the other apoftles,
he thought the converfion of St Paul alone, duly
confidered, w'as of itfelf a demonftration fufficient to
prove Chriftianity to be a divine revelation. Mr Weft
was ftruck with the thought: and affured his friend,
that fo compendious a proof would be of great ufe to
convince thofe unbelievers that will not attend to a
longer feries of arguments; and time has fhown he was
not out in his conje&ure, as the trad is efteemed one of
the beft defences of Chriftianity which has hitherto
been publilhed.
In 1754, he refigned his office of lord of the trea¬
fury, and was made cofferer to his majefty’s houfe-
hold, and fworn of the privy council: previous to
which, he married a fecond time, Elizabeth daughter
of Field-marfhal Sir Robert Rich ; whofe indifereet con-
dud gave him great unealinels, and from whom he
w as feparated, by mutual confent, a few years after his
marriage.
After being appointed chancellor, and under trea-
furer of the court of exchequer, he was, by letters-
patent dated the 19th of November 1757, 31 Geo. II.
created a peer of Great Britain, by the ftyle and title
Lord Lyttelton, baron oj Frank/ey, in the county of
Worcejler. His fpeeches on the Scotch and mutiny
bills in the year 1747, on the Jew bill in 1753, and
on the privilege of parliament in 1763, fhowed found
judgment, powerful eloquence, and inflexible inte¬
grity.
L Y T [ 39i 1 L Y T
grjtf. During the laft ten years he lived chiefly
»n retirement, in the continual exercife of all the
virtues which can ennoble private life, His laft
work was Dialogues of the Dead, in which the mo¬
rality of Cambray and the fpirit of Fontenelle are hap¬
pily united.
He was fuddenly feized with an inflammation of
the bowels, in the middle of July 1773, at his feat at
Hagley $ which terminated in his death, on the 2Sd of
that month. His laft moments were attended with Lyttelton,
unimpaired underftanding, unaffefted greatnefs of v ' J
mind, calm relignation, and humble but confident
hopes in the mercy of God. As he had lived uni.
verfally efteemed, he died lamented by all parties,
A complete collection of his works has been pub-
lilhed fince his deceafe, by his nephew George Ayf-
cough, Efq.
M.
TIT a liquid confonanfc, and the twelfth letter in
-*-’-^3 the alphabet.
It has one unvaried found, and is pronounced by
ftriking the upper lip sgainft the lower ; in which the
pronunciation of this letter agrees with that of b ; the
only difference between the two confifting in a little
motion made in the note in pronouncing ot, and not in
b; whence it happens that thofe who have taken cold,
for m ordinarily pronounce b ; the nofe in that cafe be¬
ing difabled from making the neceffary motion.
All confonants are formed with the aid of vowels $
in em the vowel precedes, in be it follows} and m is
never mute,
Quintilian obferves, that the m fometimes ends Latin
words but never Greek ones the Greeks always
changing it in that cafe into «, for the fake of the bet¬
ter found.
M is alfo a numeral letter, and among the ancients
was ufod for a thoufand $ according to the verfe,
M caput ejl numeric quern fcimus tnille teneru
When a dalh is added to the top of it, as m J it fig-
nlifos a thoufand times 3 thoufand,
M, as an abbreviature, ftands for Manlius, Marcus,
Martins, and Muems ; M. A, fignifies magijler artium^
nr matter of arts; MS. manufcript, and MSS. manu-
foripts.
M, in aftronomical tables, and other things of that
kind, is ufod for meridional or fouthern j and fometimes
for meridian or mid-day,
M, in medicinal prefcription, is frequently ufed to
fignify a maniple or handful \ and it is fometimes alfo
put at the end of a recipe, for mi/ce, “ mingle j?t or for
mxtura,li 3 mixture,” Thus m.f, juhpium^ fignjfies
u mix and make a julep.”
M, in Law, the brand or fttgma of a perfon convi^f-
«d cf manflaughter, and admitted to the benefit of
his clergy. It is to be burnt on the brawn of his left
thumb,
MAAT, John. See Elankof,
MABILLON, John, a very learned writer of
France in the J7th century, was born at Perremonte,
on the frontiers of Champagne, in 1633. He waa
educated in the univerfity of Rheims, and afterwards
entered into the abbey of the Benedi&ines of St Remy.
In the year 166$, he was appointed keeper of the
treafures and monuments of France at St Dennis : but Mabillon
having unfortunately broke a looking glafs there, II
which was pretended to have belonged to Virgil, he
defired leave of his fuperiors to quit an employment v
w'hich frequently obliged him to tell things he did not
believe. Next year he went to Paris ; and was very
ferviceable to Father d’Acheri, who was defirous of
having fome young monk who could aflift him in com¬
piling his Spicilegium. This made him known. Soon
after, the congregation of St Maur having formed a
defign of publilhing new editions of the fathers, re¬
viled from the MSS. in the libraries of the Benedic¬
tines, Mabillon was charged with the edition of St
Bernard, which he prepared with extraordinary dili¬
gence. After that, he publilhed many other works,
which are evidences of his vait capacity and induftry.
In 1682, he was employed by Mr Colbert in examin¬
ing fome ancient titles relating to the royal family.
The year following he fent him into Germany, to
fearch the archives and libraries of the ancient abbeys,
for what was moft curious and proper to illuftrate the
hiftory of the church in general, and that of France
in particular. He has publilhed an account of this
journey. In 1685, he undertook another journey
into Italy, by order of the king of France ; and re¬
turned the year following with a very noble colledttion.
He placed in the king’s library above 3000 volumes
of rare books, printed and in MSS, and compofed two
volumes of the pieces which he had diiicovered in that
country. He was highly efteemed for his virtues as
well as his learning.
MACACO, or Macauco. See Lemur, Mamma¬
lia Index.
MAC ^O, a town of China, in the province of
Canton, feated in an ifland at the mouth of the river
Tae, The Portuguefe have been in poffefiion of the
harbour for 130 years Formerly they had a great
trade here ; but now they have only a fort with a fmall
garrifon. The houfes are built after the European
manner 5 and there is a Chinefe mandarin, ns well as a
Portuguefe governor, to take care of the town and
the neighbouring country, E, Long, 109, N. Lat,
22. 12
Macao. See Psittacus, Ornithology Index.
MACARIANS, in ecciefiattical hiftory, the fol¬
lowers of Macarius, an Egyptian monk, who was di-
O 0 2 ftinguilhed
M . A C [ 292 ]
Mac as Ians fllnffuifhed towards the clofe of the fourth century for heads.
Maciflar. his fan^.ity and virtue. In his writings there are fome
fuperftitious tenets, and alfo certain opinions that feem
tainted with Origenifm. The name has been alfo ap¬
plied to thofe who adopted the fentiments of Macarius
a native of Ireland, who about the clofe of the ninth
century, propagated in France the error afterwards
maintained by Averrhoes, that one individual intelli¬
gence or foul performed the fpiritual and rational
functions in all the human race.
MACARONI. See Folengio, and the next
article.
MACARONIC, or Macaronian, a kind of bur-
lefque poetry, confiding of a jumble of words of differ¬
ent languages, with words of the vulgar tongue La¬
tinized, and Latin words modernized. Macaroni
among the Italians, as has been obferved by Cselius
Rhodiginus, fignifies a coarfe c/ownijh man ; and be-
qaufe this kind of poetry is patched out of feveral
languages, and full of extravagant words, &c. the
Italians, among whom it had its rife, gave it the name
of macaronian or macaronic poetry. Others choofe
to derive it a macaronibusy from macaroons, a kind of
confection made of meal not boulted, fweet almonds,
fugar, and the white of eggs, accounted a great
dainty among the country people in Italy •, which,
from their being compofed of various ingredients, oc-
cafioned this kind of poetry, which confifts of Latin,
Italian, Spanilh, French, Englilh, &c. to be called
by their name.
Example.—A bold fellow in the macaronic ftyle,
fays,
Enji/avi omnes fcadrones et regimandos, &c.
Another example :
Archelos pijlo lifer os furiamque manantum,
Et grandem efmeutam quce inopinum faBa ruelle ejl:
Toxinumque alto troublantem corda clochero, &c.
Theoph. Folengius, a BenediCtine monk of Mantua,
was the firft who invented, or at leaft cultivated, this
kind of verfe. See FoLENGIO.
The belt pieces of this kind are, the Baldus of Fo¬
lengio, and Macaronis Forza, by Stefonio a Jefuit,
among the Italians ; and the Reatus veritabilis, fuper
ternbili efmeuta paifanarum de Ruellis; among the
French. The famous Rabelais firft transferred the
macaronic ftyle out of the Italian verfe into French
profe : and on the model thereof formed fome of the
beft things in his Pantagruel. We have little in
Englifh in the macaronian way $ nothing fcarce, but
fome little loofe pieces colleCled in Camden’s remains.
But the Germans and Netherlanders have had their
macaronic poets j witnefs the Certamen Catholicism cum
Cahinijlis, of one Martinius Hamconius Frifius, which
A contains about j 200 verfes, all the words whereof be-
gin with the letter C.
MACARSKA, a town of Dalmatia, and capital
of Primogria, with a pretty good harbour, and a bi-
Ihop’s fee, feated on the gulf of Venice. E. Long.
17. 57. N Lat. 43. 42.
MACASSAR, a confiderable kingdom of the
illand of Celebes, in the Eaft Indies. The climate is
very hot j and would be intolerable, were it not for
the rains which fall when the fun is direftly over their
3
MAC
. , .T’ie f0'1.'* extremely fertile, and there are MacfJ
ripe fruits at all times of the year. There are great H
numbers of monkeys, who are devoured by monftrous |^accabee
ferpents j fome of which are lo large, that they will ^ '
fwallow one of thefe animals entire. The Macaffars
are large, robuft, courageous, and greatly addicted to
war» They profefs the Mahometan religion.
Macassar, a large, ftrong, and handfome town,
of the ifland of Celebes, and capital of the kingdom
of the fame name, where the king refides. The
houfes are all built of wood, and fupported by thick
polls j and they have ladders to go up into them,
which they draw up as foon as they have entered.
The roofs are covered with very large leaves, which
prevent the rain from entering. It is feated near the
mouth of a large river, which runs through the king¬
dom from north to fouth. E. Long. 117. 53. S. La&t.
5. o.
Macassar Poifon, in Natural Hi/lory, called ippo in
the Macaffar and Malayan tongue, is the gum of a cer¬
tain tree, Ihining, brittle, black, and every way like
ftone-pitch, growing in the ifland of Celebes, in the
South feas j with which all the natives arm themfelves
in travel, having a long hollow trunk of a hard red
wood like brafil, accurately bored, and at one end is
fixed a large lance-blade of iron. Then they make a
fmall arrow, very ftraight, and fomewhat bigger than a
large wheaten ftraw : at one end they fix it into a
round piece of white, light, foft wood, like cork,
about the length of the little finger, juft fit for the
bore of the trunk, to pafs clear by the force of one’s
breath, and to fill it fo exaCtly, that the air may not
pafs by, but againft it, in order to carry it with the
greater force. At the other end they fix in it either
a fmall fifh-tooth for that purpofe, or make a blade of
wood of the bignefs of the point of a lancet, about
three-quarters of an inch long, and making a little
notch in the end of the arrow, they flick it firm
therein, which they anoint with poifon. The poi-
fonous gum, when gathered, is put into hollow bam¬
boos or canes, flopped up very clofe, and thus brought
to Macaffar. ‘When they fit it for ufe, they take a
piece of fmooth turtle-fhell, and a flick cut flat and
fmooth at the end : then they take green galangal root,
grate it, and with the addition of a little fair w ater,
prefs the juice into a clean china dilh : then with a knife
fcraping a little of the poifon upon the (hell, dip the
end of the flick in the forementioned liquor, and with
this diffolve the poifon to the confiftence of a fyrup :
when this is done, they anoint the fifh-tooth or wooden
blade with the fame flick, and lay it in the fun, fo that
it may be baked hard. The pointed arrows thus pre¬
pared, are put in hollow bamboos, clofe ftiut, and in
this ftate they retain their virtue for a month.
MACCABiEUS, Judas. See Judas.
MACCABEES, two apocryphal books of fcripture,
containing the hiftory of Judas and his brothers, and
their wars againft the Syrian kings in defence of their
religion and liberties, fo called from Judas Mattathias,
furnamed Maccabeeus, as fome fay from the word '330,
formed of the initials of mm tsbto rr3D3 'D, q. d. Who
is like unto thee, 0 Lord, among the gods; wEich was
the motto of his ftandard j whence thofe who fought
under his ftandard were called Maccabees, and the name
was generally applied to all who fuffered in the caufe
of
MAC
licabtei, of the true religion, under the Egyptian or Syrian
lacbeth. king?. The firft book of the Maccabees is an excel-
^ lent hiftory, and comes neareft to the ftyle and manner
of the facred hiftorians of any extant. It was written
originally in the Chaldee language, of the Jerufalem
dialeft, and was extant in this language in the time of
Jerome. From the Chaldee it was tranflated into
Greek, from the Greek into Latin. It is fuppofed to
have been written by John Hyrcanus the fon of Si¬
mon, who was prince and high prieft of the Jews near
30 years, and began his government at the time where
this hiftory ends. It contains the hiftory of 40 years,
from the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death
of Simon the high prieft : that is, from the year of
the world 3829 to the year 3869 j 131 years before
Chrift. The fecond book of the Maccabees begins
with two epiftles fent from the Jews of Jerufalem to
the Jews of Egypt and Alexandria j to exhort them
to obferve the feaft of the dedication of the new altar
ere&ed by Judas on his purifying the temple. The firft
was written in the 169th year of the era of the Se-
leucidae, i. e. before Chrift 1445 and the fecond in the
188th year of the fame era, or 125 before Chrift j
and both appear to be fpurious. After thefe epiftles
follows the preface of the author to his hiftory, which
is an abridgement of a larger work, compofed by one
Jafon, a Jew of Cyrene, who wrote in Greek the hi¬
ftory of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren, and the
wars againft Antiochus Epiphanes, and Eupator his
fon. The fecond book does not by any means equal
the accuracy and excellency of the firft. It contains
a hiftory of about 15 years, from the execution of
Heliodorus’s commiflion, who was fent by Seleucus
to fetch away the treafures of the temple, to the vic¬
tory obtained by Judas Maccabeus over Nicanor j
that is, from the year of the world 3828, to the year
3843, 147 years before Chrift.
There are in the Polyglot Bibles, both of Paris and
London, Syriac verfions of both thefe books j but
they, as well as the Engliftr verfions which we have
among the apocryphal writers in our Bible, are de¬
rived from the Greek. There is alfo a third book of
the Maccabees, containing the hiftory of the perfecu-
tion of Ptolemy Philopator againft the Jews in Egypt,
and their fufferings under it j which feems to have been
written by feme Alexandrian Jew in the Greek lan¬
guage, not long after the time of Siracides. It is in
moft of the ancient manufeript copies of the Greek
Septuagint j particularly in the Alexandrian and Va¬
tican, but was never inferted into the vulgar Latin
verfion of the Bible, nor confequently into any of our
Engliftr copies. Moreover, Jofephus’s hiftory of the
martyrs that fuffered under Antiochus Epiphanes, is
found in fome manufeript Greek Bibles, under the
name of the fourth book of the Maccabeees.
MACBETH, a Scots nobleman in the nth cen¬
tury, nearly allied to Duncan king of Scotland.—
Not contented with curbing the king’s authority, he
carried his peftilent ambition fo far as to put him to
death 5 and, chafing Malcolm Canmore his fon and
heir into England, ufurped the crown. Si ward earl
of Northumberland, w’hofe daughter Duncan had mar¬
ried, undertook, by the order of Edward the Confeffor,
the protection of the fugitive prince.—He marched with
an army into Scotland j defeated and killed Macbeth j
MAC
and reftored Malcolm to the throne of his anceftors. Macbeth,
Shakefpeare has made this tranfa&ion the fubjedt of one Macbnrie-^
of his beft tragedies.
' MACBRIDE, Dr David, an eminent phyfician
and philofopher, was defeended from an ancient family
in the county of Galloway in Scotland. His grand¬
father, a clergyman, had fettled in Ireland about the
end of the 17th century, as minifter to a Prefbyterian
congregation at Belfaft ; and his father, who followed
the fame line, was fettled at Ballymony in the county
of Antrim, where he married, and where our author
was born in April 1726. After a proper fchool-educa-
tion, and having palled fome time under the tuition
of an eminent furgeon in his native place, he was fent
to the univerfity of Glafgow. Having there completed
the ufual courfe of academical ftudies, he went to
Edinburgh for the further profecution of medical fei-
ence. After a Ihort flay here, a war then prevailing
between France and Britain, he was induced to go on
board the navy in the ftation of a furgeon’s mate. In
the fervice of his country he continued for feveral
years j and after difeharging for fome time the duties
of an afliftant, he was raifed to the rank of furgeon.
In this fituation, he firft turned his thoughts towards
the difeovery of a remedy for the fea-feurvy. It was
not, however, at this period, that either chance or rea*
foning fuggefted to him the employment of an article
which has lince been attended with the moft beneficial
confequences. Here he had an opportunity only of ob-
ferving the fymptoms, of ftudying the nature, and of la¬
menting the confequences, of the difeafe.
The termination of the war by the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle put a period to Dr Macbride’s employment
as a naval furgeon. He had now probably obtained
much medical knowledge in the fchool of experience j
but he was fenfible that he had ftill much to acquire
in that of fcience. An ardent keennefs to mingle in
aftive life had led him from the fchools of medicine at
an earlier period than could have been wilhed 5 and an
earneft defire to found his future pradlice in the beft
eftablilhed principles led him back to them, when a
judgment, matured by years, and informed from the
obfervation of fa£b, rendered him capable of hearing
teachers with greater advantage. He returned there¬
fore to Edinburgh, and again entered on the career of
academical purfuits, under the tuition of Dr Monro,
and thofe other teachers, whofe abilities raifed the
fame of that medical fchool. But not fatisfied with
the inftrudlions to be had from any one fet of profeffors,
the celebrity of the medical teachers in London led
him alfo to vifit that capital. There he particularly
became the pupil of thofe diftinguiftied lecturers, Dr
Hunter and Dr Smellie. And while from the former
he laboured to acquire an accurate chirurgical know¬
ledge, from the latter he endeavoured to obtain the
true principles of midwifery confidered as a fcience-
At the fame time he was no lefs induftrious in improv¬
ing himfelf in the fuccefsful practice ef both arts by
attention at hofpitals.
Thus prepared for the exercife of his profeflion,
about the end of the year 1 749 he fixed his refidence
in Dublin in the character of furgeon and accoucheur.
If amiable manners, and extenfive knowledge of his
profeflion, could alone have been fufficient introduc¬
tions to praftice, he might in a ftiort time have look
[ 293 ]
MAO
.Atac|ir!de; a competent (hare of bufinefs in that capital j
but while he had to combat that obje&ion which very
generally ariles from youth, his progress was alfo not
a little retarded by an uncommon degree of modefty.
Hence for feverai years he remained almoft in a ftate
of obfcurity, and was employed by but few people ei¬
ther of rank or fortune. But, if it is to be regretted
that for many years his time was not fo fully employed
in the lucrative part of his profeffion as was due to
his merit, it ought dill to be remembered, that this ef-
fentially promoted the caufe of fcience : for by this
means his genius and induftry were dire&ed to medical
researches j and were productive of difcoveries which
will with honour tranfmit his name to lateft pollerity,
Thefe, though fome of them might have been fuccefs*
fully turned to his own emolument, were freely com¬
municated to the world in different publications ; and
he did not (how greater ingenuity in making difco,
veries than liberality of fentiment in publifliing them
for the advantage of others. His firft publication
entitled, “ Experimental Effays on Medical and Phk
lofophical Subjects,” made its appearance in the year
1764.—-Thefe effays are five in number: 1. On the
fermentation of alimentary mixture and the digeftion
cf the food. 2. On the nature and properties of fixed
air. 3. On the different kinds of antileptics.. 4. Of
the diffolvent power of quicklime. 5. Of the fea fcur.
vy. The merit of all thefe is fufficiently known and
acknowledged : but the laft of them is unqueftionably
the moft important ; the method therein propofed of
both the prevention and cure of that dreadful difeafe
the fcurvy, having been confirmed by repeated and un.,
deniable obfervation.
. Having thus equally diftinguilhed himfelf as an inge-
mous phdofopher and able practitioner, the world were
not now flow in beftowing upon him the tribute of ap-
plau e to which he was entitled. His name was enrol¬
led with honour in the lifts of many learned focieties-
and the univerfity where hisftudieshad firft been com!
menced were proud to confer upon him the degree of
doctor of medicine.
X he reputation, however, of being a diftinguiftied
puthor, was to him but a fecondary objeCt ; and his
talents were not confined to the advancement of medk
cine alone. Having fuqcefsfully difcovered a confider-
Sble improvement in the art of tanning, with that
fpinted generofity which is ever the concomitant of
real worth, he fpeedily and freely communicated it to
the public, by publjfhing, firft, “ An Account of a
Wew Method of Tanning;” and afterwards, « Jnftruc-
tions for carrying on the New Method of Tanning.”
Asa mark of approbation for this liberal condua, as
well as a teftimony of refpeft for his ingenuity, prize-
medals were conferred upon him by the Societies of
Arts both in London and Dublin. But his laft and
moft extenliye publication was more immediately in
the line of his own profeftion ; It is entitled, “ A Me.
Introdua»on ^ ^e Theory and Fraaice of
Medicine,” In that valuable work he has given a
cencife and conneaed view of the principles and prac¬
tice of the healing art, as belt eftabliftied by found
reaion, and confirmed by accurate obfervation. Moft
If not all, of thefe publications, not only went through
various editions, but vme tranflated into different lan-
C 294 1
MAC
After the merit of Dr Macbride came to be proper,
ly known, the public feemed to Ihow a dtfire of mak-
mg compenfation for having fo long overlooked it,
His employment increafed fo rapidly, that he had more
buhneis than he could tranfaft either with eafe or fafe-
ty* 1 Jlls having kept him in perpetual agitation both
ot body and mind, at laft induced an almoft total in¬
capacity of fleeping. From this circumftance his health
could not fail to be impaired. In this fituation, after
accidental expofure to cold, he was attacked with a
fever, which put an end to his life on the 13th of De¬
cember 177b, in the 53d year of his age,
Thofe who were among his moft intimate acquaintance
were inclined to believe that his death was not a little
haftened by domeftic calamities. During his refidence
in Dublin he w'as twice married, and was as often fub«
je<5fed to that inexpreftible diftrefs which muft refult
from a final feparation in this world from the moft inti¬
mate and loving friends. By both of his wives he
had feverai children ; but none of them furvived their
father. And on thefe calamitous events, although he
was able to conceal his feelings from the world, yet
they gave a fevere (hock to his conftitution. After
hh death, feverai of the playful trinkets of his infants
with the^ fignature of dulces exuviae, were found in his
repofitories among papers on medical and other import¬
ant fubjefts : an incontrovertible proof, that in him at
leaft, the great mind of the philofopher w7as conjoin,
ed with the feeling heart of the affe&ionate father.
But if his^ abilities were remarkable as a philofopher
and phyfician, if his condu£l was exemplary as a huf.
band and parent, his manners were no lefs amiable as
a companion and friend. His polite and benevolent
conduft, joined to his tafte for the fine arts, conciliated
the affe&ions and efteem of all who knew him. His
death was univerfally and fincerely lamented in the city
of Dublin, /
MACCLESFIELD, a town of Cheftiire in Eng¬
land, 171 miles from London, is feated on the edge of
a foreft of the fame name, upon a high bank near the
river Bollin ; and is a large handfome town, with
fine church and a very high fteeple. It was ere&ed
into a borough by King Edward III. is governed by
a mayor, and enjoys great privileges and jurifdjtfiona
by virtue of the court and the liberties of the foreft.
In its. church are two brafs plates, on one of which
there is a promife of 26,000 years and days pardon
for faying five Pater-Nofters and five Aveg. Its chief
manufacture is mohair buttons. In Macclesfield fo.
reft are many pits dug for the fake of the turf; in
wh,ch it is common to find fir-trees buried, which are
dug up for various ufes, but chiefly for fblinters thafe
ferve the poor for candles. The population in 1801
was nearly 9000, W. Long, 2, 10. N. Lat, 53. 13.
MACE, an ancient weapon, formerly much uftd
by the cavalry of all nations. It was commonly mads
of iron ; its figure much refembles a chocolate mill t
tnany fpecimens may be feen In the Tower, It wag
with one of thefe that Walworth mayor of London
knocked the rebel Wat Tyler from off his horfe in
Smithfield for approaching the young King Richard II,
in an infolent manner; and as he fell he difpatched
him with his dagger. The mace in modern times
cnanged its form ; and being no longer a war inftru.
ment, is made of copper or fllver gilt, ornamented with
Machf
II
Mac*
1
Macedon
ituation,
cc. of the
auntry.
3
ifferent
aies.
MAC [ 295
a crown, globe, and crofs, and is now the chief inlignia
of authorily throughout Great Britain. Similar to
the ancient maces, were thofe ftaves at the end of
which iron or leaden balls armed with fpikes were fuf-
pended by chains : they were formerly carried by the
pioneers of the trained bands or militia of London.
Mace, in the Materia Medica, the fecond coat or
covering of the kernel of the nutmeg, is a thin, mem¬
branaceous lubftance, of a yellowilh colour ; being met
with in flakes of an inch or more in length, which are
divided into a multitude of ramifications. It is of an
extremely fragrant, aromatic, and agreeable flavour;
and of a pleafant, but acrid oleaginous tafte. See Ma¬
teria Medica Index.
MxlCEDON, or Macedonia, a moft celebrated
kingdom of antiquity, w'as bounded on the eaft by
the v^Egean fea; on the fouth by Theflaly and Epirus;
on the weft by the Ionian fea or Adriatic ; on the
north, at firft by the river Strymon and the Scardian
mountains, but afterwards by the river Neffus or Nef-
tus. In a direct line the whole country extended
only 150 miles in length ; but the windings of the
coaft lengthened it out to three times that extent; in
which almoft every convenient fituation was occupied
by a Grecian fea-port. The country was naturally
1 MAC
He was an Argive, a defcendant of Macedon.
3
ngdom
mded by
ranus.
divided, by the Thermaic and Strymonic gulfs, into
the provinces of Pieria, Chalcis, and Pangaeus. The
middle region, which took its name from a city of
Euboea from whence it was originally peopled, was
very fertile and pleafant; the inland country, being
diverfified by lakes, rivers, and arms of the fea, was
extremely convenient for inland navigation, while the
towns of Amphipolis, Potidaea, Acanthus, and many
others, afforded marts for the commerce of the republics
of Greece, as well as of Thrace and Macedon. On
one fide of this diftrihl were the mountains of Pangaeus,
and on the other the plains of Pieria. The Pangaean
mountains, which extended 90 miles towards the eaft
and the river Neffus, though proper neither for corn
nor pafture, produced plenty of timber for ftiip-build-
ing; while the fouthern branches of the mountains
contained rich veins of gold and filver; but thefe,
though wrought fucceflively by the Thafians and the
Athenians, were only brought to perfe&ion by Philip
of Macedon, who extracted from them gold and filver
to the value of 200,0001. fterling annually. Pieria ex¬
tended 50 miles along the Thermaic gulf, to the
confines of Theffaly and Mount Pindus. The inland
part of the country was beautifully diverfified with
lhady hills and fountains; and fo admirably calculated
for folitary walks and retirement, that the ancients
looked upon it to be the favourite haunt of the Mufes,
and accordingly bellowed upon them the title of Pie-
rides.
In the moft early times this country was called JEma-
tha, from JEmathius one of its princes. The name of
Macedon is faid to have been derived from Macedo a
defcendant of Deucalion; though others fuppofe it
to have been only a corruption of Mygdonia a diftribl
of the country. In thofe remote ages of antiquity,
Macedon, like moft other countries of Europe, was
divided into a great number of petty principalities,
of which fcarce even the names are known at this
time. All authors agree, however, that Caranus was
the firft; who eftabliftied any permanent fovereignty
in Macedon.
Hercules, and about 800 years B. C. conducted a
Imall colony of his countrymen into the inland diftrift
of Macedon, at that time diftinguilhed by the name of
JLmathia as already mentioned. This territory was
about 300 miles in circumference. On the fouth it
was feparated from the fea by a number of Greek re¬
publics, of which the moft confiderable were thofe of
Olynthus and Amphipolis; and on the north,eaft, and
weft, was furrounded by the barbarous kingdoms of
Ihrace, Poecnia, and Illyricum. According to the
traditions of thole times, Caranus, having confulted
the oracle on the fuccefs of his intended expedition,
was commanded to be directed by the goats in the efta-
blilhment of his empire. For fome time he proceeded
at random, without knowing what to make of the ora¬
cle’s anfwer; but happening to enter the fmall kingdom
of at that time governed by King Midas, he
oblerved a herd of goats running tow-ards EdeJ/'a the
capital. Recollefting then the anfwer of the oracle,
he attacked and took the city by furprife, foon after
making himfelf mafter of the whole kingdom. In me¬
mory of this remarkable event he called the city JEgea,
and the people JEgiates, from the goats who condudted
him, and made ufe of the figure of a goat in his ftand-
ard. From this fable alfo we fee why the figure of a
goat is fo frequently feen on the coins of Philip and his
fucceffors. ^
The little colony of Argives led into TEmathia by Policy of
Caranus would foon have been overwhelmed by the Pr*nce*
barbarous nations who furrounded it, had not this prince
and his fubjedls taken care to ingratiate themfelves wdth
their neighbours, rather than to attempt tofubdue them
by force of arms. They inftrudted them in the Grecian
religion and government, and in the knowledge of many
ufeful arts; adopting themfelves, in fome degree, the
language and manners of the barbarians ; imparting
to them in return fome part of the Grecian civiliza¬
tion and polite behaviour. Thus they gradually affo-
ciated with the fierce and warlike tribes in their neigh¬
bourhood ; and this prudent condudt, being followed
by fucceeding generations, may be looked upon as one
of the caules of the Macedonian greatnefs.
Caranus, dying after a reign of three years, left the
kingdom to his fon Coenus ; who having confiderably
enlarged his dominions, was fucceeded by Thurymas, 5
and he by Perdiccas I. This laft prince is by Thucy- Perdiccas I.
dides and Herodotus accounted the founder of the ace^e'3rate£^
Macedonian monarchy ; though his hiftory is f0monarch*
obfcured by fable, that nothing certain can now be
known concerning it. In procefs of time, however, the
good underftanding which had fubfifted between the
Macedonians and their barbarous neighbours began to *
fuff r an interruption; and in 691 B. C. the kingdomInvaflonby
was for the firft time invaded by the Illyrians. Atrians'lly"
firft they did confiderable damage by their ravages;
but the Macedonian monarch, Argasus, having decoyed
them into an ambuftr, cut off great numbers, and obliged
the remainder to leave the kingdom. In the reign of
his fucceffors, however, they returned, and occafionally
proved very troublefome enemies till the reigns of Philip
and Alexander. j
In the mean time the kingdom of Macedon began toInterfcr"
be affeaed by thofe great events which took place f,nc^ofthe
in other parts of the world. Cyrus having overthrown dned Mace.
the damans.
MAC
^MaceJon. the Babylonian empire, and conquered all the weftern
part of Alia, eftablilhed a mighty monarchy, which
threatened all the eaftern parts of Europe with fub-
iugation. The Greeks, however, having now emerged
from their barbarifm, and acquired great knowledge
in the art of war, were able to refill effectually this
very formidable power •, but the kingdom of Macedon,
obfcure and unconnected, w'as obliged to yield, and
though not formally made a province of the Perfian
empire, was neverthelefs accounted in fome fort as un¬
der the valfalage and protection of the Perfians. Al-
cetas, who afcended the Macedonian throne about the
time that the Perfian monarchy was founded, had the
dexterity to preferve his dominions from the encroach¬
ments of the Greeks on the one hand, and of the Per¬
fians on the other ; but in the reign of his fuccelfor
Amyntas, a formal demand was made of fubmilfion to
the great king Darius, by fending him a prefent of
earth and water. Seven ambafladors were fent on this
errand by Megabizus, one of the officers of Darius.
They were fumptuoufly entertained by Amyntas 5 but
having attempted to take fome indecent liberties with
the Macedonian women, Alexander the king’s fon
caufed them all to be murdered. This ralh aCtion
had almolt proved the ruin of the kingdom $ bat
Alexander found means to pacify Bubaris the general
fent againlt him by Megabizus, by Ihowing him his
filter Gygsea, a very beautiful woman, with whom the
Perfian fell in love at firlt fight, and afterwards mar-
8 ried her.
Advan- From this time the Macedonians were accounted
the faithful allies of the Perfians j and, through the
oedon from iuterelt of his fon-in-law, Amyntas obtained the coun-
this inter- try in the neighbourhood of Mount Haemus and Olym-
ference. pus, at the fame time that the city of Alabanda in Phry¬
gia was given to Amyntas the nephew of Alexander.
The Macedonians diilinguilhed themfelves in the time
of the Perfian invafion of Greece, by furnilhing their
allies with 200,000 recruits $ though fome cities, par¬
ticularly Potidaea, Olynthus, and Pallene, adhered to
the Grecian interelt. The two lalt were taken and
rafed, and the inhabitants malfacred by the Perfians j
but Potidaea efcaped by reafon of the fea breaking
into the Perfian camp, where it did great damage.
Alexander, however, afterwards thought proper to
court the favour of the Greeks by giving them intel¬
ligence of the time when Mardonius defigned to attack
them. The remaining tranfaCtions of this reign are
entirely unknown, farther than that he enlarged his
dominions to the river Neffus on the call and the Axius
on the welt.
Alexander I. was fucceeded by his fon Perdiccas II.
FerdiccasII who, according to Dr Gillies, “ inherited his father’s
abilities, though not his integrity.” But from his du¬
plicity above mentioned both to Greeks and Perfians,
it does not appear that he had much to boalt of as
to the latter quality. In the Peloponnefian war he
efpoufed the caufe of the Spartans againft the Athe¬
nians, from whom he was in danger by reafon of their
numerous fettlements on the Macedonian coalt, and
their great power by fea. For fome time, however,
he amufed the Athenians with a Ihow of friendlhip ;
but at lalt, under pretence of enabling Olynthus and
fome other cities to recover their liberties, he aflilted
in deltroying the influence of the Athenians in thofe
[ 296 ]
MAC
. 9
Reign of
places, in hopes of eftablilhing that of the Macedo- Macsdo#.
nians in its Head. But this defign failed of fuccefs; the '■“"“v-—
Olynthian confederacy was broken, and the members
of it became fubjedt to Sparta, until at lalt, by the mif-
fortunes of that republic, they became fufficiently power¬
ful not only to refill the encroachments of the Mace¬
donians, but to make confiderable conquelts in their
country. I0
Perdiccas II. was fucceeded about 416 B. C. by °f Arche.
Archelaus I. He enlarged his dominions by the con- 'aus
quell of Pydna, and other places in Pieria, though his
ambition feems rather to have been to improve his do¬
minions than greatly to extend them. He facilitated
the communication between the principal towns of Ma¬
cedon, by cutting ftraight roads through molt part of
the country : he built walls and fortreffes in fuch places
as afforded a favourable fituation ; encouraged agricul¬
ture and the arts, particularly thofe fubfervient to war j
formed magazines of arms j raifed and difcipiined a
confiderable body of cavalry ; and in a word, fays Dr
Gillies, “ added more to the folid grandeur of Macedon
than had been done by all his predeceffors put together.
Nor was he regardlefs of the arts of peace. His palace
was adorned by the works of Grecian painters. Euri¬
pides was long entertained at his court 5 Socrates was
earnellly folicited to live there, after the example of
this philofophic poet, formed by his precepts and che-
rilhed by his friendfhip : men of merit and genius in
the various walks of literature and fcience were invited
to refide in Macedon, and treated w ith diltinguilhed re¬
gard by a monarch duly attentive to promote his own
glory and the happinefs of his fubjedt?.” Ir
This great monarch died after a reign of fix years, The king-
a fpace by far too ffiort to aecomplilh the magnificent dom be-
projefts he had formed. After his death the king-come5a.
dom fell under the power of ufurpers or weak andj^^jj^*
wicked monarchs. A number of competitors con-flons.
ftantly appeared for the throne ; and thefe by turns
called in to their afliltance the Thracians, Illyrians,
Theffalians, the Olynthian confederacy, Athens, Sparta,
and Thebes. Bardyllis, an adtive and daring chief,
who, from being head of a gang of robbers, had be¬
come fovereign of the Illyrians, entered Macedon at
the head of a numerous army, depofed Amyntas II. the
father of Philip, and fet up in his place one Argseus,
who confented to become tributary to the Illyrians.
Another candidate for the throne, named Faufaniasy
w'as fupported by the Thracians j but, by the afliftance
of the Theffalians and Olynthians, Amyntas was ena¬
bled to refume the government. After his reiteration,
however, the Olynthians refufed to deliver up feveral
places of importance belonging to Macedon which A-
myntas had either intrufted to their care, or w hich they l9
had taken from his antagonill. Amyntas complained War with
to Sparta 5 and that republic, which had already form-die Olyn-
ed fehemes of very extenfive ambition, fo readily com-t^‘ans‘
plied with the requeit, that it was generally fuppofed to
have proceeded from Spartan emiffaries fent into Mace¬
donia. They pretended indeed to hefitate a little, and
to take time to deliberate on the army which ought to
be raifed for the purpofe •, but Cleigenes, the principal
ambafl’ador, reprefented the urgency of the cafe in
fuch a manner, that the troops which happened at
that time to be ready were ordered to take the field
without delay. Two thoufand Spartans, under the
command
MAG
Macedon. command of Eudamidas, were ordered into Macedon,
—~v while a powerful reinforcement under the command
of Phoebidas, brother to the general, was ordered to
follow him as foon as poflible. By accident, Phoebidas
and his auxiliaries were detained till the feafon for ac¬
tion was palTed j but Eudamidas with his fmall army
performed very effential fervice. The appearance of a
Spartan army at once encouraged the fubjeftsand allies
of the Olynthians to revolt j and the city of Potidaea,
a place of great importance in the ifthmus of Pallene,
furrendered foon after his arrival in the country. Be¬
ing too much elated with his fuccefs, however, Euda-
xnidas approached fo near the city of Olynthus, that he
was unexpectedly attacked, defeated, and killed, in a
Tally of the citizens. He was fucceeded by Teleutias
the brother of Agefilaus, who had under his command
a body of 10,000 men, and was farther affilted by A-
myntas king of Macedon, and Derdas his brother, the
governor or fovereign of the molt wefterly province of
Macedon, which abounded in cavalry. By thefe for¬
midable enemies the Olynthians were defeated in a
number of battles, obl iged to Ihut themfelvesup in their
city, and prevented from cultivating their territory ; on
which Teleutias advanced with his whole forces to in¬
vert the city itfelf. His exceflive eagernefs to deftroy
his enemies proved his ruin. A body of Olynthian
horfe had the boldnefs to pafs the river Amnias in fight
of the allied army, though fo much fuperior in number.
Teleutias ordered his targeteers to attack them, the
Olynthians, having retreated acrofs the river, were
cloi'ely purfued by the Lacedaemonians, great part of
whom alfo parted the river; but the Clynthians fud-
denly turned upon them, killed upwards of 100, with
Tlemonidas their leader. Teleutias, exafperated at this
difafter, ordered the remainder of the targeteers and
cavalry to purfue ; while he himfelf advanced at the
head of the heavy-armed foot with fuch celerity that
they began to fall into diforder. The Olynthians al¬
lowed them to proceed, and the Lacedaemonians very
imprudently advanced juft under the towers and battle¬
ments of the city. The townfmen then mounted the
walls, and difcharged upon them a fhower of darts, ar¬
rows, and other miftile weapons, while the flower of the
Olynthian troops, who had been purpofely ported be¬
hind the gates, fallied forth and attacked them with,
great violence. Teleutias, attempting to rally his men,
was flain in the firft onfet; the Spartans who attended
him were defeated, and the whole army at laft difperfed
with great daughter, and obliged to (belter themfelves in
the towns of Acanthus, Apollonia,Spartolus, and Potidaea.
The Spartans, undifmayed by this terrible difafter,
next fent their king Agefipolis with a powerful rein¬
forcement into Macedon. His prefence greatly raifed
the fpirits of the Lacedaemonian allies, and his rapid iuc-
cefs Teemed to promife a fpeedy termination to the w ar,
when he himfelf died of a calenture. He was fucceeded
in the throne by his brother Cleombrotus, and in the
command of the army by Polybiades an experienced
general, who likewife brought along with him a power¬
ful reinforcement. Olynthus was now' completely
blocked up by land, while a fquadron of Lacedae¬
monian galleys blocked up the neighbouring harbour
of Myceberna. Hie Olynthians, how'ever, held out
.or nine or ten months, but at laft w’ere obliged to fub-
Vol. XII. Part I.
[ 297 1
MAC
mit on very humiliating conditions. They formally re- Macedon.
nounced all claim to the dominion of Chalcis; they —  ’
ceded the Macedonian cities to their ancient governor; j^^qi n
and in confequence of this Amyntas left the city of iE-thiansobli-
gaea or Edeffa, where till now he had held his royal geo to fub-
refidence, and fixed it at Pella, a city of great ftrengthmit-
and beauty, fituated on an eminence, which, together p 14
with a plain of confiderable extent, was defended by t^e
impaffable morafles, and by the rivers Axius and Ly-ofMace-
dias. It was diftant about 15 miles from the AEgeandon.
fea, wdth which it communicated by means of the above-
menftioned rivers. It w-as originally founded by the
Greeks, who had lately conquered and peopled it; but
in confequence of the misfortunes of Olynthus, it now
became the capital of Macedon, and continued ever af¬
ter to be fo.
Amyntas, thus fully eftabliftied in his dominions,
continued to enjoy tranquillity during the remaining
part of his life. The reign of his fon Alexander was
(hort, and difturbed by invalions of the Illyrians;
from whom he was obliged to purchafe a peace. He
left behind him two brothers, Perdiccas and Philip,
both very young ; fo that Paulanias again found means., *5.
to ufurp the throne, being fupported not only by the
Thracians, but a confiderable number of Greek mer-throne,
cenaries, as well as a powerful party in Macedon it¬
felf. In this critical juncture, however, Iphicrates
the Athenian happening to be on an expedition to Am-
phipolis, was addreflfed by Eurydice the widow of
Amyntas, fo warmly in behalf of her two fons, whom
(he prefented to him, that he interefted himfelf in their
behalf, and got Perdiccas the eldeft eftablilhed on
the throne. He was induced alfo to this piece of
genefofity by the kindnefs which Eurydice and her
hufband had formerly (hown to himfeif; and he like¬
wife faw the advantages which muft enfue to bis coun- 1(j ~
try from a connexion with Macedon. During the Ptolemy
minority of the young prince, however, his brother afp'res
Ptolemy, who was his guardian, openly afpired to the t‘ie ^rone.
throne ; but he was depofed by the Theban general
Pelopidas, who reinftated Perdiccas in his dominions;
and in order to fecure, in the moft effeftual manner,
the dependence of Macedon upon Thebes, carried along
with him thirty Macedonian youths as hoftages; and
among them Philip, the younger brother of the king.
Perdiccas now, elated by the prote&ion of fuch power¬
ful allies, forgot Iphicrates and the Athenians, and even
dilputed with them the right to the city of Amphipolis,
wLich had been decreed to them by the general coun¬
cil of Greece, but which his oppofition rendered impof-
fible for them to recover. In confequence of the truft
he put in thefe new allies, alfo, it is probable that he
refufed to Bardyllis the Illyrian the tribute which the
Macedonians had been obliged to pay him ; which oc- I7
cafioned a war with that nation. In this conteft theTheMaee-
Macedonians were defeated with the lofs of 4000 men, 4on‘ans de-
Perdiccas himfelf being taken prifoner, and dying foon featec!> and
after of his wounds. their king
The kingdom was now left in the moft deplorable the Illyri-
ftate. Amyntas, the proper heir to the throne, w'asar.s.
an infant; the Thebans, in whom Perdiccas had placed
fo much confidence, were deprived of the foverejgnty
of Greece; the Athenians, juftly provoked at the un¬
grateful behaviour of the late monarch, (bowed a hof-
E P tile
Mare Jon.
Philip ar¬
rives in Ma
cedon.
19
Retrieves
the affairs
of the king
dom.
M A C [ 298
tile dilpofxtion ; the Illyrians ravaged the weft, and the
Paeonians the north quarter of the kingdom ; the Thra¬
cians ftnl lupported the caufe of Paufarrias, and propofed
to fend him into IVIacedon at the head of a numerous
army ; while Argasus, the former rival of Amyntas,
renewed his pretenlions to the throne, and by flattering
the Athenians with the hopes of recovering Amphipo-
lis, eaflly induced them to iupport his claims ; and in
confequence of tins they fitted out a fleet, having on
board 3000 heavy-armed foldiers, which they fent to
the coaft of Macedon.
Philip, the late king’s brother, no fooner heard of
his defeat and death, than he let out privately from
Thebes *, and on his arrival in Macedon found matters
in the fituation we have juft now defcribed. Fired
with an infatiabie ambition, it is very probable that
from the very firft moment he had refolved to feize
the kingdom for himfelf; yet it was neceffary at firft
to pretend that he affirmed the throne only to preferve
it for his nephew. Philip, as has already been men¬
tioned, was carried off as a hoftage by Pelopidas,
but for a long time pall had remained in fuch obfcuri-
ty, that hiftorians difagree as to his place of refidence ;
feme placing him in Thebes and others in Macedon.
It is certain, however, that from the age of 15 he had
been very much in the family of Epaminondas, from
whofe leffons he could not but derive the greateft emo¬
lument. It is probable alfo that he attended this cele¬
brated general in many of his expeditions j and it is
certain, that, with an attendance fuitable to his rank,
he vifited moft of the principal republics, and flrowed
an attention to their inftitutions, both civil and mili¬
tary, far fuperior to his years. Having eafy accefs to
■whomfoever he pleafed, he cultivated the fritndftiip of
the firft people in Greece. Even in Athens, where no
good will fubfifted with Macedon, the philofophers
Plato, Ifocrates, and Ariftotle, cultivated his acquaint¬
ance : and the connexion he formed with the principal
leaders of that republic in the early period of his life,
no doubt contributed greatly to the accomplifhment of
the defigns in which he afterwards proved fo fuccefsful.
His appearance in Macedon inftantly changed the face
of affairs : the Macedonian army, though defeated, was
not entirely deftroyed ; and the remainder of them fe-
cured themfelves in the fortreffes which had been built
by Archelaus. There were alfo confiderable garrifons
in the fortreffes, and walled towns fcattered over the
kingdom 5 and the Illyrians, who had made war only for
the fake of plunder, foon returned home to enjoy the
fruits of their vidtory. His other enemies, the Thra¬
cians and Pasonians, were much lefs formidable than
the Illyrians, being {fill in a very rude and uncivilized
ftate, incapable of uniting under one head in fuch a
manner as to bring any formidable army into the field.
While the Illyrians therefore gave up the campaign
through mere caprice and unfteadinefs, Philip himfelf
applied to the Paeonians, and by fair promifes and flat¬
tery prevailed upon them to defift. The king of Thrace,
by means of a fum of money, was eafily prevailed upon
to abandon the caufe of Paufanias ; fo that Philip, freed
from thefe barbarians, was now left at liberty to oppofe
the Athenians, who fupported Argaeus, and threatened
a very formidable invafion.
The appearance of the Athenian fleet before Me-
ifione, with that of Argfeus at the head of a numerous
' 2.
]
MAC
army in Pieria, filled the whole country with confter- Macedon
nation j and Philip, who was by no means deficient in
talents neceffary to recommend himfelf to the good
graces of the people, took the opportunity of getting
Amyntas fet afide, and himfelf declared king • for Take2s°
which indeed the danger of tjie times afforded a very on hiinthel
plaufible pretext. Argaeus, in the mean time, advan- ktvcreigntj
ced with his Athenian allies towards Edeffa or -fEge,
the ancient capital of the Macedonian empire, where
he hoped to have been amicably received ; but finding
the gates fhut againft him, he returned back to Me- 2r
thone. Philip haraffed him in his retreat, cutting off Defeats an,
great numbers of his men, and afterwards defeated him klils Args '
in a general engagement^ in which Argaius himfelf,us an ufurP
with the flower of his army, was cut in pieces, and all
the reft taken prifoners.
This firft inftance of fuccefs contributed greatly top. ,-2»2t
raife the fpirits of Philip’s party ; and he himfelf took litic treat-
cure to improve it in the belt manner poffible. Hav-nientofthej
ing taken a great number of priloners, both Macedo-Priloners*
nians and Athenians, he determined, by his treatment
of them, to ingratiate himfelf with both parties. The
former were called into his prefence, and, after a
gentle reprimand, admitted to (wear allegiance to
him ; after which they were diftributed through the
army : the Athenians were entertained at his table,
difmiffed without ranfom, and their baggage reftored.
The prifoners were juft allowed time to return to their
native city and to fpread abroad the news of Philip’s
generolity, when they were followed by ambafl'adors
from Macedon with propofals for peace. As he knew „
that the lofs of Amphipolis had greatly irritated them, h ^-iphm
he now thought proper to renounce his juritdi£lion Amphipo-
over that city ; and it was accordingly declared free!15*
and independent, and fubje£i only to the government
of its own free and equitable laws'. This artful con-
duft, together with his kind treatment of the prifoners,
fo wrought upon the minds of the Athenians, that they
confented to the renewal of a treaty which had formerly
fubfifled between them and his father Amyntas. Thus
he found means to remove all jealoufy of his ambition
or the fehemes he might afterwards undertake to their
prejudice ; and not only this, but to induce them to
engage in a ruinous war with their allies, which occu¬
pied their attention until Philip had an opportunity of
getting his matters fo well eftablilhed that it was impof-
fible to overthrow them.
_ The new king being thus left at liberty to regulate Reducestiit
his domeftic concerns, began to circumfcribe the power Powerofti)e
of his chiefs and nobles j who, efpecially in the more no^1^‘
remote provinces, paid very little regard to the autho¬
rity of the kings of Macedon ; fometimes, even in
times of public calamity, throwing off their allegiance
altogether, and affuming an independent government
over confiderable trafts of country. To counteratt cjawfo a
the ambition of thefe chiefs, Philip chcfe a body of number of
the braveft Macedonian youths, whom he entertained illuftrious
at his own table, and honoured with many teltimonies J011"?
of his friendfliip, giving them the title of his compa-
nions, and allowing them coqftantly to attend him in 1
war and hunting. Their intimacy with the fovereign,
which was confidered as an indication of their merit,
obliged them to fuperior diligence in all the fevere du¬
ties of military difcipline 5 and the young nobility,
eager to participate fuch high honours, vied with each
other
Macedon
i6
Whether
e infti til¬
ed the
iialanx.
*7
vercomes
e Pseoni-
is and II-
rians.
MAC [ 299
other in their endeavours to gain admiflion into this time
■' diftinguidied order 5 fo that while on the one hand they
ferved as hoftages, on the other they formed an ufeful
feminary for future generals, by whom both Philip and
Alexander were afterwards greatly affitfed in their con¬
quers.
Diodorus Siculus, and all the Roman writers who
have treated of the hiftory of Greece, affert that Phi¬
lip, in the firft year of his reign, inftituted the Mace¬
donian phalanx $ a body of 6000 men armed with
fhort fwords fitted either for cutting or ftabbing, ha¬
ving alfo ftrong bucklers four feet long and two and a
half broad, and pikes 14 feet long j ufually marching
16 men deep. But this opinion is controverted by
others. Dr Gillies fuppofes that the opinion had
arifen from the Romans meeting with the phalanx in
its moil complete form in Macedon j and as they be¬
came acquainted with Greece and Macedon pretty
nearly at the fame time, it was natural for them to
fuppofe that it had been invented among the Macedo¬
nians. The phalanx, he fays, is nothing different
from the armour and arrangement which had always
prevailed among the Greeks, and which Philip adopt¬
ed in their moft perfect form 5 “ nor is there reafon
(fays he) to think that a prince, who knew the dan¬
ger of changing what the experience of ages had ap¬
proved, made any alteration in the weapons or taffies
of that people. The improvement in the counter¬
march, to which Philip gave the appearance of advan¬
cing inflead of retreating, mentioned by /Elian in his
Taffies, cap. xxviii. was borrowed, as this author tells
us, from the Lacedaemonians. If Philip increafed the
phalanx, ufually lefs numerous, to 6000 men, this was
far from an improvement ; and the latter kings of
Macedon, who fwelled it to 16,000, only rendered that
order of battle more unwieldy and inconvenient.” In-
Read of this, Philip, according to our author, employ¬
ed himfelf in procuring arms, horfes, and other necef-
fary materials for w'ar ; and in introducing a more In¬
ver e and exaft military difeipline than had formerly
been known in Macedon.
While the king thus took the beft methods to ren¬
der himfelf fecure at home and formidable abroad, the
Paeonians again began to make incurfions into the
kingdom. The death of Agis their king, however,
who was a man of great military Ikill, deprived them
almoff of every power of refitfance when they were
attacked. Philip, of confequence, overran their coun¬
try with little oppofition, and reduced them to the Rate
of tributaries to Macedon. No fooner was this accom-
plifhed, than he undertook a winter’s campaign againft
the Illyrians, who had long been the natural enemies
of Macedon. They had now extended their territory
to the ealf by which means the Macedonians were ex¬
cluded from the harbours on the coatt of the Adriatic.
This was a grievance to Philip, who feems early to
have meditated the raifmg of a naval power ; neither
could he hope to be in fafety, fhould the kingdom be
left open to the incurlions of a barbarous enemy ; for
which reafons he determined at once to humble thofe
enemies in fuch a manner that they (hould no longer be
in a (ituation to give him any difturbance. After an
ineffe&ual negociation, he was met by Bardyllis at the
head of a confiderable body of infantry, but with only
400 horfe. They made a gallant refiftance for fome
Macedon.
] ‘ MAG
; but being unable to cope with fuch a fkilful ge¬
neral as Philip, they were defeated with the lofs of v~~
700D men, among whom was their leader Bardyllis,
who fell at the age of 90. 2S
By this di fa Iter the Illyrians were fo much dilheart-They are
ened, that they fent ainbaffadors to Philip, humblyt:olcec* t0
begging tor peace on any terms. I he conquerort.r-bntar^
granted them the fame conditions which had been im-
pofed upon the Paeonians, viz. the becoming tributary,
and yielding up to him a confiderable part of their
country. That part of it which lay to the eaftw'ard
of a lake named Lychnidus he annexed to Macedon ;
and probably built a town and fettled a colony there ;
the country being fertile, and the lake abounding with
many kinds of filh highly efteemed by the ancients.
This town and lake were about 50 miles diftant from
the Ionian fea ; and fuch was the afcendancy which the
arms and policy of Philip acquired over his neighbours,
that the inhabitants of all the intermediate diitridl foon
adopted the language and manners of their conquerors ;
and their territory, hitherto unconnefted with any fo¬
reign power, funk into fuch abfolute dependence upon
Macedon, that many ancient geographers fuppofed it to
be a province of that country. 29
Philip had no fooner reduced the Illyrians, than he^’s 8reat
began to put in execution greater defigns than any he^e^tis*
had yet attempted. The rich coafts to the fouthward
of Macedon, inhabited chiefly by Greeks, prefented
a ftrong temptation to his ambition and avarice. The
confederacy of Olynthus, after having thrown off the
yoke of Sparta, was become more pow’erful than ever,
and could fend into the field an army of 10,000 heavy
armed troops, befides a number of cavalry in propor¬
tion. Moft of the towns in Chalcidice were become
its allies or fubjedts ; fo that this populous and wealthy
province, together with Pangseus on the right and
Pieria on the left, of both which the cities were ei¬
ther independent or fubjeft to the Athenians, formed
a barrier not only fufficient to guard againft any in¬
curfions of the Macedonians, but which was even for* ,0
midable to them. But though Philip was fenfible Plans the
enough of the importance of thofe places, he confi-conqueft.
dered the conqueft of Amphipolis as more neccffary ^
at the prefent time. By the pofleftion of this place**0 1S*
Macedon would be connedled with the fea, and w'ould
be fecured in many commercial advantages, which
could not but contribute greatly to the profperity of
the kingdom at large ; a road was likewife opened to
the woods and mines of Pangseus, the former of which
wrere fo neceflary to the raifing of a naval power, and
the latter for the eftablifhment of a proper military
force. This city had indeed been declared indepen¬
dent by Philip himfelf in the beginning of his reign ;
but this w’as only to prevent a rupture with the Athe¬
nians, who ftill afferted their right to it as an ancient
colony ; though, by reafon of the perfidy of Chari-
demus, a native of Euboea, they had hitherto failed
in their attempts to recover it. The Amphipolitans,
however, having once enjoyed the fweets of liberty,
prepared to maintain themfelves in their independence.
In the mean time the hoftile defigns of Philip, which
all his precaution had not been able to conceal, alarm¬
ed the inhabitants to fuch a degree, that they thought
proper to put themfelves under the protedlion of the
Olynthians. By them they were readily received in-
P p 2 to
mag
MacetioB.
3*
for the A-
thenians.
to the confederacy j and, trufting to the ftrength of
then; new allies, behaved in fuch an infolent manner
to ^nip, that he was not long of finding a fpecious
pretext for hoftility ; at which the Olynthians, great-
Ay alarmed, fent ambaflfadors to Athens, requefting
their affiftance again!! fuch a powerful enemy. Philip
however, jullly alarmed at fuch a formidable confpi-
ri!Cy’i/ent ^ents to ^thens» with fuch expedition
that they arrived there before any thing could be con¬
cluded with the Olynthian deputies. Having gained
over the popular leaders and orators, he deceived and
flattered the magiftrates and fenate in fuch an artful
Engages to manner, that a negociation was inftantly fet on foot
conquer it by which Philip engaged to conquer Amphipolis for’
the Athenians, upon condition that they furrendered
to him the itrong fortrefs of Pydna, a place which
he reprefented as of much lefs importance to them j
promifing alfa to confer upon them many other ad¬
vantages, which, however, he did not fpecify at that
time. . Thus the Athenians, deceived by the perfidy
of their own magiftrates, elated with the hopes of re¬
covering Amphipolis, and outwitted by the fuperior
policy of Philip, rejeded with difdain the proffers of
the Olynthians.
. The ambafladors of Olynthus returned home highly
difgufted with the reception they had met with ; but
had fcarce time to communicate the news to their coun¬
trymen, when the ambafladors of Philip arrived at O-
lynthus. He pretended to condole with them on the
affront they had received at Athens; -but teftified his
furprife that they fhould court the afliftance of that dif-
tant and haughty republic, when they could avail them-
felves of the powerful kingdom of Macedon, which
wiihed for nothing more than to enter into equal and
Jafting engagements with their confederacy. As a proof
of his moderation and iincerity, he offered to put them
in poffeflion of Anthemus, an important town in the
[ 300 ]
MAC
powerful an enemy, furrendered at laft at difcretion in Macedon
the year 357 B. C. . . ^ ^
. Philip ftill proceeded in the fame cautious and poll-
tic manner in which he had begun. Though the ob-
ftinate defence of the Amphipolitans might have fur-
niftied a pretence for feverity, he contented himfelf
with baniffiing a few of the popular leaders from whom
he had moft caufe to dread oppofition, treating the
reft: of the inhabitants with all manner of clemency •
but took care to add Amphipolis to his own domi¬
nions, from which he was determined that it never
fhould be feparated, notwithftanding the promifes he
had made to the Athenians. Finding that it was not
his intereft at this time to fall out with the Olynthians
he cultivated the friendftiip of that republic with great
afliduity ; took the cities of Pydna and Potid^a,
which he readily yielded to the Olynthians, though
they had given him but little afliftance in the reduftion
of thefe places. Potidtea had been garriloned by the
A.thenians, and them the artful king fent back with¬
out ranfom, lamenting the neceflity of his affairs which
obliged him, contrary to his inclination, to oppofe their
republic. Though this was rather too grofs, the A-
thenians at prefent were fo much engaged with the So¬
cial war, that they had not leifure to attend to the af¬
fairs of other nations. Philip made the heft ufe of his
time, and next proje&ed the conqueft of the gold mines
of Thrace. That rich and fertile country was now Makes3him-
held by one Cotys, a prince of fuch weak intelleaual matter
faculties, that the fuperftition of the Greeks, intoof the £ol(i
which he was newly initiated, had almoft entirely fub- ^[neS of
verted his reafon ; and he wandered about in queft of hraCe*
the goddefs Mmerva, with whom he fancied himfelf
in love. The invafion of the Macedonians, however
awaked him from his reverie; and Cotys, finding him¬
felf deftitute of other means of oppofition, attempted
to flop the progrefs of the enemy by a letter. To this
*urhood, ofwhich the Macedonians had long PhiliJ : tSal^ inftantly
claimed the junfdiaion, making many other fair pro- expelled from their poffeflions at Crenidse, where there
mifes and among the reft that he would reduce for w'ere very valuable gold mines. Thefe had formerly
them the cities of Pydna and Potidgea, which he chofe been worked by colonies from Thafos and Athens : bu^
rather ^to fee in dependence on Olynthus than Athens, the colonifts had long fince been expelled by the bar^
1 hus he prevailed upon the Olynthians not only to
abandon Amphipolis, but to affift him with all their
power in the execution of his defigns.
Philip now loft no time in executing his purpofeson
Amphipolis; and preffed the city fo clofely, that the
people were glad to apply to the Athenians for relief.
Accordingly they defpatched two of their moft eminent
citizens, P^ierax and Stratocles, to reprefent the dan¬
ger of an jilliance betwixt Philip and the Olynthians,
and to profefs their forrow for having fo deeply offend¬
ed the parent ftate. This reprefentation had fuch an
effecff, that though the Athenians were then deeply
engaged in the Social war, they would probably have
paid fome attention to the Amphipolitans, had not Phi¬
lip taken care to fend them a letter with frefti affuran-
ces of friendlhip, acknowledging their right to Amphi¬
polis, and which he hoped Ihortly to put into their
hands in terms of his recent agreement. By thefe fpe¬
cious pretences the Athenians were perfuaded to pay as
little regard to the deputies of the Amphipolitans as
Ampbipolis ^ey had already done to thofe of the Olynthians ;
fwxenders. fo that the city, unable to defend itfelf alone againft fo
4
barous Thracians, who knew not how to make ufe of
the treafure they were in poffeflion of. Philip took
the trouble to defcend into the mines himfelf, in order
to infpeft the works ; and having caufed them to be
repaired, planted a Macedonian colony at Crenidse,
beftowed upon it the name of Philippi, and drew
annually from the gold mines to the value of near
1000 talents, or 200,000!. fterling ; an immenfe fum
in thofe days. The coins ftruck here were likewife cal¬
led Philippi.
Philip having obtained this valuable acquifition, Settles the
next took upon him to fettle the affairs of Theffaly, affair* of
where every thing was in confufion. This country Theflaly
had been formerly oppreffed by Alexander tyrant of ^
Pheras; after whofe death three others appeared, viz. tage.
Tiftiphornus, Pitholaus, and Lycophron, the brothers-
in-law of Alexander, who had likewife murdered him.
By the united efforts of the Theffalians and Macedo¬
nians, however, thefe ufurpers were eafily overthrown,
and effettually prevented from making any difturbances
for the future ; and the Theffalians, out of a miftaken
gratitude, furrendered to Philip all the revenues arifing
from
1
Macedon.
35
Tarries
lympias.
.general
>mbina-
on of the
;ighbour-
ig princes
irmed a-
unit him.
37 .
lefeats his
. 33'
irth of
.lexander
le Great.
39
.riftotle
^pointed
is precep-
ir.
40
ixtent of
lie Mace-
onian ter-
itories.
.4r
rojedls
ie con-
ueft of O-
: r nthus
nd of all
Ireece.
MAC [ 301
from their fairs and towns of commerce, as well as all the
the conveniences of their harbours and (hipping 5 a
conceflion which Philip took care to fecure in the moft
effe&ual manner.
Having now not only eltablilhed his fovereignty in
the molt effe£tual manner, but rendered himlelf very
powerful and formidable to his neighbours, Philip de¬
termined to enjoy fome repofe from his fatigues. Hav¬
ing formed an alliance with Arybbas king of Epirus,
he in the year 357 B. C. married Olympias the li¬
fter of that prince j a match thought the more eligible,
as the kings of Epirus were fuppofed to be defcended
from Achilles. The nuptials were folemnized at Pella
with great pomp, and feveral months were fpent
in (hows and diverfions j during which Philip Ihowed
fuch an extreme pronenefs to vice of every kind, as
difgraced him in the eyes of his neighbours, and moft
probably laid the foundation of his future domeftic un-
happinefs. So much was this behaviour of the Mace¬
donian monarch taken notice of by the neighbouring
Hates, that the Paeonians and Illyrians threw off the
yoke, engaging in their fchemes the king of Thrace :
and notwithftanding the infane ftate of that prince, their
defigns wrere now carried on with more judgment than
was ufual with barbarians. Philip, however, not¬
withftanding his diflxpation, got warning of his dan¬
ger in fufficient time to prevent the bad confequences
which might have enfued had the confederates got
time to bring their matters to a proper bearing. Early
in the fpring 356 he took the field with the flower of
the Macedonian troops. Having marched in perfon
againft the Paeonians and Thracians, he defpatched
Parmenio his belt: general into Illyria. Both enter-
prifes proved fuccefsful; and while Philip returned
vi&orious from Thrace, he received an account of the
victory gained by Parmenio ; a fecond meffenger in¬
formed him of a viftory gained by his chariot at the
Olympic games , and a third, that Olympias had been
delivered of a fon at Pella. This was the celebrated
Alexander, to w horn the diviners prophefied the higheft
profperity and glory, as being born in fuch aufpicious
circumftances.
A Ihort time after the birth of Alexander, Philip
wrote a letter to the philofopher Ariftotle, whom he
chofe for preceptor to his young fon. The letter was
written with great brevity, containing only the fol¬
lowing words : “ Know that a fon is born to us. We
thank the gods not fo much for their gift, as for
beftowing it at a time when Ariftotle lives. We af-
fure ourfelves that you will form him a prince worthy,
of his father, and worthy of Macedon.” He next
fet about the farther enlargement of his territories,
which were already very confiderable. Paeonia was
now one of his provinces; on the eaft his dominions
extended to the fea of Thafos, and on the weft to
the lake Lychnidus. The Theffalians were in effeft
fubjeft to his jurifdi&ion, and the poffeflion of Am-
phipolis had fecured him many commercial advantages j
he had a numerous and well-difciplined army, with
plentiful refources for fupporting fuch an armament,
and carrying through the other fchemes fuggefted by
his ambition ; though his deep and impenetrable poli¬
cy rendered him more truly formidable than all thefe
put together. His firft fcheme was the reduftion of
Olynthus, the moft populous and fertile country on
] MAC
borders of Macedon ; after which his ambition Macedon.
prompted him to acquire the fovereignty of all Greece. ~v
To accomplilh the former, he had hitherto courted the
friendlhip of the Olynthians by every poflible method;
and without letting Hip any opportunity Jo accomplilh
the latter, he deprived the Athenians gradually of feveral
of their fettlements in Thrace and Macedon. In thefe
depredations, however, he took care always to give
fuch appearance of juftice to his attions, that his anta-
gonifts, who had ftudied the matter lefs deeply, could
not find a plaufible pretext for engaging in wrar againft
him, even when he had openly committed hoftilities
againft them. Philip eafily perceived that the affairs
of the Greeks were coming to a crifis, and he deter¬
mined to wait the event of their mutual diffenfions. 42
That event did not difappoint his hopes. The Phocians Account of
had violated the religion of thofs days in a moft; eXi die Phouan
traordinary manner j they had even ploughed up the
lands confecrated to Apollo: and however they might
pretend to excufe themfelves by examples, the Am-
phi&yons fulminated a decree againft the Phocians,
commanding the facred lands to be laid wafte, and im-
pofing a heavy fine upon the community.
By this decree all Greece was again involved in the
war called P/iocian, from the name of the city about
which it commenced. Philip at the beginning of the
troubles was engaged in Thrace, where a civil war had
taken place among the fans of Cotys j and wherever
Philip interfered, he was fure to make matters turn
out to his own advantage. His encroachments at
length became fo enormous, that Kerfobietes, the moft
powerful of the contending princes, agreed to cede
the Thracian Cherfonefus to the Athenians; who
immediately fent Chares at the head of a powerful
armament to take poffeflion of it. In this expedition
the town of Seftos was taken by ftorm, and the inha¬
bitants cruelly treated by Chares, while Philip employ- ^
ed himfelf in the liege of Methone in Pieria. This city Philip lofes
he likewife reduced; but the king loft an eye atthe liege aP eye at
in the following extraordinary manner, if we may give
credit to fome ancient hiftorians. A celebrated archer,
named After, had, it feems, offered his fervices to Phi¬
lip, being reprefented as fuch an excellent markfman,
that he could hit the fwifteft bird on the wing. Phi¬
lip replied, that he would be of excellent ufe if they
were to make war with ftarlings. After, difgufted with
this reception, went over to the enemy, and with an
arrow wounded the king in the eye. When the weapon
w'as extracted, it was found to have on it the following
infcription : “ For the right eye of Philip.” The king
ordered the arrow to be (hot back again, with another
infcription importing that he would caufe After to be
hanged when the town was taken. A report was raifed
after Philip’s death, that he had loft his eye by prying
too narrowly into the amours of Olympias and Jupiter
Ammon ; w'hich the vanity of his fuccefior prompted
him to cherilh, as his flatterers had probably been the
inventor of it.
All this time the Phocian war raged with the great-
eft fury, and involved in it all the Hates of Greece.
Lycophron, one of the Theffalian tyrants, whom Philip 44
had formerly deprived of his authority, had again *s engaged
found means to re-eftablilh his authority, and his coun- with'onc-
trymen having taken part with the Phocians, Lyeo-marchUs
phron called in Onomarchus, the Phocian general, to the Phoci&a
ptoted general,
Macedon.
MAC
45
protea him againft the power of Philip, by whom he
was (enable that he would foon be attacked. The king
accordingly marched into Theffaly with a confiderable
army, defeated Phyallus the brother of Onomarchus,
whom the latter had fent into the country with a de-
tacnment of 7000 men. After this he befieged and
took the city of Pega&, driving the enemy towards
the frontiers of Phocis. Onomarchus then advanced
with the whole army ; and Philip, though inferior in
numbers, aid not decline the engagement. The Pho-
cians at fird gave ground, on which the Macedonians
purfued, but in good order ; but coming near a pre-
• ~ cipice, on the top of which Onomarchus had potted
who defeats a detachment of foldiers, the latter rolled down {tones
and fragments of the rock in fuch a manner as did
dreadful execution, and threw them into the utmoft
diforder. Philip, however, rallied his troops with
great prefence of mind, and prevented the Phocians
from gaining any farther advantage than they had
already done j faying, as he drew off his men, that
they did not retreat through fear, .but like rams, in
order to (trike with the greater vigour. Nor was he
long before he made good his affertion 5 for having re¬
cruited his army with the greateft expedition, he re¬
turned into Theffaly at the head of 20,000 foot and
laft defeat- 5°0 horfe.’ where 'vas rnet hy Onomarchus. The
ed and ^a<cec^on'a<ns at this time were fuperior in number to
[ 302 1
MAC
4'S
but is at
ed.
47
Philip pur-
fues his am¬
bitious
fchemes.
their enemies j and Philip moreover took care to re¬
mind them, that their quarrel was that of heaven, and
that their enemies had been guilty of facrilege, by pro¬
faning the temple of Delphi. That they might be
tHIl more animated in the caufe, he puPcrowns of laurel
on their heads, ihus fired by enthufiafm, and having
betides the advantage of numbers, the Phocians were
altogether unable to withftand them. They threw away
tneir arms and fled towards the fea, where they ex-
pefted to have been relieved by Chares, who, with
the Athenian fleet, was nigh the thore : but in this
they were difappointed, for he made no attempt to
lave them. Upwards of 6000 perithed in the field of
battle or in the purfuit, and 3000 were taken prifon-
ers. i he body of Onomarchus being found among
the flain, was by order of Philip hung upon a gibbet
as a mark of infamy, on account of his having polluted
the temple 5 the bodies of the reft were thrown into the
tea, as being all partakers of the fame crime. The
fate of the prifoners is not known, by reafon of an am¬
biguity in a fentence of Diodorus Siculus, which may
imply that they were drowned, though he does not ex-
prefsly fay fo.
After this vidfory, Philip fet about the fettlement
of 1 heffaly, waiting only for an opportunity to put
in execution his favourite fcheme of invading Greece.
In the mean time, he rejoiced to fee the ftates-weak¬
ening each other by their mutual diffenfions; of which
he never failed to take advantage as far as poftible.
He now, however, began to throw off the matk with
regard to the Olynthians, whom he had long deceived
with fair promifes. Having detached Kerfobletes from
the intereft of the Athenians, he eftablithed him in
the foyereignty of Thrace ; not out of any good will,
but with a view to deftroy him whenever a proper op¬
portunity offered. Were he once poffeffed of the
dominions of that prince, the way to Byzantium was
open to him ; the poffeffion of which muft have been a
great temptation to Philip, who well knew how to Macedor
value the importance of its fituation both with refpeft v—V-*
to commerce and war : and in order to pave the way
to this important conqueft, he attacked the fortreis
of Heraeum, a fmall and in itfelf unimportant place,
though, by reafon of its neighbourhood to Byzan¬
tium, the acquifition was valuable to Philip. Thejs ,
Athenians, however, at laft began to perceive the de- by the A.
figns of Philip, and determined to counteraft them.
For this purpofe they entered into an alliance with
Olynthus ; and having warned Kerfobletes of his dan¬
ger, they ordered a powerful fleet to the defence of
the Heraeum. But thefe vigorous meafures were foon
counteraaed by the report of Philip’s death, which
had been occafioned by his wound at Methone, and a
diftemper arifing from the fatigues he had afterwards
undergone. The inconftant Athenians too eafily gave
credit to this report j and, as if all danger had been
over with his death, difcontinued their preparations,
and direaed their whole attention to the facred war.
—— 1 his conteft, inftead of being ended by the death
of Onomarchus, now raged with double fury. Phy- Contmua-
alius, above mentioned, the only furviving brother of tion of the
Onomarchus, undertook the caufe of the Phocians ; Uiocian
and his affairs becoming every day more and more def-war‘
perate, he undertook the moft unaccountable method
of retrieving them which could be imagined : having
converted into ready money the moft precious mate¬
rials belonging to the temple at Delphi, and with this
treafure doubled the pay of his foldiers. By this new
piece of facrilege, he indeed brought many adventu¬
rers to his ftandard, though he cut off all hopes of mer¬
cy for hiiqfelf or his party tliould he be defeated.
Having the afliftance of 1000 Lacedcemonians, 2000
Achaeans, and 5000 Athenian foot, with 400 cavalry,
he was ftill enabled to make a very formidable appear¬
ance y and the Phocians took the field with great pro-
fpeift of fuccefs.
Phi ftp now thought it time to throw off the matk phill^0en.
entirely, for which the proceedings of the Athenians, ^agefin
particularly their league with Olynthus, furniftied him the quarreM
with a plaufible pretext 5 and the revenging fuch hor¬
rid facrilege as had been committed at Delphi feemed
to give him a title to march at the head of an army
into Greece. The fuj>erftition of the Greeks, bow'-
ever, had not yet blinded them to fuch a degree, but
they could eafily perceive that Philip’s piety was a
mere pretence, and that his real defign was to invade
and conquer the whole country. The Athenians no
fooner heard of the march of the Macedonian army,
than they defpatched, with all expedition, a ftrong
guard to fecure the pats of Thermopylte ; fo that Phi” ?I
lip was obliged to return greatly chagrined and dif-Is prevent-
appointed. Their next ftep was to call 'an affembly,ecl frora en‘
to deliberate upon the mealures proper to be taken intering
order to reftrain the ambition of the Macedonian m0-Greece*
narch ; and this aflembly is rendered memorable by
the firft appearance of Demofthenes as an orator
againft Philip. Athens for feme time had been in a
very alarming fituation. They were deeply involved
in the facred war ; their northern poffefiions were
continually infulted and plundered by Philips while
a number of his mercenary partifans drew off the pub¬
lic attention to fuch a degree, that, inftead of taking
meafures to counteraft that ambitious prince, they a-
mufed
M
A C
[ 303 ] MAC
s2
:treme
lolence
d care-
Ihefs of
e Athe-
.S3 ,
Ivice of
icrates
e orator
them.
lacedon. mufed themfelves with fpeculations about the defigns
—j  of the Perfian monarch, who was preparing for Avar
againfl: the Cyprians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians. Ifo-
crates the celebrated orator, and Phocian the ftatef-
man, joined the multitude in their prefent opinion,
though not from any mercenary motives, but purely
from a fenfe of the unfteady conduft of the Athenians *,
who, they were aflured, could not contend with a
prince of the vigour and aftivity of Philip •, and there¬
fore exhorted them by all means to cultivate the friend-
Ihip of Philip, whom they could not oppofe with any
probability of fuccefs. Ifocrates, indeed, greatly wilh-
ed for an expedition into Afia, and looked upon Phi¬
lip to be the only general capable of conducing it,
though at prefent the Greeks had no pretence for
making war upon the Perlians, but that of revenging
former injuries : and on this fubjetl he addrefled a
difcourfe’to Philip himfelf j and it is even faid, that
Ifocrates, by the power of his rhetoric, prevailed upon
Philip and the Athenians to lay afide their animofities
for a thort time, and confent to undertake this expedi¬
tion in conjunction.
If this coalition, however, did really take place, it
was of very fliort duration. The views of Phocion
eiw,Cdand Iterates were violently oppofed by Demotthenes.
Though fenfible of the corruption and degeneracy of
his countrymen, be hoped to be able to roufe them
from their lethargy by dint of his eloquence ; a ta¬
lent he had been at great pains to cultivate, and in
which he is faid to have excelled all men that ever
exiited.
In his firft addrefies to the people, this celebrated
orator exhorted them to awake from their indolence,
and to affurae the direftion of their own affairs. They
had been too long governed, he faid, by the incapa¬
city of a few ambitious men, to the great diladvantage
as well as difgrace of the community. In the firft
place, art orator who had placed himfelf at the head
of a faCIion of no more than 300 or 400, availed him¬
felf and his follow'ers of the careleffnefs and negligence
of the people, to rule them at pleafure. From a con-
fideration of their prefent weaknefs and corruption,
as w ell as op the defigns and commotions of the neigh¬
bouring powers, he advifed them to abandon all ro¬
mantic and diftant fchemes of ambition ; and inftead
of carrying their arms into remote countries, to pre¬
pare for repelling the attacks which might be made
upon their own dominions. He infifted alfo upon a
better regulation of their finances, a more equal dif-
tribulion of the public burdens, in proportion to the
abilities of thofe upon whom they were laid, and upon
the retrenching many fuperfluous expences. Having
pointed out in a ftrong light the vigorous conduft of
Philip •, and ftiown by what means he had attained
to fuch a refpeftable footing in the world, he next
laid down a proper plan for their military operations.
He told them, that they were not yet prepared to
meet Philip in the field ; they muft begin with pro-
tefting Olynthus and the Cherfonefus, for which it
would be neceffary to raife a body of 2000 light arm¬
ed troops, with a due proportion of cavalry, which
ought to be tranfported under a proper convoy to the
ifiands of Lemnos, Thafos, and Sciathos, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Macedon. In thefe they would enjoy
all kinds of neceffaries in abundance, and might avail
54
; and
loc ion
Demof-
enes.
55
bftance
h:s firit
.courfes.
themfelves of every favourable incident, to appear at
the firft fmnmons of their allies j and either to repel the
incurfions of the Macedonians, or harafs their territo¬
ries. While this rvas going on, more vigorous prepa¬
rations might be made for war at home ; and it Avas
propofed, that only the fourth part of the Athenian
citizens (hould enlift, and no more fupplies were want¬
ed at prefent but 90 talents. But notwithftanding the
moderation of theie propofals, and the urgent neceffi-
ties of the ftate, it was impoflible to prevail upon the
indolent and carelefs Athenians to provide for their
oAvn fafety. They appear, indeed, at this time to
have been defperately funk in effeminacy and diffipa-
tion j Avhich difpofition Philip took care to encourage
to the utmoft: of his power. There Avas an affembly in
the city called the Sixty, from their confiding original¬
ly of that number, Avho met exprefsly for the purpofes
of extinguiftung all care about public affairs, and to in¬
toxicate themfelves with every kind of pleafure they had
in their power. With this affembly Philip was lo avcIL
pleafed, that he fent them money to fupport their extra¬
vagancies j and fo effedlually did they anfwer his pur¬
pofes, that all the eloquence of Demofthenes could not
counleradl the fpeeches of orators much his inferiors
when backed by Macedonian gold.
Philip himfelf, as avc have already hinted, Avas ex-
ceflively debauched in his private eharafter, and the
moft fhameful ftories are related of him by the ancient
writers, particularly by Demoflhenes. Thoopompus,
too, an author Avho flouriftied in the time of Alexan¬
der, and w'as rewarded and honoured by that monarch,
alfo fpeaks of him in fuch terms as Ave cannot with de¬
cency relate : but thefe accounts, coming from the
avowed enemies of the king, are fearcely to be credit¬
ed ; and perhaps policy, as well as inclination, might
contribute fomewhat to this fcandalous behaviour, that
he might thereby recommend himfelf to the libertines
of Athens, and prevent even many of the more think¬
ing part of the people from fuipedling his defigns.
But in Avhatever exceffes he might at times indulge
himfelf, he never loft fight of his main objeft, the fub-
jugation of the Greek ftates. On pretence of being
in Avant of money to defray the expence of his build¬
ings, he borrowed money at a very high price through¬
out the Avhole country j and this he found an eafy mat¬
ter to do, as the diffipation of the Delphic treafures
had rendered cafh very plentiful in Greece. Thus he
attached his creditors firmly to his own intereft ; and
on pretence of paying debts, was enabled without mo-
leftation to beftow' a number of penfions and gratuities
upon the Athenian orators, who by their treacherous
harangues contributed greatly to the ruin of their
country 5 at leaft as far as it could be ruined by fub-
jeftion to a prince who would have obliged them to
remain at peace, and apply themfelves to ufeful arts.
Thefe he himfelf encouraged in a very eminent degree.
The greateft part of his time was employed at Pella,
which city he adorned in the moft magnificent manner
with temples, theatres, and porticoes. He invited
by liberal rewards, the moft ingenious artifts In Greece5
and as many of thefe met with very little encourage¬
ment in their own country, great numbers flocked to
him from all quarters. In the government of his peo¬
ple, alio, Philip behaved \vith the utmoft impartiality :
liftening with condefcenfion to the complaints of the
meaneft.
Over
$6
a peace.
MAC [ 304
^Macedon, meaneft o£ his fubje&s, and keeping up a conftant cor-
^ refpondence with thofe whom he thought worthy of his
acquaintance; from which, it is not eafy to imagine
how he could be fo guilty of the vices we have already
mentioned from fome ancient hiftorians.
The. fate of Olynthus was now foon determined.
This city, which held the balance of power betwixt
Athens and Macedon, was taken and plundered, and
the inhabitants fold for Haves; but the chief hope of
Philip was in putting an end to the Phocian war.
For this purpofe he affe&ed a neutrality, that he might
thereby become the arbiter of Greece. His hopes
were well founded j for the Thebans, who were at
the head of the league againft the Phocians, foli-
cited him on the one fide, and the ftates confede¬
rate with the Phocians did the like on the other.
He anfwered neither, yet held both in dependence.
In his heart he favoured the Thebans, or rather
placed his hopes of favouring his own caufe in that
itate $ for he well knew, that the Athenians, Spar¬
tans, and other ftates allied with Phocis, would ne¬
ver allow him to pafs Thermopylae, and lead an army
into their territories. So much r(?fpe£t, however, did
* he (how to the ambafladors from thefe ftates, parti¬
cularly Ctefiphon and Phrynon, who came from A-
thens, that they believed him to be in their intereft,
and reported as much to their mafters. The Athe-
Athenbns6 n^ns’ were now diflblved in eafe and lu'xury, re-
andatlaft peivec^this news with great, fatisfadion ; and named
concludes immediately tep plenipotentiaries to go ^nd treat of a
full and lading peace with Philip. Among thefe ple¬
nipotentiaries were Demofthenes and iEfchines, the
moft celebrated orators in Athens. Philip gave di¬
rections that thefe ambaffadors ftiould be treated with
the utmoft civility ; naming, at the fame time, three of
his minifters to confer with them, viz. Antipater, Par-
menio, and Eurylochus. Demofthenes being obliged
to return to Athens, recommended it to his colleagues
not to carry on their negociations with Philip’s depu¬
ties ; but to proceed with all diligence to court, there
to confer' with the king himfelf. The ambafla¬
dors, however, were fo far from following his in-
ftrudions, that they fuffered themfelves to be put oif
for three months by the arts of Philip and his mini¬
fters.
. In the mean time, the king took from the Athe¬
nians. fuch places in Thrace as might beft cover his
frontiers j giving their plenipotentiaries, in their ftead,
abundance of fair promifes, and the ftrongeft aflu-
rances that his good will Ihould be as beneficial to them
as ever their colonies had been. At laft a peace was
concluded ; but then the ratification of it was deferred
till Philip had poflefled himfelf of Pheraea in Theflaly,
and faw himfelf at the.head of a numerous army :
then, he ratified the treaty 5 and difmifled the plenipo¬
tentiaries with aflurances, that he would be ready at all
times to give the Athenians proofs of his friendflrip.
On their return to Athens, when this matter came
to be debated before the people, Demofthenes plainly
told them, that, in his opinion, the promifes of Phi-
Up ought not to be relied on, becaufe they appeared
to be of little fignificance in themfelves, and came
from a prince of fo much art, and fo little fidelity, that
they could derive no authority from their maker. jEf-
chines, on the other hand, gave it as his fentiment,
]
MAC
that the king of Macedon’s aflurances ought to give Mac^iW
them full fatisfaftion. He faid, that for his part,  vi
he was not politician enough to fee any thing of difl
guife or diflimulation in the king’s condudl j that there
was great danger in diftrufting princes j and that the
fureft method of putting men upon deceit was to fhow
that we fufpe<fted them of it. The reft of the pleni¬
potentiaries concurred with ALfchines j and the people,
defirous of quiet, and addnfted to pleafure, eafily gave
credit to all that was faid, and decreed that the peace
ftiould be kept. All this was the eafier brought about,
becaufe Phocion, the worthieft man in the republic!
did not oppofe Philip j which was owing to his having
a juft fenfe of the ftate his country was in. He con¬
ceived, that the Athenians of thole times were nothing
like their anceftors ; and therefore, as he exprefled
himfelf on another occafion, he was delirous, fince they
would not be at the head of Greece themfelves, that
they would at leaft be upon good terms with that power
which would be fo.
I hilip, who knew how to ule as^well as to procure Paffes^
opportunity, while the Athenians were in this goodTheuno-
humour, pafled Thermopylae, without their knowing P>la?’and
V> a + l-t ft «• 1% a w ■ -1 sJ X*_ II    ni—• mi 1 . . ° ends the
whether he would fall on Phocis or Thebes j but he p^5 the
quickly undeceived them, by commanding his foldiers wan^
to put on crowns of laurel, declaring them thereby
the troops of Apollo, and himfelf the lieutenant-gene¬
ral of that god. He then entered Phocis with an air
of triumph $ which fo terrified the Phocians, whom
he had caufed to be proclaimed facrilegious perfons,
that they immediately difmifled all thoughts of de¬
fence, and without more ado fubmitted to his mercy.
Thus the Phocian war, which had fo long employed
all Greece, was ended without a ftroke j and the judge¬
ment on the Phocians remitted to the Amphi&yons,
or grand council of Greece. By their decree the
walls of three Phocian cities were demolilbed, the
peeple were forbid to inhabit in any but villages, to
pay a yearly tribute of 60 talents, and never to make
ufe either of houfes or arms till they had repaid to the
temple of Apollo the money they had facrilegioufly
carried from thence. Their arms were taken from
them, broken to pieces, and burnt; their double voice
in the council was taken from them, and given to the
Macedonians.-Other orders were made for fettling the
affairs both of religion and ftate throughout Greece :
all of which were executed by Philip with great exadl-
nefs and moderation, he paying the moft profound re-
fpeft to the council; and, when he had performed its
commands, retiring peaceably with his army back to
Macedon, which gained him great reputation.
At Athens' alone, the juftjce and piety of Philip was
not underftood. The people began to fee, though a
little too late, that they had been abufed and deceived
by thofe who had negociated the late peace. They js ag5ain
faw that, through their acceptance of it, the Phocians oppoled by
were deftroyed $ that Philip was become mafter of the Athe“
Thermopylae, and might enter Greece when he plea-11^115,
fed $ that, in abandoning their allies, they had aban¬
doned themfelves ; and that, in all probability, they
might foon feel the weight of his power, whom they '
had fo fooliftily trufted : they therefore began to take
new and hoftile meafures they ordered that the w'o-
men fliould retire out of the villages into the city,
their M alls be repaired, and their forts new ftrengthen-
ed.
MAC [ 3°5 ] MAC
Macedon. ed. They feemed inclined to queftion Philip’s elec-
tion into the council of the AmphiflyonSj becaufe it
had been done without their confent} and even to pro¬
ceed to an open war. In all likelihood they had car¬
ried things to extravagancy, if Demofthenes had not
interpofed. He told them, that though he was not
for making the peace, he was however for keeping it j
and that he faw no manner of occalion for their enter¬
ing into fo unequal a conteft as would needs enfue,
if they took up arms, not only againft Philip, but
againft all the ftates concurring with him in the late
tranfatlions. This feems to have cooled the rage of
the Athenians ; and to have brought them to think of
ruining Philip by degrees, as by degrees they had raifed
59 hIm;
Purities his The fame of his achievements without the bounds
zonquefts 0f Macedon having difpofed the fubjefts of Philip to
n Ihrace. jj0pe every thing from his conduct, and the feveral
ftates of Greece to delire above all things his friend-
fliip j that prudent monarch laid hold of this favourable
fituation to fix his dominion on fuch a liable founda¬
tion as that a reverfe of fortune Ihould not immediate¬
ly deftroy it. To this end, while he carried on his
negociations through Greece, he likewife kept his
60 army in exercife, by taking feveral places in Thrace,
hsdomi- which terribly incommoded the Athenians. Diopi-
aded by t^es’ w^° government of the Athenian colo-
)iopithes; n*es *n thofe parts, perceiving well what end Philip
had in view, did not flay for inftrudlions from home $
but having raifed with much expedition a confider-
able body of troops, taking advantage of the king’s
being abfent with his army, entered the adjacent
territories of Philip, and wafted them with fire and
fword.
The king, who, on account of the operations of the
campaign in the Cherfonefe, was not at leifure to re¬
pel Diopithes by force, nor indeed could divide his
army without imminent hazard, chofe, like an able ge¬
neral, rather to abandon his provinces to infults, which
might be afterwards revenged, than, by following the
diflates of an ill-timed paflion, to hazard the lofs of
his veteran army, whereon lay all his hopes. He con¬
tented ^ himfelf, therefore, with complaining to the
Athenians of Diopithes’s conduft, who in a time of
peace had entered his dominions, and committed fuch
devaftations as could fcarcely have been juftified in a
time of war. His partifans fupported this application
with all their eloquence. They told the Athenians,
that unlefs they recalled Diopithes, and brought him
to a trial for this infringement of the peace, they ought
not to hope either for the friendlhip of Philip or of
any other prince or ftate j neither could they juftly
complain, if, prompted by fuch a precedent, others
61 Ihould break faith with them, and fall without the
J notice upon their dominions. Demofthenes de-
ll eraofthe- ^ended D<0pithes 5 and undertook to ftiow that he de-
:i. ’ ferved the praife and not the cenfure of the Athenians.
Thofe of the other party began then to charge him
with crimes of a different nature ; they alleged, that
he oppreffed the fubje&s and maltreated the allies of
Athens. Demofthenes replied, that of thefe things
there were as yet no proofs ; that when fuch ftiould
appear, a fingle galley might be fent to bring over Dio¬
pithes to abide their judgment, but that Philip would
not come if they fent a fleet; whence he inferred.
Vol. XII. Part I.
that they ought to be cautious, and to weigh well the Macedon.
merits of this caufe before they took any refolution.
He faid, that it was true Philip had not as yet at¬
tacked Attica, or pretended to make a defcent on their
territories in Greece, or to force his way into their
ports ; when it came to that, he was of opinion they
would be hardly able to defend themfelves ■, wherefore
he thought fuch men were to be efteemed as fought
to prote61: their frontiers, in order to keep Philip as
long as might be at a diftance : whereupon he moved,
that, inftead of difowning what Diopithes had done, or
direfting him to difmifs his army, they Ihould fend him
over recruits, and Ihow- the king of Macedon they knew
how to protect their territories, and to maintain the
dignity of their ftate, as well as their anceftors. Thefe
arguments had fuch an effedt, that a decree was made
conformable to his motion.
While affairs flood thus, the Illyrians recovering
courage, and feeing Philip at fuch a diftance, haraffed
the frontiers of Macedon, and threatened a formidable
invafion : but Philip, by quick marches, arrived on
the borders of Illyricum j and ftruck this barbarous
people with fuch a panic, that they were glad to com¬
pound for their former depredations at the price he
was pleafed to fet. Moft of the Greek cities in Thrace
now fought the friendlhip of the king, and entered in¬
to a league with him for their mutual defence. As it
cannot be fuppofed that each of thefe free cities had
a power equal to that of Philip, we may therefore look fo
upon him as their protedlor. About this time Philip’s Philip’s
negociations in Peloponnefus began to come to light j Schemes
the Argives and Meffenians, growing weary of that^e^eate^*
tyrannical authority which the Spartans exercifed over
them, applied to Thebes for afliftance ; and the The¬
bans out of their natural averfion to Sparta, fought
to open a paffage for Philip into Peloponnefus, that,
in conjunction with them, he might humble the Lace¬
daemonians. Philip readily accepted the offer j and
refolved to procure a decree from the Amphi'CIyons, di¬
recting the Lacedaemonians to leave Argos and Meffene
free j which if they complied not with, he, as the lieu¬
tenant of the AmphiCtyons, might, with great appear¬
ance of juftice, march with a body of troops to enforce
their order. When Sparta had intelligence of this,
ftie immediately applied to Athens, earneftly entreat¬
ing afliftance, as in the common caufe of Greece. The
Argives and Meffenians, on the other hand, laboured
afliduoufly to gain the Athenians to their fide j alleging
that, if they were friends to liberty, they ought to af-
fift thofe whofe only aim was to be free. Demofthe¬
nes, at this junCture, outwreftled Philip, if we may
borrow that king’s expreflion ; for, by a vehement ha¬
rangue, he not only determined his own citizens to be¬
come the avowed enemies of the king, but alfo made
the Argives and Meffenians not over fond of him for
an ally j which when Philip perceived, he laid afide all
thoughts of this enterprife for the prefent, and began
to praCtife in Euboea.
This country, now called Negropont, is feparated
from Greece by the Euripus, a ftrait fo narrow, that
Euboea might eafily be united to the continent. This,
fituation made Philip call it the fetters of Greece, which
he therefore fought to have in his own hands. There
had been for fome years great difturbances in that
country j under colour of which, Philip fent forces
Q. 9 thither,
MAC ' r 306 ] MAC
Macedon. thither, and demoliflied Porthmos, the ilrongeft city
" v in thofe parts, leaving the country under the govern¬
ment of three lords, whom Demollhenes roundly calls
tyrants) eftablifhed by Philip. Shortly after, the Ma¬
cedonians took Oreus, which was left under the go¬
vernment of five magiftrates, ftyled alfo tyrants at A-
thens. I hither Plutarch of Eretria, one of the moll
eminent perfons in Euboea, went to reprefent the di-
flreffes ol his country, and to implore the Athenians to
let it free. This fuit Demofthenes recommended warm¬
ly to the people ; who fent thither their famous leader
Phocion, lupported by formidable votes, but a very
llender army : yet fo well did he manage the affairs of
the commonwealth and her allies, that Philip quickly
found he muff for a time abandon that projedl j which,
however, he did not till he had formed another no lefs
beneficial to himfelf, or lefs dangerous to Athens. It
was the profecution of his conquells in Thrace which he
thought of pulhing much farther than he had hitherto
done, or could be reafonably fufpedled to have any in¬
tention of doing.
Extraordinary preparations were made by the Ma¬
cedonian monarch for this campaign. His fon Alex¬
ander was left regent of the kingdom •, and he himfelf
with 30,000 men laid fiege to Perinthus, one of the
ftrongeft cities in the country. At prefent, however,
all his arts of cajoling and pretending friendlhip were
infufficient to deceive the Athenians. They gave the
command of their army and fleet to Phocion; a general
of great abilities, and with whom Philip would have
found it very hard to contend. On the other hand, the
king of Perfia began to turn jealous of the growing
power of the Macedonian monarch. The Perfian kings
had been accuflomed to regard thofe of Macedon as
their faithful allies; but the good fortune of Philip, the
continual clamour of the Athenians againlt him, and
his dethroning at pleafure the petty princes of Thrace,
made him now regarded in another light. When,
therefore, he led his troops againll Perinthus, the Great
King, as he was ftyled by the Greeks, fent his letters
mandatory to the governors of the maritime provinces,
dire&ing them to fupply the place with all things in
their power ; in confequence of which they filled it
with troops, granted fubfidies in ready money, and fent
befides great convoys of provifion and ammunition. The
Byzantines alfo, fuppofing their own turn would be
next, exerted their utmoft endeavours for the preferva-
tion of Perinthus ; fending thither the flower of their
youth, with all other neceffaries for an obftinate de¬
fence. The confequence of all this was, that Philip
found himfelf obliged to raife the fiege with great
63 lQfs-
How he at That the reputation of the Macedonian arms might
laft gaised not fink by this difgrace, Philip made war on the Scy-
im point, thians and Triballi, both of whom he defeated ; and
then formed a defign of invading Attica, though he
had no fleet to tranfport his troops^ and knew very
well that the Theffalians were not to be depended up¬
on if he attempted to march through the Pifse, and
that the Thebans would even then be ready to oppofe
his march. To obviate all thefe difficulties, he had
recourfe to Athens itfelf; where by means of his par-
tifans, he procured his old friend JEfchines to be fent
their deputy to the Amphiftyons. This feemed a
fmall matter, and yet -was the hinge on which his
whole projea turned. By that time iEfchincs had ta- Macedon.
ken his feat, a queftion was ftirred in the council,
whether the Locrians of Amphifia had not been guilty
of facrilege in ploughing the fields of Cyrrha in the
neighbourhood of the temple of Delphi. The affembly
being divided in their opinions, AZdchines propofed to
take a view, which was accordingly decreed. But when
the Amphiftyons came in order to fee how things
flood, the Locrians, either jealous of their property,
or fpurred thereto by the fuggeftions of fome who
faw farther than themfelves, fell upon thofe venerable
perfons fo rudely, that they were compelled to fecure
themfelves by flight. The Amphidlyons decreed, that
an army ffiould be raifed, under the command of one
of their own number, to chaftife the delinquents; but
as this army was to be compofed of troops fent from
all parts of Greece, the appearance at the rendezvous
was fo inconfiderable, that the Amphi&yons fent to
command them durft undertake nothing. The whole
matter being reported to the council, iEfchines, in a
long and eloquent harangue, {bowed how much the
welfare and even the fafety of Greece depended on the
deference paid to their decrees ; and after inveighing
againft the want of public fpirit in fuch as had not
fent their quotas at the time appointed by the coun¬
cil, he moved that they ftiould eledl Philip for their
general, and pray him to execute their decree. The
deputies from the other ftates, conceiving that by this
expedient their refpedlive conftituents would be free
from any farther trouble or expence, came into it at
once ; whereupon a decree w’as immediately drawn up,
purporting that ambaffadors fhould be fent to Philip
of Macedon, in the name of Apollo and the Amphic-
tyons, once more to require his affiftance, and to no¬
tify to him, that the ftates of Greece had unanimoufly
chofen him their general, with full power to a£l as he
thought fit againft fuch as had oppofed the authority ^
of the Amphi&yons. Thus of a fudden Philip ac-isehofen
quired all that he fought; and having an army readyseneralby
in expectation of this event, he immediately marched ^ Am'
to execute the commands of the AmphiClyons in ap-phlflyons‘
pearance, but in reality to accompliffi his own de-
figns : For having palled into Greece with his army,
inftead of attacking the Locrians, he feized immedi¬
ately upon Elatea, a great city of Phocis upon the river
Cephifus.
'I he Athenians in the mean time were in the utooft Is 0 ^ ^
confufion on the news of Philip’s march. However, b> the l-
by the advice of Demofthenes, they invited the The -thenians
bans to join them againft the common enemy of Greece.fcnc*
Philip endeavoured as much as poffible to prevent thisb,ins;
confederacy from taking place ; but all his efforts pro¬
ved ineffeClual. The Athenians raifed an army, which
marched immediately to Eleufis, where they were join¬
ed by the dhebans. The confederates made the belt
appearance that had ever been feen in Greece, and the
troops were exceedingly good ; but unfortunately the
generals were men of no conduft or fkill in the mili-
tary art. An engagement enfued at Cheronaea ; where-whom he
in Alexander commanded one wing of the Macedonian defeats at
army, and his father Philip the other. The confede-
rate army was divided according to the different na¬
tions of which it confifted ; the Athenians having the
right and the Boeotians the left. In the beginning
of the battle the confederates had the better; where-
. . upon
Ma«<?on.
'erfians.
MAG
upon Stratocles an Athenian commander
“ Come on, brother foldiers, let us drive them back to
Macedon which being overheard by the king, he faid
very coolly to one of his officers, “ Thefe Athenians
do not know how to conquer.” Upon this he direft-
ed the files of the phalanx to be ftraitened 5 and draw¬
ing his men up very clofe, retired to a neighbouring
eminence : from whence, when the Athenians were
eager in their purfuit, he ruflied down with impetuo-
fity, broke, and routed them with prodigious {laugh¬
ter. The orator Demofthenes behaved very unbecom¬
ingly in this engagement ; for he deferted his poft,
and was one of the firft that fled : nay, we are told,
that a flake catching hold of his robe, he, not doubt¬
ing but it was an enemy, cried out, “ Alas ! fpare my
6? life.”
sappointed This victory determined the fate of Greece •, and
eneral from this time we muft reckon Philip fupreme lord of
all the Grecian ftates. The firft ufe he made of his
power was to convoke a general affembly, wherein he
was recognized generaliflimo, and with full power ap¬
pointed their leader againft the Perfians. Having, by
virtue of his authority, fettled a general peace among
them, and appointed the quota that each of the ftates
fhould furnifh for the war, he difmifled them : and re¬
turning to Macedon, began to make great prepara¬
tions for this new expedition. His pretence for ma¬
king war on the Perfians at this time was the affiftance
given by the Perfians to the city of Perinthus, as al¬
ready mentioned. In the mean time, how’ever, the
king by reafon of the diifenfions which reigned in his
family, was made quite miferable. He quarrelled with
his wife Olympias to fuch a degree, that he divorced
her, and married another woman named Cleopatra.
This produced a quarrel between him and his fon A-
lexander •, which alfo came to fuch a height, that A-
lexander retired into Epirus with his mother. Some
time afterwards, however, he was recalled, and a re¬
conciliation took place in appearance ; but in the mean
time a confpiracy was formed againft: the king’s life,
the circumftances and caufes of which are very much
unknown. Certain it is, however, that it took effeiift,
as the king was exhibiting certain fliows in honour of
his daughter’s marriage with the king of Epirus. Phi¬
lip having given a public audience to the ambafladors
of Greece, went next day in ftate to the theatre. All
the feats were early taken up $ and the fliows began
with a fplendid proceflion, wherein the images of the
izfuperior deities of Greece were carried, as alfo the
image of Philip, habited in like manner, as if he now
made the 13th, at which the people fhouted aloud.
Then came the king alone, in a white robe, crowned,
with his guards at a confiderable diftance, that the
Greeks might fee he placed his fafety only in his con¬
fidence of the loyalty of his fubje&s. Paufanias, the
aflaflin, however, had fixed himfelf clofe by the door
of the theatre j and obferving that all things fell out
as he had forefeen they would, took his opportunity
when the king drew near him, and plunging his fword
in his left fide, laid him dead at his feet. He then fled
as faft as he was able towards the place where his
horfes were ; and would have efcaped, had not the
twig of a vine catched his ftioe and thrown him down.
This gave time to thofe who purfued him to come up
with him ; but inftead of fecuring him, in order to ex-
68
s murder
:d.
[ 307 ] MAC
cried out, tort a difcovery of his accomplices, they put an end to Macedon-
his life. )
With regard to the chara&er of this monarch, it^js
appears certain, that he was one of the moft eminent rafter,
perfons that ever fat on a throne. Had he lived for
feme time longer, he would in all probability have
fubdued the Perfians: which w'as in.truth lefs difficult
than what he had already done. “ Had that event
taken place (fays Dr Gillies), the undertakings of his
long and fuccefsful reign would have been ennobled and
illuminated by the fplendour of extenfive foreign con-
queft. Philip would have reached the height of fuch
renown as is obtained by the habits of activity, vigi¬
lance, and fortitude, in the purfuit of unbounded great-
nefs j and in the opinion of pofterity, would perhaps
have furpafled the glory of all kings and conquerors
who either preceded or followed him. Yet, even on
this fuppofition, there is not any man of fenfe and
probity, who, if he allows himfelf time for ferious re-
fleftion, would purchafe the imagined grandeur and
profperity of the king of Macedon at the price of his
artifices and his crimes ; and to a philofopher, who
confidered either the means by which he had obtained
his triumphs, or the probable confequences of his domi¬
nion over Greece and Afia, the bufy ambition of this
mighty conqueror would appear but a deceitful fcene
of iplendid mifery.” _o
No fooner did the news of Philip’s death reach A-Extrava-
thens, than, as if all danger had been paft, the inhabi-gant joy
tants {bowed the moft extravagant fignsofjoy. De-°fth.eA"
mofthenes and his party put on chaplets of flowers, and l^en'an,'‘
behaved as if they had gained a great victory. Pho-
cion reproved them for this madnefs; bidding them
remember, that “ the army which had beaten them at
Cheronaea was leffened but by one.” This reproof,
however, had very little effed. The people heard with
pleafure all the harfh things which the orators could
fay of the young Alexander king of Macedon, whom
they reprefented as a giddy wrong-headed boy, ready
to grafp all things in his imagination, and able to per¬
form nothing. The affairs of Macedon indeed were
in a very diftiaffed ftate on the acceffion of Alexander :
for all the neighbouring nations had the fame notion
of the young king with the Athenians *, and being ir¬
ritated by the ufurpations of Philip, immediately re¬
volted ; and the ftates of Greece entered into a con¬
federacy againft him. The Perfians had been con¬
triving to transfer the war into Macedon 5 but as foon
as the news of Philip’s death reached them, they be¬
haved as if all danger had been over. At the fame
time Attains, one of the Macedonian commanders,
afpired to the crown, and fought to draw off the fol¬
diers from their allegiance.
In the councils held on this occafion, Alexander’s
beft friends advifed him rather to make ufe of diflimu-
lation than force, and to cajole thofe whom they
thought he could not fubdue. Thefe advices, how¬
ever, were ill fuited to the temper of their monarch.
He thought that vigorous meafures only were proper,
and therefore immediately led his army into Theflaly. ^
Here he harangued the princes fo effe&ually, that he Alexander
thoroughly gained them over to his intereft, and was declared
by them declared general of Greece; upon which he^eralof
returned to Macedon, where he caufed Attains to be reece’
feizecLand put to death. -
In
MAC
Mart Jon.
72
In the fpring of the next year (335 B. C.) Alex¬
ander refolved to fubdue the Triballians and Illyrians,
who inhabited the countries now called Bulgaria and
Sclavonia, and had been very formidable enemies to
the Macedonian power. In this expedition he difco-
C 3°8 1
MAC
vered, though the„ but 20 years of age, a furpritiug ther to\i„Lr UmTom I f “prlr<7iLad
degree of military knowledre. Havimr advaneed to  ourue project ot mvad
Defeats the  J uut
TribaUi. ie<|egree °f military knowledge. Having advanced to
the panes of Mount Haemus, he found that the barba¬
rians had potted themfelves in the moft advantageous
manner. On the tops of the cliffs, and at the head of
every palfage, they had placed their carriages and wag¬
gons in fueh a manner as to form a kind of parapet
with their drafts inwards, that when the Macedonians
fliould have half afcended the rock, they might be able
to pufh thefe heavy carriages down upon them. They
reckoned the more upon this contrivance, becaufe of
the clofe order of the phalanx, which, they imagined,
•would be terribly expofed by the foldiers wanting
room to ftir, and thereby avoid the falling waggons.
But Alexander, having dire&ed his heavy armed troops
to march, gave orders, that, where the way would per¬
mit, they fhould open to the right and left, and fuffer
the carriages to go through j but that, in the narrow
paffes, they fhould throw themfelves on their faces with
their fhields behind them, that the carts might run
over them. This had the defired effeft 5 and the Ma¬
cedonians reached the enemies works without the lofs
of a man. The difpute was then quickly decided $
the barbarians were driven from their ports with great
(laughter, and left behind them a confiderable booty for
the conquerors.
The next exploits of Alexander were againft the
Getae, the Tanlantii, and fome other nations inhabit¬
ing the country on the other fide of the Danube.
I hem he alio overcame j fhowing in all his affions
the moft perfedt fkill in military affairs, joined with the
greateft valour. In the mean time, however, all Greece
was in commotion by a report which had been confi-
73 dently fpread abroad, that the king was dead in Illy-
i >ie Ihe- ria. T. he .Thebans, on this news, feized Amyntas and
bans revolt. Timolaus, two eminent officers in the Macedonian gar-
rifon which held their citadel, and dragged them to the
market-place, where they were put to death without
either form or procefs, or any crime alleged againft
them. Alexander, however, did not fuffer them to
remain jong in their miftake. He marched with fuch
expedition, that in feven days he reached Pallene in
Eheffaly; and in fix days more he entered Bceotia,
before the Thebans had any intelligence of his paffing
the ftraits of Thermopylae. Even then they would not
believe that the king was alive ; but infifted that the
Macedonian army was commanded by Antipater, or
by one Alexander the fon of iEropus. The reft of the
Greeks, however, were not fo hard of belief j and
therefore Tent no affiftance to the Thebans, who were
thus obliged to bear the confequences of their own
folly and obftinacy. The city w'as taken by ftorm,
and the inhabitants were for fome hours maffacred with¬
out diftin&ion of age or fex ; after which the houfes
were demoliffied, all except that of Pindar the famous
poet, which was fpared out.of refpeft to the merit of
its owner, and becaufe he had celebrated Alexander
king of Macedon. The lands, excepting thofe deftin-
ed to religious ufes, were ffiared among the foldiers,
1
and all the prifoners fold for flaves j by which 440 ta- Maceden,
lents were brought into the king’s treafury. pwj
By this feverity the reft of the Grecian ftates were
fo thoroughly humbled, that they thought no more of
making any refiftance, and Alexander had nothing fur-
t nHT* t’o hirwiPt* Iiiyyi IV.  l_    • o n • ■*
on the
news of his
death.
74
Thebes1
taken and
deftrojed.
mg Afia. Very little preparation was neceffary for
the Macedonian monarch, who went out as to an af-
fured conqueft, and reckoned upon being fupplied only
by the fpoils of his enemies. Hiftorians are not agreed
as to the number of his army : Arrian fays, that there r
were 30,000 foot and 5000 horfe. Diodorus Siculus the ^rmyi
tells us, that there were 13,000 Macedonian foot, 7000 whh which!
of the confederate ftates, and 5000 mercenaries. Thefe he ‘nva^eti
were under the command of Parmenio. Of the Odri-Afia‘
fians, Triballians, and Illyrians, there were 5000 j and
of the Agrians, who were armed only with darts, 1000.
As for the horfe, he tells us there were 1800 com¬
manded by Philotas, and as many Theflalians under
the command of Callas : out of the confederate ftates of
Greece, were 600 commanded by Eurygius ; and 900
Thracians and Paeonians, who led the van under Caf-
fander. Plutarch tells us, that, according to a low
computation, he had 30,000 foot and 5000 horfe j and,
according to the largeft reckoning, he had 34,000
foot and 4000 horfe. As to his fund for the pay¬
ment of the army, Ariftobulus fays it was but 70 ta¬
lents ; and Oneficritus, who was alfo in this expedition,
not only takes away the 70 talents, but affirms that
the king was 200 in debt. As for provifions, there
■was juft fufficient for a month and no more j and to
prevent difturbances, Antipater was left in Macedon
with 12,000 foot and 1500 horfe.
The army having affembled at Amphipolis, he Sets on
marched from thence to the mouths of the river Stry-his expedi- i
mon ; then crofting Mount Pangseus, he took the roadtion’
to Abdera. Crofting the river Ebrus, he proceeded
through the country of Paetis, and in 20 days reached
S eft os $ thence he came to Eleus, where he facrificed
on the tomb of Protefilaus, becaufe he was the firll
among the Greeks who at the fiege of Troy fet foot
on the Afiatic (here. He did this, that his landing
might be more propitious than that of the hero to
whom he facrificed, who was flain foon after. The
greateft part of the army, under the command of Par¬
menio, embarked at Seftos, on board a fleet of 160
galleys of three benches of oars, befides fmall craft.
Alexander himfelf failed from Eleus ; and when he
was in the middle of the Hellefpont, offered a bull to
Neptune and the Nereids, pouring forth at the fame
time a libation from a golden cup. When he drew
near the fhore, he launched a javelin, which ftuck in
the earth : then, in complete armour, he leaped upon
the ftrand ; and having eroded altars to Jupiter, Mi¬
nerva, and Hercules, he proceeded to Ilium. Here
again he facrifked to Minerva j and taking down fome
arms which had hung in the temple of that goddels
fince the time of the Trojan war, confecrated his own
in their ftead. He facrificed alfo to the ghoft of Priam,
to avert his wrath on account of the defeent which he
himfelf claimed from Achilles.
In the mean time the Perfians had affembled a great
army in Phrygia ; among whom was one Memnon a
Rhodian, the beft officer in the fervice of Darius. A-
lexandejf,
MAG
[ 3°9 ]
MAC
77
4 ifequen.
of his
,j,Cedon. lexander, as foon as he had performed all the ceremo-
-y"”—* nies which he judged neceflary, marched direftly to¬
wards the enemy. Memnon gave it as his opinion,
that they fhould burn and deftroy all the country
round, that they might deprive the Greeks of the means
of fubfifting, and then tranfport a part of their army
into Macedon. But the Perfians, depending on their
cavalry, reje61ed this falutary advice j and pofted them-
felves along the river Granicus, in order to wait the
arrival of Alexander. In the engagement which hap¬
pened on the banks of that river, the Perfians were
•i'.zGra- defeated*, and Alexander became mailer of all the
i is. neighbouring country; which he immediately began to
take care of, as if it had been part of his hereditary
dominions. The city of Sardis w'as immediately de¬
livered up j and here Alexander built a temple to Ju-
vidtory.pjter Olympius. After this, he reftored the Ephefians
to their liberty j ordered the tribute which they for¬
merly paid to the Perfians to be applied towards the
rebuilding the magnificent temple of Diana: and
having fettled the affairs of the city, marched againll
Miletus. This place was defended by Memnon with a
confiderable body of troops who had fled thither af¬
ter the battle of Granicus, and therefore made a vigo¬
rous refiftance. 'The fortune of Alexander, however,
prevailed ; and the city was foon reduced, though
Memnon with part of the troops efcaped to Halicar-
naffus. After this, the king difmiffed his fleet, for
which various reafons have been affigned j though it
is probable, that the chief one was to fhow his army
that their only refource now was in fubverting the Per-
fian empire.
Almoft all the cities between Miletus and Halicar-
naffus fubmitted as foon as they heard that the former
was taken ; but Halicarnaffus, where Memnon com¬
manded with a very numerous garrifon, made an oblfi-
nate defence. Nothing, however, was able to refill
the Macedonian army. Memnon was at lall obliged
to abandon the place ; upon which Alexander took
and razed the city of Tralles in Phrygia j received the
fubmillion of feveral princes tributary to the Perfians j
and having dellroyed the Marmarians, a people of Ly-
cia who had fallen upon the rear of his army, put an
end to the campaign •, after which he fent home all
the new married men ; in obedience, it would feem,
to a precept of the Mofaic law, and which endeared
him more to his foldiers than any other aflion of his
life.
As foon as the feafon would permit, Alexander
quitted the province of Phafelus ; and having fent part
of his army through the mountainous country to
Perga, by a Ihort but difficult road, took his route by
a certain promontory, where the way is altogether im-
paffable, except when the north winds blow. At the
time of the king’s march the fouth wind had held for
a long time; but of a hidden it changed, and blew from
the north fo violently, that, as he and his followers
declared, they obtained a fafeand eafy paffage through
the Divine affiftance. By many this march is held to
be miraculous, and compared to that of the children
of Ifrael through the Red fea ; while, on the other
hand, it is the opinion of others, that there was no¬
thing at all extraordinary in it. lie continued his
march towards Gordium, a city of Phrygia 5 the ene¬
my having abandoned the ftrong pafs of T'-imiffus,
through which it was neceffary for him to march. Macedon.^
When he arrived at Gordium, and found himfelf un- ^
der a neceffity of flaying fame time there till the fe¬
veral corps of his army could be united, he expreffed
a ftrong defire of feeing Gordius’s chariot, and the fa¬
mous knot in the harnefs, of which fuch ftrange ftories
had been publiffied to the world. The cord in which
this knot was tied, was made of the inner rind of
the cornel tree; and no eye could perceive where it
had begun or ended. Alexander, when he could find Untits the
no poffible way of untying, and yet was unwilling Gordian
to leave it tied left it thould caufe fome fears in theknot*
breafts of his foldiers, is faid by fome authors to have
cut the cords with his fword, faying, “ It matters not
how it is undone.” But Ariftobulus affures us, that
the king wrefted a wooden pin out of the beam of the
waggon, which, being driven in acrofs the beam, held
it up $ and fo took the yoke from under it. Be this
as it will, however, Arrian informs us, that a great
tempeft of thunder, lightning, and rain, happening the
fucceeding night, it was held declarative of the true
folution of this knot, and that Alexander flrould be¬
come lord of Afia.
The king having left Gordium, marched towards
Cilicia j where he was attended with his ufual good
fortune, the Perfians abandoning all the ftrong paffes
as he advanced. As foon as he entered the province,
he received advice that Arfames, whom Darius had
made governor of Tarfus, was about to abandon it,
and that the inhabitants were very apprehenfive that
he intended to plunder them before he withdrew. To
prevent this, the king marched inceffantly, and arrived ^
juft in time to fave the city. But his faving it had His ficknefs
well nigh coft him his life: for, either through thean^rec0“
exceffive fatigue of marching, as fome fay, or, accord-
ing to others, by his plunging when very hot into the
river Cydnus, which, as it runs through thick Ihades,
has its waters exceffively cold, he fell into fuch a diftem-
per as threatened his immediate diffolution. His army
loft their fpirits immediately j the generals knew not
what to do j and his phyficians were fo much affrighted,
that the terror of his death hindered them from ufing
the neceffary methods for preferving his life. Philip
the Acarnanian alone preferved temper enough to exa¬
mine the nature of the king’s difeafe $ the w'orft fymp-
tom of which W'as a continual waking, and which he
took off by means of a potion, and in a Ihort time the
king recovered his ufual health.
Soon after Alexander’s recovery, he received the
agreeable new's that Ptolemy and Afander had defeated
the Perfian generals, and made great conquefts on the
Hellefpont; a little after that, he met the Perfian army
at Iffus, commanded by Darius himfelf. A bloody
engagement enfued, in which the Perfians were de¬
feated with great daughter, as related under the article
Issus. The confequences of this viftory were very
advantageous to the Macedonians. Many governors
of provinces and petty princes fubmitted themftlves to
the conqueror j and fuch as did fo were treated, not as
a newly conquered people, but as his old hereditary
fubjefts; being neither burdened with foldiers nor
oppreffed with tribute. Among the number of thnfe
places which, within a ffiort fpace after the battle of
Iffus, fent deputies to fubmit to the conqueror, was
the city of Tyre. The king, whole name was Azel-
reicus,
Maredon.
So
Tyre taken
and de-
ftroyed.
Sr
Egypt fub-
ants.
Sa
Alexander
vifits the
temple of
Jupiter
Ammon.
MAC
miens, was abfent in the Perfian fleet j but his fon was
among the deputies, and was very favourably received
by Alexander. The king probably intended to confer
particular honours on the city of Tyre ; for he ac¬
quainted the inhabitants that he would come and fa-
crifice to the lyrian Hercules, the patron of their
city, to whom they had ere&ed a moft magnificent
temple. But thefe people, like moft other trading
nations, were too fufpicious to think of admitting
uch an enterprifing prince with his troops within
tneir walls. . T hey fent therefore their deputies again
to him, to inform him, that they were ready to do
whatever he fhould command them ; but, as to his
coming and facrificing in their city, they could not
confent to that, but were pofitively determined not to
admit a fingle Macedonian within their gates. Alex¬
ander immediately difmiffed their deputies in great dif-
pleafure. He then aflembled a council of war, wherein
he infifted ftrongly on the difaffefted ftate of Greece
(for moft of the Grecian ftates had fent ambaffadors
to Darius, to enter into a league with him againft the
Macedonians), the power of the Perfians by fea, and
the folly or carrying on the war in diftant provinces,
while Tyre was left unreduced behind them : he alfo
remarked, that if once this city was fubdued, the fo-
vereignty of the fea would be transferred to them, be-
caufe it would fix their poffeflion of the coafts; and
as the Perfian fleet was compofed chiefly of tributary
fquadrons, thofe tributaries would fight the battles,
not of their late, but of their prefent mafters. For
thefe reafons the liege of Tyre was refolved on. The
towm was not taken, however, without great difficulty •
which provoked Alexander to fuch a degree, that he
treated the inhabitants with the greateft cruelty. See
Tyre.
After the reduction of Tyre, Alexander, though the
feafon was already far advanced, refolved to make an
expedition into Syria; and in his way thither propofed
to chaftife the Jews, who had highly offended him du¬
ring the fiege of Tyre : for when he fent to them to de¬
mand provifions for his foldiers, they anfwered, That
they were the fubje&s of Darius, and bound by oath
not. to fupply his enemies. The king, however, was
pacmed by their fubmiffion 5 and not only pardoned
them, but conferred many privileges upon them, as re¬
lated under the article Jews.
From Jerufalem Alexander marched dire&ly to
Gaza, the only place in that part of the world uhich
ftill held out for Darius. This was a very large and
ftrong city, fituated on a high hill, about five miles
from the fea-ffiore. One Batis or Beds, an eunuch,
had the government of the place ; and had made every
preparation neceffary for fuftaining a long and obfti-
nate fiege. The governor defended the place with
great valour, and feveral times repulfed his enemies $
but at laid it was taken by ftorm, and all the gar-
nfon flain to a man j and this fecured to Alexander an
entrance into Egypt, which having before been very im¬
patient of the Perfian yoke, admitted the Macedonians
peaceably.
Here the king laid the foundations of the city of
Alexandria, which for many years after continued to
be the capital of the country. While he remained
here, he alfo formed the extraordinary defign of vifit-
ing the temple of Jupiter Ammon. As to the mo-
3
10] MAC
lives by which he was induced to take this extraordi- Mated]
nary journey, authors are not agreed 5 but certain it,1—v-
is, that he hazarded himfelf and his troops in the high-
eft degree ; there being two dangers in this march
which, with the example of Cambyfes, who loft the
greateft part of his army in it, might have terrified ary
body but Alexander. The firft was the want of water
which, in the fandy deferts furrounding the temple, is
nowhere to be found j the other, the uncertainty of the
road from the fluauation of the fands; which chan¬
ging their fituation every moment, leave the traveller
neither a road to walk in nor mark to march by. Thefe
difficulties, however, Alexander got over j though not
without a miraculous interpofition, as is pretended by
all his hiftorians. ^
Alexander having confulted the oracle, and received
a favourable anfw'er, returned to pUrfue his conquefts.
Having fettled the government of Egypt, he appointed
the general rendezvous of his forces at Tyre. Here he
met with ambafladors from Athens, requefting him to
pardon fuch of their countrymen as he found fervinp-
the enemy. The king, being defirous to oblige fuch a
famous ftate, granted their requeft ; and fent alfo a ffeet
to the coaft of Greece, to prevent the effetfs of fome
commotions which had lately happened in Peloponnefus.
He then direfted his march to Thapfacus; and having
puffed the Euphrates and ligris, met with Darius near
Arbela, where the Perfians were again overthrown with
prodigious daughter f, and Alexander in eft'edl became ' See
mafter of the Perfian empire.
After this important victory, Alexander marched di- Re(]^s I
reftly to .Babylon, which was immediately delivered Babylon,
up j the inhabitants being greatly difaffeffed to the Sub, &<11
Perfian intereft. After 30 days flay in this country, Perlepolis‘|
the king marched to Sufa, which had already furren-
dered to Philoxenus j and here he received the trea-
fures of the Perfian monarch, amounting, according
to the moft. generally received account, to 50,000 ta¬
lents. Having received alfo at this time a fupply of
60co foot and 500 horfe from Macedon, he fet" about
reducing the nations of Media, among whom Darius
v'as retired. He firft reduced the Uxians, and having
forced a paffage to Perfepolis the capital of the empire,
he like a barbarian deftroyed the ftateiy palace there’
a pile of building not to be equalled in any part of the
world $ after having given up the city to be plundered
by .his foldiers. In the palace he found 120,000 talents
which he appropriated to his own ufe, and caufed im¬
mediately to be carried away upon mules and camels ;
for he had fuch an extreme averfion to the inhabitants
of Perfepolis, that he determined to leave nothing va¬
luable in the city.
During the time that Alexander remained at Per¬
fepolis, he received intelligence that Darius remained
at Ecbatana the capital of Media $ upon which he
purfued him with the greateft expedition, marching He pU4rfucs
at the rate of near 40 miles a-day. In 15 days heDanus;
reached Ecbatana, where he was informed that Da¬
rius had retired from thence five days before, with an
intent to pafs into the remoteft provinces of his em-
pire* This put fome flop to the rapid progrefs of the
Macedonian army ; and the king, perceiving that there
was no neceflity for hurrying himfelf and his foldiers
in iuch a manner, began to give the orders requifite
in the prefent fituation of his affairs. The Theffalian
horfe,
MAC [ 3
II re Jon. horfe, who had deferved exceedingly well of him in all
w r--" his battles, he difmiffed according to his agreement j
gave them their whole pay, and ordered 2000 talents
over and above to be diftributed among them. He
then declared that he would force no man : but if any
were willing to ferve him longer for pay, he de-
fired they would enter their names in a book, which
a great many of them did ; the reft fold their horfes,
and prepared for their departure. The king appointed
Epocillus to conduct them to the fea, and afligned him
a body of horfe as an efcort: he likewdfe fent Menetes
with them, to take care of their embarkation, and that
they were fafely landed in Euboea without any expence
to themfelves.
On receiving frefli information concerning the ftate
of Darius’s affairs, the king fet out again in purfuit
of him, advancing as far as Phages, a city one day’s
journey from the Cafpian ftraits: there he underftood
that Darius had paffed thofe ftraits fome time before ;
which information leaving him again without hopes,
he halted for five days. Oxidates, a Perfian whom Da¬
rius had left prifoner at Sufa, was made governor of
Media, while the king departed on an expedition into
Parthia. The Cafpian ftraits he paffed immediately
without oppofition j and then gave directions to his of¬
ficers to colleCt a quantity of provifions fufficient to
■ ;£ ferve his army on a long march through a wrafted coun-
w is try. But before his officers could accomplifh thofe
in ered. commands, the king received intelligence that Darius
had been murdered by Beffus, one of his owm fubjeCts,
and governor of BaCtria, as is related at length under
IS
the article Persia.
Ajinder As focm as Alexander had colleCted his forces to-
rejes gether, and fettled the government of Parthia, he
piUnia. entered Hyrcania $ and having, according to his ufual
cuftom, committed the greateft part of his army to
the care of Craterus, he, at the head of a choice
body of troops, paffed through certain craggy roads,
and before the arrival of Craterus, who took an open
and eafy path, ftruck the whole provinces with fuch
terror, that all the principal places were immediately
put into his hands, and foon after the province of Aria
alfo fubmitted, and the king continued Satibarzanes
the governor in his employment.—The reduCHon of
this province finiflied the conqueft of Perfia j but the
ambition of Alexander to become mafter of every na¬
tion of which he had the leaft intelligence, induced
him to enter the country of the Mardi, merely be-
caufe its rocks and barrennefs had hitherto hindered
any body from conquering, or indeed from attempt¬
ing to conquer it. This conqueft, how'ever, he eafily
accomplirhed, and obliged the whole nation to fub-
mit to his pleafure. But in the mean time difturbances
■ began to arife in Alexander’s new empire, and among
his troops, which all his activity could not thorough¬
ly fupprefs. He had fcarcely left the province of Aria,
when he received intelligence, that the traitor Beffus
had caufed himfelf to be proclaimed king of Alia by
the name of /frtarerxes; and that Satibarzanes had
joined him, after having maffacred all the Macedonians
who had been left in the province. Alexander ap¬
pointed one Arfames governor in the room of Satibar¬
zanes ; and marched thence with his army againft the
'/.aranga, who, under the command of Barzaentes, one
of thofe who had confpired againft Darius, had taken up
11 ] MAC
arms, and threatened to make an obftinate defence. Macedon.
But their numbers daily falling off, Barzaentes being v *
afraid they would purchafe their own fafety at the ex¬
pence of his, privately withdrew' from his camp, and,
crofting the river Indus, fought flielter among the na¬
tions beyond it. But they, either dreading the power
of Alexander, or detefting the treachery of this Perfian
towards his former mafter, feized and delivered him up
to Alexander, who caufed him immediately to be put
to death. g7
The immenfe treafure which the Macedonians had The Ma-
acquired in the conqueft of Perfia began now to Cor-ce^on'ans
rupt them. The king himfelf was of a moft generous^'^5Vo
difpofition, and liberally beftowed his gifts on thofejuxury.
around him ; but they made a bad ufe of his bounty,
and fooliftily indulged in thofe vices by which the for¬
mer poffeffors of that wealth had loft it. The king did
all in his pow-er to difeourage the lazy and inactive
pride wEich now began to (how itfelf among his of¬
ficers j but neither his difeourfes nor his example had
any confiderable effedt. The manners of his courtiers
from bad became worfe, in fpite of all he could fay
or do to prevent it j and at laft they proceeded to
cenfure his condudl, and to exprefs themfelves with
fome bitternefs on the fubjedt of his long continuance
of the w'ar, and his leading them conftantly from one
labour to another. This came to fuch a height, that
the king was at laft obliged to ufe fome feverity, in or¬
der to keep his army within the limits of their duty. ss
From this time forward, how-ever, Alexander himlelf Alexander
began to alter his con dud! ; and by giving a little in-conr°rnis
to the cuftoms of the Orientals, endeavoured to feA° l^e ^er"
cure that obedience from his new fubjedls which he^s ~
found fo difficult to be preferved among his old ones.
He likewife endeavoured, by various methods, to blend
the cuftoms of the Afiatics and the Greeks. The
form of his civil government refembled that of the
ancient Perfian kings •, in the military affairs, how¬
ever, he preferved the Macedonian difeipline 5 but
then he made choice of 30,000 boys out of the pro¬
vinces, whom he caufed to be inftrudted in the Greek
language, and diredled to be brought up in fuch a
manner as that from time to time he might with them
fill up the phalanx. The Macedonians faw with great
concern thefe extraordinary meafures, which iuited.
very ill with their grofs underftandings ; for they
thought, after all the vidlories they had gained, to be
abfolute lords of Afia, and to poffefs not only the riches
of its inhabitants, but to rule the inhabitants them¬
felves : whereas they now faw, that Alexander meant
no fuch thing •, but that, on the contrary, he con¬
ferred governments, offices at court, and all other
marks of confidence and favour, indiferiminately both
on Greeks and Perfians.—From this time alfio the
king feems to have given inftances of a cruelty he
had never ffiown before. Philotas his moft intimate
friend was feized, tortured, and put to death for a
confpiracy of which it could never be proved that he
was guilty 5 and foon after Parmenio and fome others
were executed without any crime at all real or al¬
leged. Thefe things very much difturbed the army.
Some of them wrote home to Macedon of the king’s
fufpicions of his friends, and his difpofition to hunt
out enemies at the very extremities of the world. A-
lexander having intercepted fome of thefe letters, and
procured
MAG
[ 3
, Maoejon- procured the bed information he could concerning
"v™ their authors, picked out thefe diffatisfied people, and
having difpofed them into a corps, gave it the title
of the turbulent battalion; hoping by this means to
prevent the fpirit of difaffe&ion from pervading the
whole army.
As a farther precaution againfl any future confpira-
cy, Alexander thought fit to appoint Hephsefiion and
Clytus generals of the auxiliary horfe i being appre-
henfive, that if this authority was lodged in the hands
of a fingle perfon, it might prompt him to dangerous
undertakings, and at the fame time furnifh him with
the means of carrying them into execution. To keep
his forces in a&ion, he fuddenly marched into the coun¬
try of the Euergetae, i. e. Benefaclors; and found them
full of that kind and holpitable difpofition for which
that name had been bellowed on their anceftors : he
therefore treated them with great refpedl ; and at his
departure added fome lands to their dominions, which
lay contiguous, and which for that reafon they had re¬
quelled of him.
Turning then to the eall, he entered Arachofia, the
inhabitants of which fubmitted without giving him any
trouble. While he palled the winter in thefe parts,
the king received advice, that the Arians, whom he
had fo lately fubdued, were again up in arms, Sati-
barzanes being returned into that country with two
thoufand horfe affigned him by Beffus. Alexander in-
fiantly defpatched Artabazus the Perlian, with Erigyus
and Caranus, two of his commanders, with a confi-
derable body of horfe and foot; he likewife ordered
89 Phrataphernes, to whom he had given the govern-
Satibarza- ment of Parthia, to accompany them. A general
lies defeat- engagement enfued, wherein the Arians behaved very
led.and kl1” We^> as lonS as commander Satibarzanes lived ;
biit he engaging Erigyus, the Macedonian ftruck
him firll into the throat, and then, drawing forth
his fpear again, through the mouth ; fo that he im¬
mediately expired, and with him the courage of his
foldiers, who inftantly began to fly; whereupon Alex¬
ander’s commanders made an eafy conquelt of the reft
of the country, and fettled it effedlually under his obe¬
dience.
The king, notwithftanding the inclemency of the
feafon, advanced into the country of Paropamifus, fo
called from the mountain Paropamifus, which the fol¬
diers of Alexander called Caucafus. Having crofted
the country in 16 days, he came at length to an open¬
ing leading into Media ; which finding of a fufficient
breadth, he direfted a city to be built there, which
he called Alexandria, as alfo feveral other towns about
a day’s journey diftant from thence : and in thefe
places he left 7000 perfons, part of them fuch as had
hitherto followed his camp, and part of the mercenary
foldiers, who, weary of continual fatigue, were con¬
tent to dwell there. Having thus fettled things in
this province, facrificed folemnly to the gods, and ap¬
pointed Proexes the Perfian prefident thereof with a
fmall body of troops under the command of Niloxenus
to aflift him, he refumed his former defign of penetrat¬
ing into Badlria. >
Beflus, who had aflumed the title of Artaxerxes,
when he was aflured that Alexander was marching
towards him, immediately began towafle all the coun¬
try between Paropamifus and the river Oxus j which
12 ] MAC
river hi? pani-dwith all hid forces, and then burnt all MattdJ
90
Beflus re¬
duced and
put to
d«ath.
the yeffels he had made ufe of for tranfporting them »
tetning to Nautaca, a city of Sogdia ; fully perfuad-
ed, that, by the precautions he had taken, Alexander
would be compelled to give over his purfuit. This
conduct of his, however, diftieartened his troops, and
gave the lie to all his pretenfions 5 for he had aflfe&ed
to cenfure Darius’s condua, and had charged him
wnh cowardice, in not defending the rivers Euphrates
and Tigris, whereas he now quitted the banks of the
moft defenfible river perhaps in the whole world. As
to his hopes, though it cannot be faid they were ill
founded, yet they proved abfolutely vain 5 for Alexan¬
der, continuing his march, notwithftanding all the hard-
flnps his foldiers fuftained, reduced all Badria under his
obedience, particularly the capital Ba&ria and the ftrong
caftle Aornus: in the lat^r he placed a garrifon under
the command of Archelaus 5 but the government of
the province he committed to Artabazus. He then
continued his march to the river Oxus: on the banks
of which, when he arrived, he found it three quarters
of a mile over, its depth more than proportionable to
its breadth, its bottom fandy, its ftream fo rapid as to
render it almoft unnavigable, and neither boat nor tree
in its neighbourhood ; fo that the ableft commanders
in the Macedonian army were of opinion that they
fliould be obliged to march back. The king, however,
having firft fent away, under a proper efcort, all his’
infirm and worn-out foldiers, that they might be con¬
duced fafe to the fea-ports, and from thence to Greece,
devifed a method of palling this river without either
boat or bridge, by caufing the hides which covered the
foldiers tents and carriages to be Huffed with ftraw, and
then tied together, and thrown into the river. Having
crofted the Oxus, he marched direCly towards the camp
of Beffus, where, when he arrived, he found it abandon¬
ed j but received at the fame time letters from Spita-
menes and Dataphernes, who were the chief comman¬
ders under Beffus, fignifying, that, if he would fend a
fmall party to receive Beffus, they would deliver him
into his hands 5 which they did accordingly, and the
traitor was put to death in the manner related in the
hiftory of Persia.
A fupply of horfes being now arrived, the Mace¬
donian cavalry were remounted. Alexander continued
his march to Maracanda the capital of Sogdia, from
whence he advanced to the river laxartes. Here he
performed great exploits againft the Scythians 5 from
whom, however, though he overcame them, his army
fuffered much 5 and the revolted Sogdians being headed gI
by Spitamenes, gave him a great deal of trouble. Here Alexander
he married Roxana the daughter of Oxyartes, a prince marries
of the country whom he had fubdued. But duringRoxaua-
thefe expeditions, the king greatly difgufted his army by
the murder of his friend Clytus in a drunken quarrel at
a banquet, and by his extravagant vanity in claiming
divine honours.
. A1 he arrived at the river Indus, where Hephte- Paff^ke
ftion and Perdiccas had already provided a bridge of Indus,
boats for the paffage of the army. The king refrefhed
his troops for 30 days in the countries on the other fide
of the river, which were thofe of his friend and ally
Taxiles, who gave him 30 elephants, and joined his ar¬
my now with yco Indian horfe, to which, when they
were to enter upon adlion, he afterwards added 5000
foot,
9.5
.ml the
lydafpes
ith diffi.
ilty.
MAC [ 3
Macedon. foot. The true reafon of this feeras to have been his
—-v—- enmity to Porus, a famous Indian prince whofe terri¬
tories lay on the other fide of the river Hydafpes.
During this recefs, the king facrificed with great fo-
lemnity j receiving alfo ambafladors from Ambifurus,
a very potent prince, and from Doxareas, who was
likewife a king in thofe parts, with tenders of their
duty, and confiderable prefents. Thefe ceremonies over,
Alexander appointed Philip governor of Taxila, and
put a Macedonian garrifon into the place, becaufe he
intended to ereft an hofpital there for the cure of his
fick and wounded foldiers. He then ordered the vef-
fels, of which his bridge had been compofed when he
paffed the Indus, to be taken to pieces, that they might
be brought to the Hydafpes, where he was informed
that Porus with a great army lay encamped to hinder his
paffage. When he approached the banks of this river
with his army and the auxiliaries under the command
of Taxiles, he found that the people he had to do with
were not fo eafily to be fubdued as the Perfians and
other Afiatics. The Indians were not only a very tall
and robuft, but alfo a very hardy and well difciplined
people *, and their king Porus was a prince of high fpirit,
invincible courage, and great conduft.
It was about the fummer folftice when Alexander
reached the Hydafpes, and confequently its waters
were broader, deeper, and more rapid, than at any
other time j for in India the rivers fwell as the fun’s
increafing heat melts the fnow, and fubfide again as
winter approaches. Alexander therefore had every dif¬
ficulty to ftruggle with. Porus had made his difpofi-
tions fo judicioufly, that Alexander found it impolfible
to praftife upon him as he had done upon others, and
to pafs the river in this view : wherefore he was con-
ftrained to divide his army into fmall parties, and to
pra&ife other arts, in order to get the better of fo vi¬
gilant a prince. To this end he caufed a great quan¬
tity of corn and other provifions to be brought into
his camp *, giving out, that he intended to remain where
he was till the river fell, and by becoming fordable
fliould give him an opportunity of forcing a palfage :
this did not, however, hinder Porus from keeping up
very ftrift difcipline in his camp *, which when Alex¬
ander perceived, he frequently made fuch motions as
feemed to indicate a change of his refolution, and that
he had ftill thoughts of palling the river. The main
thing the Macedonians flood in fear of were the ele¬
phants ; for the bank being pretty fteep on the other
fide, and it being the nature of horfes to ftart at the firft
appearance of thiofe animals, it wras forefeen that the
army would be difordered, and incapable of fuflaining
the charge of Porus’s troops.
At length Alexander palled the river by the followr-
ing contrivance. There wras, at the diftance of 150
ftadia from his camp, a rocky promontory projecting
into the river, thick covered with wood j and over-
againft this promontory there lay a pretty large unin¬
habited ifland almoft overgrown with trees. The king
therefore conceived within himfelf a projeCl of convey¬
ing a body of troops from this promontory into that
ifland j and upon this fcheme he built his hopes of fur-
prifing Porus, vigilant as he w as. To this end he kept
him and his army conftantly alarmed for many nights
together, till he perceived that Porus apprehended it
was only done to harafs his troops, and therefore no
Vol. XII. Part I.
13 ] MAG
longer drew out of his camp, but trufted to his ordi- Macedoa.
nary guards : then Alexander refolved to put his defign ” v—
in execution. A confiderable body of horfe, the Ma¬
cedonian phalanx, with fome corps of light-armed
foot, he left in his camp under the command of Cra-
terus, as alfo the auxiliary Indians, giving thefe orders,
to be obferved in his abfence, that if Porus marched
againft him with part of his army, and left another part
with the elephants behind in his camp, Craterus and
his forces Ihould remain where they were ; but if it fo
happened that Porus withdrew his elephants, then Cra¬
terus was to pafs the river, becaufe his cavalry might
then do it fafely. Alexander having marched half the
wray, or about nine of our miles, ordered the merce¬
nary troops under the command of Attains and other
generals, to remain there j and direfted them, that as
foon as they knew he was engaged with the Indians
on the other fide, they ftiould pafs in veffels provided
for that purpofe, in order to afiift him. Then march¬
ing a long way about, that the enemy might not per¬
ceive his defign of reaching the rock, he advanced as
diligently as he could towards that poll. It happened
very fortunately for him, that a great fiorm of thun¬
der, lightning, and hail, rofe in the night, whereby
his march was perfectly concealed, his veflels of 30
oars put together, and his tents fluffed and ftitched, fo
that they paffed from the rock into the ifland, without
being perceived, a little before break of day j the
ftorm ceafing juft as he and his foldiers were ready for
their paffage. When they had traverfed the ifland, they
boldly fet forward to gain the oppofite fltore in fight of
Porus’s outguards, w'ho inftantly polled away to give
their mafter an account of the attempt. Alexander
landed firft himfelf, and was followed as expeditioufly
as poflible by his forces, whom he took care to draw
up as fall as they arrived. When they began their
march again, they found that their good fortune was
not fo great as at firft they efteemed it ; for it appeared
now, that they had not reached the continent at all, but
were in truth in another ifland much larger than the
former. They croffed it as fall as they could, and
found that it was divided from the terra jirma by a
narrow channel, which, however, was fo fwelled by the
late heavy rain, that the poor foldiers were obliged tr>
wade up to the breaft, When they were on the other
fide, the king drew them up again carefully, ordering
the foot to march flowly, they being in number about
6000, while himfelf with 5000 horfe advanced before.
As foon as Porus received intelligence that Alexander
was actually paffing the river, hefenthisfon with 2000
horfe and 120 armed chariots, to oppofe him. But they
came too late : Alexander was already got on ftiore,
and even on his march.
When the Macedonian fcouts perceived them ad--j^g fon 0f
vance, they informed the king, who fent a detachment Porus de-
to attack them, remaining ftill at the head of his ca-feated and
valry in expectation of Porus. But when he found ^‘Ikd.
that this party was unfupported, he inftantly attack¬
ed with all his horfe, and defeated them with the
flaughter of many, and the lofs of all their armed
chariots, the fon of Porus being flain in the fight.
The remainder of the horfe returning to the camp with
this difaftrous account, Porus was in fome confufion :
however, he took very quickly the belt and wifeft re-
folutions his eircumftances would allow : which were,
Hr to
MAC' [3
JVlacedon. [0 leave a party of his army, with fotne of his ele-
' plights, to oppofe Crater us, who was nowr about to
pafs the river alio j and, with the reft, to march againft
Alexander and his forces, who were already palled.
1 his refolution once taken, he marched immediately
out of his camp at the head of 4000 horfe, 30,000
foot, 303 chariots, and 200 elephants. He advanced
as expeditioully as he could, till he came into a plain
which was firm and fandy, where his chariots and ele¬
phants might aft to advantage: there he halted, that
he might put his army sn order, knowing well that he
need not go in qufcft of his enemy. Alexander foon
came up with his horfe, but he did not charge Porus ;
on ibe contrary, he halted, and put his troops in or¬
der, that they might be able to defend thtmielves in
cate they were attacked. When he had waited feme
time, his foot arrived ; whom he immediately furround-
ed with his hosfe, that, after io fatiguing a march,
thi y m.ght have time to cool and breathe themfelves,
beture they were led to engage. Porus permitted all
this, oecaufe ;t was not his intereft to hght, and be-
caule he depended chiefly upon his order of battle, the
elephants'eovering his foot, fo that the Macedonians
could not charge them. j-
Poms him- When Alexander had difpofed his fbot in proper
lelf defeat- order, he placed his horfe on the wings ; and, obierv-
ing that he was much fuperior in them to the enemy,
and that the cavalry of Porus tvere eafy to be charged,
he refolved to let the foot have as little (hare as poffible
in the battle. To this end, having given the neceffary
direclions to Ccenus who commanded them, he went
him«tlf to the right, and with great fury fell upon the
left wing of Porus. The difpute, though (hurt, was
very bloody: the cavalry of Porus, though they fought
gallantly, were quickly broken j and the foot being by
this means uncovered, the Macedonians charged them.
JBut the Indian horfe rallying, came up to *heir relief,
yet wmre again defeated. By this time the archers had
wounded many of the elephants, and killed moft of
their riders, io that they did not prove lefs troublefome
and dangerous to their own fide than to the Macedo¬
nians j whence a great confufion enfued : and Coenus,
taking this opportunity, fell on with the troops under
his command, and entirely defeated the Indian army.
Porus hiuitelf behaved with the greateft intrepidity,
and with the moft excellent conduft : he gave his or¬
ders and diredled every thing, as long as his troops
retained their form ; and when they were broken, he
retired from party to party as they made {lands, and
continued fighting till every corps of Indians was put
to the rout. In the mean time Craterus had pafted
with the reft of the Macedonian army , and thefe, fal¬
ling upon the flying Indians, inereafed the {laughter
of the day exeeffively, infomuch that 20,000 foot and
3000 horfe were killed, all the chariots were hacked to
pieces, and the elephants not killed were taken j two
of Porus’s fons fell here, as alfo moft of his officers of
all ranks.
As for Pcrus, Alexander gave ftridl directions that
no injury might be done to his perfon: be even fent
laxiles to perfuade him to furrender himfelf, and to
affure him that he fhould be treated with all the kind-
nefs and refpeCl imaginable ; but Porus, difdaining this
advice from the mouth of an old enemy, threw a jave¬
lin at him, and. had killed him but for the quick turn
[4 ] MAG
of his horfe. Meroe the Indian, who was alfo in the Macedoo.
fervice of Alexander, fucceeded better : he had been
the ok* acquaintance of Porus \ and therefore when he
entreated that prince to fpare his perfon, and to fubmit 5
himfelf to fortune and a generous viCtor, Porus fol-H« fubmiti
lowed his advice ; and we may truly fiiy, that thecon-to Alexan.
dition of this Indian king fullered nothing by the loftder*
of the battle. Alexander immediately gave him his
liberty, reftored him fhortly after to his kingdom, ts>
which he annexed provinces almoft equal to it in va¬
lue. Neither was Alexander a lofer by his munifi¬
cence j for Porus remained his true friend and con-
ftant ally.
To perpetuate the memory of this viClory, Alex¬
ander ordered two cities to be eroded j one on the
field of battle, w hich he named Nic&a; the other on
this fide the river, which he called Bucephala, in ho¬
nour of his horfe Bucephalus, who died here, as Ar¬
rian fays, of mere old age, being on the verge of
30. Ail the foldiers who fell in the battle, he buried
with great honours j offered folemn faerifices to the
gods, and exhibited pompous {hows on the banks of
the Hydafpes, where he had forced his paffage. He
then entered the territories of the Glaufse, in which
wero 37 cities, and a multitude of populous villa¬
ges. Ajl thefe were delivered up to him without fight¬
ing ; and as foon as he received them, he prefented
them to Porus; and having reconciled him to Taxiles,
he ient the latter home to his own dominions. About
this time ambaffadors arrived from fome Indian princes
with their fubmiflions: and Alexander having con¬
quered the dominions of another Porus, which lay oil
the Hydraotes, a branch of the Indus, added them to
thofe of Porus his ally.
In the middle of all this fuccefs, however, news
arrived, that the Cathei, the Oxydracm, and the Malli,
the moft warlike nations of India, W'ere confederated
againft the Macedonians, and had drawn together a
great army. .1 he king immediately march, f to give
them battle j and in a few days reached a city called
Sangala, feated on the top of a hill, and having a
fine lake behind it. Before this city the confederate Sandal*
Indians lay encamped, having three circular lines of taken,
carriages locked together, and their tents pitched in
the centre. Notwithftanding the apparent difficulty
of forcing thefe intrenchments, Alexander refolved im¬
mediately to attack them. The Indians made a noble
defence j but at laft the firft line of their carriages was
broken, and the Macedonians entered. The fecond
was ftronger by far j yet Alexander attacked that
too, and alter a defperate refiftance forced it. 1 hs
Indians, without trufting to the third, retired into the
city ; which Alexander would have invefted : but the
foot he had with him not being fufficient for that
purpofe, he caufed his woiks to be carried on both
fides as far as the lake j and, on the other fide of that,
ordered feveral brigades of horfe to take poll: ; order¬
ing alfo battering engines to be brought up, and in
fome places employing miners. The iecond night, he
received intelligence that the befieged, knowing the
lake to be fordable, intended to make their efcape
through it. Upon this the king ordered all the car-
rigges which had been taken in forcing their camp to
be placed up and down the roads, in hopes of hinder¬
ing their flight) giving dire&ions to Ptolemy, who
commanded
M AC [ 3
Ijyiacedon. commanded the horfe on the other fide of the lake, to
—•V““ be extremely vigilant, and to caufe all his trumpets to
found, that the forces might repair to that poll: where
the Indians made their greateft effort. Thefe pre¬
cautions had all the effect that could be defired for
of the few Indians who got through the lake, and
palled the Macedonian horfe, the greater part were
killed on the roads-, but the greattft part of their
army was conftrained to retire again through the
water into the city. Two days after, the place was
taken by ftorm. Seventeen thoufand Indians were
killed ; 70,000 taken prifoners with 300 chariots,
and 500 horfe. The Macedonians are laid to have
loft only 100 men in this fiege j but they had 1 200
wounded, and among thefe feveral perfons of great
diltinftion.
The city was no fooner taken, than Alexander de-
fpatched Eumenes his fecretary, with a party of horfe,
to acquaint the inhabitants of the cities adjacent with
what had befallen the Sangalans promifing allb, that
they fhould be kindly treated if they would fubmit.
But they were fo much affrighted at w hat had happened
to their neighbours, that, abandoning all their cities,
they fled into the mountains ; choofing rather to expofe
themfelves to wild beafts, than to thefe invaders, who
had treated their countrymen fo cruelly. When the
king was informed of this, he fent'detachments of horfe
and foot to fcour the roads and thefe, finding, aged,
infirm, and wounded people, to the number of about
98 500, put them to the fword without mercy. Perceiv-
nd razed, jng that it was impoflible to perfuade the inhabitants
to return, he caufed the city of Sangala to be razed,
and gave the territories to the few Indians who had
fubmitted to him.
Alexander, ftill unfated with conqueft, now pre¬
pared to pafs the! Hyphafis. The chief reafon which
induced him to think of this expedition was, the in¬
formation he had received of the Hate of the countries
beyond that river. He was told that they were in
themfelves rich and fruitful 5 that their inhabitants
were not only a very martial people, but very civilized j
that they were governed by the nobility, who were
themfelves fubjeft to the laws 5 and that as they lived
in happinefs and freedom, it was likely they would
light cbltinately in defence of thofe bleffings. He
was farther told, that among thefe nations there were
the largeft, ffrongeff, and moft ufeful elephants bred
and tamed ; and was therefore fired wdth an earnefl
delire to reduce fueh a bold and brave people under
his rule, and of attaining to the pofleffion of the many
valuable things that were Arid to be amongft them.
As exorbitant, however, as his perfonal ambition was,
he found it impoflible to infufe any part of it into the
minds of his foldiers; who were fo far from w ifhing
to triumph over new and remote countries, that they
99 w’ere highly defirous of leaving thofe that they had
exander’salready conquered. When therefore they were in-
ups re- formed 0f the king’s intentions, they privately con-
5d far-0* ^u^tec^ together in the camp about the fituation of
it, their own affa’rs. At this confultation, the graveft
and bell of the foldiers lamented that they were made
ufe of by their king, not as lions, who fall fiercely
upon thofe who have injured them ; but as maftiffs,
who fly upon and tear thofe who are pointed out to
them as enemies. The reft were not fo modeft j but
15] MAC
expreffed themfelves roundly againft the king’s humour Macedon.
for leading them from battle to battle, from liege to y“-“-
liege, and from river to river j protefting that they
would follow him no further, nor lavifti away their
lives any longer, to purchafe fame for him.
Alexander was a man of too much penetration not
to be early in perceiving that his troops were very
uneafy. He therefore harangued them from his tri¬
bunal ; but though bis eloquence was great, and the
love his army had for him was yet very ftrong, they
did not relent. For fome time the fuldiers remained
fullen and lilent 5 and at laft turned their eyes on Cce-
nus, an old and experienced general, whom Alexander
loved, and in whom the army put great confidence.—
He had the generofity to undertake their caufe 5 and
told Alexander frankly, “ That men endured toil in
hopes of repofe 5 that the Macedonians were already
much reduced in their numbers j that of thofe w ho
remained, the greater part were invalids j and that
they expe&ed, in confideration of their former fer-
vices, that he would now lead them back to their na¬
tive country : an a£l which, of all others, would moft
contribute to his own great defigns 5 fince it would
encourage the youth of Macedon, and even of all
Greece, to follow' him in whatever new expedition he
pleafed to undertake.” The king was far from being
pleafed with this fpeech of Coenus, and much iefs with
the difpofition of his army, which continued in a deep
filence. He therefore difmiiTed the affembly: but
next day he called another, wherein he told the fol¬
diers plainly, that he wmuld not be driven from bis
purpofe } that he would proceed in his conquefts wfith
fuch as fhould follow him voluntarily j as for the reft,
he would not detain them, but would leave them at
liberty to go home to Macedon, where they might
publifh, “ that they had left their king in the midft
of his enemies.” Even this expedient bad no fuccefs;
his army was fo thoroughly tired with long marches and
defperate battles, that they were determined to go no
further, either for fair fpeeches or foul. Upon this
Alexander retired to his tent, where he refufed to fee
his friends, and put on the fame gloomy temper that
reigned among his troops. For three days things
remained in this fituation. At laft the king fuddenly
appeared and, as if he had been fully determined to
purfue his firft defign, he gave orders for facrificing
for the good fuccefs of his new undertaking. Ari-
ftander the augur reported, that the omens were al¬
together inaufpicious j upon which the king faid, that
fince his proceeding farther w’as neither pleafing to
the gods, nor grateful to his army, he would return. ico
When this was rumoured among the army, they af- con-
fembled in great numbers about the royal tent, falut-ta
ing the king with loud acclamations, wifhing him
fuccefs in all his future defigns j giving him at the
fame time hearty thanks, for that “ be who was in¬
vincible had buffered himfelf to be overcome by their
prayers.”
A flop being thus put to the conquefts of Alexan¬
der, he determined to make the Hyphafis the boun¬
dary of his dominions; and having eredfed twelve
altars of an extraordinary magnitude, he facrificed
on them: after which he exhibited fhows in the
Grecian manner and, having added all the conquered
country in thefe parts to the dominions of Poru->, he
R r 2 began
mag [31
Having arrived at the Hydafpes,
Macedon. began to return.
he made the neceffary preparations for failing down
the Indus into the ocean. For this purpofe, he or¬
dered vaft quantities of timber to be felled in the
neighbourhood of the Hydafpes, through which he
was to fail into the Indus ; he caufed the veffels with
which he had paffed other rivers to be brought thi-
s nei, and aflembled a vaft number of artificers capable
of repairing and equipping his fleet ; which, when
finiihed, confifted of 80 veffels of three banks of oars,
and 2000 leiler (hips and tranfports. Thofe who were
to manage this fleet were collefled out from the Phoe¬
nicians, Cyprians, Carians, and Egyptians following
iiis army, and who were reckoned perfectly well Ikilled
in the naval art. When all things were ready, the
army embarked about break of day j the king, in the
mean time, facriflcing to the gods according to the
ceremonies ufed in his own country, and likewife ac¬
cording to thofe of the country where he now was.
Fhen lie himfelf went on board j and caufing the fig-
nal to be given by found of trumpet, the fleet fet fail.
Craterus and Hephaeftipn had marched fome days be¬
fore with another divifion of the army j and in three
days the fleet reached that part of the river which was
oppofite to their camps. Here he had information,
tnat the Oxydracae and IVIalli were railing forces to
oppofe him ; upon which he immediately determined
to reduce them ; for, during this voyage, he made it
a rule to compel the inhabitants on both Tides of the
river to yield him obedience. But before he arrived
on the coafts of the people above mentioned, he him¬
felf fullained no fmall danger j for, coming to the
confluence of the Acefines with the Hydafpes, from
whence both rivers roll together into the Indus, the
eddies, whirlpools, and rapid currents, rufhing with
tremendous noife from the refpedtive channels of thofe
livers into the great one formed by them both, at
once terrified thofe who navigated his velfels, and ac¬
tually deftroyed many of the long veffels, with all who
were aboard of them j the king himfelf being in fome
danger, and Nearchus the admiral not a little at alofs.
As foon as this danger was over, Alexander went on
ihore ; and having ordered his elephants with fome
troops of horfe and archers to be carried acrofs, and
put under the command of Craterus, he then divided
his army on the left hand bank into three bodies 5 the
firft commanded liy himfelf, the fecond by Hephee-
ftion, and the third by Ptolemy, Hephaeftion had
orders to move filently through the heart of the coun¬
try, five days march before the king ; that if, on
Alexander’s approach, any of the barbarians fhould
attempt to flielter themfelves by retiring into the
country, they might fall into the hands of Hephte-
ftion. Ptolemy Lagus was ordered to march three
days journey behind the king, that if any efcaped his
army, they might fall into Ptolemy’s hands ; and the
fleet had orders to flop at the confluence of this river
with the Hydraotes till fuch time as thefe feveral corps
ros fhould arrive. r
Jfts expedi- Alexander himfelf, at the head of a body of horfe
STSi hght ?rmed foot’ parched through a defert
country agamfl the Malli ; and, fcarce affording any
reft to his foldiers, arrived in three days at a city into
which the barbarians had put their wives and children,
with a good garrifon for their defence. The country
4
6 ] MAC
people, having no notion that Alexander would march
t nough fuch a defert and barren region, were all un- 
armed, and in the utmoft confufion. Many of them
therefore were flain in the field j the reft fled into the
city, and fhut the gates. But this only protraded
their fate for a fhort Ume } for the king, having or¬
dered the city to be invefted by his cavalry, took it
as well as the caftle, by ftorm, and put all he found
there to the fword. He fent at the fame time Per-
diccas with a confiderable detachment, to inveft an
other city of the Malli at a confiderable diftance • but
when he came there he found it abandoned. How¬
ever, he purfued the inhabitants, who had but lately
Ar Ifc’ ,a.nd 1k,i!^ £reat numbers of them on the road.
Alter this the king took feveral other cities, but not
without confiderable refiftance 5 for the Indians fome-
times chofe to burn themfelves in their houfes rather
than furrender. At laft he marched to their capital
city ^ and finding that abandoned, he proceeded to
the river Hydraotes, where he found 50,000 men
encamped on the oppofite bank, in order to difpute
his paffage.. He did not hefitate, however, to enter
the river with a confiderable party of horfe : and fo
much were the Indians terrified at his prefcnce that
their whole army retired before him. In a fliort time
they returned and attacked him, being alhamed to fly
before fuch an inconfiderable number; but in the
mean time the reft of the Macedonian forces came up
and the Indians were obliged to retire to a city which
lay behind them, and which Alexander invefted that
very night. The next day he ftormed the city with
luch violence, that the inhabitants were compelled
to abandon it, and to retire to the caftle, where
they prepared for an obftinate defence. The kinff
inftantly gave orders for fcaling the walls, and the
loldiers prepared to execute thefe orders as faft as
they could ; but the king being impatient caught hold
ol a ladder and mounted it firft himfelf, being followed
by Leonatus, Peuceftas, and Abreas, the latter a man
ol great valour, and who on that account had double
pay allowed him. The king having gained the top
ot the battlements, cleared them quickly of the defend¬
ants, killing fome of them with his fword, and pufti- His ddL
mg others over the trolls : but after this was donl, he rai X,
was m more danger than ever; for the Indians galledai!tllarger,
him with their arrows from the adjacent towers
though they durft not come near enough to engage
him. His own battalion of targeteers mounting in
hafte to fecond him, broke the ladders ; which as
loon as Alexander perceived, he threw himfelf down
into the caflle, as did alfo Peuceftas, Leonatus, and
Abreas. As foon as the king was on the ground, the
Indian general rulhed forward to attack him ; but
Alexander inftantly defpatched him, as well as feveral
others who followed him. Upon this the reft retired
and contented themfelves with throwing darts and
ftones at him at a diftance. Abreas was ftruck into
the head with an arrow, and died on the fpot ; and
ftiortly after, another pierced through the king’s breafL
Plate ,ln,t0, .hls. .b,ody* As long as he had fpirits, he
defended himfelf valiantly ; but, through avail effufion
of blood, lofing his fenfes, he fell upon his Ihield.
Peuceftas then covered him with the facred fhield of
Pallas on one fide, as did Leonatus with his own
Ihield on the other, though they themfelves were
dreadfully
105
e pro- _ j
eds in his Indus,
i'yage
wn the
dus.
MAC [ 3
Jaeedon. dreadfully wounded. In the mean time, however, the
—foldiers on the outfide, eager to fave their king, fup-
if plied their want of ladders, by driving large iron pins
T11 1 into the walls. By the help of thefe many of them
?ed by afcended, and came to the affiftance of Alexander and
smen. his companions. The Indians were now flaughtered
without mercy j but Alexander continued for fome
time in a very dangerous way : however, he at laft re¬
covered his ftrength, and fhowed himfelf again to his
army, which filled them with the greateli joy.
The Malli, being now convinced that nothing but
fubmiflion could fave the remainder of them, fent de¬
puties to Alexander, offering the dominion of their
country ; as did alfo the Oxydracae : and the king
having fettled every thing in thefe countries agreeable
to his mind, proceeded on his voyage down the river
In this voyage he received the fubmiflion of
fome other Indian princes ; and perceiving, that at
the point of the ifland Pattala, the river divided itfelf
into two vaft branches, he ordered an haven and con¬
venient docks to be made there for his fliips j and
when he had careened his fleet, he failed down the
right hand branch towards the ocean. In his paffage
he fuftained great difficulties by reafon of his want of
pilots, and at the mouth of the river very narrowly
miffed being call away : yet all this did not hinder
him from purfuing his firft defign, though it does not
appear that he had any other motive thereto than the
vain defire of boafting that he had entered the ocean
beyond the Indus : for, having confecrated certain
bulls to Neptune, and thrown them into the fea,
performed certain libations of golden cups, and
thrown the cups alfo into the fea, he came back
again $ having only furveyed two little iflands, one
at the mouth of the Indus, and one a little farther in
the ocean.
On the king’s return to Pattala, he refolved to fail
down the other branch of the Indus, that he might
fee whether it wras more fafe and commodious for his
fleet than that which he had already tried ; and for
this he had very good reafons. He had refolved to
fend Nearchus with his fleet by fea, through the
Perfian gulf up the river Tigris, to meet him and
his army in Mefopotamia 5 but as the poffibility of
this voyage depended on the ceafing of the Etefian
winds, there was a neceffity of laying up the fleet till
the feafon ffiould prove favourable. Alexander, there¬
fore, failing through this branch of the Indus, fought
on the fea coafl; for bays and creeks, where his fleet
might anchor in^afety j he caufed alfo pits to be
funk, which might be filled with freffi water for the
ufe of his people 5 and took all imaginable precautions
for preferving them in eafe and fafety till the feafon
would allow them to continue their voyage. In this
he fucceeded to his wiffi ; for he found this branch of
the river Indus, at its mouth, fpread over the plain
country, and forming a kind of lake, wherein a fleet
might ride with fafety. He therefore appointed Leo-
natus, and a part of his army, to carry on fuch works
as were neceflary : caufing them to be relieved by
I0g freffi troops as often as there was occafion : then hav-
tsout for mg given his laft inftrudlions to Nearchus, he de-
ibylon. parted with the reft of the army, in order to march
back to Babylon.
Before the king’s departure, many of his friends
17 ] MAG
advifed him againft the route which he intended to MaceJon.
take. They told him, that nothing could be more raffi v"””
or dangerous than this refolution. They acquainted
him, that the country through which he was to travel
was a wild uncultivated defert ; that Semiramis, when
flie led her foldiers this way out of India, brought
home but 20 of them j and that Cyrus, attempting
to do the fame, returned with only feven. But all this
was fo far from deterring Alexander, that it more
than ever determined him to purfue no other road. As
foon, therefore, as he had put things in order, he
marched at the head of a fufficient body of troops to
reduce the Oritae, who had never vouchfafed either to
make their fubmiffion or to court his friendfhip. Their
territories lay on the other fide of a river called Ara-
bis, which Alexander croffed fo fpeedily, that they
had no intelligence of his march 5 whereupon moft of
them quitted their country, and fled into the deferts.
Their capital he found fo well fituated, that he refolv¬
ed to take it out of their hands, and to caufe a new
and noble city to be founded there, the care of which
he committed to Hephaeftion. Then he received the
deputies of the Oritae and Gedrofi j and having affured
them, that if the people returned to their villages, they
ihould be kindly treated, and having appointed Apol-
lophenes prefident of the Oritae, and left a confiderable
body of troops under Leonatus to fecure their obe¬
dience, he began his march through Gedrofia. In this 107
march his troops fuffered incredible hardftiips. The His dan-
road was very uncertain and troublefome, on account §ero1^
of its lying through deep and loofe fands, rifing in many t.j)^ougj1
places into hillocks, which forced the foldiers to climb, Gedrofia.
at the fame time that it funk under their feet j there
were no towns, villages, nor places of refreftiment, to
be met with $ fo that, after exceffive marches, they w^ere
forced to encamp among thefe dry fands. As to pro-
vifions, they hardly met with any during their whole
march. The foldiers were therefore obliged to kill their
beafts of carriage 5 and fuch as were fent to bring fome
corn from the fea fide, were fo grievoufly diftreffed,
that, though it was fealed with the king’s fignet, they
cut open the bags, choofing rather to die a violent death
for difobedience than periffi by hunger. When the
king, however, was informed of this, he freely par¬
doned the offenders 5 he was alfo forced to accept
the excufes that were daily made for the lofs of
mules, horfes, &c. which were in truth eaten by the
foldiers, and their carriages broken in pieces to avoid
further trouble. As for water, their want of it was
a great misfortune j and yet their finding it in plenty
was fometimes a greater : for, as by the firft they
periffied with thirft, fo by the latter they were burft,
throw n into dropfies, and rendered incapable of travel.
Frequently they met with no water for the whole day
together : fometimes they were difappointed of it at
night ; in which cafe, if they were able, they march¬
ed on 5 fo that it was common with them to travel 30,
40, 50, or even 60 miles without encamping. Num¬
bers through thefe hardffiips were obliged to lag in the
rear ; and of thefe many were left behind, and periffi-
ed ; for indeed fcarce any ever joined the army again.
Their miferies, however, they fuftained with incre¬
dible patience, being encouraged by the example of
their king ; who, on this occafion, fuffered greater
hardffiips than the meaneft foldier in his army. At laft
they
Macedon.
MAC
109
Redreffes
the grie¬
vances of
his people,
no
Marries
other two
wives.
ill
Pays the
debts of h
army.
t. ey arrived at the capital of Gedrolia, where they re-
refhed themfelves, and ftaid fome time : after which
they marched into Caramania j which being a very plen-
ti ul country, they there made themfelves ample amends
for tlie hardfhips and fatigues they had fuitained. Here
they were joined firlt by Craterus with the troops un¬
der his command, with a number of elephants : then
came Stafanor preiident of the Arians, and Pharifmanes
the .on of Phrataphernes governor of Parthia. They
brought with them camels, horfes, and other beads of
burden, in vaft numbers ; having forefeen, that the
king’s march through Gedrofia would be attended with
the lofs of the greateft part, if not of all the cavalry
and beads belonging to his army.
-baring Alexander’s day in Caramania, he redreffed
the injuries of his people, who had been grievoufly op-
preffed by their governors during his abfence. Here
alfo he was joined by his admiral Nearchus, who
brought him an account that all under his command
were in perfect fafety, and in excellent condition j
with which the king was mightily pleafed, and, after
having bellowed on him lingular marks of his favour,
lent him back to the navy. Alexander next fet out for
Perfia, where great diforders had been committed du¬
ring his abfence. Thefe alfo he redrefled, and caufed
toe governor to be crucified ; appointing in his room
Peuceftas, who faved his life when he fought fingly
agamft a whole garrifon as above related. The new
governor was no fooner inverted with his dignity, than
he laid afide the Macedonian garb, and put on that of
the Medes j being the only one of Alexander’s captains,
who, by complying with the manners of the people he
governed, gained their affetfion.
While Alexander vifited the different parts of Per-
rta, he took a view, among the reft, of the ruins of Per-
iepolis, where he is faid to have expreffed great for-
row for the deftru&ion he had formerly occalioned.
From Perfepolis he marched to Sufa, where he gave
an extraordinary loofe to pleafure 5 refolving to make
himlelf and his followers fome amends for the difficul¬
ties they had hitherto undergone: purpofing at the
lame time fo effeaually to unite his new conquered
with his hereditary fubjefts, that the jealoufies and
iears which had^ hitherto tormented both, fliould no
longer fubfift. With this view he married two wives
of the blood royal of Perfia j viz. Barfine, or Statira,
r r-k U^ter •^ar*Us> and Paryfatis the daughter
of Ochus. Drypetis, another daughter of Darius, he
gave to Hephaeftion 5 Amallrine, - he daughter of Oxy-
artes the brother of Darius, married Craterus •, and
to the reft of his friends, to the number of 80, he pave
other women of the greateft quality. All thefe mar¬
riages were celebrated at once, Alexander himfelf be¬
llowing fortunes upon them ; he direfted likewife to
ta^e account of the number of his officers and foldiers
who had married Afiatic wives j and though they ap¬
peared to be 10,000, yet he gratified each of them ac-
cording to his rank. He next refolved to pay the debts
;0. his army, and thereupon iffued an edidl direfling
every man to regifter his name and the fum he owed :
with which the foldiers complying llowly, from an ap-
prehenfion that there was fome defign againft them,
Alexander oidered tables heaped with money to be fet
m all quarters of the camp, and caufed every man’s
debts to be paid on his bare word, without even
[ ]
MAC
making any entry of ms name : though the whole fum Mafedon.
came to 20,000 talents. On fuch as had diftinguilhed ’T^-
themlelves in an extraordinary manner, he bellowed
crowns of gold. Peuceltas had the firft j Leonatus
the fecond 5 Nearelms the third ; Oneficritus the
fourth ; H phaeition the fifth j and the reft of his
guards had each of them one. After this he made
jither difpofitions for conciliating, as he fuppofed, the
differences among all his fubjeds. He reviewed the
30,000 youths, whom at his departure for India he had
ordered to be taught Greek and the Macedonian dif-
cinlinej expreffing high fatisfadion at the fine appear¬
ance they made, which rendered them worthy of the
appellation he bellowed on them, viz. that of Epigoni,
1. e. fucceffors.. He promoted alfo, without any dif-
tinflion of nation, all thofe who had ferved him faith¬
fully and valiantly in the Indian war. When all thefe
regulations were made, he gave the command of his
heavy armed troops to Hephaeftion, and ordered him
to march direftly to the banks of the Tigris, while in
the mean time a fleet was equipped for carrying the
king and the troops he retained with him down to the
ocean.
Ihus ended the exploits of Alexander ; the greateft
conqueror that ever the world faw, at leaft with re-
fpeft to the rapidity of his conquefts. In 12 years
time he had brought under his fubje&ion Egypt
Libya, Alia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Paleftine, Ba-’
byloma, Perfia, with part of India and Tartary. Still
however, he meditated greater things. He had now
got a great tafte in maritime affairs j and is faid to
have meditated a voyage to the coafts of Arabia and
Ethiopia, and thence round the whole continent of
Africa to the rtraits of Gibraltar. But of this there
is no great certainty j though that he intended to fub-
due the Carthaginians and Italians, is more than pro¬
bable. All thefe defigns, however, were fruftrated by
his death, which happened at Babylon in 323 B. C.
He is faid to have received feveral warnings of his ap¬
proaching fate, and to have been advifed to avoid that
city 5 which advice he either defpifed or could not fol¬
low. He died of a fever after eight days illneft, with-
out warning any fucceffor j having only given his ring Babylon
to Perd.ccas, and left the kingdom, as he faid, to the
moji worthy.
Ihe charafter of this great prince has been variouf- H;s charac.
ly reprefented ; but moft hiftonans feem to have look-ter<
ed upon him rather as an illuftrious madman than one
upon whom the epithet of Great could be properly be¬
llowed. From a careful obfervation of his conduft
however, it mull appear, that he poffeffed not only a
capacity to plan, but likewife to execute, the greateft
enterprifes that ever entered into the mind of any of
the human race. From whatever caufe the notion
originated, it is plain that he imagined himfelf a divine
perfon, and born to fubdue the whole world: and ex¬
travagant and impraftieable as this fcheme may appear
at prefent, it cannot at all be looked upon in the lame
light in the time of Alexander. The Greeks were in
his time the molt powerful people in the world in re-
fpeft to their Ikill in the military art, and the Perfians
were the moft powerful with refpeft to wealth and
numbers. I he only other powerful people in the
world were the Carthaginians, Gauls, and Italian na¬
tions. From a long feries of wars which the Cartha¬
ginians
MAC [3
.faceJjn. ginians carried on in Sicily, it appeared that they
"'"v'-’""'' were by no means capable of contending with the
Greeks, even when they had an immenfe fuperiority of
numbers j much lefs then could they have fuftained
an attack from the whole power of Greece and Afxa
united. The Gauls and Italians were indeed very
brave, and of a martial difpofition; but they wfere bar¬
barous, and could not have refilled armies well dif-
ciplined and under the command of fuch a Ikilful
leader as Alexander. Even long after this time, it ap¬
peared that the Romans themfelves could not have
refilled the Greeks ; fince Regulus, after having de¬
feated the Carthaginians and reduced them to the ut-
moft diilrefs, was totally unable to refill a Carthagi¬
nian army commanded by a Greek general, and guided
by Greek difcipline.
Thus it appears, that the fcheme of Alexander can¬
not by any means be accounted that of a madman, or
of one who projects great things without judgment or
means to execute them. If we confider from his ac¬
tions the end which moil probably he had in view,
could his fcheme have been accomplifhed, we Ihall find
it not only the greateil but the bejl that can poffibly
be imagined. He did not conquer todeilroy, enllave,
or opprefsj but to civilize and unite the whole world
as one nation. No fooner was a province conquered
than he took care of it as if it had been part of his
paternal inheritance. He allowed not his foldiers to
opprefs and plunder the Perfians, which they were
very much inclined to do ; on the contrary, by giving
into the oriental cufloms himfelf, he llrove to extinguifh
that inveterate hatred which had fo long fubfilled be¬
tween the two nations. In the Scythian countries
which he fubdued, he purfued the fame excellent plan.
His courage and military fidll, in which he never was
excelled, w'ere difplayed, not with a view' to rapine or
defultory conqueft, but to civilize and induce the bar¬
barous inhabitants to employ themfelves in a more pro¬
per way of life. “ Midft the hard [hips of a military
life (fays Dr Gillies), obftinate fieges, bloody battles,
and dear bought victories, he Hill refpecled the rights
of mankind, and praftifed the mild virtues of huma¬
nity. The conquered nations enjoyed their ancient
law's and privileges j the rigours of defpotifm were foft-
ened \ arts and induftry encouraged ; and the proudell
Macedonian governors compelled, by the authority and
example of Alexander, to obferve the rules of juflice
towards their meanefl fubjedls. To bridle the fierce
inhabitants of the Scythian plains, he founded cities
and eflablifhed polonies on the banks of the laxartes
and Oxus ; and thole deftrudlive campaigns ufually
afcribed to his refllefs adlivity, and blind ambition,
appeared to the difcernment of this extraordinary man
not only effential to the fecurity of the conquefts
which he had already made, but neeeffary for the more
remote and fplendid expeditions which he Hill pur-
pofed to undertake, and which he performed with
lingular boldnefs and unexampled fuccefs.” In an¬
other place, the fame author gives his charadler in the
following words.
“ He was of a low flature, and fomewhat deform¬
ed ; but the adlivity and elevation of his mind ani¬
mated and ennobled his frame. By a life of continual
labour, and by an early and habitual pradlice of the
gymnailic exercifes, he had hardened his body againft
19 ] MAC
the impreffions of cold and heat, hunger and thirfl,
and prepared his robuft conflitution for bearing fuch
exertions of flrength and adlivity, as have appeared
incredible to the undifciplined foftnefs of modern times.
In generofity and in prowefs, Jie rivalled the greateft
heroes of antiquity j and in the race of glory, having
finally outftnpped all competitors, became ambitious
to furpafs himfelf. H is fuperior Ikill in war gave un¬
interrupted fuccefs to his arms j and his natural hu¬
manity, enlightened by the philofophy of Greece,
taught him to improve his conquelts to the bed inte-
refls of mankind. In his extenfive dominions he built
or founded not lefs than 70 cities j the fituation of
which being chofen with confummate wifdom, tended
to facilitate communication, to promote commerce,
and to diffufe civility through the greateil nations of
the earth. It may be fufpedled, indeed, that he mif-
took the extent of human power, when in the courfe
of one reign he undertook to change the face of the
world : and that he mifcalcuiated the ilubbornnefs of
ignorance and the force of habit, when he attempted
to enlighten barbarifm, to foften fervitude, and to
tranfplant the improvements of Greece into an Afri¬
can and Afiatic foil, where they have never been
known to flouriih. Yet let not the defigns of Alex¬
ander be too hailily accufed of extravagance. Who¬
ever feriouily confiders what he actually performed be¬
fore his 33d year, will be cautious of determining w'hat
he might have accompliilied had he reached the ordi¬
nary term of human life. His refources were peculiar
to himfelf j and fuch view’s as well as aflions became
him as wmuld have become none befides. In the lan¬
guage of a philofophical hillorian, * he feems to have
been given to the world by a peculiar difpenfation of
Providence, being a man like to none other of the
human kind.’
“ From the part which his father Philip and himfelf
a£led in the affairs of Greece, his *hiiiory has been
tranfmitted through the impure channels of exagge¬
rated flattery or malignant envy. The innumerable
fictions which difgrace the works of his biographers,
are contradi&ed by the moil authentic accounts of his
reign, and inconfiilent with thofe public tranfaclions
which concurring authorities confirm. In the prefent
work it feemed unneceffary to expatiate on fuch topics,
fince it is lefs the bufinefs of hiitory to repeat or even
to expofe errors than to fele£l and imprefs ufeful truths.
An author, ambitious of attaining that purpofe, can
feldom indulge the language of general panegyric.
He will acknowledge that Alexander’s aftions were
not always blameleis •, but, after the moil careful ex¬
amination, he will affirm, that his faults were few in
number, and refulted from his fituation rather than
from his chara6ler.
“ From the firll vears of his reign he experienced the
crimes of difaffe£tion and treachery, which multiplied
and became more dangerous with tjbe extent of his
dominions and the difficulty to govern them. St veral
of his lieutenants early afpired at independence; others
formed confpiraeies againlt the life of their mailer.
The firft criminals were treated with a lenity becom¬
ing the generous fpirit of Alexander: but when
Philotas, the fon of Parmenio, and even Parmenio
himfelf, afforded reafon to fufpeft their fidelity ; when
the Macedonian youths, who, according to the infti-
lutioii 4
Macedon.
MAC
^ acedon. tution of Philip, guarded the royal pavilion, prepared
to murder their fovereign, he found it neceffary to de¬
part from his lenient fyftem, and to hold with a firmer
hand the reins of government. Elated by unexampled
prosperity, and the fubmiflive reverence of vanquilhed
nations, his loftinefs difgufted the pride of his Euro¬
pean troops, particularly the Macedonian nobles, who
had been accuftomed to regard themfelves rather as
his companions than fubje&s. The pretenfions which
found policy taught him to form and to maintain, of
being treated with thofe external honours ever claim¬
ed by the monarchs of the Eaft, highly offended the
religious prejudices of the Greeks, who deemed it im¬
pious to proftrate the body or bend the knee to any
mortal fovereign. Yet had he remitted formalities
confecrated by the pra&ice of ages, he muft infenfibly
have loft the refpedt of his Afiatic fubje&s. With a
view to reconcile the difcordant principles of the vic¬
tors and vanquifhed, he affeded an immediate defcent
from Jupiter Ammon, a claim liberally admitted by the
avarice or fears of the Libyan priefts $ and which, he
had reafon to expeft, could not be very obftinately
denied by the credulity of the Greeks and Macedo¬
nians $ who univerfally acknowledged that Philip, his
reputed father, was remotely defeended from the Gre¬
cian Jupiter. But the fuccefs of this defign, which
might have entitled him, as a fon of Jupiter, to the fame
obeifance from the Greeks which the barbarians rea¬
dily paid him as monarch of the Eaft, was counter-
afted, at firft by the fecret difpleafure, and afterwards
by the open indignation, of feveral of his generals and
courtiers. Nor did the conduft of Alexander tend to
extricate him from ihis difficulty. With his friends
he maintained that equal intercourfe of vifits and en¬
tertainments which characterized the Macedonian man¬
ners j indulged the liberal flow of unguarded conver-
fation ; and often exceeded that intemperance in wine
which difgraced his age and country.”
We fhall conclude this character of Alexander with
obferving, that he had in view, and undoubtedly muft
have accomplifhed, the fovereignty of the ocean as well
as of the land. The violent refiftance made by the
Tyrians had fliown him the ftrength of a commercial
nation $ and it was undoubtedly with a view to enrich
his dominions by commerce, that he equipped the fleet
on the Indus, and wiflied to keep up a communication
with India by fea as well as by land. “ It was chiefly
with a view to the former of thefe objeCls (fays Dr Ro-
bertfon), that he examined the navigation of the Indus
with fo much attention. With the fame view, on his
return to Sufa, he in perfon furveyed the courfe of the
Euphrates and Tigris, and gave directions to remove
the cataraCts or dams with which the ancient monarchs
of Perfia, induced by a peculiar precept of their reli¬
gion, which enjoined them to guard with the utmoft
care againfl defiling any of the elements, had conftruft-
ed near the mouths of thefe rivers, in order to (hut out
their fubjefts from any accefs to the ocean. By open¬
ing the navigation in this manner, he propofed that the
valuable commodities of India fhould be conveyed from
the Perfian gulf into the interior parts of his Afiatic do¬
minions, while by the Arabian gulf they fhould be car¬
ried to Alexandria, and diftributed to the reft of the
world.
u Grand and extenfxve as thefe fchemes were, the
[ 32° 1
MAC
precautions employed, and the arrangements mad^ for
carrying them into execution, were fo various and fo
proper, that Alexander had good reaibn to entertain
fanguine hopes of their proving fuccefsful. At the time
when the mutinous fpirit of his foldiers obliged him to
relinquifh his operations in India, he was not 30 years
of age complete. At this enterprifing period of life, a
prince of a fpirit fo aftive, perfevering, and indefati¬
gable, muft have foon found means to refume a favour¬
ite meafure on which he had been long intent. If he
had invaded India a fecond time, he would not, as for¬
merly, have been obliged to force his w ay through hof-
tile and unexplored regions, oppofed at every ftep by
nations and tribes of barbarians whofe names had never
reached Greece. All Afia, from the {bores of the Io¬
nian fea to the banks of the Hyphafis, would then have
been fubjeCt to his dominion ; and through that im-
menfe ftretch of country he had eftabliftied fuch a chain
of cities or fortified ftations, that his armies might have
continued their march with fafety, and have°found a
regular fucceflion of magazines provided for their fub-
fiftence. Nor would it have been difficult for him to
bring into the field forces fufficient to have achieved the
conqueft of a country fo populous and extenfive as In¬
dia. Having armed and difciplined his fubjedls in the
eaft like Europeans, they would have been ambitious
to imitate and to equal their inftrudlors j and Alexan¬
der might have drawn recruits, not from his fcanty do¬
mains in Macedonia and Greece, but from the vaft re¬
gions of Afia, which in every age has covered the
earth, and aftoniflied mankind with its numerous ar¬
mies. When at the head of fuch a formidable power
he had reached the confines of India, he might have
entered it under circumftances very different from thofe
in his firft expedition. He had fecured a firm footing
there, partly by means of the garrifons which he left in
the three cities which he had built and fortified, and
partly by his alliance with Taxiles and Porus. Thefe
two Indian princes, won by Alexander’s humanity and
beneficence, which, as they were virtues feldom dif-
played in the ancient mode of carrying on war, excited
of courfe a higher degree of admiration and gratitude,
had continued fteady in their attachment to the Mace¬
donians. Reinforced by their troops, and guided by
their information as well as by the experience which he
had acquired in his former campaigns, Alexander muft
have made rapid progrefs in a country where every in¬
vader from his time to the prefent age has proved fuc¬
cefsful.
“ But this and all his other fplendid fchemes were
terminated at once by his untimely death. In con-
fequence of that, however, events took place which il-
luftrate and confirm the juftnefs of the preceding fpecu-
lations and conjedlures, by evidence the moft ftriking
and fatisfaftory. When that great empire, which the
fuperior genius of Alexander had kept united and in
fubjeftion, no longer felt his fuperintending controul,
it broke into pieces, and its various provinces xvere
feized by his principal officers, and parcelled out among
them. From ambition, emulation, and perfonal animo-
fity, they foon turned their arms againft one another j
and as feveral of the leaders were equally eminent for
political abilities and for military {kill, the conteft was
maintained long, and carried on with frequent vicifli-
tudes of fortune. Amidft the various convulfions and
revolutions
Macedon j
M A C
'.
114
wfes of
e diffolu
an of his
npire.
\!acedon. revolutions which thefe occafioned, it was found that
the meafures of Alexander for the prefervation of his
conquefts had been concerted with fuch fagacity, that
upon the final reftoration of tranquillity, the Macedo¬
nian dominion continued to be etlablifhed in every part
of Afia, and not one province had (liaken off the yoke.
Even India, the moft remote of Alexander’s conquelts,
quietly fubmitted to Python the fon of Agenor, and af¬
terwards to Seleucus, who fucceflively obtained domi¬
nion over that part of Alia. Purus and Taxiles, not-
withftanding the death of their benefactor, neither de¬
clined fubmiffion to the authority of the Macedonians,
nor made any attempt to recover independence.”
* With the death of Alexander fell alfo the glory of
the Macedonians j who very foon relapfed into a litu-
ation, as bad, or worfe, than that in which they had
been before the reign of Philip. This was occafioned
principally by his not having diftinctly named a fuc-
ceffor, and having no child of his own come to the
years of difcretion to whom the kingdom might feem
naturally to belong. The ambition and jealoufy of his
mother Olympias, his queen Roxana, and efpecially of
the great commanders of his army, not only prevented
a fucceffor from being ever named, but occafioned the
death of every perfon, whether male or female, who
W'as in the lead related to Alexander. To have a juft
notion of the origin of thefe difturbances, it is neceffary
in the firft place to underftand the fituation of the Ma¬
cedonian affairs at the time of Alexander’s death.
When Alexander fet out for Afia, he left Antipater,
as we formerly obferved, in Macedon, to prevent any
difturbances that might arife either there or in Greece.
The Greeks, even during the lifetime of Alexander,
bore the fuperiority which he exercifed over them with
great impatience ; and, though nothing could be more
gentle than the government of Antipater, yet he was
exceedingly hated, becaufe he obliged them to be quiet.
One of the laft aftions of Alexander’s life fet all Greece
in a flame. Pie had, by an edi£f, direffed all the cities
of Greece to recal their exiles ; which edidl, when it
was publiftied at the Olympic games, created much con-
fufion. Many of the cities w ere afraid, that, when the
exiles returned, they would change the government ;
moft of them doubted their own fafety, if the edift took
place j and all of them held this peremptory decree to
be a total abolition of their liberty. No fooner, there¬
fore, did the news of Alexander’s death arrive than
they prepared for war.
In Afia the ftate of things was not much better; not
indeed through apy inclination of the conquered coun¬
tries to revolt, but through the diffenfions among the
commanders.—In the general council which was called
foon after the death of Alexander, after much confufion
and altercation, it was at laft agreed, or rather com¬
manded by the foldiers, that Aridaeus, the brother of
Alexander, who had always accompanied the king, and
had been wont to facrifice with him, Ihould affume the
fovereignty.—This Aridaeus was a man of very flender
parts and judgment, not naturally, but by the wicked
pra&ices of Olympias, who had given him poifonous
draughts in his infancy, left he ftiould ftand in the way
of her fon Alexander or any of his family ; and for this,
or fome other reafon, Perdiccas, Ptolemy, and moft of
the horff officers, relented his promotion to fuch a de-
.gree, that they quitted the afiembly, and even the city.
Vol. XII. Part I.
[ 32' 1
M A C
.u5
idseus
Jointed
‘g-
However, Meleager, at the head of the phalanx vigo- Maceclon.
roully lupported their firft refolution, and threatened
loudly to Ihed the blood of thoi’e who affebted to rule
over their equals, and to affume a kingdom, which no¬
way belonged to them : Aridaeus was accordingly ar¬
rayed in royal robes, had the arms of Alexander put
upon him, and was faluted by the name of Phi/ip, to 116
render him more popular. Thus were two parties form- A party
ed, at the head of whom were Meleager and Perdiccas,
both of them pretending vaft concern for the public ^
good, yet at bottom defiring nothing more than their by Perdic-
own advantage. Perdiccas was a man of high birth,cas.
and had a fupreme command in the army, was much in
favour with Alexander, and one in whom the nobility-
had put great confidence. Meleager had become for¬
midable by having the phalanx on his fidt, and having
the nominal king entirely in his power; for Aridaeus,
or Philip, was obliged to comply with whatever he
thought proper ; and publicly declared, that whatever
he did was by the advice of Meleager; fo that he made
his minifter accountable for his own fchemes, and no¬
way endangered himfelf. The Macedonians alfo, be-
fides their regard for the deceafed king, foon began to
entertain 'a perfonal love for Philip on account of his
moderation.
It is remarkable, however, that notwithftanding all
the favours w'hich Alexander had conferred upon his
officers, and the fidelity with which they had ferved
him during his life, only two of them were attached to
the intererts of his family after his death. Thefe were
Antipater, and Eumenes the Cardian, whom he had
appointed his fecretary. Antipater, as we have al¬
ready feen, was embroiled with the Greeks, and could
not affift the royal family who were in Afia ; and Eu¬
menes had not as yet fufficient intereft to form a party u7
in their favour. In a ftiort time, however, Perdiccas Meleager
prevailed againft Meleager, and got him murdered ; mur(iere(b
by which means the fupreme pow'er for a time fell intoem"
his hands. His firft ftep, in confequence of this power, vkfed.1
was to diftribute the provinces of the empire among the
commanders in the follow ing manner, in order to pre¬
vent competitors, and to fatisfy the ambition of the
principal commanders of the army. Aridaeus, and the
fon of Roxana, born after the death of his father, were
to enjoy the regal authority. Antipater had the go¬
vernment of the European provinces. Craterus had
the title of proteBor. Perdiecas was general of the
houfehold troops in the room of Hephaeftion. Ptolemy
the fon of Lagus had Egypt, Libya, and that part of
Arabia which borders upon Egypt. Cleomenes, a man
of infamous charafter, whom Alexander had made re¬
ceiver-general in Egypt, was made Ptolemy’s deputy.
Leomedon had Syria ; Philotas, Cilicia ; Python, Me¬
dia ; Eumenes, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and all the
country bordering on the Euxine fea, as far as Trape-
zus ; but thefe were not yet conquered, fo that he was
a governor without a province. Antigonus had Pam-
phylia, Lycia, and Phrygia Major ; Caffander, Ca-
ria; Menander, Lydia; Leonatus, Phrygia on the
Hellefpont. ug
In the mean time, not only Alexander’s will, but Alexan-
Alexander himfelf, was fo much neglefled, that his^er’s
body was allowed to remain feven days before any no-^d^iswllJ
tice was taken of it, or any orders given for its being |-a af1(je>
embalmed. The only will he left was a Ihort memo-
S f randurn
M AC [3
Macedon. randum of fix things he would have done. i. The
building of a fleet of 1000 flout galleys, to be made
ufe of againft the Carthaginians and other nations who
fhould oppofe the redudfion of the fea-coafls of Africa
and Spain, with all the adjacent iflands as far as Sicily.
2. A large and regular highway was to be made alon^
the coafl of Africa, as far as Ceuta and Tangier. 3°.
Six temples of extraordinary magnificence were to be
eredled at the expence of 1500 talents each. 4. Caf-
tlts, arfenals, havens, and yards for building fiu'ps, to
be fettled in proper places throughout his empire. 5.
Several new cities were to be built in Europe and Afia ;
thole in Afia to be inhabited by colonies from Europe,
and thofe in Europe to be filled with Afiatics; that, by
blending their people and their manners, that hereditary
antipathy might be eradicated which had hitherto fub-
fifted between the inhabitants of the different conti¬
nents. 6. Laflly, He had projedled the building of a
pyramid, equal in bulk and beauty to the biggc-lt in
Egypt, in honour of his father Philip. All thefe de-
figns, under pretence of their being expenfive, were re¬
ferred to a council of Macedonians, to be held nobody
knew when or where.
The government, being now in the hands of Perdic-
cas and Roxana, grew quickly very cruel and diftafte-
ful. Alexander was fcarce dead when the queen lent
for Statira and Drypetis the two daughters of Darius,
1I9 one of whom had been married to Alexander and the
The daugh-other to Hephmilion : but as foon as they arrived at
Babylon, caufed them both to be murdered, that no
fon of Alexander by any other woman, or of Hephgef-
tion, might give any trouble to her or her fon Alexan¬
der. Sifygambis, the mother of Darius, no fooner
heard that Alexander the Great was dead, than fhe laid
violent hands on herfelf, being gpprehenfive of the ca-
no lamities which were about to enfue. *
The Greeks War was firft declared in Greece againft Antipater
r.I°r.!bbUt in lhe year 321 C- Through the treachery of the
Theffalians, that general was defeated, with the army
he had under his own command. Leonatus was there¬
fore fen t from Afia, with a very confiderable army, to
his affiftance ; but both were overthrown with great lofs
by the confederates, and Leonatus himfelf was killed.
In a ftiort time, however, Craterus arrived in Greece
with a great army, the command of which he refigned
to Antipater. The army of the confederates amounted
to 25,000 foot and 3000 horfe ; but Antipater com¬
manded no fewer than 40,000 foot, 3000 archers, and
5000 horfe. In fuch an unequal conteft, therefore, the
Greeks were defeated, and forced to fue for peace ;
which they did not obtain but on condition of their re¬
ceiving Macedonian garrifons into feveral of their cities.
At Athens alio the democratic government was abro¬
gated ; and fuch a dreadful puniihment did this feem to
the Athenians, that 22,000 of them left their country,
and retired into Macedon.
While thefe things were doing in Greece, difturb-
anxl Thrkce. 311 ces beSan air° f° arife Afia and in Thrace. The
‘ A ’ Greek mercenaries, who were difperfcd through the
inland provinces of Afia, defpairing of ever being al¬
lowed to return home by fair means, determined to
attempt it by force. For this purpofe, they affembled
to the number of 20,000 foot and 3000 horfo j but
•were all cut off to a man by the Macedonians. In
Xaraee, Lyfimachus was attacked by one Seuthes, a
ters of Da¬
rius put to
death by-
Roxana.
are fub
dued.
171
Bifturban-
22 ] M A C
prince of that country, who claimed the dominions of Macedo
his anceftors, and had raifed an army of 20,000 foot ““-v-
and Sooo horfe. But though the Macedonian com¬
mander was forced to engage this army with no more
than 4000 foot and 2000 horfe, yet he kept the field
ot battle, and could not be driven out ef the country.
Perdiccas, in the mean time, by pretending friendfliip
10 the royal family, had gained over Eumenes entirely I2,
to his interell ; and at laft put him in pofleflion of theAmbitionl
province of Cappadocia by the defeat of Ariarathesand cmel|
king of that country, whom he afterwards cruellyty of ^
caufed to be crucified. Elis ambition, however, nowdlCCas’
began to lead him into difficulties. At the firft divifioa
of the provinces, Perdiccas, to ftrengthen his own au¬
thority, had prcpofed to marry Nicaea the daughter of
Antipaler ; and fo well was this propofal reliihed, that
her brethren Jollas and Archias conduced her to him
in order to be prefent at the celebration of the nuptials*
But Perdiccas now had other things in view. He had
been folicited by Olympias to marry her daughter Cleo¬
patra, the widow of Alexander king of Epirus, and
who then refided at Sardis in Lydia. Eumenes pro¬
moted this match to the utmoft of his power, becaufe
he thought it would be for the intereft of the royal fa¬
mily j and his perfuafions had fuch an effett on Perdic¬
cas, that he was fent to Sardis to compliment Cleopa¬
tra, and to carry prefents to her in name of her new
lover. In the abfence of Eumenes, however, Alcetas,
the brother of Perdiccas, perfuaded him to marry Ni-
csea ; but, in order to gratify his ambition, he refolved
to divorce her immediately after marriage, and marry
Cleopatra. By this laft marriage, he hoped to have a
pretence for altering the government of Macedon : and,
as a neceffary meafure preparative to thefe, he entered
into contrivances for deftroying Antigonus. Unfortu¬
nately for himfelf, however, he ruined all his fchemes
by his own jealoufy and precipitate cruelty. Cynane,
the daughter of Philip by his fecond wife, had brought
her daughter named Adda, and who was afterwards
named Eurydice, to court, in hopes that King Aridams
might marry her. Againft Cynane,’ Perdiccas, from
fome political motives, conceived fuch a grudge, that he
caufed her to be murdered. This raifed a commotion
in the army ; which frightened Perdiccas to fuch a de¬
gree, that he now promoted the match between Ari-
daeus and Eurydice 5 to prevent which, he had murder¬
ed the mother of the young princAs. But, in the mean
time, Antigonus, knowing the defigns of Perdiccas
againft himfelf, fled with his fon Demetrius to Greece,
there to take ffielter under the protection of Antipater
and Craterus, whom he informed of the ambition and
cruelty of the regent. ^
A civil war was now kindled. Antipater, Craterus, A combi-
Neoptolemus, and Antigonus, were combined againft nation a-
Perdiccas y and it was the misfortune of the empire in§ainftl*H
general, that Eumenes, the moft able general, as well
as the moft virtuous of all the commanders, was on
the fide of Perdiccas, becaufe he believed him to be
in the intereft of Alexander’s family. Ptolemy, in the
mean time, remained in quiet poffeffion of Egypt; but
without the leaft intention of owning any perfon for his
fuperior : however, he alfo acceded to the league form¬
ed againft Perdiccas; and thus the only perfon in the
whole empire who confulted the intereff of the royal
family was Eumenes..
It
MAC
[
,f action.
US
:rdiccas
lied by
s own
3
It was now thought proper to bury the body of
Alexander, which had been kept for two years, during
all which time preparations had been making for it.
Aridaeus, to whofe care it was committed, fet out from
Babylon for Damafcus, in order to carry the king’s
body to Egypt. This was fore againft the will of
Perdiccas; for it feems there was a fuperftitious
report, that wherever the body of Alexander was laid,
that country fhould flourilh moft. Perdiccas, therefore,
out of regard to his native foil, would have it conveyed
to the royal fepulchres in Macedon; but Aridaeus,
pleading the late king’s exprefs direction, was deter¬
mined to carry it into Egypt, from thence to be con¬
veyed to the temple of Jupiter Ammon.—The funeral
was accordingly conduced with all imaginable mag¬
nificence. Ptolemy came to meet the body as far as
Syria: but, inftead of burying it in the temple of
Jupiter Ammon, eredted a (lately temple for it in the
city of Alexandria ; and, by the refpedl he fhowed for
his dead matter, induced many of the Macedonian
veterans to join him, and who were afterwards of the
greateft fervice to him.
No fooner was the funeral over, than both the
parties above mentioned fell to blows. Perdiccas
marched againft Ptolemy : but was flain by his own
men, who, after the death of their general, fubmitted
to his antagonift : and thus Eumenes was left alone to
contend againft all the other generals who had ferved
under Alexander. In this conteft, however, he would
by no means have been overmatched, had his foldiers
been attached to him ; but as they had been ac-
cuftomed to ferve under thofe very generals againft
whom they svere now to fight, they were on all occa-
fions ready to betray and defert Eumenes. However
he defeated and killed Neoptolemus and Craterus,
but then found himfelf obliged to contend with Anti¬
pater and Antigonus. Antipater was now appointed
protector of the kings, with fovereign power; and
Eumenes was declared a public enemy. Anewdivifion
fionoftheof Alexander’s empire took place. Egypt, Libya,
opire. and the parts adjacent, were given to Ptolemy, becaufe
they could not be taken from him. Syria was con¬
firmed to Leomedon. Philoxenus had Cilicia. Me-
fopotamia and Arbelitus were given to Amphimachus.
Babylon was bellowed on Seleucus. Sufiana fell to
Antigenes, who commanded the Macedonian Ar^yraf-
pidce or Silver Shields, becaufe he was the firft who
oppofed Perdiceas. Peuceftas held Perfia. Tlepole-
mus had Caramapia. Python had Media as far as the
Cafpian ftraits. 1 Stafander had Aria and Drangia;
Philip, Parthia j Stafonor, Badlria and Sogdia ; Sy-
birtius, Aracopa •, Oxyartes, the father of Roxana,
Parapomifis. Another Python had the country be¬
tween this province and India. Porus and Taxiles
held what Alexander had given them, becaufe they
would not part with any of their dominions. Cappa¬
docia was afligned to Nicanor. Phrygia Major, Ly-
caonia, Pamphylia, and Lycia, were given to A' tigo-
nus; Caria to Callander, Lydia to Clytus, Phrygia the
Lefs to Aridaeus. Callander was appointed general of
the horfe j while the command of the houfehold troops
was given to Antigonus, with orders to profecute the
war againft Eumenes. Antipater having thus fettled
every thing as well as he could, returned to Macedon
with the two kings, to the great joy of his countrymen,
116
23 ] M A C
having left his fon CaiTander to be a check upon Anti- Macedon.
gonus in Alia.
Matters now feemed to wear a better afpefl than
they had yet done j and, had Eumenes believed that
his enemies really confulted the intereftof Alexander’s
family, there is not the leaft doubt that the war
would have been immediately terminated. He faAV,
however, that the delign of Antigonus was only to
fet up for himfelf, and therefore he refufed to fubmit.
From this time, therefore, the Macedonian empire
ceafed in Alia: and an account of the tranfa£fions of
this part of the world fall to be recorded under the
article Syria. The Macedonian affairs are now en¬
tirely confined to the kingdom of Macedoh itfelf, and
to Greece. I2y
Antipater had not long been returned to Macedon, Total de-
when he died ; and the lalt aftion of his life completed ftru<ftion of
the ruin of Alexander’s family. Out of a view to the ^*eXjan<^er s
public good, he had appointed Polyfperchon, the eldell
of Alexander’s captains at hand, to be prote&or and
governor of Macedon. This faded not to difguft his
fon Caffander 5 who thought he had a natural right to
thefe offices, and of courfe kindled a new civil «ar in
Macedon. This was indeed highly promoted by his
firft aflions as a governor. He began with attempt¬
ing to remove all the governors appointed in Greece
by Antipater, and to reflore democracy wherever it
had been abofflh cl. The immediate confequence of
this was, that the people refufed to obey their magi-
ftrates $ the governors refufed to refign their places,
and applied for affiftance to Caffander. Polyfperchon
alfo had the imprudence to recal Olympias from Epi¬
rus, and allow her a lhare in the adminiftration 5 which
Antipater, and even Alexander himfelf, had always
refufed her. The confequence of all this was, that
Callander invaded Greece, where he prevailed againft
Polyfperchon : Olympias returned to Macedon, where
Ihe cruelly murdered Aridaeus and his wife Eurydice ;
Ihe herfelf was put to death by Caffander, who after¬
wards caufed Roxana and her fon to be murdered, and
Polyfperchon being driven into Etolia, firft railed to
the crown Hercules the fon of Alexander by the daugh¬
ter of Darius, and then by the inftigation of Caflander
murdered him, by which means the line of Alexander
the Great became totally extinft. r28
Caffander having thus deftroyed all the royal family, Va ious re¬
affirmed the regal title as he had for 16 years before vo*ljtlons
had all the power. He enjoyed the title
Macedon only three years; after which he died, about
298 B. C. By Theffalonica, the daughter of Philip
king of Macedon, he left three Tons, Philip, Antipa¬
ter, and Alexander. Philip fueceeded him, but foon
after died of a confumption. A conteft immediately
began between the two brothers, Antipater and Alex¬
ander. Antipater feized the kingdom ; and to fecure
himfelf in it, murdered his mother Theffalonica, if
not with his own hand, at leaft the execrable a£l
was committed in his prefence. Alexander invited
Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and Demetrius the fon of
Antigonus, to affift him and revenge the death of his
mother. But Pyrrhus being bought off,' and a peace
concluded between the brothers, Alexander, being
afraid of having too many protettors, formed a fcheme
of getting Demetrius affaftinated. Inftead of this, how¬
ever, both he and Antipater were put to death ; and
S f 2 . Demetrius
r 1 ■ /.in 1 he po-
0 lnS' vernment.
M A
Maceckm. Demetrius became king
the death of CaiTander.
In 287 B. C. Demetrius was driven out by Pyrrhus,
who was again driven out by Lyfimachus two years
after, who was foon after killed by Seleucus Nicanor }
and Seleueus, in his turn, was murdered by Ptolemy
Ceraunus, who became king of Macedon about 280
Ihe new king was in a fhort time cut off, with
his whole army, by the Gauls; and Antigonus Gonatus,
the fon of Demetrius Poliorcetes, became king of Ma¬
cedon in 278 B. C. He proved fuccefsful againft the
Gauls, but was driven out by Pyrrhus king of Epirus;
who, however, foon difobliged his fubje&s to fuch a
degree, that Antigonus recovered a great part of his
kingdom. But in a little time, Pyrrhus being killed
at the liege of Argos in Greece, Antigonus was reftor-
®d to the whole of IVIacedon ; but fcarcely was he
feated on the throne, when he was driven from it by
Alexander the fon of Pyrrhus, f his new invader was,
in his turn, expelled by Demetrius the fon of Antigo¬
nus ; who, though at that time but a boy, had almoft
made himfelf mafter of Epirus. In this enterprife,
however, he was difappointed ; but by his means An-
tigonus was reftored to his kingdom, which he govern¬
ed for many years in p^ace. By a ftratagem he made
himfelf mafter of the city of Corinth, and from that
time began to form fchemes for the thorough conqueft
of Greece. The method he took to accomplilh this
was, to fupport the petty tyrants of Greece againft
the free ftates: which indeed weakened the power of
the latter; but involved the whole country in fo many
calamities, that thefe tranfaftions could not redound
much to the reputation either of his arms dr his ho¬
nour. About 243 B. C. he died, leaving the king¬
dom to his fon, Demetrius II.
Neither Demetrius, nor his fucceffor Antigonus Do-
fon, performed any thing remarkable. In 221 B. C.
the kingdom fell to Philip, the laft but one of the Ma¬
cedonian monarchs. To him Hannibal applied for
affiitance after the battle of Cannae, which herefufed ;
and the fame imprudence which made him refufe this
affiftance prompted him to embroil himfelf with the
Romans; and at laft to conclude a treaty with them, by
which he in efftdt became their fubjeft, being tied up
from making peace or war but according to their plea-
fure. In 179 B. C. he was fucceeded by his eldeft fon
Perfeus, under whom the war with the Romans was re¬
newed. Even yet the Macedonians were terrible in
war; and their phalanx, when properly condufled, feems
to have been abfolutely invincible by any method of
making war known at that time. It confifted of
16,000 men, of whom 1000 marched abreaft, and thus
was 16 men deep, each of whom carried a kind of
pike 23 feet long. The foldiers flood fo clofe, that
the pikes of the fifth rank reached their points beyond
the front of the battle. The hindermoft ranks leaned
their pikes on the fhoulders of thofe who went before
them, and, locking them faft, preffed brilkly againft
them when they made the charge ; fo that the firft five
ranks had the impetus of the whole phalanx, which
was the reafon why the (hock was generally irrefiftible.
1 he Romans had never encountered fuch a terrible
enemy ;, and in the firft battle, which happened 171
B. C. they were defeated with the lofs of 2200 men,
while the Macedonians loft no more than 60. The gel
I2f>
War with
the Ro¬
mans.
c [ 324 1 MAC
of Macedon four years after nereis of Perfeus non- fretted him to ftorm the enemy's M.eefa,
camp : but he being naturally of a cowardly difpofi- II
tion, refufed to comply, and thus the beft opportunity Macer’
he ever had was loft. Still, however, the Romans gain- r—J
ed little or no advantage, till the year 168 B. C. when
Paulas iEmilius, a moft experienced commander, was
fent to Macedon. Perfeus now put all upon the iffue of
a general engagement; and ^milius, with all his cou¬
rage and military experience, would have been defeat¬
ed, had the Macedonians been commanded by a gene¬
ral of the Imalleft courage or conduft. The light¬
armed Macedonians charged with fuch vigour, that
after the battle, fome of their bodies were found with¬
in two furlongs of the Roman camp. When the pha¬
lanx came to charge, the points of their fpears ftriking
into the Roman fliields, kept the heavy-armed troops
from making any motion ; while, on the other hand,
Perfeus’s light-armed men did terrible execution. On
this occafion, it is faid, that ^milius tore his clothes,
and gave up all hopes. However, perceiving that as
the phalanx gained ground it loft its order in feveral
places, he caufed his own light-armed troops to charge
in thofe places, whereby the Macedonians were foon
put into confufion. If Perfeus with his horfe had on
the firlt appearance of this charged the Romans brilk-
ly, his infantry would have been able to recover them-
felves ; but inftead of this, he betook himfelf to flight,
and the infantry at laft did the fame, but not till
20,000 of them had loft their lives.
This battle decided the fate of Macedon, which
immediately fubmitted to the conqueror. The coward¬
ly king took refuge in the ifland of Samothrace : but
was at laft obliged to furrender to the Roman conful,
by whom he was carried to Rome, led in triumph, and
afterwards moft barbaroufly ufed. Some pretenders
to the throne appeared afterwards ; but being unable
to defend themfelves againft the Romans, the country Macedonia
W'as reduced to a Roman province in 148 B. C. Tot>ficomesa
them it continued fubjeft till the year 13 <;7, when itRon:lan
was reduced by the Turkifti fultan Bajazet, and hasprovince’
remained in the hands of the Turks ever fince.
MACEDONIANS, in eccleliaftical hiftory, the
followers of Macedonius, biftiop of Conftantinople,
who through the influence of the Eunomians, was
depofed by the council of Conftantinople in 360, and
fent into exile. He confidered the Holy Ghoft as a
divine energy diffufed throughout the univerfe, and
not as a perfon diftindt from the Father and the Son.
1 he fed of Macedonians was cruflied before it had ar¬
rived at its full maturity, by the council affembled by
Theodofius in 381, at Conftantinople. See Semi-
ARIANS.
MACEDONIUS. See Macedonians.
M^CER, Emilius, an ancient Eatin poet, was
born at Verona, and flourifhed under Auguftus Csefar.
Eufebius relates, that he died a few years after Virgil.
Ovid ipeaks of a poem of his, on the nature and quality
of birds, ferpents, and herbs; which he fays Macer be¬
ing then very old had often read to him :
Srffie funs valueres legit milu grandior eevo,
^uaque nocet ferpens, quee juvat herba, Macer.
De Panto, lib. iv. eleg. 10.
There is extant a poem upon the nature and power of
herbs under Macer’s name ; but it is fpurious. He alia
wrote
MAC [ 325 ] MAC
Macer ■wrote a fupplement to Homer, as Quintus Calaber did
: afterwards in Greek :
laehiavet.
—y——' Tu canis aterno quicquid rejlabat Homero :
Ne careant fumma Troica bella manu.
De Ponto, lib. ii. eleg. 10.
MACERATION, is an infufion of, or foaking in¬
gredients in water or any other fluid, in order either to
foften them or draw out their virtues.
MACER AT A, a town of Italy, in the territory of
the church, and in the Marche of Ancona, with a
bifhop’s fee, an univerfity, and about 10,000 inhabi¬
tants, It is feated near the mountain Chiento, in E.
^ong- ’S-37- Lat-43- I5*
MACHAON, a celebrated phyfician among the
ancients, fon of iEfculapius and brother to Podalirius.
He went to the Trojan war with the inhabitants of
Trica, Ithome, and Oechalia. According to fome, he
was king of Meflenia. He was phyfician to the
Greeks, and healed the wounds which they received
during the Trojan war. Some fuppofe he was killed
before Troy by Eurypylus the fon of Telephus. He
received divine honours after death, and had a temple
in Meffenia.
MACH./ERUS, in Ancient Geography, a citadel on
the other fide Jordan, near the mountains of Moab, not
far from and to the north of the Locus Afphahites. It
was the fouth boundary of the Peraea : fituated on a
mountain encompaffed round with deep and broad
valleys j built by Alexander king of the Jews ; de-
ftroyed by Gabinius, in the war with Ariftobulus, and
rebuilt by Herod, with a cognominal town round it.
Here John the Baptift was beheaded (Jofephus).
MACH I AN, one of the Molucca iflands, in the
Eaft Indian ocean, about 20 miles in circumference,
populous and fertile, producing cloves and fago j and
is in poffeflion of the Dutch, who have three Itrong
forts built on it.
MACHIAVEL, Nicholas, a famous political
writer of the 16th century, was born of a diftinguifh-
ed family at Florence. He wrote in his native lan¬
guage with great elegance and politenefs, though he
underftood very little of the Latin tongue; but he was
in the fervice of Marcellus Virgilius, a learned man,
who pointed out to him many of the beautiful paflages
in the ancients, which Machiavel had the art of pla¬
cing properly in his works. He compofed a comedy
upon the ancient Greek model: in which he turned
into ridicule many of the Florentine ladies, and which
was fo well received, that Pope Leo X. caufed it to be
afted at Rome. Machiavel was fecretary, and after¬
wards hiftoriographer, to the republic of Florence.
The houfe of Medicis procured him this laft office,
together with a handfome falary, in order to pacify
his refentment for having fuffered the torture upon
fufpicion of being an accomplice in the confpiracy of
the Soderini againft that houfe, when Machiavel bore
his fufferings without making any confeflion. The
great encomiums he beftowed upon Brutus and Caf-
fius, both in his converfations and writings, made him
ftrongly fufpe&ed of being concerned in another con¬
fpiracy againft Cardinal Julian de Medicis. who was
afterwards pope under the name of Clement VII. How¬
ever, they carried on no proceedings againft him j but
from that time he turned every thing into ridicule, and
1
gave himfelf up to irreligion. He died in 1530, of a Machiavel
remedy which he had taken by way of prevention. Of >YjarjJjnery.
all his writings, that which has made the moll noife, 1 <
and has drawn upon him the moft enemies, is a politi¬
cal treatife entitled the Prince ; which has been tranf-
lated into feveral languages, and wrote againft by many
authors. The world is not agreed as to the motives
of this work ; fome thinking he meant to recommend
tyrannical maxims ; others, that he only delineated
them to excite abhorrence. Machiavel alio wrote, Re¬
flexions on Titus Livius, which are extremely curious j
The Hiftory of Florence, from the year 1205 to 1494 ;
and a quarto volume of Poems and other pieces. Mr
Harrington confiders him as a fuperior genius, and as
the moft excellent writer on politics and government
that ever appeared.
MACHINE, (Machvia), in the general, fignifies
any thing that ferves to augment or to regulate mov¬
ing powers : Or it is any body deftined to produce
motion, fo as to lave either time or force. The word
comes from the Greek y.dx,»wi, “ machine, invention,
artAnd hence, in ftriXnefs, a machine is fomething
that confifts more in art and invention, than in the
ftrength and folidity of the materials j for which rea-.
fon it is that inventors of machines are called mgenieurs
or engineers.
Machines are either Ample or compound. The Am¬
ple ones are the feven mechanical powers, viz. lever,
balance, pulley, axis and wheel, wedge, ferew, and in¬
clined plane. See Mechanics.
From thefe the compound ones are formed by various
combinations, and ferve for different purpoles. See
Mechanics \ alfo Agriculture, Cannon, Centri¬
fugal, Steam, Furnace, Burroughs, Ramsden,
&c. &c.
Machines ufed in war amongft the Greeks were
principally thefe j 1. KA^axss, or fealing ladders.j
2. The battering ram j 3. The helepolis; 4. The
or tortoife, called by the Romans tejludo; 5. The tr-guyM
or agger, which was faced with (tone, and railed higher
than the wall; 6. Upon the <rg>uy.x were built wv^yti or
towers of wood ; 7. or offer hurdles ; 8. Cata-
pultce, or KetletTTiXlxi, from which they threw arrows
with amazing force ; and, 9. The Z^aSoAe*,
or xtpflypx, from which ftones were call w ith great ve¬
locity.
The principal warlike machines made ufe of by
the Romans were, the ram, the lupus or wolf, the
tejludo or tortoife, the balijla, the catapulta, and the
fcorpion.
MACHINERY, in epic and dramatic poetry, is
when the poet introduces the ufe of machines j or brings
fome fupernatural being upon the ftage, in order to
folve fome difficulty or to perform fome exploit out of
the reach of human power.
The ancient dramatic poets never made ufe of ma¬
chines, unlefs where there was an abfolute neceffity for
fo doing ; whence the precept of Horace,
Nec Deus interjit, niji dignus vindice nodus
bidder it.
It is quite otherwife with epic poets, who introduce
machines in every part of their poems •, fo that nothing
is done without the intervention ol the gods. In Mil¬
ton’s Paradife Loft, by far the greater part of the ac¬
tors
M A C
r
Machinery tors are fupernatural perfonages : Homer and Virgil do
Mackenzie. wIthout them > a,ld» in Voltaire’s Henriade, the
poet has made excellent ufe of St Louis.
As to the manner in which thefe machines fliould
aft, it is fometimes invifibly, by fimple infpirations and
uiggeftions j fometimes by aftually appearing under
fome human form j and, laflly, by means of dreams and
oracles, which partake of the other two. However, all
thefe Ihould be managed in fueh a manner as to keep
within the bounds of probability.
ccxcvm MACHUL, an inflrument of mufic among the
Hebrews. Kircher apprehends that the name was
given to two kinds of inflruments, one of the ftringed
and the other of the pulfatile kind. That of the
former fort had fix chords j thougn there is great rea-
fon to doubt whether an infirument requiring the aid
of the hair-bow, and fo much refembling the violin,
be fo ancient. 1 he fecond kind was of a circular form,
made of metal, and either hung round with little bells'
or furmihed with iron rings fufpended on a rod or bar
that paffed acrofs the circle. Kircher fuppofes that it
was moved to and fro by a handle fixed to it, and thus
emitted a melancholy kind of murmur.
MACHYNLE1H, a town of Montgomeryfhire
in North Wales, 198 miles from London, and 32 from
Montgomery. It is an ancient town ; contains above
1100 inhabitants, and has a market on Mfondays, and
feveral fairs. It is feated on the river Douay, over
which there is a large flone bridge, which leads into
Merionethlhire. It was here that Owen Glyndwr ex-
ercifed the firft afts of his royalty in 1402. Here
lie accepted the crown of Wales, and aiTembled a par¬
liament; and the houfe wherein they met is now-Hand¬
ing, divided into tenements.
MACKENZIE, Sir George, an able lawyer,
a polite fcholar, and a celebrated wit, was born at
Dundee in the county of Angus in Scotland in 1636,
and ftudied at the univerfities of Aberdeen and St An¬
drew s; after which he applied himfelf to the civil law,
travelled into trance, and profecuted his fludy in that
faculty for about three years. At his return to his
native country he became an advocate in the city of
Edinburgh ; and foon gained the charafter of an emi¬
nent pleader. He did not, however, fuller his abili¬
ties to be confined entirely to that province. He had
a good tafte for polite literature; and he gave the pub¬
lic, from time to time, inconteflable proofs of an un¬
common proficiency therein. He had praftifed but a
few years, when he was promoted to the office of a
judge in the criminal court ; and, in 1674, was made
king s advocate, and one of the lords of the privy coun-
* d in Scotland. He was alfo knighted by his majefty.
In thefe ftations he met with a great deal of trouble,
on account of the rebellions which happened in his
time ; and his office of advocate requiring him to aft
vith feverity, he did not efcape being cenfured, as if
in the deaths of fome particular perfons who were exe¬
cuted he had Itretched the laws too far. But there
does not feem to have been any juft foundation for this
clamour againft him ; and it is generally agreed, that
he acquitted himfelf like an able and upright magi-
ftrate. Upon the abrogation of the penal laws by
King James II. our advocate, though he had alw'ays
been remarkable for his loyalty, and even cenfured for
his zeal againft traitors and fanatics, thought himfelf
326 ] 'MAG
obliged to refign his poft j being convinced, that he
could not difcharge the duties of it in that point with a
good confcience. But he was foon after reftored, and
held his offices till the Revolution ; an event which
it leems, he could not bring himfelf to approve. He
had hoped that the prince of Orange would have re¬
turned to his own country when matters were adiufted
between the king and his fubjefts ; and upon its prov¬
ing otherwife, he quitted all his employments in Scot¬
land^ and retired into England, reiolving to fpt.nd the
remainder of his days in the univerfity of Oxford. He
arrived there in September 1689, and profecutt’d his
Itudies in the Bodleian library, being admitted a ftu-
dent there by a grace palled in the congregation, June
2. 1690. In the fpnng following, he went to Lon-
don where he fell into a diforder, of which he died
in May 1691. _ His corpfe was conveyed by land to
Scotland, and interred there with great pomp and fo-
lemhity. “ The politenefs of his learning, and the
Iprightlmefs of his wit, were (fays the reverend Mr
Granger) confpicuous in all his pleadings, and flion«
in his ordinary converfation.” Mr Dryden acknow-
ledges, that he was unacquainted with what he calls the
beautiful turn of words and thoughts in poetry, till they
were explained and exemplified to him in a’converfa¬
tion with that noble wit of Scotland Sir George Mac¬
kenzie—He wrote feveral pieces of hiftory and anti¬
quities ; Institutions of the laws of Scotland : Effays
upon various fubjefts, &c. His works were printed
together at Edinburgh in 1716, in 2 vols. folio.
MACKEREL.. See Scomber, Ichthyology
index.
. MACLAURIN, Colin, a moft eminent mathema¬
tician and. philofopher, was the fon of a clergyman, and
born at Kilmoddan in Scotland in 1698. He was fent
to the univerfity of Glafgow in 1709 ; where he con¬
tinued five years, and applied himfelf to ftudy in a
moll intenfe manner. His great genius for mathema¬
tical learning difeovered itfelf fo early as at twelve
years of age when, having accidentally met with an
Euclid in a friend’s chamber, he became in a few days
mafter of the firft fix books without any affiftance •
and it is certain, that in his 16th year he had invent!
ed many of the propofitions which were afterwards
published under the title of Geotnetria Organica. In
his. 15th year he took the degree of mafter of arts"- on
which occalion he compofed and publicly defended a
thefis On the power of Gravity, with great applaufe.
After this he quitted the univerfity, and retired to a
country-feat of his uncle, who had the care of his
education ; for his parents had been dead fome time.
Heie he fpent two or three years in purfuing his fa¬
vourite ftudies ; but, in 1717, he offered himfelf a
candidate for the profefforfhip of mathematics in the
Manfchal college, of Aberdeen, and obtained it after
a ten days trial with a very able competiton In 1710
he went to London, where he became acquainted with
Dr Deadly then biffiop of Bangor, Dr Clarke, Sir
Laac Newton, and other eminent men ; at which time
alio he was admitted a member of the Royal Society •
and in another journey in 1721, he contrafted an in!
timacy with Martin Folkes, Efq. the prefident of it
which lafted to his death.
In 1722, Lord Polwarth, plenipotentiary of the kin^
of Great Britain at the congrefs of Cambray, engaged
him
■^ekenale j
Maclaurin.
MAC [ 327 ] MAC
acUurin. him to go as a tutor and companion to his eldeft fon, who
was then to fet out on his travels. After a Ihort ftay at
Paris, and vifiting other towns in France, they fixed
in Lorrain j where Maclaurin wrote his piece On the
Percuffion of Bodies, which gained the prize of the
Royal Academy of Sciences for the year 1724. But
his pupil dying foon after at Montpelier, he returned
immediately to his profeflion at Aberdeen. He was
hardly fettled here, when he received an invitation to
Edinburgh ; the curators of that univerfity being de-
firous that he fliould fupply the place of Mr James
Gregory, whofe great age and infirmities had render¬
ed him incapable of teaching. He had fome difficul¬
ties to encounter, arifing from competitors, who had
good intereft with the patrons of the univerfity, and
alfo from the want of an additional fund for the new
profeffor, which however at length were all furmount-
ed, principally by the means of Sir Ifaac Newton. In
November IJ2J, he was introduced into the univerfity.
After this, the mathematical clafles foon became very
numerous, there being generally upwards of 100 young
gentlemen attending his leflures every year ; who being
of different Handings and proficiency, he was obliged to
divide them into four or five claffes, in each of which
he employed a full hour every day, from the firft of
November to the firft of June.
He lived a bachelor to the year 1733 : ^ut being
not lefs formed for fociety than for contemplation, he
then married Anne, the daughter of Mr Walter Stew¬
art folicitor-general for Scotland. By this lady he
had feven children, of whom two fons and three daugh¬
ters, together with his wife, furvived him. In 1734,
Berkeley, biffiop of Cloyne, publiffied a piece called
“ The Analyft j” in which he took occafion, from
fome difputes that had arifen concerning the grounds
of the fluxionary method, to explode the method it-
felf, and alfo to charge mathematicians in general
with infidelity in religion. Maclaurin thought him-
felf included in this charge, and began an artfwer to
Berkeley’s book : but, as he proceeded, fo many dif-
coveries, fo many new theories and problems occurred
to him, that inftead of a vindicatory pamphlet, his
work came out, A complete fyftem of fluxions, with
their applisation to the moft confiderable problems in
geometry and natural philofophy. This work was pub-
lilhed at Edinburgh in 1742, 2 vols. 410 ; and as it
coft him infinite pains, fo it is the moft confiderable
of all his works, and will do him immortal honour.
In the mean time, he was continually obliging the
public with fome performance or obfervation of his
own ; many of which were publiftied in the fifth and
fixth volumes of the “ Medical Eflays” at Edin¬
burgh. Some of them were likewife publiflied in the
Philofophical Tran fa 61 ion s j as the following: 1. Of
the conftru61ion and meafure of curves, N° 356.
2. A new method of defcribing all kinds of curves,
359- 3* A letter to Martin Folkes, Efq. on equa¬
tions with impnffible roots, May 1726, N° 394.
4. Continuation of the fame, March 1729, N° 408.
5. December the 2ift, 1732, on the defcription of
curves; with an account of farther improvements, and
a paper dated at Nancy, November 27. 1722, N° 439.
6. An account of the treatife of fluxions, January 27.
I742> N° 467. 7. The fame continued, March 10.
2742> N° 469, 8. A rule for finding the meridional
parts of a fpheroid with the fame exa£lnefs as of a Maclausm
Iphere, Auguft 1741, N° 461. 9. Of the bafis of" v—
the cells wherein the bees depofite their honey ; Nov.
3. 1734, N° 471.
In the midft of thefe ftudies, he was always ready
to lend his affiftance in contriving and promoting any
fcheme which might contribute to the fervice of his
country. When the earl of Morton fet out in 1739
for Orkney and Shetland, to vifit his eftates there,
he defired Mr Maclaurin to affift him in fettling the
geography of thofe countries, which is very errone¬
ous in all our maps ; to examine their natural hiftory,
to furvey the coaits, and to take the meafure of a de¬
gree of the meridian. Maclaurin’s family affairs, and
other connexions, would not permit him to do this ;
he drew, however, a memorial of what he thought
neceffary to be obferved, furniffied the proper inftru-
ments, and recommended Mr Short, the famous op¬
tician, as a fit operator for the management of them.
He had ftill another fcheme for the improvement of
geography and navigation, of a more extenfive nature;
which was the opening a paffage from Greenland to
the South fea by the north pole. That fuch a paf¬
fage might be found, he was fo fully perfuaded, that
he has been heard to fay, if his fituation could admit
of fuch adventures, he would undertake the voyage,
even at his own charge. But when fchemes for finding
it were laid before the parliament in 1744, and him-
felf conlulted by feveral perfons of high rank concern¬
ing them, before he could finiffi the memorials he pro-
poled to fend, the premium was limited to the difco-
very of a north-weft paffage : and he ufed to regret,
that the word weft was inferted, becaufe he thought
that paffage, if at all to be found, muft lie not far from
the pole.
In 1 745, having been very aftive in fortifying the
city of Edinburgh againft the rebel army, he was obli¬
ged to fly from thence to the north of England ;
where he was invited by Herring, then archbilhop of
York, to refide with him during his ftay in this coun¬
try. In this expedition, however, being expofed to
cold and hardlhips, and naturally of a weak and ten¬
der conftitution, he laid the foundation of an illnefs
which put an end to his life, in June 1746, at the age
of 48.
Mr Maclaurin was a very good as well as a very
great man, and worthy of love as well as admiration..'
His peculiar merit as a philofopher was, that all his
ftudies were accommodated to general utility; and we
find, in many places of his works, an application even
of the moft abftrufe theories, to the perfecting of me¬
chanical arts. He had refolved, for the fame purpofe,
to compofe a courfe of praftical mathematics, and to
refcue feveral ufeful branches of the fcience from the
bad treatment they often met w ith in lefs fkilful hands.
But all this his death prevented ; unlefs we ffiould
reckon, as a part of his intended work, the tranflation
of Dr David Gregory’s “ Praftical Geometry,”
which he revifcd, and publiflied with additions, 1745.
In his lifetime, however, he had frequent opportuni¬
ties of ferving his friends and his country by his great
fkill. Whatever difficulty occurred concerning the
conftrudting or perfedfing of machines, the working of
mines, the improving of manufadlures, the conveying
of water, or the execution of any other public work,
MAG'
'M’-Cuvirm. henvas at hand to refolve it. He was likewife em-
~ ployed to terminate fome difputes of confequence that
3iad arifen at Glafgovv concerning the gauging of vef-
i'els ; and for that purpofe prefented to the comtniffion-
ers of excife two elaborate memorials, with their de-
monftratlons, containing rules by which the officers
row aft. He made alfo calculations relating to the
provifion, now eftabliffied by law, for the children and
widows of the Scots clergy, and of the profeflbrs in
the univerhties, entitling them to certain annuities and
fums, upon the voluntary annual payment of a certain
fum by the incumbent. In contriving and adjufting
this wife and ufeful fcheme, he bellowed a great deal
of labour, and contributed not a little towards bring¬
ing it to perfection. It may be faid of fuch a man,
that “ he lived to fome purpofe j” which can hardly
be faid of thofe, how uncommon foever their abilities
and attainments, who fpend their whole time in abltraft
fpeculations, and produce nothing to the real ufe andfer-
vice of their fellow creatures.
Of h is works, \ve have mentioned his Geometria Or-
ganica, in which he treats of the defcription of curve
lines by continued motion. We need not repeat what
has been faid concerning his piece which gained the
prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1724. In
1740, the academy adjudged him a prize, which did
him ftill more honour, for folving jhe motion of the
tides from the theory of gravity j a queftion which
had been given out the former year, without receiving
any folution. He had only ten days to draw this pa¬
per up in, and could not find leifure to tranfcribe a
fair copy ; fo that the Paris edition of it is incorrefl.
He afterwards revifed the whole, and inferted it in
his Treatife of Fluxions ; as he did alfo the fubfiance
of the former piece. Thefe, with the Treatife of
Fluxions, and the pieces printed in the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions, of which we have given a lift, are all
the writings which our author lived to publilh. Since
his death, two volumes more have appeared ; his Al¬
gebra, and his Account of Sir Ifaac Newton’s Philo¬
fophical Difcoveries. His Algebra, though not finiffi-
ed by himfelf, is yet allowed to be excellent in its
kind : containing, in no large volume, a complete ele¬
mentary treatife of that fcience, as far as it has hither¬
to been carried. His Account of Sir Ifaac Newton’s
Philofophy was occafioned in the following manner :
Sir Ifaac dying in the beginning of 1728, his nephew,
Mr Conduitt, propofed to publiffi an account of his
life, and defired Mr Maclaurin’s affiftance. The lat¬
ter, out of gratitude to his great benefactor, cheer¬
fully undertook, and foon finilhed, the hiilory of the
progrefs which philofophy had made before Sir Ifaac’s
time, and this was the firft draught of the work in
hand j which not going forward, on account of Mr
Conduitt’s death, was returned to Mr Maclaurin.—
To this he afterwards made great additions, and left
it in the ftate in which it now appears. His main
defign feems to have been, to explain only thofe parts
of Sir Ifaac’s philofophy which have been, and ftill
are, controverted : and this is fuppofed to be the rea-
fon why his grand difcoveries concerning light and
colours are but tranfiently and generally touched upon.
For it is kn v.vn, that ever fince the experiments, on
which his doftrine of light and colours is founded,
MAC
have been repeated with due care, this doCcrine hasMadamls
not been conttfted ; whereas his accounting fur the Macqun,’
celeftial motions, and the other great appearances of
nature, from gravity, is mifunderftood, and even ridi¬
culed by fome to this day.
MACQUER, Philippe, advocate of the parlia¬
ment of Paris, where he was born in 1720, being
defcended from a refpe&able family. A weaknefs
in his lungs having prevented him from engaging in
the laborious exercifes of pleading, he dedicated him*
felf to literary purfuits. His works are, 1. L"1 Abregf
Chrono/ogique de I'Hi/toire Ecclejiaftique, 3 vols. 8vo.
written in the manner of the prelident Henault’s Hi-
ftory of France, but not poffeffed of equal fpirit and
elegance. 2. Les Annaies Romaines, 1756, 8vo; ano¬
ther chronological abridgement, and much better fup-
ported than the former. Into this work the author
has introduced every thing moft worthy of notice w hich
has been written by Saint Evremond, Abbe Saint-
Real, Prefident Montefquieu, Abbe Mably, &c. con¬
cerning the Romans j and, if we except a difference of
ftyle, which is eafily difcernible, it is, in other refpe&s,
a very judicious compilation. 3. Abrege Chrono/ogique
de I'HiJloire d' Ffpagne et de Portugal, 1759, 1765, in
2 vols. 8vo. i his book, in point of accuracy, is
worthy of the prefident Henault, by whom it was be¬
gun ; but it difplays no difcrimination of charafter nor
depth of refearch. The author received affiftance from
M. Lacombe, whofe talents for chronological abridge¬
ment are w'ell know n. The republic of letters fuftain-
ed a lofs by the death of M. Macquer, which happen¬
ed on the 27th of January 1770, at the age of 50. As
to his charadler, he w-as indulirious, agreeable, modeft,
and fincere, and an enemy to all foolilh vanity and af¬
fectation. He had a cold imagination, but a correct
tafte. He had an eager thirft for knowledge of every
kind, and he had negleCted no ufeful branch of ftudy.
He had a (hare in the Dictionary of Arts and Profef-
fions, in 2 vols. 8vo, and in the Tranflation of the Sy¬
philis of Fracaftor publiffied by Lacombe.
Macquer, Pierre Jofeph, brother to the former,
was born at Paris the 9th of QCtober 1718, and died
there February 16. 1784. He was a member of the
Academy of Sciences, and profeffor of pharmacy j
and was engaged in the Journal des Sfavans, for the ar¬
ticles of medicine and chemiftry. With the latter
fcience he was intimately acquainted. He had a
ffiare in the Pharmacopoeia Parijienjis, publiffiedin^jS,
in 410. His other works are, 1. Elemens de Chimie
theorique; Paris, 1749, llSb 1 2mo j which have been
tranflated into Engliffi and German.—2. Elemens de
Chimie pratique, 1751, 2 vols. i2mo. Thefe two works
were republifhed together, in 1756, In 3 vols. i2mo.
3. Plan d'un cours de Chimie expenmentale et raifonee.
I757» 120105 in the compofition of which he was
affociated with M. Beaume. 4. Formu/ce Medicamento-
rum Magiflralium, 1763, 5. VArt de la Teinture en
Soie, 1763- 6. DiElionnaire de Chimie, contenant la
Theorie et la Pratique de cet art, 1766, 2 vols. 8vo ;
which has been tranftated into German, with notes j
and into Englifh, with notes, by Mr Keir. Macquer
has, by his labours and writings, greatly contributed to
render ufeful an art which formerly tended only to ruin
the health of the patient by foreign remedies, or t®
reduce
[ 328 ]
Vlacroce
phalus.
MAC [3
Macqeur reduce the profeflbrs of it to beggary, while they
profecuted the idle dreams of converting every thing
into gold.
1 MACRIN, Salmon", one of the belt Latin poets
of the 16th century, was born at Loudun. His true
name was John Salmon; but he took that of Macrin,
from his being frequently fo called in ridicule by Fran¬
cis I. on account of his extraordinary leannefs. He
was preceptor to Claudius of Savoy, count of Tende j
and to Honorius the count’s brother j and wrote fe-
veral pieces of poetry in lyric verfe, which were fo ad¬
mired, that he was called the Horace of his time. He
died of old age, at Loudun, in 1555.—Charles MACRIN,
his fon, was not inferior to him as a poet, and furpaffed
him in his knowledge of the Greek tongue. He was
preceptor to Catharine of Navarre, the filter of Henry
the Great $ and perifhed in the maflacre on St Bartho¬
lomew’s day in 1572.
MACROBII, a people of Ethiopia, celebrated for
their juitice, and the innocence of their manners : alfo
a people in the ifland Meroe. The Hyperboreans ivere
alfo called Macrobii: They generally lived to their
120th year j and from their longevity they obtained
their name /3*ej, long life').
MACROSIUS, Ambrosius Aurelius Theodo¬
sius, an ancient Latin writer, who flourifhed towards
the latter part of the fourth century.—Of what coun¬
try he was, is not clear : Erafmus, in his Ciceronianus,
feems to think he was a Greek; and he himfelf tells
us, in the preface to his Saturnalia, that he was not a
Roman, but laboured under the inconveniences of
writing in a language which was not natural to him.
Of what religion he was, Chriltian or Pagan, is uncer¬
tain. Barthius ranks him among the Chriftians ; but
Spanheim and Fabricius fuppofe him to have been a
heathen. This, however, is certain, that he was a
man of confular dignity, and one of the chamberlains
or mafters of the wardrobe to Theodofius; as appears
from a refcript diredted to Florentius, concerning thofe
who were to obtain that office. He wrote a Commen¬
tary upon Cicero’s Somnium Scipionis, and feven books
of Saturnalia, which treat of various fubjedls, and are
an agreeable mixture of criticifm and antiquity. He
was not an original writer, but made great ufe of other
people’s works, borrowing not only their materials, but
even their language, and for this he has been fatirically
rallied by fome modern authors, though rather unfairly,
confidering the exprefs declaration and apology which
he makes on this head, at the very entrance of his
work. “ Don’t blame me,” fays he, “ if what I have
cmlledfed from multifarious reading, I ffiall frequently
exprefs in the very words of the authors from whom I
have taken it: for my view in this prefent work is,
not to give proofs of my eloquence, but to colledt and
digeft into fome regularity and order fuch things
as I thought might be ufeful to be known. I lhall
therefore here imitate the bees, who fuck the bell: juices
from all forts of flowers, and afterwards work them up
into various forms and orders with fome mixture of
their own proper fpirit.” The Somnium Scipionis and
Saturnalia have been often printed ; to which has been
added, in the later editions, a piece entitled DeDJferen-
tils et Soctetatibus Grecci Latiniquc Vcrbi.
MACROCEPHALUS (compounded of
“ great,” and mtpxM, <l head,” denotes a perfon with
Vql. XIL Part X.
29 ] MAC
a head larger or longer than the common fize. Ma- Maeroee-
crocephali, or Long-heads, is a name given to a cer- ph|1,us
tain people, who, according to the accounts of authors, ^acro0m,,,
were famous for the unfeemly length of their heads :
yet cultom fo far habituated them to it, that inftead of
looking on it as a deformity, they efteemed it a beauty,
and, as foon as the child was born, moulded and fa-
fhioned its head in their hands to as great a length as
poffible, and afterwards ufed all fuch rollers and band¬
ages as might feem moft likely to determine its grow¬
ing long. The greater part of the iflanders in the
Archipelago, fome of the people of Afia, and even
fome of thole of Europe, ftill prefs their children’s
heads out lengthwife. We may oblerve alfo, that the
Epirots, many people of America, &c. are all bom
with fome Angularity in the conformation of their
heads; either a flatnefs on the top, two extraordinary
protuberances behind, or one on each fide ; Angularities
which we can only regard as an effedf of an ancient and
ftrange mode, which at length is become hereditary in
the nation. According to the report of many travel¬
lers, the operation of comprefling the head of a child
lengthwife, while it is yet foft, is with a view infen- 1
fibly to enlarge the interval between the two eyes, fo
that the vifual rays turning more to the right and left,
the fight would embrace a much larger portion of the
horizon ; the advantage of which they are well ac¬
quainted with, either in the conflant exercife of hunt¬
ing, or on a thoufand other occafions. Ever fince the
16th century, the miffionaries eflablifhed in the coun¬
tries inhabited by the favages of America, have en¬
deavoured to dellroy this cullom ; and we find in the
feffions of the third council of Lima, held in 1585, a
canon which exprefsly prohibits it. But if it has been
reprtffed one way, the free negroes and Maroons, al¬
though Africans, have adopted it, fince they have
been eftablilhed among the Caribs, folely with the
view of diftinguilhing their children, which are born
free, from thofe who are born in flavery. The Oma-
quas, a people of South America, according to P.
Veigh, prels the heads of their children fo violently
between two planks that they become quite (harp at
the top, and flat before and behind. They fay they
do this to give their heads a greater refemblance to
the moon.
MACROCERCI, a name given to that clafs of ani¬
malcules, which have tails longer than their bodies.
MACROCOLUM, or Macrocoelum (formed of
fixy.g'tts, “large, and koXXkco, “ 1 join,”) among the Ro¬
mans, the largefl: kind of paper then in ufe. It mea-
fured fixteen inches, and frequently two feet.
MACROCOSM, a word denoting the great world
or univerfe. It is compounded of the Greek words
pet^xos, “ great,” and xoirf.105, “ world.”
MACROOMP, or MacrooM; a town of Ireland
in the barony of Mufkerry, county of Cork, and pro¬
vince of Munfler, 142 miles from Dublin; it is Situ¬
ated amongfl hills, in a dry gravelly limefionc foil.—
This place is faid to take its name from an old crook¬
ed oak, fo called in Irifh, which formerly grew here.
The eaflle was firft built in King John’s time, foon af¬
ter the Englilh conquefl (according to Sir Richard
Cox), by the Carews; but others attribute it to the
Daltons. It was repaired and beautified by 'l eague
Macarty, who died in the year 1565, and was father to
T t the
MAD
Macrojmp the celebrated Sir Gormac Mac Teague mentioned by
Mad^oaf ^arn(^en an(^ other writers as an aftive perlon in
car!5 Q^ueen Elizabeth’s time. The late earls of Glancarty
altered this cattle into a more modern ftrufture, it be¬
ing burnt down in the wars of 1641. Oppofite to
the bridge is the parith-church, dedicated to St Col-
man of Cloyne. Here is a barrack for a foot company,
a market-houfe, and a handfome Roman Catholic chaptl.
A confiderable number of perfons have been employed
in this town in combing wool and Ipinning yarn, and
forne falt-w'crks have been erefted here. At half a
mile’s diftance is a fpaw, that riles on the very brink of
a bog •, its waters are a mild chalybeate, and are ac¬
counted ferviceable in hypochondriacal cafes, and in
cutaneous eruptions. The fairs are four in the year.
MACROURUS, a genus of fifhes belonging to the
order Thoracici. See Ichthyology Index.
MACTATIO, in the Roman facrifices, fignifies
the aft of killing the viftim. This was performed
either by the prieft himfelf, or fome of his inferior
officers, whom we meet with under the names of popce,
agones, cultrarii, and viftimorii ; but, before the bead;
was killed, the prieft, turning himfelf to the eaft, drew
a crooked line with his knife, from the forehead to
the tail. Among the Greeks, this ceremony was per¬
formed moft commonly by the prieft, or, in his abfence,
by the moft honourable perfon prefent. If the facri-
fice was offered to the celeftial gods, the viftim’s
throat was bent up towards heaven j if to the infernal,
or to heroes, it was killed with its throat towards the
ground. The manner of killing the animal was by a
ftroke on the head, and, after it was fallen, thrufting
a knife into its throat. Much notice was taken, and
good or ill fuccefs predifted, from the ftruggles of the
beaft, or its quiet fubmiffion to the blow, from the
flowing of the blood, and the length of time it happen¬
ed to live after the fall, &c.
MACULAE, in AJlronomy, dark fpots appearing on
the luminous furfaces of the fun and moon, and even
fome of the planets. See Astronomy Index.
MAD-apple. See Solanum, Botany Index.
MADAGASCAR, the largeft of the African
iflands, is fituated between 430 and 510 of E. Long,
and between 12° and 26° of S. Lat. ; extending in
length near 1000 miles from north-north-eaft to fouth-
fouth-weft, and about 300 in breadth where broadeft.
It was difcovered in 1506 by Laurence Almeyda j but
the Perfians and the Arabians were acquainted with it
from time immemorial under the name of Serandib.
Alphonzo Albuquerque ordered Ruy Pereira dy Con-
thinto to vifit the interior parts, and that general in-
trufted Tnftan d’Acunha with the furvey. The Por-
tuguefe called it the ifland of St Lawrence; the French
who vifited it in the reign of Henry IV. named it IJle
Dauphme; its proper name is MadcgaJJe. It is now-,
however, by common confent, called Madagafcar.
This large ifland, according to many learned geo¬
graphers, is the Cerne of Pliny, and the Menuthiafde
of Ptolemy. It is everywhere watered by large rivers,
ftreams and rivulets, which have their fources at the
foot of that long chain of mountains which runs
through the whole extent of the ifland from eaft to
^Voyage a weft. The two higheft promontories are called Viva-
fa“d<Zz S0™ and BotiPner1^
jearls 175s. Xhefe mountains (according to the. abb£ Rochon*)
MAD
enclofe within their bofoms a variety of precious mine- Madars.'
rals and ufeful foflils. The traveller (who for the firft * caf '
time rambles over favage and mountainous countries
interfefted with valleys and with hills, where nature
left to herfelf brings forth the moft Angular and the
motl varied produftions) is involuntarily furprifed and
terrified at the fight of precipices, the fummits of which
are crowned with monftrous trees, that feem coeval
with the world. His aftonilhment is redoubled at the
noife of thofe grand cafcades, the approach to which
is generally inacceffible. But to thofe views fo fub-
limtly pifturefque, rural Icenes foon fucceed ; little
hills, gently rifing grounds, and plains, the vegetation
of which is never repreffed by the intemperance or the
viciffitude of the fealons. I.he eye contemplates with
pleafure thofe vaft lavannas which nourilh numberlefs
herds of bullocks and of fheep. You behold a flou-
riffiing agriculture, produced aimoft folely by the fer¬
tilizing womb of nature. The fortunate inhabitants
of Madagafcar do not bedew- the earth with their
fw-eat 5 they fcareely ftir the ground with a rake, and
even that flight preparation is fufficient. They lerape
little holes at a fmall diftance from each other, into-
w hich they fcatter a few grains of rice, and cover them
with their feet; and fo great is the fertility of the foil,
that the lands fown in This carelefs manner produce a
hundred fold.
The ferefls prefent a prodigious variety of the moft
ufeful and the moft beautiful trees j ebony, wood for
dyeing, bamboos of an enormous thicknefs, and palm
trees of every kind. The timber employed in ihip-
building is no lefs common than thofe kinds fo much
prized by the cabinetmaker. We ate told by the
French governor Flacourt, in his hiftory of this iflandf,f//;)?. dek '
that in the year 1650 he lent to France 52,000 weight Grand IJle
of aloes of an excellent quality. All of thefe various d* Made^
trees and ffirubs are furrounded by an infinite number ' l660>
of parafitical plants j mufltrooms of an infinite diverfity
of kinds and colours are to be met with everywhere in
the woods : and the inhabitants know well how to di-
fiinguiflr thofe which are prejudicial t# the health.
They colleft large quantities of ufeful gums and rtfins 4
and out of the milky fap of a tree, denominated by them
Jinguicre, a fpecies of jatropha, the inhabitants, by
means of coagulation, make that Angular fubftance
known to naturalifts by the name of gum elajlic, or In¬
dian rubber.
Befides the aromatic and medicinal herbs which a-
bound in the forefts, the ifland produces flax and hemp
of a length and ftrength which furpafs any in Europe.
Sugar-canes, wax, honey of different kinds, tobacco,
indigo, white-pepper, gum-lac, ambergris, filk, and cot¬
ton, would long fince have been objtfts of commerce
which Madagafoar would have yielded in profufion, if
the Europeans,, in vifiting the ifland, had furniflied
the inhabitants with the neceflary information for pre¬
paring and improving thefe feveral produftions.
The fugar cants (as we are informed by another tra¬
veller J) are much larger and finer than any in the Weft
Indies j being as thick as a man’s wrift, and fo full of Voyage to
juice, that a foot of them will weigh two pounds. India^-l¥
When the natives travel, they carry a fugar-cane along
with them, which will fupport them for two or three
days. Here are alfo plenty of tamarinds ; and fuch
quantities of limes and oranges, that very large calks
may
r 33° i
MAD f 331 ] M A D
may be filled with their juices at a trilling expence, as
they may be purchafed for iron pots, raulkets, powder,
ball, &c. During the Ihort time that Admiral Wat-
fun’s fquadron fiaid here in >754> Mr Ives preferred
about half a hog dread full of thofe juices, which prov¬
ed afterwards of the greatell fervice to the drips crews.
It mult be obferved, however, that no good water is
to be had at St Auguftine in the fouth-weft part of the
ifland, where (Trips ufually touch, unlefs boats are fent
for it four or five miles up the river 5 and inltead of
filling their calks at low water (as is the cafe in molt
other r ivers), they mult begin to fill at about a quarter’s
flood : The reafon afiigned for this is, that the rrver
has a communication with the fea at other places be-
fides this of St Augultine’s bay ; and it has been found
by experience, that the fea water brought into the river
by the flood tide is not difcharged till a quarter’s flood
of the next tide in St Auguftine’s bay j and for three
miles up the river, the water is always very brackilh, if
not quite fait.
The abundance and variety of provifions of every
kind, which a fine climate and fertile foil can produce,
are on no part of the globe, according to M. Rochon,
fuperior to thofe of Madagafcar : game, wild-fowl,
poultry, fifli, cattle, and fruity, are alike plentiful. The
oxen, Mr Ives alfo informs us, are large and fat, and
have each a protuberance of fat between the Ihoulders,
weighing about 20 pounds. Their flefli is greatly
efteemed by all the European nations trading to In¬
dia, and (hips are fent to Madagafcar on purpofe to
kill and fait them on the illand. The protuberance
of fat above mentioned is particularly efteemed after
it has lain feme time in fait ; but our author fays,
that he could not join in the encomiums either on this
piece or the beef in general ; as the herbage on which
the creatures feed gives their flefti a particular tafte,
which to him was difagreeable. The (beep differ little
from the goats ; being equally hairy, only that their
heads are fomewhat larger : their necks referable that
of a calf, and their tails w'eigh at leaft ten pounds.
Vaft quantities of locufts rife here from the low lands
in thick clouds, extending fometimes to an incredible
length and breadth. The natives eat thefe infefTs, and
even prefer them to their fineft fifh. Their method
of drefling them is to ftrip off their legs and wings,
and fry them in oil.
The inhabitants (termed Melagachet or Madecajfes')^
M. Rochon informs us, are in perfon above the middle
iize of Europeans. The colour of the (kin is different
in different tribes^ among fome it is of a deep black,
among others tawney *, fome of the natives are of a copper
colour, but the complexion of by far the greateft number
is olive. All thofe who are black have woolly hair like
the negroes of the coaft of Africa : thofe, on the other
hand, who referable Indians and Mulattoes, have hair
equally ftraight with that of the Europeans y the nofe
is not broad and Hat; the forehead is large and open ;
in (hort, all the features are regular and agreeable.
Their phyfiognomy difplays the appearance of frank-
Tiefs and of fatisfaftion ; they are defirous only of learn¬
ing fuch things as may adminifter to their neceffities ;
that fpecies of knowledge which demands refleftion is
indifferent to them ; fober, agile, aftive, they fpend the
greateft part of their time either in deep or in amufe-
ment. In fine, according to the Abb£, the native of
Madagafcar, like favages in general, poffeffes achara&er
equally devoid of vice and of virtue 5 the gratifications
of the prefent moment folely occupy his reflexions ;
he poffeffes no kind of forefight whatever ; and he can¬
not conceive the idea that there are men in the world
who trouble themfelves about the evils of futurity.
The population of the ifland has been eftimated at
four millions ; but this calculation is thought exag¬
gerated by our author, and indeed it appears incredible
to us. Every tribe or fociety inhabits its own can¬
ton, and is governed by its own cuftoms. Each of
thefe acknowledges a chief; this chief is fometimes
eleXive, but more ufualiy hereditary. The lands are
not divided and portioned out, but belong to thofe
who are at the trouble of cultivating them, Thele
iflanders make ufe of neither locks nor keys ; the
principal part of their food confifts in rice, fifti, and
flefli 5 their rice is moiftened with a foup which is fta-
foned with pimento, ginger, faffron, and aromatic
herbs. They difplay wonderful cunning in catching
a variety of birds, many of which aix unknown in Eu¬
rope ; they have the pheafant, the partridge, the quail,
the pintado, the wild duck, teal of five or fix different
kinds, the blue hen, the black paroquet, and the turtle¬
dove, in great plenty j and alfo a bat of a monftrous
fize, which is much prized on account of its exquifite
flavour. Thefe Taft are fo hideous in their appearance,
that they at firft terrify the European failors : but after
they have vanquiftied their repugnance to them, they
prize their flefti infinitely before that of the pullets of
their own country. The Melagaches alfo catch an im-
menfe quantity of fea-fith : fuch as the dorado, the
foie, the herring, the mackarel, the turtle, &c. with
oyfters, crabs, &c. The rivers afford excellent eels,
and mullets of an exquifite flavour.
The inhabitants near St Auguftine’s bay, Mr Ives
informs us, fpeak as much broken Englith as enables
them to exchange their provifions for European ar¬
ticles. Thefe, on the part of the Melagaches are cattle,
poultry, milk, fruit, rice, fait, porcelain, potatoes,
yams, fifti, lances, and (hells. From the Europeans
they receive mufkets, powder, bullets, flints, c/outies,
(including handkerchiefs, and linen of all kinds),
beads, iron pots, &c.—-Silver, which they call tnani/a,
is in great efteem with them, and is made by them
into bracelets for their wives.
That part of the ifland at which the Englifh fqua¬
dron touched, is the dominions of the king of Baba,,
who, by the account of Mr Ives, feemed greatly to
affeX to be an Englifliman. They had no fooner
touched at the ifland, than they were waited on by one
called Robin Hood, and another perfon, both of whom'
bore the office of purfers. Along with thefe wrere
Philibey the general j John Anderfon and Frederic
Martin, captains. Nor did the king himfelf and his
family difdain to pay them a vifit j who, in like man¬
ner, were diftinguiftied by Engliftr names j the king’s
eldeft fon being called the prince of Wales, and the
court not being without a duke of Cumberland, a
prince Auguftus, princeffes, &c. as in England. All
thefe grandees came on board naked, excepting only
a flight covering about their loins and on their Ihoul¬
ders, made of a kind of grafs growing on the ifland 5
which they had adorned with fmall glafs beads by way
of border or fringe. Their hair refembled that of the
T t 2 Indians
MAD [ 332 ] MAD
Indians in being long and black, rather than the wool¬
ly heads of the African negroes. “ The wives of the
Melagaches (according to our author) take great pains
with their huibands hair j fometimes putting it in
large and regular curls ; at other times braiding it in
great order, and making it fliine with a particular oil
which the ifland produces. The men always carry in
their hands a wooden lance headed with iron, which
is commonly made very neat 5 and they are fuch ex¬
cellent markfmen, that they will flrike with it a very
fmall objedl at 30 or 40 yards diflance. They have
alfo commonly a mulket, which they get from Euro¬
peans in exchange for cattle, and are always fure to.
keep in excellent order. I am forry to fay (continues
Mr Ives) that the Englith are frequently guilty of
great impofitions in this bind of traffic, by difpofing
of cheap and ill-tempered barrels among the poor in¬
habitants, who fometimes lofe their lives by the burll-
ing of thefe pieces. Such iniquitous practices as thefe
mud in the end prove injurious to the nation j and has
indeed already made the name of more than one-half of
thefe traders truly infamous among the deluded but
hitherto friendly Madagafcarians.
“ They are a civil and good-natured people, but
eafily provoked, and apt to fhow their refentment on
the lead provocation, efpecially when they think
themfelves injured or flighted. Another cbara&erif-
tic of them is, the very high notions of dignity they
entertain of their king j which is carried to fuch a
height, that they are never more fenfibly hurt than
when they imagine he is treated with incivility or dif-
refpect. This mighty monarch refldes in a town
built with mud, about 12 miles up the country from
St Auguftine’s bay. On the ead fide of the bay, as
you. enter, there refided one Prince William, a rela¬
tion and tributary to the king ; but who in mod cafes
acted' as an independent prince, and always ufed his
utmoft endeavours with the officers to caufe them buy
their provifions from him, and not from the king or
his fubjefts. In this prince’s territories, not far from
the fea, are the remains of a fort built by Avery the
pirate.
“ All the women of Madagafear, excepting the
very poored fort, wear a covering over their breads
and fhoulders, ornamented with glafs beads, and none
go without a cloth about their loins. They common¬
ly walk with a long {lender rod or dick. The men
are allowed to marry as many women as they can
mpport.
“ During our day at this ifland (fays Mr Ives), I
obierved with great concern, feveral nflferable objefls
in the lad dage of the venereal difeafe. They had
not been able to find any cure ; and as far as I could
learn, their doctors are totally ignorant of medicine.
The only method they ufe for curing all didempers,
as well external as internal, is the wearing on the arm
or neck a particular charm or amulet •, or befmearing
the part a defied with earth moidened with the juice
of tome plant or tree, and made up into foft pade.
“ I took feme pains to learn their religious tenets j
and find that they worfhip one Univerfal Father j
whom, when they fpeak in Eoglifh, they call Got/;
and in whom they conceive all kinds of perfection to
trefide. The fun they look upon as a glorious body ;
and, I believe, as a fpiritual being, but created and
5
dependent. They frequently look up to it with won¬
der, if not with praife and adoration. They make
their fupplications to the One Almighty, and offer fa-
crifices to him in their diitreffes. I had the curiofity
to attend a facrifice, at the hut of John Anderfon,
whofe father had for a long time been afflifled with
ficknefs. About funfet an ox was brought into the
yard j and the fon, who officiated as pried, flew it.
An altar was reared nigh, and the pod of it was
fprinkled with the blood of the victim. The head
after its being fevered from the body, was placed,
with the horns on, at the foot of the altar : the caul
v:as burned on the fire, and mod of the pluck and en¬
trails boiled in a pot. The fick man, who was brought
to the door, and placed on the ground fo as to face
the facrifice, prayed often, and feemingly with great
fervency. His eyes were fixed attentively towards the
heavens, and his hands held up in a fupplicating poi-
ture. The ceremony ended with the fon’s cutting up
the ox into fmall pieces ; the greated part of which
he didributed among the poor flaves belonging to his
father and himfelf j referving, however, fome of the
bed pieces for his own ufe. Upon the whole, I faw
fo many circumdances in this Madagafcarian facrifice,
fo exaflly refembling thofe deferibed in the Old Te-
flament as offered up by the Jews, that I could not
turn my thoughts back to the original, without being
fenfibly (truck by the exaftnefs of the copy.”
When the fquadron firft arrived at Madagafcar, the
king of Baba, a man of about 60 years of age, was-
ill of the gout. Having demanded of Admiral Wat-
fon fome prefents, the latter complimented him, among
other things, with fome brandy. The monarch then
aiked him if he had any doftur with him, and if he
was a great doftor, and a king’s doftor ? To all which
being anfwered in the affirmative, he defired him to
bring fome mahomets (medicines) for his fick knee.
With this requifition Mr Ives defigned to comply j
but having waited until fome officers ihould be ready
to accompany him, his majefty, in the mean time,
took fueh a dofe of brandy as quickly fent the gout
into his head, and occafioned his death. Mr Ives ob-
lerves, that it happened very luckily for him that the
monarch’s deceafe happened without his having taken
any of the medicines intended for him, as it would
have been impoflible to avoid the imputation of having
poifoned him, which would certainly have been reftnt-
ed by his loyal fubjefls.
The king’s death occafioned great confufion ; the
grandees being defirous that it fliould be concealed for
fome time. This, however, was found impoffible ; on
which they fet off for the Mud Town about ix o’clock
the fame evening. All the inhabitants of the village
followed their example 5 leaving only the dogs, who
fet up the moft hideous howling. Captain Frederic
Martin coming to take leave of the Englifli, begged
with great earneftnefs for a frefti fupply of gunpow¬
der j whifpering that the king was dead, and that
they flxould in all probability go to war about making
another. They had been formerly told, that one who
had the title of duke of Baba would certainly fucceed
to the throne j but they afterwards learned, that Phi-
libey the general having efpoufed the caufe of Ra-
phani the late king’s fon, and taken him under his tu¬
telage and prote&ion, this youth, who was only about
M .A D
of age, fucceeded his
[
father as king
i6 years
Baba.
The following is a defcription of the fouthern divi-
fion of the ifland, from the Abbe Rochon.
“ That part of Madagafcar in which Fort-Dauphin
is fituated is very populous. Almolt all the villages
are placed on eminences, and furrounded with two rows
of ftrong palifadoes, fomewhat in the manner of fuch
of our fences as are compofed of hurdles and turf.
Within, is a parapet of folid earth about four feet in
height; large pointed bamboos placed at the ditlance
of five feet from each other, and funk in a pit, form
a kind of loop-holes, which contribute towards the de¬
fence of thefe villages, feme of which are befides for¬
tified with a ditch ten feet in breadth and fix in
depth. The dwelling of the chief is called a donac.
When the chiefs go abroad, they are always provided
with a mulket and a ftick armed with iron, and adorn¬
ed at the extremity with a little tuft of cow’s hair.
They wear a bonnet of red wool. It is chiefiy by the
colour of their bonnet that they are diftinguiihed from
their fubje&s. Their authority is extremely limited :
however, in the province of CarcanoJJi, the lands by
cuftom belong to their chiefs, who diftribute them
among their fubjefts for the purpofes of cultivation ;
they exaft a trifiing quit-rent in return, which in their
language is called faenfa. The people of Carcanofli
are not altogether ignorant of the art of writing ; they
even pofiefs fome hiftorical works in the Madagafcar
tongue : but their learned men, whom they term Om~
biq/Jes, make ufe of the Arabic chara&ers alone. They
have treatifes on medicine, geomancy, and judicial
aftrology; the molt renowned live in the province of
Mat at nne ; it is in that diftridt that magic Hill remains
in all its glory *, the Matanes are actually dreaded by
the other Madecaffees on account of their excellence
in this delufive art. The Ombialfes have public fchools
in which they teach geomancy and aftrology. The
natives have undoubtedly learned the art of writing
from the Arabians, who made a conqueft of this ifland
about 300 years fince.
“ The people of the province of Anojji, near Fort
Dauphin, are lively, gay, fenfible, and grateful ; they
are paffionately fond of women ; are never melancholy
in their company ; and their principal occupation is
to pleafe the fex ; indeed, whenever they meet their
wives, they begin to fingand dance. The women, from
being happy, are always in good humour. Their live¬
ly and cheerful character is extremely pleafing to the
Europeans. I have often been prefent at their alTem-
blies, where affairs of importance have been agitated •,
I have obferved their dances, their fports, and their
amufements, and I have found them free from thofe
exceffes which are but too common among poliflied
nations. Indeed I was too young at this time for my
obfervations to be of much w-eight ; but if my experi¬
ence be infufficient to infpire confidence, I beg the
reader will rather confider the nature of things, than
the relations given by m> n without principles or intel¬
ligence, who fancy that they have a right to tyrannize
over the inhabitants of every country which they can
fubdue. If the people of Madagafcar have fometimes
availed themfelves of treachery, they have been forced
to it by the tyranny of the Europeans. The weak
have no other arms againft the ftrong. Could they
333 ) MAD
of defend themfelves by any other means from our artil-
lery and bayonets ? They are uninformed and helplefs ; ^ . i
and we avail ourfelves of their weaknefs, in order to
make them fubmit to our covetoufnefs and caprice.
They receive the moft cruel and oppreffive treatment,
in return for the hofpitality. which they generoufly be¬
llow on us ; and we call them traitors and cowards,
when we force them to break the yoke with which we
have been pleafed to load them.”
In the fecond volume of Count Benyowfky’s Me¬
moirs and Travels we have the following account of
the religion, government, &c. of the people of this
ifland.
“ The Madagafcar nation believe in a Supreme Be¬
ing, whom they call Zanhare^ which denotes creator of
all things. They honour and revere this Being ; but
have dedicated no temple to him, and much leis have
they fubftituted idols. They make facrificesi by kill¬
ing oxen and Iheep, and they addrefs all thefe libations
to God. It has been aflerted, that this nation likewife
makes offerings to the devil : but in this there is a de¬
ception ; for the piece of the facrificed beaft which is
ufually thrown into the fire is not intended in honour
of the devil, as is ufually pretended. This cuftom is
very ancient, and no one can tell the true reafon of it.
With regard to the immortality of the foul, the Ma¬
dagafcar people are perfuaded, that, after their death,
their fpirit w ill return again to the region in w hich the
Zanhare dwells; but they by no means admit that the
fpirit of man, after his death, can fuffer any evil. As
to the diftindion of evil or good, they are perfuad.ed
that the good and upright man ftiall be recompenfed,
in this life, by a good ftate of health, the conftancy
of his friends, the increafe of his fortunes, the obedi¬
ence of his children, and the happinefs of beholding
the profperity of his family : and they believe that the
wicked man’s fate {hall be the contrary to this.. The
Madagafcar people, upon this convidion, when they
make oaths, add bentdldions in favour of thofe who
keep them, and curfes againft thofe who break them.
In this manner it is that they appeal to the judgment
of Zanhare, in making agreements ; and it has never
been known, or heard of, that a native of Madagafcar
has broken his oath, provided it w-as made in the ufual
manner, which they fay was preferibed by their fore¬
fathers.
“ As to their kings and form of government, &c.
the Madagafcar people have always acknowledged
the line of Ramini, as that to which the rights of Am-
panfacabe or fovereign belongs. They have confider-
ed this line as extind fince the death of Dian Rami¬
ni Larizon, which happened 66 years ago, and whofe
body was buried upon a mountain, out of which the.
river Manangourou fprings; but having acknowledged
the heir of this line on the female fide, they re-efta-
bliftied this title in the year 1776. The right of the
Ampanfacabe confifts in nominating the Rohandrians
to aflift in the cabars, at which all thofe who are ci¬
ted are bound to appear, and the judgment of the Am¬
panfacabe in his cabar is decifive. Another preroga*
tive of the Ampanfacabe is, that each Rohandrian
is obliged to leave him by will a certain proportion,
of his property, which the fucceffors ufually purchafa
by a flight tribute or fine. Thirdly, The Ampanfa^
cabe has^ a right to exad from each Rohandrian one-
tentH.
MAD [
tenth of the produce of his land, and a number
horned cattle and ilaves, in proportion to the riches of
the country poffelfed by each Hohandrian. The fecond
order is compofed of the Rohandrians, or princes.
Since the lofs of the Ampanfacabe, three of thefe Ro¬
handrians have aflumed the title of kings, namely the
Rohandrian of the. province of Mahavelou, named
Hiavi ; of the province of Voemar, named Lambouin ;
and a third at Bombetoki, named Cimanounpou. The
third order confifts.of the Voadziri, or lords of a dif-
tnft, compofed of ieveral villages. Xhe fourth order
conlids of the Lohavohits, or chiefs of villages. The
fifth order, Ondzatzi, who are freemen, compofe the
attendants or followers of the Rohandrians, Voadziri
or Lohavohits. The fixth order confifts of Ombiaffes’
or learned men •, and this order forms the warriors,
workmen, phyficians, and diviners: thefe laft poffefs
no charge. The feventh order confifts of Ampurias or
flaves.
“ Having made inquiries from Bombetoki pafling to
the northward, and as far as Itapere, the refult proved
that there are 38 Rohandrians adlually reigning, and
287 .Voadziri. With refpeft to the Lohavohits,’Ond¬
zatzi, and Ombiaffes, it was not pofhble to obtain any
accurate determination of their number. Thefe or¬
ders preferve a regular gradation, refpedting which it
would be very difficult to give a detailed account.
They live in the manner we read of concerning the
ancient patriarchs. Every father of a family is prieft
and judge in.his own houfe, though he depends upon
the Lohavohits, who fuperintends his conduct. This
laft is anfwerable to his Voadziri, and the Voadziri to
the Rohandrian.
. ‘‘ 1 he Ma.dagalcar people having no communication
with the. main land of Althiopia, have not altered
their primitive laws \ and the language throughout
the. whole extent of the ifland is the fame. It would
be a raffi. attempt to determine the origin of this na¬
tion j it is certain that it confifts of three diftindl
races, who have for ages part formed intermixtures
which vary to infinity. The firft race is that of Zafe
Ibrahim, or defendants of Abraham ; but they have
no veftige of Judaifm, except circumcifion, and fume
names, fuch as Ifaac, Reuben, Jacob, &c. This race
is of a brown colour.—The fecond race is that of Za-
feramini : with refpea to this, fome books which are
ftill extant among the Ombiafles, affirm that it is
not more than fix centuries fince their arrival at Ma.
dagafcar,—With refpea to the third race of Zafe
Canambou, it is of Arabian extradb'on, and arrived
much more lately than the others from the coafts of
./Ethiopia : hence it poffeffes neither power nor cre¬
dit, and fills only the charges of writers, hiftorians,
poets, &c.
. In regai d to arts and trades, the Madagafcar na¬
tion are contented with fuch as are neceffary to make
their moveables., tools, utenfils, and arms for defence ;
to conftrudt their dwellings, and the boats which are
neceffary for their navigation j and laftly, to fabricate
cloths and fluffs for their clothing. They are de-
firous only of poffeffing the neceffary fupplies of im-
meuiate utility and convenience. The principal and
mo ft refpe&ed bufinefs, is the manufa&ure of iron
and iteel. I he artifts in this way call themfelves am~
panefa vihe. They are very expert in fufing the ore,
2
334 1 MAD
of and forging utenfils, fuch as hatchets, hammers, an- Ma.U.if.
vils, knives, fpades, fagayes, razors, pincers, or tweez- can
ers for pulling out.the hair, &c. The fecond clals con.  
fills of the goldtmiths {ompanefa vo/a mena) : they caft
gold in ingots, and make up bracelets, buckles, ear¬
rings, drops, rings, &c. The third are called ompaviL
langa, and are. potters. The fourth are the ottipanevat-
ta, or turners in wood, who make boxes called vatta
plates, wooden and horn fpoons, bee hives, coffins, &c!
I he fifth otnpan cacajou, or carpenters. They are very
expert in this bufinefs, and make ufe of the rule, the
plane, the compafles, &c. The fixth are the ompania-
vt, or ropemakers. 1 hey make their ropes of different
kinds of bark of trees, and likewife of hemp. The fe¬
venth, ampan lamba, or weavers. This bufinefs is per¬
formed by women only, and it would be reckoned dif-
graceful in a man to exercife it. The ombiaJJ'es are
the literary men and phyficians, who give advice only.
The herauvil% are comedians and dancers.
“ Ihe Madagafcar people always live in fociety j
that is to fay, in towns and villages. The towns are
furrounded by a ditch and pallifades (as already men¬
tioned), at the extremities of which a guard of from 12
to 20 armed men is kept. Lhe houles of private peo¬
ple cenfift of a convenient cottage, furrounded by fe-
veral fmall ones : the mafter of the houfe dwells in the
largeft, and his women or flaves lodge in the fmaller.
d hefe houfes are built of wood, covered with leaves of
the palm tree or ftraw.
“ The houfes of the great men of the country are
very fpacious ; each houfe is compofed of two walls
and four apartments : round about the principal houfe
other fmaller habitations are built for the accommoda¬
tion of the women, and the whole family of the chief j
but the Ilaves cannot pafs the night within them.—
Moft of the houfes inhabited by the Rohandrians are
built with tafte and admirable fymmetry.”
The French attempted to conquer and take poffef-
fion of the whole ifland, by order, and for the ufe of,
their Moft Chriftian Majefties Louis XIII. and XIV.
and they maintained a footing on it from the year
1642 to 1657. During this period, by the moft cruel
treachery, they taught the native princes the barbarous
traffic in Haves, by villanoufly felling to the Dutch go.
vernor of Mauritius a number of innocent people, who
had been afiifting them in forming a fettlement at Fort
Dauphin.
. The Abbe Rochon tells us, that the infalubrity of the
air in Madagafcar determined his countrymen in 1664
to quit that imm-enfe ifland, in order to eftablifti them¬
felves at fo inconfiderable a place as the ifle of Bour¬
bon, which is fcarcely perceptible in a map of the
globe : but it is apparent, from the account of the ftate
of the french affairs on the ifland of M^adagafcar, in
1661, when Flacourt’s narrative was publifhed, that
their ill treatment of the natives had raifed fuch a ge¬
neral and formidable oppofition to their refidence in the
country, that the French were obliged to abandon their
poffeflions for other reafons than the unhealthy qualities
of the climate. We have not room here for a detail of
all the oppreffive meafures of the French, which the
abbe himfelf candidly cenfures in the ftrongeft terms ;
but fhall extract the following narrative, both becaufe
it is interefting in itfelf, and exhibits the caufes and the
means of their expulfion.
La
MAD
ladagaf- La Cafe, one of the French officers employed by
car• the governor of Fort Dauphin againft the natives,
“nr~” was fo fuccefsful in all his enterprifes, that they called
hirfi Deaan Pous, the name of a chief who had for¬
merly conquered the whole illand. The French go¬
vernor, jealous of his renown, treated him hardily, and
refufed to allow him the rank or honours due to his
valour. The fovereign of the province of Amboulle,
called Deaan Rafcitat, taking advantage of his difcon-
tent, prevailed on him to become his general. Five
Frenchmen followed him. Deaan Nong, the daugh¬
ter of Rafcitat, captivated by the perfon and heroifm
of La Cafe, offered him her hand with the confent of
her father. The chief, grown old, infirm, and arrived
at the lad dage of exidence, had the fatisfa&ion of
fecuring the happinefs of his fubjedls, by appointing
his fon-in-law abfolute mader of the rich province of
Amboulle. La Cafe, in marrying Deaan Nong, re¬
fufed to take the titles and honours attached to the
fovereign power: he would accept of no other cha-
raiffer, than that of the fird fubjeft of his wife, who
was declared fovereign at the death of her father. Se¬
cure in the affedlion of this princefs, who was not
only poffeffed of perfonal charms, but of courage and
great qualities, he was beloved and refpefled by her
family, and by all the people of Amboulle, who reve¬
renced him as a father •, and yet, how much foever he
widied it, he was unable to contribute to the profperity
of his countrymen at Fort Dauphin, whom he knew to
be in the utmod didrefs. The governor, regarding
him as a traitor, had fet a price on his head, and on
the heads of the five Frenchmen who had followed
him. The neighbouring chiefs, irritated at this treat¬
ment of a man whom they fo much venerated, unani-
moudy refufed to fupply the fort with provifions. This
occafioned a famine in the place, which, with a conta¬
gious fever and other maladies, reduced the French gar-
rifon to 80 men.
The edablilhment at Fort Dauphin, on the point
of being totally dedroyed, was preferved for a diort
time from ruin by the arrival of a veffel from France,
commanded by Kercadio an officer of Britanny, who,
with the affidance of a young advocate who had been
kidnapped on board the veffel, prevailed on the envi¬
ous and implacable governor Chamargou to make
peace with La Cafe and his fovereign fpoufe Deaan
Nong. This peace, however, laded but for a diort
time ; the French, redlefs and infolent to the neigh¬
bouring nations, again drew on them the vengeance
of the natives. Even the few friends whom they had
been able to acquire by means of La Cafe, were ren¬
dered hodile to them by the tyrannic zeal of the mif-
lionaries •, who, not contented with being tolerated
and allowed to make converts, infided on Deaan Ma-
nang, fovereign of Mandrarey, a powerful, courageous,
and intelligent chief, well difpofed to the French, to
divorce all his wives but one. This prince, not con¬
vinced of the neceffity of fuch a meafure, affured them
that he was unable to change his habits and way
of living, which were thofe of his forefathers. “ You
w mid allow me (fays he) to have one v ife ; but if
the poffeffion of one woman is a bleffing, why diould
a numerous feraglio be an evil, while peace and con¬
cord reign among thofe of whom it is compofed ?
Do you fee among us any indications of jealoufy or-
MAD
hatred ? No, all our women are good 5 all try to make Madag^f-
me happy ; and I am more their dave than their maf- ‘jff
ter.” This fpeech had no ed'ect on Father Stephen, jyjaje;ras.
fuperior of the Madagafcar miffion. He perempto- v.
rily ordered him indantly to repudiate all his wives
except one ; and threatened,' in prefence of the wo¬
men, to have them taken from him by the French
foldiers, if he helitated in complying with his com¬
mands. It is eafy to imagine, fays M. Rochon, with
what indignation this language mud have been heard
in the donac or palace of this prince. The females af-
failed the miffionary on all fides •, loaded him w ith ex¬
ecrations and blows ; and in their fury, would doubt- ,
lefs have afforded him no more quarter than the Thra¬
cian women did Orpheus, if Deaan Manang, notwith-
danding his own agitation, had not made ufe of all his
authority to fave him.
In order to free himfelf from the perfecution of this
pried, he removed with his family 70 or 80 miles up
into the country j but he was foon followed by Father
Stephen and another miffionary, with their attendants.
The chief, Manang, dill received them civilly ; but he
intreated them no longer to infid on the converfion of
him and his people, as it was impodible to oblige them
to quit the cudoms and manners of their ancedors.
The only reply which Father Stephen made to this
intreaty, was by tearing off the o/V, and the amulets
and charms which the chief wore as facred badges of
his ow n religion ; and, throwing them into the fire, he
declared war againd him and his nation. This violence
indantly cod him and his followers their lives : they
w7ere all maffacred by order of Manang, who vowed
the dedrvndion of all the French in the illand j in which
intention he proceeded in a manner that has been re¬
lated by an eye-witnefs, who was aftenvards provincial
commiffary of artillery, in a narrative publidied at
Lyons in 1722, entitled, Voyage de Madagafcar. “ Our
yoke (fays the Abbe Rochon) was become odious and
infupportable. Hidorians, for the honour of civilized
nations, diould bury in oblivion the affli&ing narratives
of the atrocities exercifed on thefe people, whom we
are pleafed to call barbarous, treacherous, and deceit¬
ful, becaufe they have revolted againd European ad¬
venturers, whofe lead crime is that of violating the fa¬
cred rites of hbfpitality.”
It was about the year 1672 that the French were
totally driven from the ifiand of Madagafcar j and no
confiderable attempts were made to form freffi edablilh-
ments there till within theie few years, by M. de Mo-
dave, and by Count Benyowfki ; neither of which was
attended with fuccefs, for reafons given by the Abbe,
but w hich we have not room to detail.
MADDER, a plant ufed in dyeing. See Rubia,
Botany Index; and for its dyeing properties, fee
Dyeing.
MADEIRAS, a cluder of iflands fituated in the
Atlantic ocean in W. Long. T 6°, and between 32° and !
330 N. Lat.—The larged of them, called Madeira^
from which the red take their name, is about 55
Engliffi miles long, and 10 miles broad j and was fird
difcovt red on the 2d of July, in the year 1419, by
Joao Gonzales Zarco, there being no hitlorical founda¬
tion for the fabulous report of its difcovery by one
Machin an Enghdiman. It is divided into two capi-
tanias, named Funchal and Mexico, from the tow ns of
thofe c
[ 335 1
M AD [
Mi&cieirgs. thofe names. The former contains two judicatures, vfz.
L" Funchal and Galhetta ; the latter being a town with the
title of a county, belonging to the family of Caftello
Melhor. The fecond capitania likewife comprehends
two judicatures, viz, Maxico (read Malhico) and San
Vicente.
Funchal is the only citadel or city in the ifland,
which has alfo feven villas or towns 5 of which there
are four, Calhetta, Camara de Lobos, Ribeira Braba,
and Ponta de Sol in the capitania of Funchal, which
is divided into 26 parilhes. The other three are in
the capitania of Maxico, which confilts of 17 parilhes;
thele towns are called Massico, San Vicente, and Santa
•Cruz.
ihere is one curiofity in the town of Funchal, which
deferves to be taken notice of, and that is a chamber
in one of the corners of the Francifcan convent, the
walls and ceiling of which are completely covered w ith
rows of human Ikulls and human thigh bones, fo ar¬
ranged that in the obtufe angle made by each pair of
the latter, eroding each other obliquely, is placed a
fkull. 1 he only vacant fpace that appears is in the
centre of the fide oppofite to the door, on which there
is an extraordinary painting above a kind of altar, but
what the fubje£l it is intended to reprelent, it is difficult
to determine. A figure probably intended for St Fran¬
cis, the patron faint, feems to be intent on trying in a
balance the comparative wreight of a finner and a faint.
A dirty lamp fufpended from the ceiling, and juft glim¬
mering in the focket, ferves dimly to light up this dif-
mal den of Ikulls. The monk who attends as fhew'-
man, is careful to imprefs on the minds of thofe who
vifit it, the idea that they are all relicks of holy men
who died on the ifland, although Mr Barrow is of opi¬
nion that the church-yard muft have been frequently
robbed, in order to accumulate fuch a prodigious num¬
ber of fkulls, which from a rough computation made
by that gentleman, could not be under 3000.
The governor is at the head of all the civil and mi¬
litary departments of this ifland, of Porto-Santo, the
Salvages, and the Ilhas Defartas; which laft only con¬
tain the temporary huts of feme filhermen, who refort
thither in purfuit of their bufinefs ; his falary is com¬
puted to be w'orth 2000I. per annum, 200I. of which
is in the form of a prefent from the Englifti mer¬
chants.
The law department is under the corregidor, who is
appointed by the king of Portugal, commonly fent
from Lifbon, and holds his place during the king’s
pleafure. All caufes come to him from inferior courts
by appeal. Each judicature has a fenate j and a Jui%
or judge, whom they choofe, prefides over them. At
Funchal he is called Juvz da Fora; and in the ab¬
sence, or after the death ef the corregidor, afts as
his deputy. The foreign merchants eleft their own
judge, called the Providor, who is at the fame time
collector of the king’s cuftoms and revenues, which
amount in all to about X2,ocol. fterling. Far the
greateft part of this fum is applied towards the fala-
ries of civil and military officers, the pay of troops,
and the maintenance of public buildings. This revenue
arifes, firft from the tenth of all the produce of this
itland belonging to the king, by virtue of his office as
grand matter of the order of Chrift ; fecondly, From
ten per cent, duties laid on all imports, provifions ex-
336 ] MAD
cepted ; and laftly, From the eleven per cent, charged Madeira?
on all exports. ^
The ittand has but one company of regular foldiers
of 100 men : the reft of the military force is a militia
confifting of 3000 men, divided into companies, each
commanded by a captain, who has one lieutenant un¬
der him and one enfign. There is no pay given to
either the private men or the officers of this militia j
and yet their places are much fought after, on account
of the rank which they communicate, 'ihefe troops
are embodied once a~year, and exercifed once a-month.
All the military are commanded by the Serjcante M6r.
The governor has two Capitanos de Sal about him, who
do duty as aides-de-camp.
The fecular priefts on the ifland are about 1200,
many of whom are employed as private tutors. Since
the expulfion of the Jefuits, no regular public fehool
is to be found here ; unlefs we except a feminary,
where a prieft, appointed for that purpofe, inftrudts
and educates ten ftudents at the king’s expence. Thefe
wear a red cloak over the ufual black gowns worn
by ordinary ftudents. All thofe who intend to go
into orders, are obliged to qualify themfelves by ftudy-
ing in the univerfity of Coimbra, lately re-eftabliftied
in Portugal. There is alfo a dean and chapter at Ma¬
deira, with a bilhop at their head, w hofe income is con-
fiderably greater than the governor’s j it conlifts of
110 pipes of wine, and of 40 muys of wheat, each con¬
taining 24 buffiels} which amounts in common years
to 3000I. fterling. Here are likewife 60 or 70 Fran¬
cifcan friars, in four monafteries, one of which is at
Funchal. About 300 nuns live on the iftand, in four
convents, of the order of Merci, Sta Clara, Incarnacao,
and Dom Jeius. Thofe of the laft-mentioned inilitu-
tion may marry whenever they choofe, and leave their
monaftery.
In the year 1768, the inhabitants living in the 43
parillies of Madeira, amounted to 63,913, of whom
there were 31,341 males and 32,572 females. But
in that year 5243 perfons died, and no more than
2198 children were born j fo that the number of the
dead exceeded that of the born by 3045. It is high¬
ly probable that fome epidemical diitemper carried off
fo difproportionate a number in that year, as the
ifland would fhortly be entirely depopulated if the
mortality were always equal to this. Another cir-
cumftance concurs to ftrengthen this fuppofition, name¬
ly, the excellence of the climate. The weather is in
general mild and temperate : in fummer, the heat is
very moderate on the higher parts of the ifland, whither
the better fort of people retire for that feafon ; and in
the winter the fnow remains there for feveral days,
whilft it is never known to continue above a day or two
in the lower parts.
The common people of this ifland are of a fawney
colour, and well fliaped ; though they have large feet,
owing perhaps to the efforts they are obliged to make
in climbing the craggy paths of this mountainous
country. Their faces are oblong, their eyes dark ;
their black hair naturally falls in ringlets, and begins to
crifp in fome individuals, which may perhaps be owing
to intermarriages with negroes ; in general, they are
hard featured, but not difagreeable. Their women
are too frequently ill-favoured, and want the florid
complexion, which, w hen united to a pleafing affem-
blage
MAD [ 337 1 MAD
'fuleira?. blage of regular features, gives our northern fair ones the polite world about half a century ago.
^ ' theiuperiority over all their fex. They are fmall,
have prominent cheek bones, large feet, an ungraceful
and the colour of the darkeft brunette. The
gait,   —
juft proportion of the body, the fine form of their
hands, and their large lively eyes, feem in fome mea-
fure to compenfate for thole defeats. The labour¬
ing men, in fummer, wear linen trowfers, a coarfe
fhirt, a large hat, and boots ; fome have a {hurt jacket
made of cloth, and a long cloak, which they fome-
times carry over their arm. The women wear a pet¬
ticoat, and a Ihort corfelet or jacket, clofely fitting
their lhapes, which is a Ample, and often not an in¬
elegant drefs. They have alfo a Ihort but wide
cloak j and thofe that are unmarried tie their hair on
the crown of their head, on which they wear no co¬
vering. '
The country people are exceeding fober and frugal j
their diet in general confifting of bread and onions,
or other roots, and little animal food. However,
they avoid eating tripe, or any offals, becaufe it is
proverbially faid of a very poor man, “ He is reduced
to eat tripe.” Their common drink is water, or an
infufion of the remaining rind or Ikin of the grape
(after it has paffed through the wine prefs), which
when fermented acquires fome tartnefs and acidity, but
cannot be kept very long. The wine for which the
illand is fo famous, and which their own hands prepare,
feldom if ever regales them.
Their principal occupation is the planting and raif-
ing of vines j but as that branch of agriculture re*,
quires little attendance during the greateft part of the
year, they naturally incline to idlenefs. The warmth
of the climate, which renders great provifion againft
the inclemencies of weather unneceffary, and the eafe
with which the cravings of appetite are fatisfied, muff
tend to indolence, wherever the regulations of the
legiflature do not counteraft it, by endeavouring, with
the profpeft of increafing happinefs, to infufe the fpi-
rit of induftry. It feems the Portuguefe government
does not purfue the proper methods againft this dan¬
gerous lethargy of the ftate. They have lately order¬
ed the plantation of olive trees here, on fuch fpots as
are too dry and barren to bear vines j but they have
not thought of giving temporary affiftance to the la¬
bourers, and have offered no premium by which thefe
might be induced to conquer their reludtance to inno¬
vations and averfion to labour.
The vineyards are held only on an annual tenure,
and the farmer reaps but four-tenths of the produce,
fince other four-tenths are paid in kind to the owner
of the land, one-tenth to the king, and one to the
clergy. Such fmall profits, joined to the thought of
toiling merely for the advantage of others, if improve¬
ments were attempted, entirely preclude the hopes of
a future increafe. Oppreffed as they are, they have
however preferved a high degree of cheerfulnefs and
contentment $ their labours are commonly alleviated
with fongs, and in the evening they affemble from
different cottages to dance to the drowfy mufic of a
guitar.
The inhabitants of the towns are more ill-favoured
than the country people, and often pale and lean.
The men wear French clothes, commonly black, which
do not feem to fit them, and have been in falhion in
Vol. XII. Part I.
Their ladies Madeira
are delicate, and have agreeable features: but the
charafteriftic jealoufy of the men ftill locks them up,
and deprives them of a happinefs which the country
women, amidft all their diftreffes, enjoy. Many of the
better people are a fort of petite nobleJJey which we
would call gentry, whofe genealogical pride makes them
unfociable and ignorant, and caufes a ridiculous affec¬
tation of gravity. The landed property is in the hands
of a few ancient families, who live at Funchal, and in
the various towns on the illand.
Madeira confifts of one large mountain, whofe
branches rife everywhere from the fea towards the
centre of the illand, converging to the fummit, in the
midft of which is a depreflion or excavation, called the
Val by the inhabitants, always covered with a freih
and delicate herbage. The rocks of Madeira are vefi-
cular, of a blackilh colour, and by fome naturalifts
are fuppofed to have had a fimilar origin with lava.
A few of them are of the kinl which the DerbyIhire
miners call dunjlone. The ioil of the whole illand is
a tayras mixed with fome particles of clay, lime, and
fand, and has much the fame appearance as fome earths
on the ille of Afcenfion. From this circumftance, and
from the excavation of the fummit of the mountain, it
is probable, that in fome remote period a volcano has
produced the lava and the ochreous particles, and that
the Val was formerly its crater.
Many brooks and fmall rivulets defcend from the
fummits in deep chafms or glens, which feparate the
various parts of the illand. 1 he beds of the brooks are
in fome places covered with ftones of all fizes, carried
down from the higher parts by the violence of winter
rains or floods of melted fnow. The water is conduct¬
ed by wears and channels in the vineyards, where each
proprietor has the ufe of it for a certain time j fome
being allowed to keep a conftant fupply of it, fome
to ufe it thrice, others twice, and others only once a-
week. As the heat of the climate renders this fupply
of water to the vineyards abfolutely neceffary, it is
not without great expence that a new vineyard can be
planted •, for the maintenance of which, the owners muft
purchafe water at a high price, from thofe who are
conftantly fupplied, and are thus enabled to fpare fome
of it.
Wherever a level piece of ground can be contrived
in the higher hills, the natives make plantations of ed-
does, enclofed by a kind of dykeftto caufe a ftagnation,
as that plant fucceeds belt in fwampy ground. Its leaves
ferve as food for hogs, and the country people ufe the
roots for their own nourilhment.
The fweet potato is planted for the fame purpofe,
and makes a principal article of diet; together with
chefnuts, which grow in extenfive woods, on the higher
parts of the ifland, where the vine will not thrive.
Wheat and barley are likewife fown, efpecially in
fpots where the vines are decaying through age, or
where they are newly planted. But the crops do not
produce above three months provifions j and the in¬
habitants are therefore obliged to have recourfe to
other food, befides importing confiderable quantities
of corn from North America in exchange for wine.
The want of manure, and the ina&ivity of the people,
are in fome meafure the caufes of this difadvantage}
but fuppofing hulbandry to be carried to its perfection
U u here,
M A ^ f 333 ] M
^f^ras. here, they could not raife corn fufficient for their con- likewife found at Madeira
lumption. Ihey make their threfliing-floors of a cir¬
cular form, in a corner of a field, which is cleared and
beaten fo id for the purpofe. The fheaves are laid
round about it; and a fquare board, ftuck full of fharp
flints below, is dragged over them by a pair of oxen-,
the driver getting on it to increafe its weight. This
machine cuts^ the ftraw as if it had been chopped, and
frees the grain from the hulk, from which it is after¬
wards feparated.
The great produce of Madeira is the wine, from
which it has acquired fame and fupport. Where the
foil, expofure, and fupply of water, will admit of it,
the vine is cultivated. One or more walks, about a
yard or two wide, interfeft each vineyard, and are
included by done walls two feet high. Along thefe
walks which are arched over with laths about feven
\feet high, they ere£t wooden pillars at regular di-
ftances, to iupport a lattice-work of bamboos, which
dopes down from both Tides of the walk, till it is only
a foot and a half or two feet high, in which elevation
it extends over the whole vineyard. "1 he vines aue in
this manner fupported from the ground, and thepeo-
ple have room to root out the weeds which fpring up
between them. In the feafon of the vintage, they
cieep under this lattice-work, cut off the grapes, and
lay them into bafkets: fome bunches of thefe grapes
weigh fix pounds and upwards. This method of keep¬
ing the ground clean and moift, and ripening the grapes
in the {hade, contributes to give the Madeira wines
that excellent flavour and body for which they are re-
markable. The owners of vineyards are however
obliged to allot a certain fpot of ground for the growth
of bamboos j for the lattice work cannot be made with¬
out them : and it is faid fome vineyards lie quite ne-
gle&ed for want of this ufeful reed.
The wines are not all of equal goodnefs, and con-
lequently of different prices. The beft, made of a
vine imported from Candia by order of the Infante of
Portugal, Don Henry, is called Madeira Malmfiy, a
pipe of which cannot be bought on the fpot for lefs
than 40I. or 42I. fterling. It is an exceeding rich
iweet wine, and is only made in a fmall quantity. The
next fort is a dry wine, fuch as is exported for the Lon¬
don market, at 30I. or 31I. fterling the pipe. Inferior
forts for the Eaft India, Weft India, and North Ameri¬
can markets, fell at 28I. 25I. and 20]. fterling. About
.30,000 pipes, upon a mean, are made every year, each
containing no gallons. About 13,000 pipes of the
better forts are exported: and all the reft is made into
brandy for the Brazils, converted into vinegar, or con-
fumed at home.
The jargeft quantity of this article exported in the
courfe of one year, is laid to have amounted to 15,000
pipes, valued at 500,000!. of which 5500 pipes were
fent to the Eaft Indies, 4500 to England, 3000 to
the Weft Indies, and 2000 to America.
The enclosures of the vineyards confift of walls, and
hedges of prickly pear, pomegranates, myrtles, bram¬
bles, and wild rofes. 'I he gardens produce peaches,
apricots, quinces, apples, pears, walnuts, chefnuts, and
many other European fruits ; together with now and
then fome tropical plants, fuch as bananas, goavas, and
pine-apples.
AH the common domeftic animals of Europe are
3
A D
and their mutton and beef, Madeir-
though fmall, is very well tafted. Their horfes are fl
finally but fure-footed j and with great agility climb Madrid*
the difficult paths, which are the only means of com- ‘"""“V'"""
munication in the country. They have no wheel-car¬
riages of any kind : but in the town they ufe a fort
of drays or fledges, formed of two pieces of plank
joined by crofs pieces, which make an acute angle be¬
fore ; thefe are. drawn by oxen, and are ufed to tranf-
port calks of wine, and other heavy goods, to and from
the warehoufes.
The animals of the feathered tribe, which live wild
here, are more numerous than the wild quadrupeds j
there being only the common gray rabbit here, as a
reprefentative of the laft-mentioned clafs. Tame birds,
fuch as turkeys, geefe, ducks, and hens, are very rare*
which is perhaps owing to the fcarcity of corn.
I here are no fnakts whatfoever in IMadeira ^ but
all the houfes, vineyards, and gardens, {'warm with liz¬
ards. 1 he friars of one of the convents complained
to Mr.Forfter, that thefe vermine deftroyed the fruit
in their garden; they had therefore placed a brafs-
kettle in the ground to catch them, as they are con-
ftantly running about in queft of food. In this man¬
ner they daily caught hundreds, which could not get
out on account of the fmooth fides of the kettle, but
were forced to perifti.
Ihe ftiores of Madeira, and of the neighbouring
Salvages and Defertas, are not without fifli; but as
they are not in plenty enough for the rigid obfervance
of Lent, pickled herrings are brought from Gotten-
burg in Englifli bottoms, and falted cod from New
York and other American ports, to fupply the defici¬
ency.
MADIAN, in Ancient Geography,Arabia
Petraea, near the Arnon $ fo called from one of the
fons of Abraham by Ketura j in ruins in Jerome’s time.
Jerome mentions another Madian, or Midian, beyond
Arabia, in the defert, to the fouth of the Red lea ;
and henee Madiancei, and Madianikei, the people j and
Madiancea Regio, the country.
MADNESS, a moft dreadful kind of delirium,
without fever. See Medicine Index.
MADRAS. See St George.
MADRE de Popa, a town and convent of South
America, in Terra Firma, feated on the river Grande,
It is almoft as much reforted to by pilgrims of Ame¬
rica as Loretto is in Europe j and the image of the
Virgirt Mary is faid to have done many miracles in
favour of the feafaring people. W« Long. 76. o. N,
Lat. 11. o.
MADREPORA, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a
genus of fubmarine {ubftances j belonging to the order
lithophyta. See Helminthology Index.
MADRID, a town of New Caftile in Spain, and
capital of the whole kingdom, though it never had the
title of a city, is fituated in W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat.
40. 26. It Hands in the centre of a large plain, fur-
rounded with mountains, and in the very heart of
Spain,.on the banks ef the little river Manzanares,
which is always very low and {hallow, except when it is
fwelled by the melting of the fnow on the mountains.
The city is in general well laid out; the ftreets are very
handfome j and the houfes are fair and lofty, but built
of brick, with lattice-windows, excepting thofe of the
sieb,.
M A D
Madrid, rich, who have glafs in their windows ; only, during
-n/ ' the fummer heats, they ufe gauze, or fome fuch thin
fluff, inftead of it, to let in the frefti air. There are
two flately bridges here over the Manzanares, a great
many magnificent churches, convents, hofpitals, and
palaces. The royal palace, which ftands on the weft
fide of the town, on an eminence, is fpacious and mag¬
nificent, confifting of three courts, and commanding a
fine profpeft. At the eait end of the town is the pra-
do, or pardo j which is a delightful plain, planted with
regular rows of poplar trees, and watered with a great
many fountains •, where the nobility and gentry take
the air on horfeback, or in their coaches, and the com¬
mon people on foot, or divert themfelves with a variety
of fports and exercifes. Almoft all the ftreets of Ma¬
drid are ftraight, wide, clean, and well paved. The
largeft and moft frequented are the ftreet of Alcala,
that of Atocha, that of Toledo, and the Ca//e Grande
or great ftreet. Madrid has alfo feveral fquares, which
in general are not very regular. The principal are
thofe of San Joachim, Sol, Lafganitas, San Domingo,
La Cevado, and the Plaza Mayor. The latter efpe-
cially deferves notice for its fpacioufnefs and regularity,
and the elegant and lofty houfes it contains. It is 1536
feet in circuit. The houfes, of which there are 136,
are of five ftories, ornamented with balconies ; the firft
of which, fupported by pillars, forms a piazza round
the fquare, where the inhabitants may w'alk under co¬
ver. In the middle of the fquare a market is kept.—
The ftreets and fquares of Madrid, except the Plaza
Mayor which has been juft defcribed, are ornamented
with fountains in a very ill tafle. Thofe moft to be
diftinguiihed in this particular are the fountain of the
fmall irregular fquare called Plaza di Antonio Martin,
and that of the fquare named Puerto del S&l. The
others are not more magnificent, though lefs ridiculous.
The water of all thefe fountains is excellent •, and the
air of Madrid, though the w eather be variable and un¬
certain, is extremely pure. It was this purity of the
air and excellent quality of the water which induced
Philip II. and his fucceffors to fix their refidence in this
city. It is alfo well fupplied with provifions of all kinds
at reafonable rates j and the court, with the refort and
refidence of the quality, and the high colleges and of¬
fices that are kept here, occafion a bulk trade and cir¬
culation of money.
The facred edifices in this city have nothing remark¬
able in their archite&ure 5 thofe of St Pafqual, St Ifa-
bella, and the Carmelites, contain highly valuable col-
leftions of pictures, which may be feen with admiration
even after the paintings of the Efcurial and the new- pa¬
lace. The church of St Ifidro, which heretofore be¬
longed to the Jefuits, has a portal which has efcaped
the contagion of the age in which it was built. There
is another church much more modern, which on ac¬
count of its mafs has a venerable appearance, but which
true tafte may juftly difavow : it is that of St Saiefas,
or the Vifitation, founded by Ferdinand VI. and the
queen Barbara his wife.—The convent of St Francis
Bourgo- has already been fome years building *f and there are
hopes that it will become one of the fineft productions
of architecture in the capital.—Befides a variety of cha¬
ritable foundations, there are here three confraternities,
the revenues of which are appropriated to the fuccour
of,the wretched } and an inftitution fimilar to the Mont
[ 339 1
MAD
ine't Tra
els in
>ain, 17S9
de Piete in Paris, the principal objeCt of which is to ad¬
vance money to the neceflitous.
The city of Madrid contains 15 gates, 18 parifties,
35 convents of monks, and 31 of nuns •, 39 colleges,
hofpitals, or houfes of charity ; 7398 dwelling houfes,
and about 160,000 inhabitants. The Lombard tra¬
veller, Father Caimo, tells us, that 50,000 theep and
12,000 oxen are annually confumed there ; to which
his editor has added a ludicrous eftimate of the onions
and leeks devoured there, which he fays amount to
970000000000000000000000000000045. But this
writer (M. Bourgoanne obferves) would not at pre-
fent have any reafon to complain of the difagreeable
fmells of the ftreets, nor would he find all the per¬
fumes of Arabia neceffary to defend himfelf from them.
By the vigilance of the modern police, for which (M.
Bourgoanne informs us) it is indebted to the Count
d’Aranda, it is rendered one of the cleaneft cities in
Europe.
There are four academies in Madrid : The firft is
the Spaniih academy, founded in 1714, in imitation of
the French academy, and confifting of 24 members,
including the prefident. Its device is a crucible on
burning coals, with the motto limpia, Jixa, y da efplen-
der; “ it purifies, fixes, and gives luftre.” Its firft
obje£t was the compilation of a dictionary of the Spa¬
niih language, which was publifhed in fix volumes folio,
and of which a new edition, with great additions, has
been lately put to the prefs. The fame academy is
alfo employed on a fuperb edition of Don Ouixotte,
adorned with elegant engravings far fupe'iior to the
laft, and collated with all the former editions. The
fecond is the academy of hiflory ; which owes its ori¬
gin to a fociety of individuals, the objeCt of whofe
meetings was to preferve and illuftrate the hiftorical
monuments of the kingdom of Spain. Their labours
met the approbation of Philip V. who in 1738 con¬
firmed the ftatutes by a royal cedula. This academy
confifts of 24 members, including the prefident, fecre-
tary, and cenfor. Its device is a river at its fource ;
and the motto, In patriampopulumqueJhiit. The other
twro- academies are, the academy of the fine arts,
painting, fculpture, and architecture ; and the aca¬
demy of medicine. The latter is held in no great
efteem.
The environs bf Madrid contain feveral royal feats ;
among which are El Buen Retiro, Cafa del Campo,
Florida, Le Pardo Sarfuela, and St Ildefonfo ; but the
moft magnificent not only in this country but perhaps
in the whole world is the Efcurial, which takes its
name from a fmall village near which it ftands, about
22 miles north-weft from Madrid ; and of which a de-
feription is given under the article EscuRiAL. Ano¬
ther royal palace, greatly admired, particularly for its
delicious gardens and furprifing water-works, is Aran-
juez, which is fituated on the Tagus, about 30 miles
fouth of Madrid. See Aranjuez.
MADRIGAL, a fhort amorous poem, compofed of
a number of free and unequal verfes, neither confined
to the regularity of a fonnet, nor to the point of an epi¬
gram ; but only confifting of fome tender and delicate
thought, expreffed w ith a beautiful, noble, and elegant
fimplicity.
Menage derives the word from tnandra, which in
Latin and Greek, fignifies “ a ftieep-fold imagining
U u 2 ' • it
Madrid,
Madrigal*
MAE [ 340 ] MAE
Madngal it to have been originally a kind of paftoral or Ihep-
Msecenas ^er(^,s ^onS > whence the Italians formed their tnadri-
1- Sa^ei and we madrigal. Others rather choofe to derive
it from the word madrugar, which in the Spanilh lan¬
guage lignifies “ to rife in the morning $” the madri-
gales being formerly fung early in the morning by thofe
who had a mind to ferenade their miftreffes.
MADURA, a province of Alia, in the peninfula on
this fide the Ganges $ bounded on the eaft by Tanjour
and Marava, on the fouth-ealt by the fea, on the weft
by the Balagate mountains, which feparate it from Ma¬
labar, and on the north by Vifiapour and Carnate.
The inhabitants are Gentoos, and of a thievifh difpofi-
tion. The commodities are rice, elephants teeth, and
cotton cloth ; of which laft a great deal is made here,
and very fine. At this place is a pearl filhery, which
brings in a large fum annually.
MMEANDER, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated
river of Afia Minor, riling near Celsenae. It flows
through Caria and Ionia into the iEgean fea between
Miletus and Priene, after it has been increafed by the
waters of the Mariyas, Lycus, Eudon, Lethaeus, &c.
It is celebrated among the poets for its windings, which
amount to not lefs than 600, and from which all obli¬
quities have received the name of mceanders. It forms
in its courfe, according to the obfervation of fome tra¬
vellers, the Greek letters « £ | s & «j and from its
windings Daedalus is faid to have had the firft idea of
his famous labyrinth.
MtEA'I^/E, anciently a people of Britain, near Se-
verus’s wall, inhabiting the diftridt now called Lauder¬
dale, in Scotland.
MAECENAS, Caius Cilnius, the great friend and
counfellor of Auguftus Caefar, was himfelf a very polite
fcholar, but is chiefly memorable for having been the
patron and protedtor of men of letters. He was de-
Icended from a moft ancient and illuftrious origin, even
from the kings of Hetruria, as Horace often tells us $
but his immediate forefathers Avere only of the equef-
trian order. He is fuppofed to have been born at Rome,
becaufe his family lived there j but in what year, anti¬
quity does not tell us. It fays as little about his educa¬
tion } but we know it muft have been of the moft libe¬
ral kind, and perfedtly agreeable to the dignity and
Iplendour of his birth, fince he excelled in every thing
that related to arms, politics, and letters. How Mae¬
cenas fpent his younger years is alfe unknown to us,
any farther than by effedts ; there being no mention
made of him by any writer before the death of Julius
Crefar, which happened in the year of Rome 709.
Then Odlavius Caefar, who was afterwards called Au-
gujlus, went to Rome, to lake pofieffion of his uncle's
inheritance j and then Maecenas became firft publicly
known, though he appears to have been Auguftus’s in¬
timate friend, and as it fhould feem guardian, from his
childhood. From that time he accompanied him
through all his fortunes, and was his counfellor and
advifer upon all occaiions *, fo that Paedo Albinovanus
juftly called him Ccefaris dextram, “ CaefaFs right-
hand.”
In A. R. 710, the year that Cicero was killed and
Ovid born, Maecenas diftinguilhed himfelf by his cou¬
rage and military Ikill at the battle of Modena, where
the confuls Hirtius and Panfa were flain in fighti. g
agaimi Antony 5 as he did afterwards at Philippi,
I
After this laft battle began the memorable friendfliip Macenaj.
between Maecenas and Horace. Horace, as Suetonius
relates, Avas a tribune in the army of Brutus and Caf-
fius, and upon the defeat of thofe generals made a pri-
foner of war. Maecenas, finding him an accompliflied
man, became immediately his friend and protedlor j
and afterwards recommended him to Auguftus, Avho
reftored him his eftate with no fmall additions. In
the mean time, though Maecenas behaved himfelf well
as a foldier in thefe and other battles, yet his principal
province was that of a minifter and counfellor. He
was the advifer, the ipanager, the negociator, in every
thing that related to civil affairs. When the league
was made at Brundufium between Antony and Au¬
guftus, Maecenas was lent to aft on the part of An-
guftus. This we learn from Horace in his journey t©
Brundufium:
Hue venturus erat Maecenas optimus, atque
Cocceius, mijji magnis de rebus uterque
Legati, averfos foliti componere amicos. Sat. v. lib. I.
And afterwards, Avhen this league was near breaking,
through the fufpicions of each party, Maecenas was fent
to Antony to ratify it anew.
In the year 717, when Auguftus and Agrippa went
to Sicily to fight Sextus Pompeius by fea, Maecenas
went with them $ but foon after returned to appeafe
fome commotions which were rifing at Rome : for
though he ufually attended Auguftus in all his military
expeditions, yet whenever there was any thing to be
done at Rome either with the fenate or people, he was
always deipatched thither for that purpofe.
Upon the total defeat of Antony at Aftium, Maece¬
nas returned to Rome, to take the government into his
hands, till Auguftus could fettle fome neceffary affairs
in Greece and Afia. Agrippa foon followed Maecenas $
and when Auguftus arrived, be placed theie two great
men and faithful adherents, the one ever his civil, the
other over his military concerns. While Auguftus was
extinguilhing the remains of the civil war in Afia and
Egypt, young Lepidus, the fon of the triumvir, was
forming a fcheme to affaflinate him at his return to
Rome. This confpiracy was difeovered at once, by the
extraordinary vigilance of Maecenas \ who, as Velleius
Paterculus fays, “ obferving the rafti councils of the
headftrong youth with the fame tranquillity and calm-
nefs as if nothing at all had been doing, inftantly put
him to death, without the leaft noife and tumult; and
by that means extinguiftied another civil war in its
very beginning.”
The civil wars being now at an end, Auguftus re¬
turned to Rome j and from this time Maecenas indulged
himfelf at vacant hours in literary amufements, and the
converfation of men of letters. In the year 734 Virgil
died, and left Auguftus and Maecenas heirs to what he
had. Maecenas was exceflively fond of this poet, Avho,
of all the w'its of the Auguftan age, flood higheft in his
efteem j and if the Georgies and the Aineid be owing
to the good tafte and encouragement of this patron, as
there is fome reafon to think, pofterity cannot comme¬
morate him with too much gratitude. Horace may be
ranked next to Virgil in Maecenas’s good graces : avc
have already mentioned how and at what time their
friendlhip commenced. Propertius alfo acknowledges
Maecenas for his favourer and proteftor, lib. ii. eleg. 7.
MAE [ 341 ] MAE
tecenas. Nor muft Varius be forgot, though we have nothing of
•—"v his remaining j fmce we find him highly praifed by both
Virgil and Horace. He was a writer of tragedies j and
Quintilian thinks he may be compared with any of the
ancients. In a word, Maecenas’s houfe was a place of
refuge and welcome to all the learned of his time •, not
only to Virgil, Horace, Propertius, and Varius, but to
Fundarius, whom Horace extols as an admirable writer
of comedies ; to Fufcus Ariftius, a noble grammarian,
and Horace’s intimate friend j to Plotius Tucea, who
affiiled Varius in corre&ing the HLneid after the death
of Virgil; to Valgius, a poet and very learned man,
who, as Pliny tells us, dedicated a book to Auguftus,
De ufu Herbarum ,• to Afinius Pollio, an excellent tra¬
gic writer j and to feveral others, whom it would be
tedious to mention. All thefe dedicated their works,
or fome part of them at lead, to Maecenas, and cele¬
brated his praifes in them over and over : and we may
obferve farther, what Plutarch tells us, that even Au¬
guftus himfelf infcribed his Commentaries to him and
to Agrippa.
Maecenas continued in Auguftus’s favour to the end
of his life, but not uninterruptedly. Auguftus had an
intrigue with Maecenas’s wife : and though the minifter
bore this liberty of his mafter very patiently, yet there
was a coldnefs on the part of Auguftus, which, how¬
ever, foon went off. Maecenas died in the year 745 j
but at what age we cannot precifely determine, though
we know he muft have been old. He muft have been
older than Auguftus, becaufe he was a kind of tutor to
him in his youth : and then find him often called on
old man by Paedo Albinovanus, a contemporary poet,
W'hofe elegy upon his dead patron is ftill extant. He
made Auguftus his heir j and recommended his friend
Horace to him in thofe memorable laft words, “ Hota-
tii Flacci, ut mei, tnemor efto” &.c. Horace, how¬
ever, did not probably furvive him long, as there is no
elegy of his upon Maecenas extant, nor any account of
one having ever been written, which there certainly
would have been had Horace furvived him any time.
Nay, Father Sanadon, the French editor of Horace,
will have it, that the poet died before his patron ; and
that thefe laft w'ords were found only in Maecenas’s
will, which had not been altered.
Maecenas is faid never to have enjoyed a good ftate
of health in any part of his life: and many Angularities
are related of his bodily conftitution. Thus Pliny tells
us, that he was always in a fever j and that, for three
years before his death, he had not a moment’s fleep.
Though he was certainly an extraordinary man, and
pofleffed many admirable virtues and qualities, yet it is
agreed on all hands, that he was very luxurious and ef¬
feminate. “ Maecenas (fays Velleius Paterculus) was
of the equeftrian order, but fprung from a moft illuf-
trious origin. He was a man, who, when bufinefs re¬
quired, was able to undergo any fatigue and w atching j
who confulted properly upon all occafions, and knew' as
well how to execute what he had confulted ; yet a man
whojn feafons of leifure was luxurious, foft, and effe¬
minate, almoft beyond a woman. He was no lefs dear
to Csefar than Agrippa, but diftinguithed by him with
fewer honours j for he always continued of the equef¬
trian rank, in which he was born: not that he could
not have been advanced upon the leaft intimation, but
he never folicited it.”
But let moralifts and politicians determine of Mcece- Maecenas,
nas as they pleafe, the men of letters are under high Maelftrom,
obligations to celebrate his praifes and revere his memo¬
ry : for he countenanced, protected, and fupported, as
far as they wanted his fupport, all the wits and learn¬
ed men of his time; and that too, out of a pure and
difinterefted love of letters, when he had no little views
of policy to ferve by their means : whence it is no
w onder, that all the proteftors and patrons of learning,
ever fince, have ufually been called Maecenas's.
MAELSTROM, a very dangerous whirlpool on
the coaft of Norw-ay, in the 68th degree of latitude, in
the province of Nordland, and the diftrift of Lofoden,
and near the ifiand of Mofkoe, from whence it alfo
takes the name of MoJkoe-Jlrom. Its violence and
roarings exceed that of a cataraft, being heard to a
great diftance, and without any intermiffion, except a
quarter every fixth hour, that is, at the turn of high
and low Yvater, when its impetuofity feems at a ftand,
which fhort interval is the only time the fifhermen can
venture in ; but this motion foon returns, and, however
calm the fea may be, gradually increafes with fuch a
draught and vortex, as abforb whatever comes within
their fphere of aftion, and keep it under water for
fome hours, when the fragments, fhivered by the
rocks, appear again. This circumflance, among o-
thers, makes ftrongly again!! Kircher and others, who
imagine that there is here an abyfs penetrating the
globe, and ifluing in fome very remote parts, which
Kircher is fo particular as to affign, for he names the
gulf of Bothnia. But after the moft exa£t refearches
w hich the circumftances will admit, this is but a con-
jedture without foundation; for this and three other
vortices among the Ferroe iflands, but fmaller, have
no other caufe than the collifion of waves riling and
falling, at the flux and reflux, againft a ridge of rocks
and ftielves, which confine the water fo that it precipi¬
tates itfelf like a catarad! ; and thus the higher the
flood rifes, the deeper muft the fall be ; and the na¬
tural refult of this is a whirlpool or vortex, the pro¬
digious fudlion whereof is fufficiently known by leiTer
experiments. But what has been thus abforbed, re¬
mains no longer at the bottom than the ebb lafts; for
the fudlion then ceafes, and the flood removes all at-
tradlion, and permits whatever had been funk to make
its appearance again. Of the fituation of this amazing
Molkoe-ftrom we have the following account from Mr
Jonas Ramus : “ The mountain of Helfeggen, in Lo¬
foden, lies a league from the ifland Ver, and betwixt
thefe two runs that large and dreadful ftream called
Mofkoe-Jlrom, from the ifland Mofkoe, which is in the
middle of it, together with feveral circumjacent ifles,
as Ambaaren, half a quarter of a league northward,
Iflefen, Hoeholm, Kieldholm, Suarven, and Buck-
holm. Mofkoe lies about half a quarter of a mile
fouth of the ifland of Ver, and betwixt them thefe
fmall iflands, Otterholm, Flimen, Sanflefen, Stock¬
holm. Betwixt Lofoden and Mofkoe, the depth of
the water is between 36 and 40 fathoms j but on the
other fide, towards Ver, the depth decreafes, fo as not
to afford a convenient paffage for a veffel, without the
rifle of fplittmg on the rocks, which happens even in
the calmeft weather : when it is flood, the ftream runs
up the country between Lofoden and Mofkoe with a
boifterous rapidity : but the roar of its impetuous ebb
to
M A E
r
Maeljlrom to the fea h fcarcely equalled by the loudeft and moft
Mceonides. catara^si nolle being heard feveral leagues
Y~*-~ ^nd the vortices or pits are of fuch an extent and
. eP . > that if a ihip comes within its attraction, it is
inevitably abforbed and carried down to the bottom,
and there beat to pieces againft the rocks; and when
the \vater relaxes, the fragments thereof are thrown up
again. But thefe intervals of tranquillity are only at
the turn of the ebb and flood, and calm weather: and
Lift but a quarter of an hour, its violence gradually re¬
turning,^ When the ftream is moft boifterous, and its
fury, heightened by a ftorm, it is dangerous to come
within a Norway mile of it : boats, ftiips, and yachts
having been carried away, by not guarding againft it
before they were within its reach. It likewife happens
frequently, that whales come too near the ftream and
are overpowered by its violence j and then it is impof-
ftble to defcribe their bowlings and bellowings in their
fruitlefs ftruggles to difengage themfelves. A bear
once attempting to fwim from Lofoden to Mofkoe,
with a defign of preying upon the flheep at pafture in
the ifland, afforded the like fpeftacle to the people ;
the ftream caught him, and bore him down, whilft he
roared terribly, fo as to be heard on (bore. Large
ftocks of firs, and pine trees, after being abforbed by
the current, rife again, broken and torn to fuch a de¬
gree as if briftles grew on them. This plainly (hows
the bottom to confift of craggy rocks, among which
they are whirled to and fro. This ftream is regulated
by the flux and reflux of the fea 5 it being conftantly
high and low water every fix hours. In the year 1645,
early in the morning of Sexagefima Sunday, it raged
with fuch noife and impetuofity, that on the ifland
of Molkoe, the very (tones of the houfes fell to the
ground.”
MAEMACTERIA, facrifices offered to Jupiter at
Athens in the winter month Maemafterion. The god
furnamed Maemaftes was entreated to fend mild and
temperate weather, as he prefided over the feafons, and
was the god of the air.
MiEMAC TERION, was the fourth month of the
Athenian year, containing twenty-nine days, and an-
fwering to the latter part of our September, and the
beginning of Oftober. It received its name from the
feftival McemaBeria, which was obferved about this
time. . This month was called by the Boeotians Alal-
comemus.
MiENA. See Sparus, Ichthyology Index.
MAiNALUS, in Ancient Geography^ a mountain of
Arcadia facred to the god Pan, and greatly frequented
by (hepherds. It received its name from Mtenalus a
fun of Lycaon. It was covered with pine trees, whofe
echo and (hade have been greatly celebrated by all the
ancient poets.
MiEONIA, or MoEONIA, a country of Afia Minor,
and forming part of Lydia; namely the neighbourhood
of Mount Tmolus, and the country watered by the
Pa&olus. The reft on the fea coaft was called Lydia.
See Lydia.’
MAEONIDAl,, a name given to the mufes, becaufe
Homer, their greateft and worthieft favourite, w’as
fuppofed to be a native of Mseonia.
MAEONIDES, a furname of Homer, becaufe, ac¬
cording to the opinion of fome writers, he was born in
Maeonia, or becaufe his father’s name was Mseon.
42 ] M A F
MAEOLIS PALUS or lac us, Merotica Palus, or Alao-
Ucus Locus, m Ancient Geography, a large lake or part
ot the lea between. Europe and Afia, at the north of
the Luxine, to which it communicates by the Gimme-
^an ^°fphorus. It was worftiipped as a deity by the
Maffagetae. It extends about 390 miles from fouth-
weft to north-eaft, and is about 600 miles in circum-
ference. Still called Pains Mceotis, reaching from
Cnm 1 artary to the mouth of the Don.
MASSTLIN, Michael, in Latin Mct/llinus, a ce¬
lebrated aftronomer of Germany, was born in the duchy
of Wittemberg ; but fpent his youth in Italy, where he
made a fpeec.h in favour of Copernicus’s fyftem, w hich
brought Galilseo over from Ariftotle and Ptolemy, to
whom he had been hitherto entirely devoted. He’af¬
terwards returned to Germany, and became profeffor of
mathematics at Tubingen ; where, among his other
(cholars, he taught the great Kepler, who has praifed
ieveral of his ingenious inventions, in his Aftronomia
Uptica.. Though Tycho Brahe did not affent to Mrnft-
Ln’s opinion, yet he allowed him to be an extraordinary
perfon, deeply (killed in the fcience of aftronomy.
Mteftlm publiflied. many mathematical and aftronomical
works; and died in 1590.
MAES BRIGHT, an ancient town of the Nether¬
lands, ceded to the Dutch by the treaty of Munfter,
but now belonging to France, is about four miles in
circumference, and ftrongly fortified. The inhabi¬
tants, the number of whom is eftimated at 18,000,
are noted for making excellent fire arms, and fome’
(ay that in the arfenal there are arms fufficient for a
whole army. Both Papifts and Proteftants are al¬
lowed the free exercife of their religion, and the ma-
giftrates are compofed of both. It is feated on the
river Maefe, which feparates it from Wyck, and with
vruch it communicates by a handfome bridge. Mae-
ftricht revolted from the Spaniards in 1570, but was
reduced in 1579* Louis XIV. became mafter of
11 ,n i673 but it was reftored to the dates by the
treaty of Nimeguen in 1678. It was again taken
by the French in 1794. E. Long. c. 50. N. Lat
51* 5-
MAFFAEUS, Vegio, a Latin poet, born in Lom¬
bardy in 1407, was greatly admired in his time.
He wrote epigrams, and a humorous fupplement to
Virgil, which he called The thirteenth booh of the
ILneid: this was as humoroufly tranflated into Eng-
lifti a few years fince by Mr Ellis. Maffseus wrote
alfo fome profe works. He was chancellor of Rome to¬
wards the end of the pontificate of Martin V.; and
died in 1458.
MAFFEI, Scipio, a celebrated Italian poet, born
of an illuftrious and ancient family at Verona, in 1675.
After having finiftied his ftudies, he took arms, and
diftinguiflied himfelf by his valour at the battle of Do-
nawert; but he more particularly diftinguiflied himfelf
by his love of learning, which made him undertake fe¬
veral voyages into France, England, and Germany.
He converfed with the learned in all tholb countries,
and obtained their friendlhip and efteem. He was a
member of the academy of the Arcadia at Rome, an
honorary foreign member of that of Infcriptions at
Paris; and died in .1755. He wrote many works in
verfe and profe, which are efteemed ; the moft known
of which are, 1. The tragedy of Merope, of which
there
M A G
Mafci there are two French tranflations in profe. 2. Cere-
11 . mony, a comedy. 3. A tranflation, into Italian verfe,
^z,ne- of the firll book of Homer’s Iliad. 4. Many other
' * pieces of poetry, in a colleflion entitled Rhyme and
Profe, quarto. His principal works in profe are, 1. Ve¬
rona illufrata. 2. Iforia diplomatica. 3. Scienza ca¬
valier efc a ; an excellent work, in which he attacks duel¬
ling. 4. An edition of Theatro ItaHano. 3. An edi¬
tion of Cafliodorus on the Epiftles, A6ts of the Apoftles,
and Apocalypfe. 6. Gal/ice Aniiquitates qucedam fe-
leclcc, atque in plures epifq/as di/lributce; and feveral
ether works.
MAG AD A, in Mythology, a title under which Ve¬
nus was known and worlhipped in Lower Saxony ;
where this goddefs had a famous temple, which was
treated with refpedt even by the Huns and Vandals
when they ravaged the country.' It is faid to have been
deftroyed by Charlemagne.
MAGADOXO, the capital town of a kingdom of
the fame name, in Africa, and on the coaft of Ajan.
It is feated near the mouth of a river of the fame name,
defended by a citadel, and has a good harbour. The
inhabitants are Mahometans. E. Long. 45. 15. N.
Lat. 3. o.
MAGAS, Magadis, (from y.otyowhZpi.'), “ to ling, or
play in unifon or odave,”) the name of a mufical in-
ftrument in ufe among the ancients.
There were two kinds of magades, the one a firing
inftrument, formed of 20 chords arranged in pairs,
and tuned to unifon or odlave, fo that they yielded
ten founds; the invention whereof is afcribed by fome
to Sappho; by others to the Lydians j and by fome,
to Timotheus of Miletus. The other was a kind of
flute, which at the fame time yielded very high and
very low notes. The former kind was at leaft much
improved by Timotheus of Miletus, who is faid to
have been impeached of a crime, becaufe by increafing
the number of chords he fpoiled and difcredited the
ancient mufic.
MAGAZINE, a place in which floras are kept,
of arms, ammunition, provifions, &c. Every forti¬
fied town ought to be furnifhed with a large maga¬
zine, which fhould contain flores of all kinds, fuflh-
cient to enable the garrifon and inhabitants to hold
out a long fiege ; and in which fmiths, carpenters,
wheelwrights, &c. may be employed in making every
thing belonging to the artillery, as carriages, wag¬
gons, &c.
Powder MAGAZINE, is that place where the powder
is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ great¬
ly both with regard to their fltuation and conflru&ion j
but all agree that they ought to be arched and bomb¬
proof. In fortifications, they are frequently placed in
the rampart; but of late they have been built in dif¬
ferent parts of the town. The firfl powder magazines
were made with Gothic arches : but M. Vauban find¬
ing them too weak, conflru&ed them in a femicircular
form j whofe dimenfions are 60 feet long within, and
25 broad; the foundations are eight or nine feet thick,
and eight feet high from the foundation to the fpring
of the arch ; the floor is two feet from the ground,
which keeps it from dampnefs.
One of our engineers of great experience fome time
fince had obferved, that after the centres of femicircu¬
lar arches are llruck, they fettle at the crown and rife
M A G
up at the hanches, even with a ftraight horizontal ex- Magazine,
trades, and Hill much more fo in powder magazines,
whofe eutfide at top is formed like the roof of a houfe,
by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top
of the arch, to give a proper defeent to the rain; which
eflfedls are exaflly what might be expe6led agreeable
to the true theory of arches. Now, as this ftirinking
of the arches mull be attended w'ith very ill confequen-
ces, by breaking the texture of the cement after it has
been in fome degree dried, and alfo by opening the
joints of the vouffoirs at one end, fo a remedy is pro¬
vided for this inconvenience with regard to bridges,
by the arch of equilibration in Mr Hutton’s book on
bridges ; but as the ill effedl is much greater in powder
magazines, the fame ingenious gentleman propofed to
find an arch of equilibration for them alfo, and to con-
ftruft it when the fpan is 20 feet, the pitch or height
10 (which are the fame dimenfions as the femicircle),
the inclined exterior walls at top forming an angle of
Ir3 degrees, and the height of their angular point a-
bove the top of the arch equal to feven feet. This very
curious queftion was anfwered in 1775 by the reverend
Mr Wildbore, to be found in Mr Hutton’s Mifcellanea
Mathematica.
Artillery MAGAZINE. In a fiege, the magazine is
made about 25 or 30 yards behind the battery, towards
the parallels, and at leaft three feet under ground, to
hold the powder, loaded (hells, portfires, &c. Its fides
and roof muft be well fecured with boards to prevent
the earth from falling in : a door is made to it, and a
double trench or palfage is funk from the magazine to
the battery, one to go in and the other to come out at,
to prevent confufion. Sometimes traverfes are made in
the paffages to prevent ricochet (hot from plunging into
them.
Magazine, on (hipboard, a clofe room or ftore-
houfe, built in the fore or after-part of the hold, to
contain the gunpowder ufed in battle. This apartment
is ftrongly fecured againft fire, and no perfon is allow¬
ed to enter it with a lamp or candle: it is therefore
lighted, as occafion requires, by means of the candles
or lamps in the light-room contiguous to it.
Magazine Air-Gun. See AiR-Gun.
MAGAZINES, Literary i a well-known fpecies of pe¬
riodical publications, of which the firft that appeared,
was The Gentleman's, fet on foot by the projector Mr
Edward Cave in the year 1731: (fee the article Cave).
This, as Dr Kippis obfervesf, “ may be confidered as fBri0.
fomething ©f an epocha in the literary hiftory of this vol. iii. Arc.
country. The periodical performances before that time(jAV£-
were almoft wholly confined to political tranfadions,
and to foreign and domeftic occurrences ; but the
monthly magazines have opened a way for every kind
of inquiry and information. The intelligence and dif-
cuflion contained in them are very extenfive and va¬
rious : and they have been the means of diffufing a ge-
neral habit of reading through the nation, which in a
certain degree hath enlarged the public underftandino-.
Many young authors, who have afterwards rifen tocon-
(iderable eminence in the literary world, have here
made their firft attempts in compofition Here too are
preferved a multitude of curious and ufeful hints, obfer-
vations, and fadls, which otherwife might have never
appeared ; or if they had appeared in a more evanefeent
form, would have incurred the danger of being loft. If
It
1 343 ]
MAG [ 344. ] MAG
Magazine it were not an invidious tafli, the hi dory of them would
'I, be no incurious or unentertaining fubjeft. The maga-
1 ln,r5r“ zines that unite utility with entertainment are undoubt-
ii.,„t edly preferable to thofe (if there have been any fuch')
which have only a view to idle and frivolous amufe-
ment. It may be obferved, that two of them, The
Gentleman's and The London, which laft was begun the
year after the former, have, amidft their numerous ri¬
vals, preferved their reputation to the prefent day.
They have both of them, in general, joined inflruflion
with pleafure j and this likewife hath been the cafe
■with fome others of a later origin.—The original Lon¬
don Magazine, it has been believed, has been difeon-
tinued for fome years pall.—The next oldeft publica¬
tion of this kind, is that entitled The Scots Magazine:
which was commenced at Edinburgh a few years pof-
terior to the appearance of the Gentleman's at London;
which, like it, has furvived many rivals, and has been
continued, under different proprietors and editors, with
various degrees of merit.
MAGDALEN, Mary. See Mary.
Religious of St MAGDALEN, a denomination given
to divers communities of nuns, confiding generally of
penitent courtezans $ fometimes alfo called Magdale-
nettes. Such are thofe at Metz, eftablilhed in 1452 $
thofe at Paris, in 1492 ; thofe at Naples, firft efta¬
blilhed in 1324, and endowed by Queen Sancha, to
ferve as a retreat for public courtezans, who Ihould be¬
take themfelves to repentance j and thofe of Rouen and
Bourdeaux, which had their original among thofe of
Paris in 1618. In each of thefe monafteries there are
three kinds of perfons and congregations $ the firft con-
lift of thofe who are admitted to make vows, and thefe
bear the name of St Magdalen ; the congregation of St
Martha is the fecond, and is compofed of thofe whom
it is not judged proper to admit to vows ; finally, the
congregation of St Lazarus is compofed of fuch as are
detained there by force.
The religious of St Magdalen at Rome were eftablilh¬
ed by Pope Leo X. Clement VIII. fettled a revenue
on them j and farther appointed, that the effefts of all
public proftitutes, dying inteftate, Ihould fall to them;
and that the teftaments of the reft Ihould be invalid
unlefs they bequeathed a portion of their effefts, which
was to be at leaft a fifth part, to them.
Magdalen Hofeital. See London, N°ii5.
MAGDALENA, one of the Marquefas iflands,
about five leagues in circuit, and fuppofed to be in
S. Lat. 10. 25. W. Long. 138. 50. It was only
feen at nine leagues diftance by thofe who difeover-
ed it.
MAGDALENE’S Cave, a cave of Germany, and
in Carinthia, 10 miles eaft of Gortz. It appears like
a chafm in a rock, and at the entrance torches are
lighted to conduct travellers. It is divided into feveral
apartments, or halls, with a vaft number of pillars form¬
ed by nature, which give it a beautiful appearance,
they being as white as fnow, and almoft tranfparent.
The bottom is of the fame fubftance, infomuch that a
perfon may fancy himfelf to be walking among the ruins
of an enchanted caftle, furrounded with magnificent pil¬
lars, fome entire and others broken.
MAGDEBURG, a duchy of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony ; bounded on the north by
the duchy of Mecklenburgh, on the fouth and fouth-
weft by the principality of Anhalt and Halberftaut, Mrwde.
on the eaft by Upper Saxony with part of Brandeu- '3UrJi j
burg, and on the weft by the duchy of Wolfenbuttle. y"'"
The Saale circle, and that of Luxkenwalde, are fepa-
rated from the reft, and furrounded on all fides by a
part of Upper Saxony. This country is for the moft
part level; but fandy, marftvy, or overgrown with
woods. There are fait fprings in it, fo rich that
they are fufficient to fupply ail Germany with that
commodity. The Holz circle is the moft fruitful
part of it. In the Saale cyrcle, where wood is fcarce,
there is pit-coal: and at Rothenburg is a copper-mine
worked. The duchy is well watered, for the Elbe
paffes through it 5 and the Saale, Havel, Aller, Ohre,
and Elfter, either rife in, or walk fome part of it in
their courfe. The whole duchy, exclufive of that part
of the county of Mansfeldt, which is connected with it,
is faid to contain 29 cities, fix towns, about 430 vil¬
lages, and 330,000 inhabitants. The ftates of the
country confift of the clergy, the nobility, and de¬
puties of the cities. Before it became fubjedt to the
eleftoral houfe of Brandenburgh, frequent diets were
held in it $ but at prefent no diets are held, nor
have the ftates the direftion of the finances as for¬
merly. Before the Reformation, it was an arch-
bilhopric, fubjedt in fpirituals to the pope alone, and
its prelate was primate of all Germany j but embracing
the Reformation, it chofe itfelf adminiftrators, till the
treaty of Munfter in 1648, when it was given, toge¬
ther with the bilhopric of Halberftadt, to the eledtor
of Brandenburgh, as an equivalent for the Hither Po¬
merania, granted by that treaty to the king of Sweden.
Lutheranifm is the predominant religion here j but Cal-
vinifts, Jews, and Roman Catholics, are tolerated. Of
the laft there are five convents, who never embraced
the Reformation. All the Lutheran parilhes, amount¬
ing to 314, are fubjeft to 16 infpedtors, under one ge¬
neral fuperintendant $ only the clergy of the old town
of Magdeburg are under the diredtion of their fenior.
The Jews have a fynagogue at Halle. The manufac¬
tures of the duchy are cloth, fluffs, ftockings, linen, oil-
Ikins, leather, and parchment; of which, and grain
of all forts, large quantities are exported. The arms
of it are, Party per pale, ruby, and pearl. The king
of Pruflia, as duke of Magdeburg, fits and votes be¬
tween the eledlor of Bavaria, as duke of Bavaria, and
the eledtor palatine, as palfgrave of Lautern. Of the
ftates of the circle of Lower Saxony he is the firft. His
matricular affeffment for the duchy is 43 horfe and 196
foot, or 1300 florins monthly j and to the chamber of
Wetzlar, 343 florins and 40 kruitzers. For the civil
government of the duchy there is a council of regency,
with a war and demefne chamber j and for the eccle-
fiaftical a confiftory and general fuperintendant. The
revenues of the duchy, arifing from the falt-works,
demefne, and taxes, fome of which are very heavy and
oppreflive, are faid to amount to 800,000 rixdollars
annually. With refpedt to fait, every houfekeeper in
the Pruffian dominion is obliged to buy a certain
quantity for himfelf and wife} and alfo for every child
and fervant, horfe, cow, calf, and Iheep, that he pof-
feffts. The principal places are Magdeburg, Halle,
and Glauche.
Magdeburg, a city of Germany, in a duchy of the
fame name, of which it is not only the capital, but that
of
MAG [ 345 1 MAG
^gde- 0f all Lower Saxony, and formerly even of all Germany,
bur?, ft (lands on the Elbe, in E. Long. 12. 9. N. Lat.
$2. 16. It is a city of great trade, (Irongly fortified,
and very ancient. Its name fignifies the maiden city ;
which, fome imagine, took its rife from the temple of
Venus, which is faid to have flood here anciently, and
to have been deftroyed by Charlemagne. The founder
of the city is fuppofed to have been Otho I. or his em-
prefs Editha, daughter to Edmund the Saxon king of
England. The fame emperor founded a Benedidfine
convent here, which he afterwards converted into an
archbifhopric, of which the archbifliop was a count-
palatine, and had very great privileges, particularlythat
of wearing the archiepifcopal pallium, and having the
crofs borne before him, befides many others. The firft
tournament in Germany is faid to have been appointed
near this city, by the emperor Henry the Fowler 5 but
thefe paftimes were afterwards aboliftied, becaufe they
* occafioned fuch envy and animofity among the nobi¬
lity, that feveral of them killed one another upon the
fpot. The fituation of the city is very convenient and
pleafant, upon the banks of the Elbe, amidft fpacious
fruitful plains, and on the road betwixt High and
Low Germany. It has been a great fufferer by fires
and fieges j but by none fo much as that in 1631
when the emperor’s general, Count Tilly, took it by
ftorm, plundered and fet it on fire, by which it was
entirely reduced to aflies, except the cathedral, the
convent of our Lady, and a few cottages belonging
to fifliermen j of 40,000 burghers, not above 400
efcaping. The foldiers fpared neither age nor fex \
but ripped up women with child, murdered fucking
infants in fight of their parents, and ravifhed young
women in the ftreets j to prevent which violation,
many of them flung themfelves into the Elbe, and
others into the fire. The city is now populous, large,
and well built, particularly the broad ftreet and ca¬
thedral fquare. The principal buildings are the king’s
palace, the governor’s houfe, the armoury, guildhall,
and cathedral. The laft is a fuperb ftruc.ure in the
antique tafte, dedicated to St Maurice\ which has a
fine organ, the mafler pipe of which is fo big, that a
man can fcarce clafp it with both arms •, it alfo con¬
tains the tombs of the emperor Otho and the emprefs
Editha , a fine marble ftatue of St Maurice, a por¬
phyry font, an altar in the choir of one ftone of di¬
vers colours, curioufly wrought, and many other cu-
riofities. They (how here a bedftead and table which
belonged to Martin Luther, when he was an Auguf-
tine friar in a cloifter of this city before the Refor¬
mation. Among the relics, they pretended to have
the bafon in which Pilate wafhed his hands after his
condemnation of our Saviour j the lantern which Judas
made ufe of when he apprehended him •, and the lad¬
der on which the cock crowed after St Peter denied
him. The chapter confifts of a provoft, fixteen major
and feven minor canons j befides which, there are four
other Lutheran collegiate foundations, and a Lutheran
convent dedicated to our Lady, in which is a fchool
or ferninary. Here is alfo a gymnafium, with an aca¬
demy, in which young gentlemen are inftnufled in
the art of war. The canons of the chapter, which,
except the change of religion, is upon the fame footing
as before the Reformation, rouft make proof of their
nobility. The prebends and dignities are all in the
Vol, XII. Part I.
gift of the eje&or j and the revenue of the provoft is Mae le-
computed at 12,000 crowns a-year. Here is a great bu..r?
trade, and a variety of manufactures. The chief are iyiagei:an.
thofe of woollen cloths and fluffs, filks, cottons, linen, —-a
(lockings, hats, gloves, tobacco, and fnuff. The city
was formerly one of the Hanfe and Imperial towns.
Editha, confort to Otho I. on whom it was conferred
as a dowry, among many other privileges and advan¬
tages, procured it the grant of a yearly fair. The bur-
gravate of this city was anciently an office of great
power; having the civil and criminal jurifdiftion, the
office of hereditary cupbearer being annexed to it; and
was long held as a fief of the archbiffiopric, but after¬
wards became an imperial fief, which was again con¬
ferred on the archbiffiopric by the eleftor of Saxony,
upon certain conditions.
MAGDOLUM, or Magdalum, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town of the Lower Egypt, twelve miles to
the fouth of Pelufium (Herodotus, Antonine), which
doubtlefs is the Migdol or Magdol of Jeremiah.—A.no-
ther Magdalum, or Migdol, denoting literally “ a
tower or place of (Length,” near the Red fea, (Mofes);
fiy to the fouth of the former.
^VIAGELLAN, Ferdinand de, an eminent na¬
vigator, was by birth a Portuguefe, of a good family.
He ferved in the Eaft Indies with reputation for five
years under Albuquerque, and in 1510 he greatly di-
ftinguiftied himfelf at the battle of Malacca. Deeming
his fervices poorly repaid by his own court, he entered
into the employment of Charles V. king of Spain. He
has been charged with peculation by fome of his coun¬
trymen, who have affigned this as the reafon why he
quitted Portugal. In conjun£tion with Ruy Folero he
formed the bold defign of difcovering a new paffage by
the weft to the Molucca iflands, which he offered to
prove fell within the divilion of the globe affigned by
the pope to the crown of Caftile. It is faid that he
firft propofed this enterprife to Emanuel king of Por¬
tugal, who rejected it, as opening a way for other na¬
tions to have accefs to the Eaft Indies, the trade of
which was now monopolized by the Portuguefe. The
propofition was agreed to by the king of Spain, and on
the 20th of September 1519 Magellan failed from San
Lucar with five (hips and 236 men und r his command.
His officers foon murmured at this appointment, confi-
dering it as a difgrace to be commanded by a rene¬
gade Portuguefe ; and when the fleet was lying at a
port in South America which they named San Julian,
a confpiracy was formed againft him by three of the
captains, which he difcovered and quelled. He caufed
the captain of one of the drips to be affaffinated, he
boarded a fecond, and fecured the mutineers, and the
third fubmitted.
The coaft on which they lay was that of Patagonia ;
and this firft voyage contains accounts of the extraordi¬
nary ftature of the natives. About the end of October
they reached a cape, to which they gave the name of
Dee las Virgines, forming the entrance of the (traits
which bear the name of Magellan. He exerted all his
authority to induce his men to venture on this unknown
paffage, with the view of croffing a vaft ocean beyond
it, at the hazard of running (hort of provifions, of which •
a fupply for three months was all he had remaining.
One of his drips abandoned him, and made the belt of
her way to Europe. The reft proceeded, and on the
X x 27th
[
Maggi.
M A G
Magellan 27th of November they difcovered the South fea,
which made Magellan died tears of joy. They conti-
_ nued their voyage over this ocean, now vifited for the
firft time by Europeans, and were not long in fullering
thole evils from famine which they had apprehended.
I he men were reduced to the neceffity of eating the
hides with which the Egging was covered. The
weather proved fo uniformly calm and temperate, that
they gave to the ocean the name of Pacific. They
came in light of the Ladrones on the 6th of March, fo
called from the thievilh diipolition of the inhabitants j
and from thence they failed to the Philippines. At
Zebu Magellan ontained with little difficulty the con-
verlxon of the king j and on condition of his becoming
a vaffal of Spain, the Portuguefe affifted him in re¬
ducing fome neighbouring chieftains, and the crofs was
erefted over fome burnt villages.
With about 50 men Magellan landed upon Matan,
whofe chief refufed to fubmit to Zebu, and an engage¬
ment between them lalted for the greater part of the
day. His troops having fpent all their ammunition,
found it neceffary to retreat, during which Magellan
was wounded in the leg, by an arrow', beaten down^hd
at lad llain with a lance. This happened in 1521.
By this a£l: of imprudence he loft the honour of being
the firft circumnavigator of the globe, which fell to the
lot of Cano, who brought his ftiip home by the Eaft In¬
dies.- Yet Magellan has fecured an immortal name
among maritime difcoverers, by the commencement of
this great enterprize, in which he difplayed extraordi-
346 ] MAG
nite labour. But they had their revenge ; for, takirg
the city in 1571, they plundered his library, carried
him loaded with chains to Conllantinople, and treated
him in toe moft inhuman and barbarous manner. He
neverthelefs comforted himfelf from the example of
iEfop, Menippus, Epi&etus, and other learned men ;
and, after palling the whole day in the meaneft drud¬
gery, he fpent the night in writing. He compofed,
by the help of his memory alone? treatiles filled with
quotations, which he dedicated to the Imperial and
trench ambaftadors. ilhele minifteis, moved by com¬
panion for this learned man, refolved to purchafe him ■
but while they were treating for his ranfom, Maggi
found means to make his efcape, and to get to the
Imperial ambaifador’s houfe j when the grand vifir be-
ei}raged at his flight, and remembering the great
milchief he had done the I'urks during the fiege of
Famagufta, fent to have him feized, and caufed him
to be ftrangled in prifon in 1572. His principal works
are, 1. A Treatife on the Bells of the Ancients. 2. On
the Deftru&ion of the World by Fire. 3. Commen¬
taries on Aimilius Probus’s Lives of Uluftrious Men.
4. Commentaries on the Inftitutes. Thefe works are
written in elegant Latin. He alfo w'rote a treatife on
fortification in Italian 5 and a book on the fituation of
ancient Tufcany.
He ought not to be confounded with his brother
Bartholomew Maggi, a phyfician at Bologna, who
wrote a treatile of gunlhot wounds : nor with Vincent
Maggie a native of Brefle, and a celebrated profeffor of
Maggi,:
Maggot
: j r 1 1 . 1 , , . * 06 9 “ -witiir, auu a ceieuraieo proienor or
lary Ikill and relomtion, but dilregarded juftice and . humanity at Ferrara in Padua, who w-as the author of
humanity, then almoft univerfal among adventurers of feveral works.
this clafs
Straits of MAGELLAN, a narrow palfage between the
ifiand of Terra del Fuego and the fouthern extremity
of the continent of America. This paflage was firft
' •difcovered by Ferdinand Magellan, who failed through
it into the South fea, and from thence to the Eaft Indies.
Other navigators have paffid the fame way j but as
thefe ftraits are exceedingly difficult, and fubjedl to
Forms, it has been common to fail by Cape Horn,
rather than through the ftraits of Magellan. See Straits
I.e MaIHE, and TERRA Pel Fuego.
MAGELLANIC clouds, whitilh appearances like
clouds, feen in the heavens towards the fouth pole, and
having the fame apparent motion as the ftars. They
are three in number, two of them near each other.
The largeft lies far from the fouth pole; but the other
two are not many degrees more remote from it than
the neareft ccnfpicuous ftar, that is, about 11 degrees.
Mr Boyle conj.eflures, that if thefe clouds were feen
through a good telefcope, they would appear to be mul¬
titudes of fmall ftars, like the milky-way.
MAGGI, Jerome, in Latin Magius, one of the
moft learned men of the 16th century, was born at
Angbiari in Tufcany. He applied himfelf to all the
fciences, and even to the art of war; and diftinguiffied
himfelf fo much in this laft ftudy, that the Venetians
fent him into the iftand of Cyprus in quality of judge
of the admiralty. When the Turks befieged Fama¬
gufta, he performed all the fervices that could be ex-
pedled from the moft excellent engineer : he invented
mines and machines for throwing fire, by means of
which he deftroyed all the works of the befiegers, and
in an inftant overthrew what had coft the Turks infi-
- 2
MAGGOT, the common name of the fly-worm
bred in fltffi, from the egg of the great blue fleffi fly.
Notwithftanding the diftafte for this animal, its figure
and ftrudlure of parts are greatly worth attending to;
and may ferve as a general hiftory of the clafs of worms
produced from the eggs of flies.
This animal is white and fleffiy; its body is .compofed
of a number of rings, like the bodies of caterpillars and
other fimilar infedts ; and is capable, at the pleafure of
the animal, of afluming different figures; being at times
more or lefs extended in length, and confequently more
or lefs thick.
Notwithftanding that this animal has no legs, it is
able to move itfelf very fwiftly ; and in its firft attempt,
to move its body, is extended to its greateft length,
and affumes fomething of the figure of a pointed cone.
The pointed part of the cone is the head of the ani¬
mal, and is not feparated from the next ring by any
deeper furrow' than the reft of the rings are from one
another. In fome ftates of the animal, one may fee
two ftiort horns thruft out from the head ; but more
generally two fcaly hooks are obfervable : thefe are,
however, fometimes hid, and have each of them a cafe
or (heath ; into which the animal can retract them at
pleafure. Thefe hooks are bent into an arch, the con¬
cavity of which is towards the plane on which the crea¬
ture is placed ; and they are thickeft at their infertion
in the head, and thence diminifti gradually, till they
terminate in a fine (harp point.
Thefe two hooks are placed in a parallel diredlion,
and can never come together, and therefore cannot
ferve in the, place of teeth for grinding the food ; but
merely to pull and fever it in pieces, that it may be of
a.
MAG [ 3
lla|got. a proper fize for the mouth of the creature. Befides
"-f—0 thefe hooks, the maggot has a kind of dart, which is
about a third part of their length, and is placed at an
equal diflance between them. This is alfo brown and
fcaly like them •, it is quite ftraight, and terminates in
a fine point. The hooks have as it were two fcaly
thorns at their points ; and this dart feems intended,
by reiterated ftrokes to divide, and break the pieces
of flefli thefe have feparated from the reft into fmaller
parts. Immediately below the apertures for the egrefs
of the hooks, is placed the mouth of the animal j the
creature does not fhow this little opening unlefs pref-
fed : but if the preffure is properly managed it will
fufficiently open it, and there may be difcovered with¬
in it a fmall protuberance, which may very naturally
be fuppofed either the tongue or the fucker of the ani¬
mal. The hooks in thefe creatures not only fupply
the place of teeth, but alfo of legs ; fince it is by faft-
ening thefe hooks into the fubftance it is placed on,
and then drawing up its body to it, that it pulls itfelf
along.
The back of this creature lowers itfelf by degrees as
it approaches the extremity of the belly j and near the
place where the back begins to lower itfelf, are placed
the creature’s two principal organs of refpiration. One
may perceive there are two fmall roundifh brown fpots :
they are very eafdy diftinguilhable by the naked eye,
becaufe the reft of the body of the creature is white j
but if we take in the afliftance of glaffes, each of thefe
fpots appears to be a brown circular eminence raifed
a little above the reft of the'body. On each of thefe
fpots one may alfo difcover three oblong oval cavities,
fomething of the ftiape of button holes; thefe are fitu-
ated in a parallel direction to one another, and their
length nearly in a perpendicular direction to that of
the body of the animal. Thefe apertures are fo many
ftigmata or air-holes ; openings deftined to admit the
air neceflary to the life of the animal. It has fix of
thefe ftigmata, three in each fide of its body.
_ The great tranfparency of the body of this animal
gives us an opportunity alfo to diftinguifh that it has
on each fide a large white veffel running the whole
length of the body. It is eafy to follow the courfe of
thefe veffels through their whole length, but they are
moft diftinfl of all towards its hinder part ; and they
are always feen to terminate each in the brown fpot
above mentioned ; this leaves us no room to doubt that
they are the two principal trachere.
The ramifications of the two great tracheae are very
beautifully feen in this.creature, efpecially on its belly ;
and it is remarkable, that no veffel analogous to the
great artery in the caterpillar clafs can be difcover¬
ed in thefe ; though, if there were any fuch, their great
tranfparenee muft needs make them very eafily diftin-
guifhable ; nor could its dilatations and con t raft ions,
if fo confiderable as in that clafs of animals, be lefs fo.
See Caterpillar, Entomology Index.
Malpighi imagined, that this artery in the caterpil¬
lar clafs was a feries of hearts ; in its place, however,
there may be feen in thefe animals a true heart. It is
eafy to obferve in thefe creatures, about the fourth
ring of their body, a fmall flefiiy part, which has al¬
ternate contraftions and dilatations ; and is not only
difcoverable, in the body by means of its tranfparence,
but on making a proper feftion of them in the fecond,
MaftC.
4.7 ] M A G
third, and fourth, will be thrown out of the body of Maggot
the creature, and continue its beats for fome time af¬
terwards. t
MAGI, or Magians, an ancient religious left in
Perfia, and other eaftern countries, who maintained
that there were two principles, one the caufe of all
good, the other the caufe of all evil: and, abominating
the adoration of images, they worlhipped God only by
fire; which they looked upon as the brighteft and moft
glorious fymbol of Oromafides, or the good god ;• as
darknefs is the trueft fymbol of Arimartius, or the evil
god. This religion was reformed by Zoroafter, who
maintained that there was one fupreme independent
Being ; and under him two principles or angels, one
the angel of goodnefs and light, and the other of evil
and darknefs; that there is a perpetual ftruggle be¬
tween them, which (hall laft to the end of the world ;
that then the angel of darknefs and his difciples ftiall
go into a world of their own, where they lhall be pu-
niftied in everlafting darknefs ; and the angel of light
and his difeiples ftiall alfo go into a world of their own,
where they {hall be rewarded in everlafting light.
The priefts of the magi were the moft fldlful ma¬
thematicians and philofophers of the ages in which
they lived, infomuch that a learned man and a magian
became equivalent terms. The vulgar looked on their
knowledge as fupernatural; and hence thofe who prac*
tifed wicked and mifehievous arts, taking upon them-
felves the name of magians, drew on it that ill fig-
nification which the word magician now bears among
us.
This feft ftill fubfifts in Perfia under the denomina¬
tion of gaurs, where they watch the facred fire with
the greateft care, and never fuller it to be extinguiih-
ed. ,
MAGIC, (Magia, Mayitd), in its ancient fenfe,
the fcience or difeipline and doftrine of the magi, or
wife men of Perfia. See Magi.
The origin of magic and the magi is aferibed to
Zoroafter. Sahnafius derives the very name from Zo¬
roafter, who, he fays, was furnamed Mog, whence
Magus. Others, inftead of making him the author of
the Perfian philofophy, make him only the reftorer
and improver thereof; alleging, that many of the Per¬
fian rites in ufe among the magi were borrowed from
the Zabii among the Chaldeans, who agreed in many
things with the magi of the Pexfians ; whence fome
make the name magus common both to the Chaldeans
and Perfians. Thus Plutarch mentions, that Zoroafter
inftituted magi among the Chaldeans, in imitation
whereof the Perfians had theirs too.
Magic, in a more modern fenfe, is a fcience which
teaches to perform wonderful and furprifing effefts.
The word magic originally carried with it a verv
innocent, nay, laudable meaning ; being ufed purely
to fignify the ftudy of wifdom, and the more fublime
parts of knowledge ; but in regard the ancient magi
engaged themfelves in aftrology, divination, forcery,
&c. the term magic in time became odious, and was
only ufed to fignify an unlawful and diabolical kind of
fcience, depending on the aftiftance of the devil and
departed fouls.
If any wonder how fo vain and deceitful a fcience
ftiould gain fo much credit and authority over men’s
minds, Pliny gives the reafon of it. It is, fays he,
X x 2 becaufe
M.inic-
book ii.
C. 2.
MAG [ 348
Lecaufe it has pofleffed itfelf of three fciences of the
y irioit efteem among men : taking from each all that
is great and marvellous in it. Nobody doubts but it
had its firlt origin in medicine ; and that it infinuated
itleif into the minds of the people, under pretence of
affording extraordinary remedies. To thele fine pro-
mifes it added every thing in religion that is pompous
and fplendid, and that appears calculated to blind and
captivate mankind. Laitly, It. mingled judicial altro-
logy with the reft ; perluading people, curious of fu¬
turity, that it law every thing to come in the heavens.
Agrippa divides magic into three kinds j natural, ce-
leftial, and ceremonial or fuperftitious.
Natural M.AGIC is no more than the application of
natural a<ftive caufes to paffive lubjefts ; by means
whereof many furpriling, but yet natural, effects are
produced.
In this way many of our experiments in natural
philofophy, efpecially thofe of ele&ricity, optics, and
magnetifm, have a kind of magical appearance, and
among the ignorant and credulous might ealily pafs
for miracles. Such, without doubt, have been fome
of thofe miracles wrought by ancient magicians, whofe
knowledge of the various powers of nature, there is
reafon to believe, was much greater than modern va-
* See Stil- nity will fometimes allow *.
Imgjleet's Baptifta Porta has a treatife of natural magic, or of
°SacroeS ^ecrets for performing very extraordinary things by na¬
tural caufes. The natural magic of the Chaldeans
was nothing but the knowledge of the powers of
fimples and minerals. The magic which they called
theurgia, confifted wholly in the knowledge of the ce¬
remonies to be obferved in the worlhip of the gods, in
order to be acceptable. By virtue of thefe ceremonies
they believed they could converfe with fpiritual beings,
and cure difeafes.
Celejlial MAGIC borders nearly on judiciary aftrolo-
gy : it attributes to fpirits a kind of rule or dominion
over the planets, and to planets a dominion over men ;
and on thofe principles builds a ridiculous kind of fy-
Ilem. See Astrology.
Superjlitious or Goetic MAGIC confifts in the invoca¬
tion of devils. Its effects are ufually evil and wicked,
though very ftrange, and feemingly furpafljng the
powers of nature $ fuppofed to be produced by virtue
of fome compact, either tacit or exprefs, with evil fpi¬
rits : but the truth is, thefe have not all the power that
is ufually imagined, nor do they produce thofe effedls
ordinarily afcribed to them.
This fpecies of magic, there is every reafon to be¬
lieve, had its origin in Egypt, the native country of
paganifm. The firft magicians mentioned in hiftory
were Egyptians ; and that people fo famed for early
wifdom believed not only in the exiftence of daemons,
the great agents in magic (fee Daemon), but alfo that
different orders of thofe fpirits prefided over the ele¬
ments of earth, air, fire, and water, as well as over the
perfons and affairs of men. Hence they afcribed every
difeafe with which they were affli&ed to the immedi¬
ate agency of fome evil daemon. When any perfon was
feized with a fever, for inftance, they did not think
it neceffary to fearch for any natural caufe of the dif¬
eafe : it was immediately attributed to fome daemon
which had taken poffeflion of the body of the patient,
] MAG
and which could not be ejefted but by charms and in. Ma-ie
cantations.
Thefe fuperftitious notions, which had fpread from
Egypt over the eaft, the Jews imbibed during their
captivity in Babylon. Hence we find them in the
writings of the New Teftament attributing almoft every
difeafe to which they were incident to the immediate
agency of devils (fee Possession). Many of the fan.3
impious fuperftitions were brought from Egypt and
Chaldea by Pythagoras, and tranfmitted by him and his
followers to the Platonifts in Greece. This is apparent
from the writers of the life of Pythagoras, jamblicus,
fpeaking of the followers of that philofopher, fays ex-
prelsly, that they cured certain difeafes by incantations;
and Porphyry adds, that they cured difeafes both of
the mind and of the body by fongs and incantations.
This was exaftly the practice of the Egyptian priefts,
who were all fuppofed to keep up a conftant inter-
courfe with daemons, and to have the power of con-
trouling them by magical charms and facred fongs.
Agreeably to this practice of his mailers, we are told
that Pythagoras directed certain difeafes of the mind,
doubtlefs thofe which he attributed to the agency of
daemons, to be cured partly by incantations, partly by
magical hymns, and partly by mujic—
}s noa-tvvlxs 7rst£t/*v6iflo rovg y.iv kxi pxyuxKz rovs <Ss
ftovrtxti.
That there are different orders of created fpirits,
whether called daemons or angels, whofe powers in¬
tellectual and a£tive greatly furpafs the powers of man,
reafon makes probable, and revelation certain. Now
it wras the univerfal belief of the ancient nations, fays
the learned Moftieim f, and efpecially of the orientals, j See his
that certain founds and w'ords, for the moil part bar- edition of
barous, were highly grateful, and that others were Cvdworth
equally difagreeable, to thefe fpirits. Hence, uhen^"^f<3“
they wiihed to render a daemon propitious, and to em- ^
ploy him on any particular office, the magicians com-
pofed their facred fongs of the words which were be¬
lieved to be agreeable to him ; and when it was their
intention to drive him from themfelves or others, they
fung in a ftrain which they fancied a daemon could not
hear but with horror. From the fame perfuafion arofe
the cuftom of fufpending from the neck of a fick per¬
fon, whofe difeafe was fuppofed to be inflicted by a
daemon, an amulet, fometimes made of gold and fome¬
times of parchment, on which was written one or more
of thofe words which daemons could not bear either to
hear or to fee : and in a didaClic poem on the healing
art ftill extant, we are taught by Serenus Sammonicus,
that the word Abracadabra is an infallible remedy
for a femitertian fever or ague ; and to banifh grief of
heart, Marcellinus thinks nothing more effeClual than
the word Kx^ixyxuv. In more modern times, as wo are
informed by Agrippa, the words ufed by thofe in com-
paCl with the devil, to invoke him, and to fucceed in
what they undertake, are, Dies, mies, jefquet, benedoe-
fet, douvima, enitemaus. There are a hundred other
formulas of words compofed at pleafure, or gathered
from feveral different languages, or patched from the
Hebrew or formed in imitation of it. And among
the primitive Chriftians there was a fuperftitious cu¬
ftom, of which we fiifpeCt fome remains may yet be
found among the illiterate vulgar in different countries,
of
4
MAG [ 349
of fattening to the neck of a fickperfon, or to the bed
on which he lay, fome text from the New Teftament,
and efpecially the firft two or three verfes of thegofpel
of St John, as a charm undoubtedly efficacious to banilh
1 MAG
With a black lamb’s thick-ftreaming gore,
Whofe members with their teeth they tore ;
That they might charm the fprights to tell
Some curious anecdotes from hell.” Fraxics.
Magic.
the difeafe.
That magicians who could thus cure the fick, were
likewife believed to have the power of infli&ing dif-
eafes, and of working miracles, by means of their fub-
fervient daemons, need not be doubted. Ancient
writers of good credit are full of the wonders which
they performed. ^Ve {hall mention a few of thofe
which are beft attefted, and inquire whether they might
not have been effe&ed by other means than the inter-
poiition of daemons.
The firft magicians of whom we read are thofe
who in Egypt oppofed Moles. And w;e are told, that,
when Aaron caft down his rod, and it became a fer-
pent, they alfo did the like with their enchantments;
“ for they caft down every man his rod, and they be¬
came ferpents.” This was a phenomenon which, it
muft be confeffed, had a very miraculous appearance j
and yet there feems to have been nothing in it which
might not have been effefted by flight of hand. The
Egyptians, and perhaps the inhabitants of every coun¬
try where ferpents abound, have the art of depriving
them of their power to do mifchief, fo that they may
be handled without danger. It was eafy for the magi¬
cians, who were favoured by the court, to pretend that
they changed their rods into ferpents, by dexterouf-
ly fubftituting one of thefe animals in place of the rod.
In like manner they might pretend to change water
into blood, and to produce frogs j for if Mofes gave
in thefe inftances, as we know he did in others, any
previous information of the nature of the miracles
which were to be wrought, the magicians might eafi-
ly provide themfelves in a quantity of blood and num¬
ber of frogs fufficient to anfwer their purpofe of de¬
ceiving the people. Beyond this, however, their
power could not go. It flopped where that of all
workers in legerdemain muft have ftopt—at the failure
of proper materials to work with. Egypt abounds
with ferpents j blood could be eafily procured j and
without difficulty they might have frogs from the ri¬
ver : But when Mofes produced lice from the duft of
the ground, the magicians, who had it not in their
power to collect a fufficient quantity of thefe animals,
were compelled to own this to be an effect of divine
agency.
The appearance of Samuel to Saul at Endor is the
next miracle, feemingly performed by the power of ma¬
gic, which we (hall confider. It was a common pre¬
tence of magicians, that they could raife up ghofts
from below, or make dead perfons appear unto them to
declare future events j and the manner of their incanta¬
tion is thus defcribed by Horace :
 Pallor utrafque
Fecerat horrendas afpeffu. Scalpere terram
Unguibus, et pullam divellere mordicus agnam
Cceperunt: cruor in foffam confufus, ut inde
Manes elicerent, animas refponfa daturas.
Whether the witch of Endor made ufe of fuch infer¬
nal charms as thefe, the facred hiltorian has not in¬
formed us •, but Saul addrefled her, as if he believed
that by fome form of incantation ihe could recal
from the ftate of departed fpirits the foul of the
prophet who had been for fome time dead. In the
fubfequent apparition, however, which was produced,
fome have thought there was nothing more than a
trick, by which a cunning woman impofed upon Saul’s
credulity, making him believe that fome confidant of
her own was the ghoft of Samuel. But had that been
the cafe, ffie would undoubtedly have made the pretend¬
ed Samuel’s anfwer as pleafing to the king as poffible,
both to lave her own life, which appears from the con¬
text to have been in danger, and likewife to have pro¬
cured the'larger rew'ard. She would never have told
her fovereign, ihe durft not have told him, that he
himfelf ffiould be Ihortly flain, and his fons with him;
and that the hoft of Ifrael fliould be delivered into the
hands of the Philiftines. For this reafon many critics,
both Jewiffi and Chriftiari, have fuppofed that the ap¬
parition was really a daemon or evil angel, by whofe
affiftance the woman was accuftomed to work wonders,
and to foretel future events. But it is furely very
incredible, that one of the apoftate fpirits of hell (hould
have upbraided Saul for applying to a forcerefs, ^ or
ffiould have accofted him in luch words as thefe : “ W hy
haft thou difquieted me, to bring me up ? Wherefore
doft thou a Ik of me, feeing the Lord is departed from
thee, and is become thine enemy ! For the Z.or</hath
rent the kingdom out of thine hand, and given it to
thy neighbour, even to David. Becaufe thou obeyedft
not the voice of the Lord, therefore the Lord hath done
this thing to thee this day.” It is to be obferved far¬
ther, that what was here denounced againft Saul was
really prophetic, and that the event anfwered to the
prophecy in every particular. Now, though we do
not deny that there are created fpirits of penetration
vaftly fuperior to that of the moft enlarged human un-
derftanding ; yet we dare maintain, that no finite intel¬
ligence could by its own mere capacity have ever found
out the precife time of the two armies engaging, the
fuccefs of the Philiftines, the confequences of the
vi£lory, and the very names of the perfons that were
to fall in battle. Saul and his fons were indeed men
of tried bravery, and therefore likely to expofe them¬
felves to the greateft danger: but after the menaces
which he received from the apparition, he would have
been impelled, one ffiould think, by common prudence,,
either to chicane with the enemy, or to retire from
the field without expofing himfelf, his fons, and the
whole army, to certain and inevitable deftruftion ; and
his afting differently, with the confequences of his
condudf, were events which no limited underftanding
could either forefee or certainly foretel.. If to thefe
circumftances we add the fuddennefs of Samuel’s ap-
<t With yellings dire they fill’d the place,
And hideous pale was cither’s face.
Soon with their nails they fcrap’d the ground,
And fill’d a magic trench profound
pearance, with the effedf which it had upon the for-
cerefs herfelf, we (hall find reafon to believe, that the’
apparition was that of no evil daemon.. There is not,:
we believe, upon record, another inftance of any per-
fun’s.
Magic.
MAG [ ^
"S ^on s>Pretending to raife a ghoft from below, without
previoufly ufing fome magical rites or fome form of
incantation. As nothing of that kind is mentioned in
the cafe before us, it is probable that.Samuel appear¬
ed before he was called. It is likewife evident from
the narrative, that the apparition was not what the
woman expefted ; for we are told, that “ v'hen fhe
faw Samuel, Hie cried out for fear.” And when the
king exhorted her not to be afraid, and alked what (he
faw, “ the woman (aid, I fee gods (elohim) afcending
out of tne earth.” Now, had (lie been accultomed to
do iuch feats, and known that what (he faw was only
her lubfervient daemon, it is not conceivable that (lie
could have been fo frightened, or have miftaken her
familiar for elohim in any fenfe in which that word can
be taken. We are therefore ftrongly inclined to adopt
the opinion of thofe who hold that it was Samuel him-
lelf who appeared and prophefied, not called up by
the wretched woman or her daemons, but, to her utter
confufion, and the difgrace of her art, fent by God
to rebuke Saul’s madnefs in a mofl affefting and mor-
tifying way, and to deter all others from ever ap-
plying to magicians or daemons for afliftance when re-
fufed comfort from heaven. .For though this hypo-
tnefis may to a fuperficial thinker feem to tranfgrefs
the rule of Horace—Nec deus interjit, &c which is
as applicable to the interpretation of fcripture, as to
the introduflion of fupernatural agency in human com-
politions } yet he who has ftudied the theocratical con-
(titution of Ifrael, the nature of the office which
was there termed regal, and by what means the admi-
niftration was in emergencies conducted, will have a
different opinion j and at once perceive the dignus vin-
dice nodus.
1 he fudden and wonderful de(fru£fion of the army
of Brennus the Gaul, has likewife been attributed to
magic, or, what in this inquiry amounts to the fame
thing, to the interpofition of evil fpirits, whom the
pnefts of Apollo invoked as gods. Thofe barbarians
had made an inroad into Greece, and invefted the tem¬
ple of Apollo at Delphi, with a view to plunder it of
the (acred treafure. Fheir numbers and courage over¬
powered all oppofition; and they were juft upon the
point of making themfelves mafters of the place, when,
Juft in informs us, that, to encourage the befieged, the
priefts and prophetefs “ adveniffe deum cVawitf/z/; eum-
que fe vidifle defilientem in templum per culminis a-
perta faftigia. Dum omnes opem dei fupplicfter im-
plorant, juvenem fupra humanum modum infignis
pulchritudinis, comitefque ei duas armatas virgines,
ex propinquis duabus Dianae Minervaeque aedibus oc-
curriiTe, nec oculis tantum haec fe perfptxiffe j audilfe
^ £
O ] MAG
etiam ftridorem arcus, ac ftrepitum armorum : pro-
inde ne cun&arentur, diis antefignanis, hoftem csedere 1
et vidloriae deorum focios fe adjungere,” fummis obfe-
crationibus monebant. Quibus vocibus incenfi, omnes
certatim in pradium profiliunt. PraTentiam Dei et ipfi
ftatim (enfere : nam et terra? motu portio montis
abrupta Gallorum ftravit exercitum, et confertilfimi
cunei non fine vulneribus hoftium diflipati ruebant.
Infecuta deinde tempeftas eft, quae grandine et frfg'ore
faucios ex vulneribus abfumpfit (a).
This was unqueftionably an extraordinary event:
and it muft be afcribed either to the immediate inter¬
pofition of the Supreme Being, to natural means, or
to the agency of daemons : there is no other alterna¬
tive. But it is altogether incredible that the Supreme
Being (hould have miraculoufly interpofed to defend
the temple of a pagan divinity. It is very difficult to
fuppofe that an earthquake, produced in the ordinary
courfe of nature, (hould have been foretold by the
priefts, or that it could have happened fo opportunely
for the prefervation of their treafure from the hands
of fierce barbarians. Nothing, therefore, it has been
faid, remains, but either to allow the earthquake to
have been produced by evil fpirits, or to deny the
truth of the hiftorian’s relation. But the cataftrophe
of Brennus’s army is recorded in the fame manner by
fo many ancient writers of good credit, that we can¬
not call in queftion their veracity ; and therefore, be¬
ing unwilling to admit the agency of daemons into this
affair, it will be incumbent on us to (how by what
human contrivance it might have been effedled ; for its
arrival at (o critical a jundfture will not eafily fuffer us
to fuppofe it a mere natural event.
“ The inclination of a Pagan pried (fays Biftiop
Warburton *) to affift his god in extremity, will *
hardly be queftioned $ and the inclination of thofe at
Delphi was not ill feconded by their public manage¬
ment and addrefs. On the firft rumour of Brennus’s
march againft them, they iffued orders, as from the
oracle, to all the region round, forbidding the coun¬
try people to fecret or bear away their wfine and pro-
vifions. The effefts of this order fucceeded to their
expectations. The half-ftarved barbarians finding, on
their arrival in Fhocis, fo great a plenty of all things,
made (hort marches, difperfed themfelves over the
country, and revelled in the abundance that w-as pro¬
vided (or them. This refpite gave time to the friends
and allies of the god to come to his affiftance. Their
advantages of fituation likewife fupported the meafures
which they had taken for a vigorous defence. The
town and temple of Delphi were feated on a bare and
cavernous rock, defended on all (ides with precipices
inftead
Julian.
( ) . a V that the god had arrived : That they had feen him leap into the temple through the aper-
ure in t ie root: lhat whilft they were all humbly imploring his help, a youth of more than human beauty
accjmpa.ue y two virgins in armour, had run to their affiftance from the neighbouring temples of Diana and
i Iinerva ; and that they had not only beheld thefe things with their eyes, but had alfo heard the whizzing
or his bow and the clangor of his arms. They therefore earneftly exhorted the befieged not to negled the
leaven Y ’gnal, but to fally out upon their enemies, and partake with the divinities of the glory of the vic-
/T’l i TV tht>re words the foldiers being animated, eagerly ruffled to battle-: and were themfelves quickly
eu rule ot the presence of the god ; for part of the rock being torn away by an earthquake, rolled down upon
the Gauls j whoff thiekeft battalions being thus thrown into confufion, fled, expefed to the weapons of their
enemies, boon afterwards a tempeft arofe, which by cold and the fall of hailftones cut off the wounded.
Magic-
MAG [ 3sr ] M A G
inflead of walls. A large recefs within affumed the
form of a theatre ; i’o that the fhouts of foldiers, and
the founds of military inftruments, re-echoing from
rock to rock, and from cavern to cavern, increafed the
clamour to an immenfe degree ; which, as the hifto-
rian obferves, could not but have great effe&s on ig¬
norant and barbarous minds. The playing off thefe
panic terrors was not indeed of itfelf fufficient to re-
pulfe and diflipate an hoft of fierce and hungry invaders,
but it enabled the defenders to keep them at bay till
a more folid entertainment was provided for them, in
the explojion and fall of that portion of the rock at
the foot of which the greater part of the army lay en¬
camped.
“ Among the caverns in the facred rock, there was
one which, from an intoxicating quality difcovered
in the fleam which iffued from it, was rendered very
famous by being fitted to the recipient of the prieftefs
of Apollo (b). Now, if we only fuppofe this, or any
other of the vapours emitted from the numerous fif-
fures, to be endowed with that undtuous, or otherwife
inflammatory quality, which modern experience (hows
to be common in mines and fubterraneous places, we
can eafily conceive how the priefts of the temple
might, without the agency of daemons, be able to
work the wonders which hiftory fpeaks of as effedted
in this tranfadlion. For the throwing down a lighted
torch or two into a chafm whence fuch a vapour
iflued, would fet the whole into a flame j which, by
fuddenly rarefying and dilating the air, would, like
fired gunpowder, blow up all before it. That the
priefts, the guardians of the rock, could be long ig¬
norant of fuch a quality, or that they would divulge
it when difcovered, cannot be fuppofed. Strabo re¬
lates, that one Onomarchus, with his companions, as
they were attempting by night to dig their way
through to rob the holy treafury, were frightened
from their work by the violent lhaking of the rock ;
and he adds, that the fame phenomenon had defeated
many other attempts of the like nature. Now, whe¬
ther the tapers which Onomarchus and his companions
were obliged to ufe while they were at work, inflamed
the vapour, or whether the priells of Apollo heard
them at it, and fet fire to a countermine, it is certain
a quality of this kind would always ftand'them in (lead.
Such then (prefumes the learned prelate) was the expe¬
dient (c) they employed to diflodge this neft of hornets,
which had fettled at the foot of their facred rock ; for
the ftorm of thunder, lightning, and hail which fol¬
lowed, was the natural effeft of the violent concuflions
given to the air by the explofion of the mine.”
Two inftances more of the power of ancient ma¬
gic we {hall juft mention, not becaufe there is any
thing particular or important in the faffs, but becaufe Magic,
fome credit feems to have been given to the narration v ‘ ^
by the difcerning Cudworth. Philoftratus, in his life
of Apollonius Tyanaeus, informs us that a laughing
demoniac at Athens was cured by that magician, who
ejected the evil fpirit by threats and menaces j and the
biographer adds, that the daemon, at his departure, is
faid to have overturned a ftalue which flood before the
porch where the cure was performed. The other in-
ftance is of the fame magician freeing the city of
Ephefus from the plague, by ftoning to death an old
ragged beggar whom Apollonius called the plague, and
■who appeared to be a daemon by his changing himfelf
into the form of a Jhagged dog.
That fuch tales as thefe fhould have been thought
worthy of the llighteft notice by the incomparable au¬
thor of the Intelleffual Syftem, is indeed a wonderful
phenomenon in the hiftory of human nature. The
whole ftory of Apollonius Tyanaeus, as is now well
known, is nothing better than a colleftion of the moft
extravagant fables * : but were the narrative fuch as*SeePn-
that credit could be given to the faffs here related,
there appears no neceflity in either cafe for calling m Coi:nexions,
the agency of evil fpirits by the power of magic.— ^ r
The Athenians of that age were a fuperftitious peo- plaofophy,
pie. Apollonius was a ftirewd impoftor, long prac-and-Mb-
tifed in the art of deceiving the multitude. For fuch/^w*’-'
a man it was eafy to perfuade a friend and confidanton ,
to aff the part of the laughing demoniac ; and without 7“^#^
much difficulty the flatue might be fo undermined as ty/Zew.
inevitably to tumble, upon a violent concuffion being
given to the ground at the time of the departure of
the pretended daemon. If fo, this feat of magic
dwindles down into a very trifling trick performed by-
means both Ample and natural. The other cafe of the
poor man at Ephefus, who was ftoned to death, is
exaffly fimilar to that of thofe innocent women in our
own country, whom the vulgar in the laft century
w ere inftigated to burn for the fuppofed crime of w itch¬
craft. We have no reafon to fuppofe that an Ephefian
mob was lefs inflammable or credulous than a Britilh
mob, or that Apollonius played his part with lefs {kill
than a Chriftian demonologift 5 and as the fpirits of
our witches, who were facrificed to folly and fana-
ticifm, were often fuppofed to migrate from their
dead bodies into the bodies of hares or cats accidentally
palling by, fo might this impoftor at Ephefus per¬
fuade his cruel and credulous inftruments, that the
fpirit of their vidim had taken poffeflion of the body
of the [bagged dog.
Still it may be faid, that in magic and divination
events have been produced out of the ordinary courfe
of nature j and as we cannot fuppofe the Supreme
Being
(b) “ In hoc rupis anfra&u, media ferme montis altitudine, planities exigua eft, atque in ea profundum teme
foramen, quod in oraculo patet, ex quo frigidus fpiritus, vi quadam velut vento in fublime expulfus, mentes vatum
m vecordiam vertit, impletafque deo refponfa confulentibus dare cogit.” Just. lib. xxiv. d. 10.
(c) The learned author, by arguments too tedious to be here enumerated, confirms the reafoning which we have
borrowed from him; and jikewife {hows from hiftory, that the priefts, before they came to extremities with the fa¬
cred rock, had entered into treaty with thofe barbarians, and paid them a large tribute to decamp and quit the
country. This adds greatly to the probability of his account of the explofion ; for nothing but the abfolute im-
poflxbihty of getting quit of their befiegers by any other means, could have induced the priefts to hazard an ex¬
periment fo big with danger to themfelves as w ell as to their enemies.
M AG C 3
8 MafilC, ®eing to have countenanced fuch abominable praftices
by the interpofition of his power, we muft neceflaxily
attribute thofe efFe£ts to the agency of demons, or
evil fpirits. Thus, when TEneas confulted the Sibyl,
the agency of the infpiring god changed her whole ap¬
pearance :
 i u Pofcere fata
Tempus,” ait: “ Deus, ecce, Deus.” Cui talia fanti
Ante fores, fpbito non vultus, non color unus,
Non comptae manfere comae : fed peftus anhelum.
Jit rabie fera corda tument j majorque videri,
Nec mortale fonans: afflata eft numine quando
Jam propiore Dei. 
* ■ 11■ 11 Aloud {he cries,
“ This is the time, inquire your deftinies.
He comes, behold, a god !” Thus while {he faid,
And ftiivering at the facred entry ftaid,
Her colour chang’d, her face was not the fame ;
And hollow groans from her deep fpirit came j
Her hair ftood up ; convulfive rage poffefs’d
Her trembling limbs, and heav’d her lab’ring breaft j
Greater than human kind ftie feem’d to look,
And with an accent more than mortal fpoke.
Her ftaring eyes with fparkling fury roll,
When all the god came milling on her foul.”
Dryden.
In anfwer to this, it is to be obferved, that the
temple of Apollo at Cumse was an immenfe excava¬
tion in a folid rock. The rock was probably of the
fame kind with that on which the temple of Delphi
was built, full of fiffures, out of which exhaled per¬
petually a poifonous kind of vapour. Over one of
thefe fiflures was the tripod placed, from which the
prieftefs gave the oracle. Now we learn from St
Chryfoftom, that the prieftefs was a woman : “ Quae
in tripodes fedens expanfa malignum fpiritum per in¬
terna immiffum, et per genitales partes fubeuntem exci-
piens, furore repleretur, ipfaque refolutis crinibus bac-
charetur, ex ore fpumam emittens, et lie furoris verba
loquebatur.” By comparing this account with that
quoted above from Juftin, which is confirmed both by
Paufanias and by Strabo, it is evident, that what
Chryfoftom calls malignum fpiritum was a particular
kind of vapour blown forcibly through the fiffure of
the rock. But if there be a vapour of fuch a quality
as, if received per partes genitales, would make a wo¬
man furious, there is furely no neceflity for calling into
the feene at Cumae the agency of a demon or evil fpi¬
rit. Befides, it is to be remembered, that in all myf-
tical and magical rites, fuch as this was, both the
priefts, and the perfons confulting them, prepared
themfelves by particular kinds ef food, and fometimes,
* Vide £,?*-as ^ere is reafon to believe, by human facrifices *, for
tani Phar- the approach of the god or demon whofe aid they in-
falia,\fo- vi. voked. On the prefent occafton, we know from the
et Arnob- p0et himfelf, that a cake was ufed which was compo-
^^fntes> fed of poppy-feed and honey ; and Plutarch fpeaks of
a ftxrub called leucophi/llus, ufed in the celebration of
the myfteries of Hecate, which drives men into a kind
of frenzy, and makes them confefs all their wickednefs
which they had done or intended. This being the
cafe, the illufions of fancy occafioned by poppy will
fufficiently account for the change of the fibyl’s ap-
2 ] MAG
pearance, even though the inhaled vapour ftxould not Magic,
have pofiefled that efficacy which Chryfoftom and
Juftin attribute to it. Even fome forts of our ordi¬
nary food occafion ftrange dreams, for which onions
in particular are remarkable. Excelfive drunkennefs,
as is well known, produces a diforder named by the
bacchanalians of this country the blue devils, which
confifts of an immenfe number of fpeftres, accompa¬
nied with extreme horror to the perfon who fees
them. From thefe fa£ts, which cannot be denied,
there muft arife a fufpicion, that by ufing very unna¬
tural food, fuch as human blood, the vileft of infedls,
ferpents, and medicated cakes, by {hutting themfelves
up in folitudes and caves, and by deviling every me¬
thod to excite horrid and dreadful ideas or images in
the fancy, the ancient magicians might by natural
means produce every phenomenon which they attri¬
buted to their gods or demons. Add to this, that in
ancient times magic was ftudied as a fcience. Now,
as we cannot fuppofe that every one who ftudied it
intended abfolutely nothing, or that all who believed
in it were wholly deceived j what can we infer, but
that the fcience confifted in the knowledge of thofe
drugs which produced the phantoms in the imagina¬
tion, and of the method of preparing and properly
employing them for that purpofe ? The celebrated
Friar Bacon indeed, as far back as the 13th century,
wrote a book de Nullitate Magia : but though we ftiould
allow that this book proved to demonftration, that in
his time no fuch thing as magic exifted, it never could
prove that the cafe had always been fo. At that
time almoft all the fciences were loft j and why not
magic as well as others ? It is likewife an undoubted
fadft, that magic at all times prevailed among the A-
fiatics and Africans more than among the Europeans.
The reafon doubtlefs was, that the former had the re-
quifites for the art in much greater perfection than
we. Human facrifices were frequent among them j
they had the moft poifonous ferpents, and the greateft
variety of vegetable poifons, together with that power¬
ful narcotic opium ; all which were of efiential ufe in
myftical and magic rites. They had, befides, a burn¬
ing fun, frightful deferts and folitudes ; which, toge¬
ther with extreme falling, were all called in to their
affiftance, and were fufheient to produce, by natural
means, the moft wonderful phenomena which have ever
been attributed to magical incantations. Even in our
own days, we have the teftimony of two travellers,
whom we cannot fufpeCl to be either liars or enthu-
fiafts, that both the Indians and Africans perform feats
for which neither they nor the moft enlightened Eu¬
ropeans can account. The one is Mr Grofe, who vi-
fited the Eaft Indies about the year 17625 and the
other is Mr Bruce, who informs us, that the inhabi¬
tants of the weftern coaft of Africa pretend to hold
a communication with the devil, and verify their afier-
tions in fuch a manner that neither he nor other tra¬
vellers know what to make of it; but it does not from
this follow, that Mr Bruce believed that communica¬
tion to be real. We have all feen one of the moft il¬
literate men that ever affumed the title of Doflor, per¬
form feats very furprifing, and fuch as even a philo-
fopher would have been puzzled to account for, if he
had not been previoufly let into the fecret 5 and yet no
man fuppofes that Katterfelto holds any communica-
' tion
M
MAG [ 353 ] MAG
Ma»ic> tion with the devil, although he has fometimes pre-
—-V-tended it among people whole minds he fuppofed un¬
enlightened.
Still it may be obje&ed, that we have a vail num¬
ber of hiltories of witches, who in the lall century
confeffed, that they were prefent with the devil at cer¬
tain meetings; that they were carried through the air,
and faw many tlrange feats performed, too numerous
and too ridiculous to be here mentioned. The bell
aifwer to this objeftion feems to be that given by Dr
■Manchef- Ferriar in his effay on Popular Illufions *. “ The fo-
tr Tranf letnn meeting of witches (fays he) is fuppofed to be
[tiem, pUt beyond all doubt by the numerous confelfions of
o1'111, criminals, who have deferibed their ceremonies, named
the times and places of their meetings, with the per-
fons prefent, and who have agreed in their relations,
though feparately delivered. But I would obferve,
firil, that the circumftances told of thofe feitivals are
in themfelves ridiculous and incredible j for they are
reprefented as gloomy and horrible, and yet with a
mixture of childilh and extravagant fancies, more like¬
ly to difgult and alienate than conciliate the minds
of their guefts. They have every appearance of un-
eafy dreams. Sometimes the devil and his fubjedls
fay mafs ; fometimes he preaches to them more com¬
monly he was feen in the form of a black goat, fur-
rounded by imps in a thoufand frightful lhapes; but
none of thefe forms are new, they all referable known
quadrupeds or reptiles. Secondly, I obferve, that there
is dire6l proof furnilhed even by demonologiils, that all
thofe fuppofed journeys and entertainments were no¬
thing more than dreams. Perfons accufed of witch¬
craft have been repeatedly watched about the time
they had fixed for their meeting : they have been feen
to anoint themfelves with foporific compofitions; af¬
ter which they fell into profound fleep ; and on awak¬
ing feveral hours afterwards, they have related their
journey through the air,, with their amufement at the
feftival, and have named the perfons whom they faw
there.’* This is exa&ly conformable to the pra&ice
of the ancient magicians and diviners, and feems to be
the true way of accounting, as well for many of the
phenomena of magic, as for that extravagant and
fhameful fuperftition which prevailed fo much during
part of the laft century, and by which fuch numbers
of innocent men and women were cruelly put to
death (c).^ We may indeed be affured, that the devil
has it not in his power to reverfe in a Angle inftance
the laws of nature without a divine permiflion j and
we can conceive but one occafion (fee Possession)
on which fuch permiflion could be given confidently
with the wifdom and the goodnefs of God. All the
tales, therefore, of diabolical agency in magic and
witchcraft muff undoubtedly be falfe 5 for a power,
which the devil is not himfelf at liberty to exert, he
cannot communicate to a human creature. Were the
cafe otherwife j were thofe powers, “which (according
to Johnfon) only the controul of Omnipotence re-
ftrains from laying creation wafte, fubfervient to the
invocations of wicked mortals; were thofe fpirits,——
Vol. XII. Part I.
   -— of which the lead: could wield
The elements, and arm him with the force
Of all their regions,” permitted to work mi¬
racles, and either to inflift on to remove dileafes at the
delire of their capricious votaries, how comfortlefs and
wretched would be the life of man ! But the matter has
been long ago determined by the failure of Pharaoh’s
magicians ; who, though by legerdemain they imitated
fome of the miracles of Moles, could not form the vileft
infedl, or Hand before the difeafe which he infli&ed up¬
on them as well as upon others.
The revival of learning, and the fuccefs with which
the laws of nature have been inveliigated, have long
ago banilhed this fpecies of magic from all the en¬
lightened nations of Europe. Among ourfelves, none
but perfons grofsly illiterate pay the lead regard to
magical charms ; nor are they anywhere abroad more
prevalent than among the inhabitants of Lapland and
Iceland. Thefe people, indeed, place an abfolute
confidence in the effedls of certain idle words and ac¬
tions : and ignorant failors from other parts of the
.world are deceived by their aflertions and their cere¬
monies. The famous magical drum of the Laplanders
is Hill in condant ufe in that nation ; and Scheffer, in
his Hidory of Lapland, has given an account of its
drudture.
This indrument is made of beech, pine, or fir, fplit
in the middle, and hollowed on the fiat fide where the
drum is to be made. The hollow' is of an oval figure $
and is covered with a Ikin clean dreffed, and painted
with figures of various kinds, fuch as dars, funs and
moons, animals and plants, and even countries, lakes,
and rivers; and of later days, fince the preaching of
Chridianity among them, the afts and fufferings of
our Saviour and his apodles are often added among
the red. All thefe figures are feparated by lines into
three regions or cluders.
There is, befides thefe parts of the drum, an index
and a hammer. The index is a bundle of brafs or iron
rings, the bigged of which has a hole in its middle,
and the fmaller ones are hung to it. The hammer or
drumdick is made of the horn of a rein-deer $ and with
this they beat the drum fo as to make thefe rings move,
they being laid on the top for that purpofe. In the
motion of thefe rings about the pidlures figured on the
drum, they fancy to themfelves fome predidlion in re¬
gard to the things they inquire about.
What they principally inquire into by this indru-
ment, are three things. I. What facrifices will prove
mod acceptable to their gods. 2. What fuccefs they
diall have in their feveral occupations, as hunting, fifti-
ing, curing of difeafes, and the like j and, 3. What is
doing in places remote from them. On thefe feveral
occafions they ufe feveral peculiar ceremonies, and
place themfelve^ in various odd poftures as they beat
the drum $ which influences the rings to the one or
the other fide, land to come nearer to the one or the
other fet of figures. And when they have done
this, they have a method of calculating a difcovery,
which they keep as a great fecret, but which feems
^ 7 merely
(c) For fome farther account of popular illufions, fee Animal Magnetism,
M A G
Magic,
Magic
Square.
merely the bufinefs of the imagination in the diviner or
magician.
, Magic Square, a fquare figure, formed of a feries
of numbers in mathematical proportion j fo difpofed in
parallel and equal ranks, as that the fums of each row,
taken either perpendicularly, horizontally, or diagonal¬
ly, are equal.
Let the feveral numbers whichcompofe any fquare
number (for inftance, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. to 25 inclufive,
the fquare number) be difpofed, in their natural order,
after each other in a fquare figure of 25 cells, each in
its cell ; if now you change the order of thefe numbers,
and difpole them in the cells in fuch manner, as that
the five numbers which fill a horizontal rank of cells,
being added together, {hall make the fame fum with
the five numbers in any other rank of cells, whether
horizontal or vertical, and even the fame number with
the five in each of the two diagonal ranks : this dif-
pofition of numbers is called a magic fquare, in oppofi-
tion to the former difpofition, which is called a natural
fquare. See the figures following.
[ 35+ ]
MAG
Natural Square.
Magic Square.
aU
_2!J
I2II3
35
22I23
A
iilks
X9I20
24|25,
16
14
One would imagine that thefe magic fquares had
that name given them, in regard this property of all
their ranks, which, taken any way, make always the
lame fum, appeared extremely furprifing, efpecially in
certain ignorant ages, when mathematics paffed for
magic : but there is a great deal of reafon to fufpeft,
that thefe fquares merited their name {till farther, by
the fuperftitious operations they were employed in, as
the conftrudtion of talifmans, &c. j for, according to
the childilh philofophy of thofe days, which attributed
virtues to numbers, what virtue might not be expect¬
ed from numbers fo wonderful ?
However, what was at firft the vain praCtice of ma¬
kers of talifmans and conjurers, has fince become the
fubjeCt of a ferious refearch among mathematicians $
not that they imagine it will lead them to any thing
of folid ufe or advantage (magic fquares favour too
much of their original to be of much ufe) ; but only
as it is a kind of play, where the difficulty makes the
merit, and it may chance to produce fome new views
of numbers, which mathematicians will not lofe the
occafion of.
Eman. Mofchopulus, a Greek author of no great
antiquity, is the firft that appears to have fpoken of
magic fquares : and by the age wherein he lived, there
is reafon to imagine he did not look on them merely
as a mathematician. However, he has left us fome
rules for their conftruCtion. In the treatife of Cor.
Agrippa, fo much accufed of magic, we find the fquares
of feven numbers, viz. from three to nine inclufive,
difpofed magically $ and it muft not be fuppofed that
thofe feven numbers were preferred to all the other
without fome very good reafon : in effeCt, it is becaule
their fquares, according to the fyftem of Agrippa and
his followers, are planetary. The fquare of 3, for in-
3 ,
fiance, belongs to baturn j that of 4 to Jupiter j that
of 5 to Mars j that of 6 to the Sun j that of 7 to Ve¬
nus j that of 8 to Mercury j and that of 9 to the '
Moon. M. Bachet applied himfelf to the ftudy of
magic fquares, on the hint he had taken from the pla¬
netary fquares of Agrippa, as being unacquainted with
the work of Mofchopulus, which is only in manufcript
in the French king’s library j and, without the aflift-
ance of any author, he found out a new method for
thofe fquares whofe root is uneven, for inftance 25,
49, &c. butfche could not make any thing of thofe
whofe root is even.
After him came M. Frenicle, who took the fame
fubje<ft in hand. A certain great algebraift was of
opinion, that whereas the 16 numbers which compofe
the fquare might be difpofed 20922789888000 differ¬
ent ways in a natural fquare (as from the rules of com¬
bination it is certain they may), they could not be
difpofed in a magic fquare above 16 different ways;
but M. Frenicle ftiowed, that they might be thus dif¬
pofed 878 different ways : whence it appears how much
his method exceeds the former, which only yielded the
55th part of magic fquares of that of M. Frenicle.
To this inquiry he thought fit to add a difficulty
that had not yet been confidered : the magic fquare of
7, for inftance, being conftru&ed, and its 49 cells fill¬
ed, if the two horizontal ranks of cells and, at the
fame time, the two vertical ones, the moft remote from
the middle, be retrenched ; that is, if the whole bor¬
der or circumference of the fquare be taken away,
there will remain a fquare whofe root will be 5, and
which will only confift of 25 cells. Now it is not at
all furprifing that the fquare fhould be no longer ma¬
gical, becaufe the ranks of the large ones were not in¬
tended to make the fame fum, excepting when taken
entire with all the feven numbers that fill their feven
cells ; fo that being mutilated each of two cells, and
having loft two of their numbers, it may be well ex-
pefted, that their remainders will not any longer make
the fame fum. But M. Frenicle would not be fatis-
fied, unlefs when the circumference or border of the
magic fquare was taken away, and even any circum¬
ferences at pleafure, or, in fine, feveral circumferences
at once, the remaining fquare was ftill magical : which
laft condition, no doubt, made thefe fquares vaftly more
magical than ever.
Again, He inverted that condition, and required
that any circumference taken at pleafure, or even fe¬
veral circumferences, fhould be infeparable from the
fquare ; that is, that it fhould ceafe to be magical when
they were removed, and yet continue magical after the
removal of any of the reft. M. Frenicle, however,
gives no general demonftration of his methods, and
frequently feems to have no other guide but chance.
It is true, his book was not publifhed by himfelf, nor
did it appear till after his death, viz. in 1693.
In 1703, M. Poignard, canon of Bruffels, publifh¬
ed a treatife of fublime magic fquares. Before him
there had been no magic fquares made but for feriefes
of natural numbers that formed a fquare ; but M.
Poignard made two very confiderable improvements.
1. Inflead of taking all the numbers that fill a fquare,
for inftance the 36 fucceffive numbers, which would
fill all the cells of a natural fquare whofe fide is 6, he
only takes as many fucceffive numbers as there are units
in
Maj.ic
Square.
MAG
[ 355 3 M A G
Magic in tlie fide of the fquare, which, in this cafe, are fiK j
Square. an(j thefe fix numbers alone he difpofes in fuch manner
in the 36 cells, that none of them are repeated twice
in the fame rank, whether it be horizontal, vertical, or
diagonal 5 whence it follows, that all the ranks, taken
all the ways poffible, mull always make the fame fum,
which M. Poignard calls repeated progreflion. 2. In-
ftead of being confined to take thefe numbers accord¬
ing to the feries and fucceflion of the natural numbers,
that is, in an arithmetical progrefiion, he takes them
likewife in a geometrical progreffion, and even in an
harmonical progreffion. But with thefe two laft pro-
greffions the magic muft neceffarily be different from
what it was: in the fquares filled with numbers in
geometrical progreffion, it confifts in this, that the
produ6ts of all the ranks are equal ; and in the har¬
monical progreffion, the numbers of all the ranks con¬
tinually follow that progreffion : he makes fquares of
each of thefe three progreffions repeated.
This book of M. Poignard gave occafion to M. de
la Hire to turn his thoughts the fame way, which he
did with fuch fuccefs, that he feems to have well nigh
completed the theory of magic fquares. He firft con-
fiders uneven fquares : all his predeceffors on the fub-
jeft having found the conftruftion of even ones by
much the moft difficult •, for which reafon M. de la
Hire referves thofe for the laft. This excefs of diffi¬
culty may arife partly from hence, that the numbers
are taken in arithmetical progreffion. Now in that
progreffion, if the number of terms be uneven, that in
the middle has fome properties, which may be of fer-
vice j for inftance, being multiplied by the number of
terms in the progreffion, the product is equal to the
fum of all the terms.
M. de la Hire propofes a general method for un¬
even fquares, which has fome fimilitude with the theo¬
ry of compound motions, To ufeful and fertile in me¬
chanics. As that confifts in decompounding motions,
and refolving them into others more fimple ; fo does
M. de la Hire’s method confift in refolving the fquare
that is to be conftnufted into two fimple and primitive
fquares. It muft be owned, however, it is not quite fo
eafy to conceive thefe two fimple and primitive fquares
in the compound or perfeft fquare, as in an oblique mo¬
tion to imagine a parallel and perpendicular one.
Suppofe a fquare of cells, whofe root is uneven, for
inftance 7 j and that its 49 cells are to be filled magi¬
cally with numbers, for inftance the firft 7 j M. de la
Hire, on the one fide, takes the firft 7 numbers, be¬
ginning with unity, and ending with the root 75
and on the other 7, and all its multiples to 49, exclu-
fively, and as thefe only make fix numbers, he adds o,
which makes this an arithmetical progreffion of 7
terms as well as the other ; o. 7. 14. 21. 28. 35. 42.
This done, with the firft progreffion repeated, he fills
the fquare of the root magicafly: In order to this,
he writes in the firft feven cells of the firft horizontal
rank the feven numbers propofed in what order he
pleafes, for that is abfolutely indifferent; and it is
proper to obferve here, that thefe feven numbers may
be ranged in 5040 different manners in the fame rank.
The order in which they are placed in the firft hori¬
zontal rank, be it what it will, is that which deter¬
mines their order in all the reft. For the fecond ho¬
rizontal rank, he places in its firft cell, either the
third, the fourth, the fifth, or the fixth number, from
the firft number of the firft rank ; and after that writes
the fix others in order as they follow. For the third
horizontal rank, he obferves the fame method with re¬
gard to the fecond that he obferved in the fecond with
regard to the firft, and fo of the reft. For inftance,
fuppofe the firft horizontal rank filled with the feven
numbers in their natural order, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7;
the fecond horizontal rank may either commence with
3, with 4, with 5, or with 6 : but in this inftance it
commences with 3; the third rank therefore muft com¬
mence with 5, the fourth with
7, the fifth with 2, the fixth
with 4, and the feventh with 6.
The commencement of the ranks
which follow the firft being thus
determined, the other numbers,
as we have already obfcrved,
muft be written down in the or¬
der wherein they ftand in the
firft, going on to 5, 6, and 7,
and returning to 1, 2, &c. till
every number in the firft rank be found in every rank
underneath, according to the order arbitrarily pitched
upon at firft. By this means it is evident, that no
number whatever can be repeated twice in the fame
rank ; and by confequence, that the feven numbers 1,
2> 3> 4> 5* 7, being in each rank, muft of neceffity
make the fame fum.
It appears, from this example, that the arrangement
of the numbers in the firft rank being chofen at plea-
fure, the other ranks may be continued in four differ¬
ent manners; and fince the firft rank may have 5040
different arrangemevts, there are no lefs than 20,160
different manners of conftrufting the magic fquare of
feven numbers repeated.
Magic
SquaiC-
The order of the numbers in the firft rank being de¬
termined ; if in beginning with the fecond rank, the
fecond number 2, or the laft number 7, fhould be pitch¬
ed upon in one of thefe cafes, and repeated ; and in
the other cafe, the other diagonal would be falfe un-
lefs the number repeated feven times fhould happen
to be 4 ; for four times ftven is equal to the fum of
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 : and in general, in every fquare
confifting of an unequal number of terms, in arithme¬
tical progreffion, one of the diagonals would be falfe
according to thofe two conftruftions, unlefs the term
always repeated in that diagonal were the middle term
of the progreffion. It is not, however, at all necef-
fary to take the terms in an arithmetical progreffion ;
for, according to this method, one may conftruft a
magic fquare of any numbers at pleafure, whether
they be according to any certain progreffion or not.
If they be in an arithmetical progreffion, it will be
proper, out of the general method, to except thofe
Y y 2 two
MAG
Magic
Square.
two conitru£tions which produce a continual repetition
of the fame term in one of the two diagonals^ and only
to take in the cafe wherein that repetition would pre¬
vent the diagonal from being juft j which cafe being
abfolutely difregarded when we computed that the
fquare of 7 might have 20,160 different conftru&ions,
it is evident that by taking that cafe in, it muft have
vaftly more.
To begin the fecond rank with any other number
befides the fecond and the laft, muft not, however, be
looked on as an univerfal rule : it holds good for the
fquare of 7 ; but if the fquare of 9, for inftance, were
to be conftrufted, and the fourth figure of the firft
horizontal rank were pitched on for the firfi: of the
fecond, the confequence would be, that the fifth and
eighth horizontal ranks would likewife commence
with the fame number, which would therefore be re¬
peated three times in the fame vertical rank, and oc-
ealion other repetitions in all the reft. The general
rule, therefore, muft be conceived thus : Let the
number in the firft rank pitched on, for the commence¬
ment of the fecond, have fuch an exponent for its
quota j that is, let the order of its place be fuch, as that
if an unit be taken from it, the remainder will not be
any juft quota part of the root of the fquare $ that is,
cannot divide it equally. If, for example, in the fquare
of 7, the third number of the firft horizontal rank be
pitched on for the firft of the fecond, fuch conftruc-
tion will be juft ; becaufe the exponent of the place
of that number, viz. 3, fubtradling 1, that is, 2 can¬
not divide 7. Thus alfo might the fourth number of
the fame firft rank be chofen, becaufe 4—1, viz. 3,
cannot divide 7 $ and, for the fame reafon, the fifth
or fixth number might be taken : but in the fquare of
9, tlm fourth number of the firft rank muft not be ta¬
ken, becaufe 4—1, viz. 3, does divide 9. The rea-
ion of this rule will appear very evidently, by confi-
dering in what manner the returns of the fame num¬
bers do or do not happen, taking them always in the
fame manner in any given feries. And hence it fol¬
lows, that the fewer divifions the root of any fquare
to be conftrufted has, the more different manners of
conftrufting it there are ; and that the prime numbers,
i. e. thofe which have no divifions, as 5, 7, 11, 13,
&c. are thofe whofe fquares will admit of the moft va¬
riations in proportion to their quantities.
The fquares conftrufled according to this method
have fome particular properties not required in the
problem ; for the numbers that compofe any rank pa¬
rallel to on.e of the two diagonals, are ranged in the
lame order with the numbers that compofe the diago¬
nal to which they are parallel. And as any rank pa¬
rallel to a diagonal muft neceffarily be fhorter, and
have fewer cells than the diagonal itfelf, by adding
to it the correfpondent parallel,
Tirjl Primitive. which has the number of cells
by which the other falls Ihort
of the diagonal, the numbers of
thofe two parallels, placed as it
were end to end, ftill follow the
fame order with thofe of the di¬
agonal : befides that their fums
are likewife equal $ fo that they
are magical on another account.
41 5. Inftead of the fquares which we
C 356 ]
MAG
2 I 2
6 j 7
1 2
Second Primitive.
7 *4
28 35
283542i
28
21
28
21
3542
7\H
‘8!3J
21
have hitherto formed by horizontal ranks, one might
alfo form them by vertical ones 3 the cafe is the fame
in both.
All we have hitherto faid regards only the firft pri¬
mitive fquare, whofe numbers, in the propofed ex¬
ample, were, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 73 here ftill remains the
fecond primitive, whofe num¬
bers are o, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35,
42. M. de la Hire proceeds
in the fame manner here as in
the former ; and this may like¬
wife be conftrudted in 20,160
different manners, as contain¬
ing the fame number of terms
with the firft. Its conftnnftion
being made, and of confequence
all its ranks making the fame
fum, it is evident, that if we
bring the two into one, by adding together the num¬
bers of the two correfponding cells of the two fquares,
that is, the two numbers of the firft of each, the two
numbers of the fecond, of the third, &c. and difpofe
them in the 49 correfponding cells of a third fquare, it
will likewife lie magical in regard to its rank, formed
by the addition of equal fums to equal fums, which muft
of neceflity be equal among themfelves. All that re¬
mains in doubt is, whether or no, by the addition of
the correfponding cells of the two firft fquares, all the
cells of the third will be filled in fuch manner, as that
each not only contains one of the numbers of the pro-
greflion from 1 to 49, but alfo that this number be dif¬
ferent from any of the reft, which is the end and de-
fign of the whole operation.
As to this it muft be obferved, that if in the con-
ftruftion of the fecond primitive fquare care has been
taken, in the commencement of the fecond horizontal
rank, to obferve an order with regard to the firft, dif¬
ferent from what was obferved in the conftruftion of
the firft fquare ; for inftance, if
the fecond rank of the firft fquare
began with the third term of the
firft rank, and the fecond rank
of the fecond fquare commence
with the fourth of the firft rank,
as in the example it aflually
does 3 each number of the firft
fquare may be combined once,
and only once, by addition with
all the numbers of the fecond.
And as the numbers of the firft
are here I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and thofe of the fecond,
°> 7> I4’ 2I> 28* 35’ 42 i combining them in this
manner we have all the numbers in the progreflion from
1 to 49, without having any of them repeated 3 which
is the perfect magic fquare propofed.
1 he neceflity of conftrufting the twTo primitive
fquares in a different manner does not at all hinder but
that each of the 20,160 conftruftions of the one may
be combined with all the 20,160 conftru&ions of the
other : of confequence, therefore, 20,160 multiplied
by itfelf, which makes 406,425,600, is the number of
different conftruftions that may be made of the per-
fe£t fquare, which here confifts of the 49 numbers of
the natural progreflion. But as we have already ob¬
ferved, that a primitive fquare of feven numbers re¬
peated
PerfeB Square.
34
4243
Magic
Square.
-MAG [ 357 ] MAG
Magic peated may have above 20,160 feveral conftruftions,
Square, number 406,425,600 muft come vaftly fhort of ex-
prefling all the poflible contiruftions of a perfect magic
fquare of the 49 firfl numbers.
As to the even fquares, he conftrufts them like the
uneven ones, by two primitive fquares j but the con-
ftruftion of primitives is different in general, and may
be fo a great number of ways ; and thofe general dif¬
ferences admit of a great number of particular varia¬
tions, which give as many different conftru£tions of
the fame even fquare. It fcarce feems poflible to de¬
termine exadlly, either how many general differences
there may be between the conftruftion of the primitive
fquares of an even fquare and an uneven one, nor how
many particular variations each general difference may
admit of; and, of confequence, we are ftill far from
being able to determine the number of different con-
ftru&ions of all thofe that may be made by the primi¬
tive fquares.
The ingenious Dr Franklin feems to have carried
this curious fpeculation farther than any of his prede-
ceffors in the fame way. He has conftrudled not only
a magic fquare of fquares, but likewife a magic circle
of circles, of which we (hall give, fome account for
the amufement of our readers. The magic fquare of
fquares is formed by dividing the great fquare, as in
Plate CCXCVIII. The great fquare is divided into
256 fmall fquares, in which all the numbers from 1
to 256 are placed in 16 columns, which may be taken
either horizontally or vertically. The properties are as
follow:
1. The fum of the 16 numbers in each column, ver¬
tical and horizontal, is 2056.
2. Every half column, vertical and horizontal, makes
1028, or half of 2056.
3. Half a diagonal afcending added to half a dia¬
gonal defcending, makes 2056 ; taking thefe half dia¬
gonals from the ends of any fide of the fquare to the
middle thereof; and fo reckoning them either upward
or downward, or fide wife from left to right hand, or
from right to left.
4. The fame, with all the parallels to the half dia¬
gonals, as many as can be drawn in the great fquare;
for any two of them being dire&ed upward and down¬
ward, from the place where they begin to that where
they end, their fums will make 2056. The fame
downward and upward in like manner : or all the fame
if taken fidewife to the middle, and back to the fame
fide again. N. B. One fet of thefe half diagonals and
their parallels is drawn in the fame fquare upward and
downward. Another fuch fet may be drawn from any
of the other three fides.
5. The four corner numbers in the great fquare,
added to the four central numbers therein, make 1028 ;
equal to the half fum of any vertical or horizontal co¬
lumn which contains 16 numbers ; and equal to half a
diagonal or its parallel.
6. If a fquare hole (equal in breadth to four of
the little fquares) be cut in a paper, through which
any of the 16 little fquares in the great fquare may be
feen, and the paper be laid on the great fquare, the
fum of all the 16 numbers, feen through the hole, is Magic
equal to the fum of the 16 numbers in any horizontal S^uare’
or vertical column, viz. to 2056.
The magic circle of circles, Plate CCXCVIII. is com-
pofed of a feries of numbers from 12 to 75 inclufive, di¬
vided into eight concentric circular fpaces, and ranged
in eight radii of numbers, with the number 12 in the
centre *, which number, like the centre, is common to
all thefe circular (paces, and to all the radii.
The numbers are fo placed, that the fum of all thofe
in either of the concentric circular fpaces above men¬
tioned, together with the central number 12, make 360 ;
equal to the number of degrees in a circle.
The numbers in each radius alfo, together with the
central number 12, make juft 360.
The numbers in half of any of the above circular
fpaces, taken either above or below the double horizon¬
tal line, with half the central number 12, make 180 ;
equal to the number of degrees in a femicircle.
If any four adjoining numbers be taken, as if in a
fquare, in the radial divifions of thefe circular fpaces,
the fum of thefe, with half the central number, makes
180.
There are, moreover, included, four fets of other
circular fpaces, bounded by circles which are eccentric
with refpedt to the common centre ; each of thefe fets
containing five fpaces. The centres of the circles
which bound them are at A, B, C, and D. The fet
whofe centre is at A is bounded by dotted lines; the
fet whofe centre is at C is bounded by lines of (hort
unconnected ftrokes; and the fet round D is bounded
by lines of unconnected longer ftrokes, to diftinguilh
them from one another. In drawing this figure by
hand, the fet of concentric circles (hould be drawn
with black ink, and the four different fets of eccentric
circles with four kinds of ink of different colours; as
blue, red, yellow, and green, for diftinguilhing them
readily from one another. Thefe fets of eccentric cir¬
cular fpaces interfeCt thofe of the concentric, and each
other; and yet the numbers contained in each of the
eccentric fpaces, taken all around through any of the
20 which are eccentric, make the fame fum as thofe in
the concentric, namely 360, when the central number
12 is added. Their halves alfo, taken above or below
the double horizontal line, with half the central num¬
ber, make 180.
Obferve, that there is not one of the numbers but
what belongs at lead to two of the circular fpaces,
fome to three, fome to four, fome to five ; and yet they
are all fo placed as never to break the required number
360 in any of the 28 circular fpaces within the primi¬
tive circle.
To bring thefe matters in viewy all the numbers as
above mentioned are taken out, and placed in feparate
columns as they (land around both the concentric and
eccentric circular fpaces, always beginning with the
outermoft and ending with the innermoft of each fet,
and alfo the numbers as they (land in the eight radii,
from the circumference to the centre : the common
central number 12 being placed the loweft in each co¬
lumn.
I. In
Magic
Square,
MAG
i. In the eight concentric circular {paces.
[ 358 ]
MAG
25
30
41
46
57
62
73
12
I360
72
23
65
31
67
12
74
12
72
63
56
47
40
31
24
J5
12
360
360
25
63
16
70
18
68
27
61
12
23
16
39
32
55
48
71
64
12
360
360
3°
56
39
49
37
51
28
58
12
65
70
49
54
33
38
*7
22
12
21
18
37
34
53
50
69
66
12
67
68
51
52
35
36
*9
20
12
12
27
28
43
44
59
60
75
12
360 I360 (360 (360
2. In the eight radii.
41 4^ 57 62
47 40 31 24
32 55 48 71
54 33 38 17
34 53 5° 69
52 35 36 19
43 44 59 60
45 42 29 26
12 12 12 12
74
61
58
45
42
29
26
J3
12
360
360
73
J5
64
22
66
20
75
*3
12
360 I360 (360 J360 [360
3. In the five eccentric circular {paces whole centre is
at A.
J4
63
39
54
33
48
24
73
12
72
16
49
34
53
38
71
!5
12
360 I360
23
70
37
52
35
50
J7
64
12
85
18
51
43
44
36
69
22
12
21
68
28
45
42
59
J9
66
12
In ihs
360 I360 I360
five eccentric circular fpaces whole centre is
at B.
30
47
55
38
64
/2
25
I 2
56
32
33
50
69
22
23
63
12
39
54
53
36
J9
66
65
16
12
49
34
35
59
60
20
21
70
12
37
52
44
29
26
75
67
18
12
360 I360 I360 I360 360
In the five eccentric circular fpaces whofe centre is
at C.
33
46
31
71
22
65
16
56
41
12
360
40
48
J7
66
21
70
39
47
12
360
55
38
69
20
67
18
49
32
12
50
J9
75
12
68
37
54
12
360 1360
53
36
60
J3
74
27
Sl
34
12
360
6. In the five eccentric circular fpaces whofe centre
at D.
62
J5
24
70
49
32
40
57
12
360
24
64
65
18
37
54
55
31
12
360
71
22
21
68
51
34
33
48
12
360
J7
66
67
27
28
52
53
38
12
360
69
20
12
61
58
43
35
50
12
360
14 72
25 I 63
6
If, now, we take any four numbers, in
a fquare form, either from N° 1. or N° 2.
(we fuppofe from N° 1.) as in the margin,
and add half the central number 12 to them,
the fum will be 180; equal to half the numbers in any
circular fpace taken above or below the double hori¬
zontal line, and equal to the number of degrees in a
femicircle. Thus, 14, 72, 25, 63, and 6, make 180.
Magic Lantern. See Dioptrics, art. x.
MAGICIAN, one who praftifes magic, or hath
the power of doing wonderful feats by the agency of
fpirits.
Among the eaftern nations it feems to have been
formerly common for the princes to have magicians
about their court to confer with upon extraordinary oc-
cafions. And concerning thefe there hath been much
deputation : fome fuppofing that their power was only
feigned, and that they were no other than impoftors
V'ho impofed on the credulity of their fovereigns;
while others have thought that they really had lome
unknown connexion or correfpondence with evil fpirits,
and could by their means accomplifh what otherwife
would have been impoflible for men. See the article
Magic.
MAGINDANAO, or Mindanao. See Min¬
danao.
MAGISTERY, an old term in chemiftry, given to
precipitates. Thus, magijlery and precipitate are fyno-
nymous j formerly precipitate was a general term, and
magijlery applied to particular precipitates, fuch as the
magiftery of bifmuth, &c. See Bismuth, Chemistry
Index.
MAGISTRATE, any public officer to whom the
executive power of the law is committed either wholly
or in part.
MAGLIABECHI, Antony, a perfon of great
learning, and remarkable for an amazing memory, was
born at Florence in 1633. father died when he
was only feven years old. His mother had him taught
grammar and drawing, and then put him apprentice
to one of the belt goldfmiths in Florence. When he
was about 16 years old, his paffion for learning began
to appear j and he laid out all his money in buy¬
ing books. Becoming acquainted with Michael Er-
mini, librarian to the cardinal de Medicis, he foon per-
fe£ted himfelf by his affiftance in the Latin tongue,
and in a little time became mafler of the Hebrew.
His name foon became famous among the learned. A
prodigious memory was his diftinguiffiing talent $ and
he retained not only the fenfe of what he had read,
but
M A G [ 359 j MAG
but frequently all the words ?ud the very manner of
bcchi fpelling. It is faid that a gentleman, to make trial
II of the force of his memory, lent him a manufcript he
'.a^a" was going to print. Some time after it was returned,
_Y—the gentleman, coming to him with a melancholy
countenance, pretended it was loft, and requefted Ma-
gliabechi to recoiled what he remembered of it; up¬
on which he wrote the whole, without miffing a word.
He generally (hut himfelf up the whole day, and open¬
ed his doors in the evening to the men of letters who
eame to converfe with him. His attention was fo ab-
ferbed by his ftudies, that he often forgot the molt
urgent wants of nature. Cofmo III. grand duke of
Florence, made him his librarian j but he ftill conti¬
nued negligent in his drefs, and limple in his manners.
An old cloak ferved him for a morning gown in the
day and for bed-clothes at night. The duke, however,
provided for him a commodious apartment in his pa¬
lace, which he was with difficulty perfuaded to take
pofleffion of j but which he quitted four months after,
and returned to his houfe. He was remarkable for his
extraordinary modefty, his fincerity, and his benefi¬
cence, which his friends often experienced in their
wants. He was a patron of men of learning ; and had
the higheft pleafure in affifting them with his advice
and information, and in furnilhing them with books
and manufcripts. He had the utmoft averfion at any
thing that looked like conftraint j and therefore the
grand duke always difpenfed with his perfonal attend¬
ance, and fent him his orders in writing. Though he
lived a very fedentary life, he reached the Sift year of
his age ; and died in the midft of the public applaufe,
after enjoying, during the latter part of his life, fuch
affluence as few have ever procured by their learning.
By his will, he left a very fine library to the public,
with a fund for its fupport.
MAGLOIRE, St, a native of Wales in Great
Britain, and coufin german to St Sampfon and St Mal-
lo. He embraced a monaftic life, and went into France,
where he was made abbot of Dol, and after that a pro¬
vincial bilhop in Britanny. He afterwards founded a
monaftery in the ifland of Jerfey, where he died on the
14th of October 575, about the age of 80. His re¬
mains were tranfported to the fuburb of St Jacques,
and depofited in a monaftery of Benedi&ines, which
was ceded to the fathers of the oratory in 1628. It
is now the feminary of St Magloire, celebrated on ac¬
count of the learned men whom it has produced.—
This faint cultivated poetry with confiderable fuccefs :
the hymn which is fung at the feaft of All Saints
was compofed by him j Ccelo quos eadem gloria confe-
crat, &c.
MAGNA ASSISA ELIGENDA, is a writ anciently
directed to the ftieriff for fummoning four lawful
knights before the juftices of affize, in order to choofe
12 knights of the neighbourhood, &c. to pafs upon
the great affize between fuch a perfon plaintiff and fuch
a one defendant.
Magna Ckarta. See Charta.
MAGNANIMITY, denotes greatnefs of mind,
particularly in circumftances of trial and adverfity.—
\utici of It has been juftly obferved of it, that it is the good
"r’the ^en^e Pr^e» and the nobleft way of acquiring ap-
ji, plaufe. It renders the foul fuperior to the trouble,
diforder, and emotion, which the appearance of great
danger might excite j and it is by this quality that Magna-
heroes maintain their tranquillity, and preferve the n>mity-
free ufe of their reafon, in the moft furprifing and
dreadful accidents. It admires the fame quality in its
enemy 5 and fame, glory, conquefts, defire of opportu¬
nities to pardon and oblige their oppofers, are what
glow in the minds of the brave. Magnanimity and
courage are infeparable.
1. The inhabitants of Privernum being fubdued and
takep prifoners after a revolt, one of them being alk-
ed by a Roman fenator, who was for putting them all
to death, what punilhment he and his fellow captives
deferved ? anfwered with great intrepidity, “ We de-
ferve that puniftiment which is due to men who are
jealous of their liberty, and think themfelves worthy
of it.” Plautinus perceiving that his anfwer exafpe-
rated fome of the fenators, endeavoured to prevent
the ill effefts of it, by putting a milder queftion to
the prifoner : How would you behave (fays he) if
Rome ftiould pardon you ?” “ Our conduit (replied
the generous captive) depends upon yours. If the
peace you grant be an honourable one, you may de¬
pend on a conftant fidelity on our parts : if the terms
of it be hard and diftionourable, lay no ftrefs on our
adherence to you.” Some of the judges conftrued.
thefe words as menaces j but the wifer part finding
in them a great deal of magnanimity, cried out, that
a nation whofe only defire was liberty, and their only
fear that of lofing it, w’as worthy to become Roman.
Accordingly, a decree paffed in favour of the prifon¬
ers, and Privernum was declared a municipium. Thus
the bold fincerity of one man faved his country, and
gained it the privilege of being incorporated into the
Roman ftate.
2. Subrius Flavius, the Roman tribune, being im¬
peached for having confpired againft the life of the
emperor Nero, not only owned the charge, but glo¬
ried in it. Upon the emperor’s afking him what pro¬
vocation he had given him to plot his death. Be-
caufe I abhorred thee (faid Flavius), though there was
not in the whole army one more zealoufiy attached to
thee than I, fo long as thou didft merit affe£tion j but
I began to hate thee when thou becameft the murderer
of thy mother, the murderer of thy brother and wife,
a charioteer, a comedian, an incendiary, and a tyrant.”
Tacitus tells us, that the whole confpiracy afforded no¬
thing which proved fo bitter and pungent to Nero as
this reproach. He ordered Flavius to be immediately
put to death, which he fuffered with amazing intrepidity.
When the executioner defired him to llretch out his
neck valiantly, “ I wifli (replied he) thou mayeft ftrike
as valiantly.”
3. When the Scythian ambaffadors waited on Alex¬
ander the Great, they gazed attentively upon him for
a long time without fpeaking a word, being very pro¬
bably furprifed, as they formed a judgment of men
from their air and ftature, to find that his did not an¬
fwer the high idea they entertained of him from his
fame. At laft, the oldeft of the ambaffadors (accord-
ing to Q. Curtius) addreffed him thus : “ Had the
gods given thee a body proportionable to thy ambition,
the whole univerfe would have been too little for thee.
With one hand thou wouldft touch the eaft, and
with the other the weft ; and, not fatisfied with this,
thou wouldft follow the fun, and know where he hides
. himfelf.
MAG
Magna ni
mi tv.
Rapin'*
Hijl. ann.
5159.
• himfelf. But what have we to do tvith thee ? we ne-
^ ver fet foot in thy country. May not thofe who in¬
habit woods be allowed to live, without knowing who
thou art, and whence thou comeft ? We will neither
command over, nor fubmit to, any man. And that
thou may eft be fenlible what kind of people the Scy¬
thians are, know, that we received from heaven as a
rich prefent, a yoke of oxen, a ploughftiare, a dart, a
javelin, and a cup. Thefe we make ule of, both with
our friends and againft our enemies. To our friends
we give corn, which we procure by the labour of our
oxen ; with them we offer wine to the gods in our
cup ; and with regard to our enemies, we combat them
at a diftance with our arrows, and near at hand with
our javelins. But thou, who boafteft thy coming to
extirpate robbers, thou thyfelf are the greateft robber
upon earth. Thou haft plundered all nations thou
overcameft j thou haft poffeffed thyfelf of Lydia, in¬
vaded Syria, Perfia, and Baddriana ^ thou art forming
a defign to march as far as India •, and now thou com¬
eft hither to feize upon our herds of cattle. The great
poffeflions thou haft, only make thee covet more eager¬
ly what thou haft not. If thou art a god, thou oughteft
to do good to mortals, and not deprive them of their
jjoffeffions. If thou art a mere man, refledl always on
what thou art. They whom thou ftialt not moleft will
be thy true friends, the ftrongeft friendfhips being con-
tradled between equals ; and they are efteemed equals
who have not tried their ftrength againft each other;
but do not imagine that thofe whom thou conquereft
can love thee.”
4. Richard I. king of England, having inverted the
caftle of Chalus, was (hot in the Ihoulder with an ar¬
row j an unfkilful furgeon endeavouring to extradt the
weapon, mangled the flefh in fuch a manner, that a
gangrene enfued. The caftle being taken, and per¬
ceiving he fhould not live, he ordered Bertram de
Gourdon, who had (hot the arrow, to be brought in¬
to his prefence. Bertram being come, “ What harm
(faid the king) did I ever do thee, that thou
fhouldft kill me ?” The other replied with great mag¬
nanimity and courage, “ You killed with your own
hand my father and two of my brothers, and you
likewife defigned to have killed me. You may now
fatiate your revenge. I Ihould cheerfully fuffer all
the torments that can be infli£ted, were I fure of hav¬
ing delivered the world of a tyrant who filled it with
blood and carnage.” This bold and fpirited anfwer
ftruck Richard with remorfe. He ordered the pri-
foner to be prefented with one hundred Ihillings, and
fet at liberty : but Maccardec, one of the king’s
friends, like a true ruffian, ordered him to be flayed
alive.
5. The following modern inftance is extra£led
from a French work entitled, Ecole hijlorique et mo¬
rale du foldat, &c. A mine, underneath one of the
outworks of a citadel, was intrufted to the charge of
a ferjeant and a few foldiers of the Piedmontefe
guards. Several companies of the enemy’s troops had
made themfelves mailers of this work 5 and the lofs of
the place would probably foon have followed had they
maintained their poll in it. The mine was charged,
and a Angle fpark would blow them all into the air.
The ferjeant, with the greateft coolnefs, ordered the
foldiers to retire, defiring them to requeft the king to
[ 360 3
MAG
Magnet
take care of his wife and children ; ftruck fire, fet a Magnani
match to the train, and i’acrificed himfelf for his coun- mity
try.
MAGNESA, or Magnesia, in Ancient Geography >
a town or a diltridt of Theflaly, at the foot of Mount
Pelius, called by Philip, the Jon of Demetrius, one of
the three keys of Greece, (Paufanias).
MAGNESIA, or Magnesia alba, in Ghemijlry
a peculiar kind of earth. See Chemistry Index. *
Black Magnesia. See Manganese, Chemistry
and Mineralogy Index.
Magnesia, in Ancient Geography, a maritime di-
ftrnft of Theffaly, lying between the fouth part of the
Sinus Thermai'eus and the Pegafaeus to the fouth, and
to the eaft of the Pelafgiotis. Magnates, the people.
Magnejius and MagneJ/us, the epithet; (Horace).
Magnesia, a town of Afia Minor on the Msean-
der, about 15 miles from Ephefus. Themiftocles died
there : it was one of the three tosvns given him' bv
Artaxerxes, with thefe words, “ to furnilh his table
with bread.” It is alfo celebrated for a battle which
was fought there, 190 years before the Chriftian era,
between the Romans and Antiochus king of Syria!
The forces of Antiochus amounted to 70,000 men ac¬
cording to Appian, or 70,000 foot and 12,000 horfe
according to Livy, which has been exaggerated by
Florus to 300,000 men j the Roman army confifted
of about 28,000 or 30,000 men, 2000 of whom were
employed in guarding the camp. The Syrians loft
50,000 foot and 4000 horfe ; and the Romans only
300 killed, with 25 horfe. It was founded by a co¬
lony from Magnefia in Theffaly ; and was commonly
called Magnefia ad Mceandrum, to diftinguiffi it from
another called Magnefa ad Sipylum in Lydia at the
foot of Mount Sipylus.
Magnesia ad Sipylum, anciently Tantalis, the refi-
dence of Tantalus, and capital of Maeonia, where now
Hands the lake Sale. A town of Lydia, at the foot of
Mount Sipylus, to the eaft of the Hermus*, adjudged
free under the Romans. It was deftroyed by an earth¬
quake in the reign of Tiberius.
MAGNET (Magnes) the Loadstone ; a fpecies
of iron ore. See Magnetism, and Mineralogy
Index.
The magnet is alfo called Lapis Heraclevs, from
Heraclea, a city of Magnefia, a port of the ancient
Lydia, where it is faid to have been firlt found, and
from which it is ufually fuppofed to have taken its
name. Though others derive the word from a Ihep-
herd named Magnes, who firft difcovered it with the
iron of his crook on Mount Ida. It is alfo called
Lapis Nauticus, from its ufe in navigation ; and f de¬
rites, from its attra&ing iron, which the Greeks call
The ancients reckoned five kinds of magnets, differ¬
ent in colour and virtue ; the Ethiepic, Magnefian,
Bceotic, Alexandrian, and Natolian. They alfo took
it to be male and female : but the chief ufe they made
of it was in medicine j efpecially for the cure of burns
and defluxions on the eyes.—The moderns, more for¬
tunate in its application, employ it to condudl them in
their voyages. See Navigation.
The moft diftinguiftied properties of the magnet are,
That it attracts iron, and that it points to the poles of
the world $ and in other circumftances alfo dips or in¬
clines
MAG
dines to a point beneath the horizon, dire&ly under the
pole 5 and that it communicates thefe properties, by
touch, to iron. On which foundation are built the ma¬
riner’s needles, both horizontal and inelinatory.
Attractive Power of the MAGNET was known to the
ancients •, and is mentioned even by Plato and Euri¬
pides, who call it the Herculean Jlone, becaufe it com¬
mands iron, which fubdues every thing elfe : but the
knowledge of its diredive power, whereby it difpofes
its poles along the meridian of every place, and occa-
fions needles, pieces of iron, &c. touched with it, to
point nearly north and fouth, is of a much later date j
though the exaft time of its difcovery, and the difco-
verer himfelf, are yet in the dark. The firft mention we
have of it is in 1260, when Marco Polo the Venetian
is faid by fome to have introduced the mariner’s compafs $
though not as an invention of his own, but as derived
from the Chinefe, who are faid to have had the ufe of
it long before ; though fome imagine that the Chinefe
rather borrowed it from the Europeans.
Elavio de Gioia, a Neapolitan, who lived in the 13th
MAG
century, is the perfon ufually fuppofed to have the bed
title to the difcovery ; and yet Sir G. Wheeler men¬
tions, that he had feen a book of ailronomy much old¬
er, which fuppofed the ufe of the needle j though
not as applied to the ufes of navigation, but of aftro-
nomy. And in Guyot de Previns, an old French
poet, who wrote about the year 1180, there is exprefs
mention made of the loadftone and the compafs, and
their ufe in navigation obliquely hinted at.
The Variation of the MAGNET, or its declination
from the pole, was firft difcovered by Seb. Cabot, a
Venetian, in 15005 and the variation of that variation,
by Mr Gellibrand, an Englilhman, about the year
1625. See Variation.
Laftly, The dip or inclination of the needle, when
at liberty to play vertically, to a point beneath the ho¬
rizon, was firft difcovered by another of our country¬
men, Mr R. Norman, about the year 1576- See the
article Dipping NEEDLE.
MAGNETICAL needle. See Needle, Mag-
netical.
[ 361 ]
Magnet,
Magneti-
cal.
MAGNETISM.
INTRODUCTION.
General Principles.
1
eneral TF the mineral body called magnet or loadfione (an
ea of X ore 0f jron which will be defcribed under Minera-
agnet m. L0GY) js brought within a moderate diftance from a
piece of iron or fteel, or other ferruginous body, fuch
as a fmall key, a fewing needle, or the like, the ferru¬
ginous body will approach the magnet 5 and if no ob-
ftacle intervene, will come in contaft with it, and the
two bodies will adhere together, fo as to require an
2 evident force to feparate them from each other.
[agnetic Again, if a magnet be freely balanced, fo that it
jlarity or be left at liberty to affume any direftion, as if it be
redtive fufpended by a thread, or made to float on the furface
nver. 0f water by placing it on a piece of cork or wood,
it will foon fettle itfelf in one particular direftion, fo as
to turn one part of its furface towards the northern point
ef the horizon, and the oppofite part of courfe towards
the fouthern point. Thefe two parts of the furface of
the magnet are called its north and fouth poles ; this
property of the magnet, of afluming this particular di¬
rection, is called its polarity, or its directive poweri
and when a magnet is placed fo as to arrange itielf in
j fuch a diredtion, it is faid to traverfe.
•eclination The direction in which a fufpended magnet finally
'tlie mao- fettles is called the magnetic meridian, and it is differ¬
ent in different places, and at different times. It is ge¬
nerally, however, very different from the real meridian
line, fo that the north pole of a magnet declines a little
to the eaft or weft, and the fouth pole to the weft or
eaft. The difference of the magnetic from the aftrono-
miqal meridian, is called the declination, or variation of
the magnet 5 and the declination is faid to be eaft or
weft, according as the north pole of the magnet verges
to the one or the other of thefe points.
If an oblong magnet be fufpended on a pivot by its
Vol. XU. Part I.
centre of gravity, it does not fettle in a perfedlly hori- Dipping of
zontal pofition, but one of its poles is depreffed belowinagnet*
the horizontal line, and the other elevated as far above
it, making an angle with the horizon that is alfo dif¬
ferent on different parts of the earth’s furface. I his
depreflion of one of the^poles is called the dipping of
the magnet.
If two magnets that are each freely fufpended, be 5
brought within a moderate diftance from each other, fo
that the north pole of the one is oppofed to the fouth
pole of the other, they will attraft each other 5 and it
no obftacle intervene, w ill rufh together : but if the
two north poles, or the two fouth poles, be mutually
oppofed, the magnets will repel each other.
Such are the leading properties of what is called the 41
natural magnet 5 but what is of more importance, as
we fhall fee hereafter, any piece of iron or fteel may,
by being rubbed with a natural magnet, or by fome
other proceffes to be afterwards explained, be made to
acquire the fame properties, and thus in every uft ful
refpeft ferve the fame purpofes as the natural magnet.
Thefe pieces of iron or fteel thus magnetifed, are called
artificial magnets 5 and when they are of a {lender,
oblong form, they are termed magnetic needles. When
afterwards we fpeak of the polarity, the declination, or
the dipping of the magnetic needle, we would be un-
derftood as alluding to thefe (lender, oblong, artificial
magnets. ^
A ftraight line joining the two poles of a magnet is Axis and
called its axis, and a line drawn tranfverfely on the (ur-equator ot
face of the magnet, perpendicular to the axis, is called11 rnaSnet'
the equator. g
The properties of natural and artificial magnets Magnetic
above enumerated, are attributed to the agency of fomepcwer-
unknown force or power, either inherent in the mag¬
net, or imparted to it by the proceffes to which it is
fubjefted. This force is fometimes called tnagnetifm,
but we (hall for the prefent denominate it the magnetic
Z z power.
36* M A G N
!hc lelm °»gn«tifin to the fcieoce
* v—— t^at ^^uftrates and attempts to explain the pheno-
p mena. r
Utility'of 'I'he moft important property of the magnet is its
maguetifo. polarity, as it is by means of this that the mariner is
enabled to find his way along the tracklefs ocean,
where, before the difcovery of this important property,
he had no other guide but the ftars, and could there¬
fore feldom venture far from the coaft. It is by this
property too, that the miner is enabled to purfue a di-
left courfe through the bowels of the earth, or the tra¬
veller direft his fteps through immenfe forefts, or over
iandy deferts. I he ufes of the magnet are therefore
obvious and important, and the fcience which places
tnefe ufes in the bed point of view, and thus enables us
to turn them to the greated advantage, is well deferv-
Jng our attention. Many of the fads to be related un¬
der this article are highly curious, and form a pleafing
addition to thofe fcientific amufements which are fo well
calculated to excite the attention of beginners in the
io ftudy of experimental philofophy.
Works on It is unneceffary for us to attempt giving here a hif-
magneti in. toly 0f origjn ancj progrefs 0f our knowlec}ge in
magnetiim. lo a general reader, it would be uninte-
reding, and to fuch as are better informed, fuperflu-
ous. We diall only mention the mod important works
that have appeared on the fubjeft.
Few treatifes exprefsly on magnetifm have appeared
in this country. In the year 1600, Dr Gilbert, a phy-
fician of Colcheder, and the friend of Lord Bacon,
publilhed an excellent work Be Magnete et Corporibus
Magneticis, which is dill perhaps the mod valuable
that we poffefs. Mr Cavallo’s Treatife on Magnetifm,
fird publdhed in 1787, contains a great variety of fafts
and experiments 5 and a neat compendium of it is given
in the 3d volume of the fame author’s Elements of Na-
t^al ^nd Experimental Philofophy. Mr Cavallo’s
Ixcatiie, and Mr Adams’s Efiay on Magnetifm, form
the fubdance of mod of the compilations on this fubjedt
that have lately appeared.
lo thofe who wilh to enter minutely on the dudy of
magnetifm, the following lift of foreign publications re¬
commended by the late Profeffor Robifon of Edinburgh
will be acceptable.
vEpini Tentamen Theoriae Magn. et Eledtr.
Eberhard’s Pentam. d. heor. Magnetifmi, 1720.
Differtations fur 1’Aimant, par Dufay, 1728.
Mufchenbroek Differt, Phyfico-Experimentalis de
Magnete.
Pieces qui ont emporte la prife del’Acad. des Scien¬
ces a Paris fur la meilleure conftruaion des Bouffoles de
declination. Recueil des pieces couronnees, tom. v.
Euleri Opufcula, tern. Hi. continens Theoriam Mag-
netis. Berlin, 1751.
JEpini Oratio Academica, 1758.
riEpini item Comment. Petrop. nov. tom. x.
Anton. Brugmanni Tentamen. Phil. deMateriaMag-
netica. Franquerae, 1765.
2 here is a German tranjlatian of this work by Eifen-
bach, with many valuable additions.
Scarella de Magnete, 2 tom. fol.
\ an Swinden fur 1’Analogic entre les phenomenes
Eledfriques et Magnetiques, 3 tom. 8vo.
Differtation fur les Aimants Artificielles, par Nicho¬
las Ful's, 1782. r
E T 1 s M. ' ‘ Cha.,
Elfai fur I’Origme des Forces Magnetiques, par M. Magnetic;
cV0V A- . . APP?-r'<UUS
^u.yes Aimants artificielles, par Rivoir. Paris, 1732.
Diliertatio de Magnetifmo, par Sam. Klingenftein et
Jo. Brander. Holm. 1752.
jyDefcription des Courants Magnetiques. Strafbourg,
Traite de 1’Aimant, par Dalance. Amft. 1687.
Befides the above original works, there are feveral
valuable differtations on magnetifm by Des Cartes
Bernoulli, Euler, Du Tour, Coulomb, &c. either pub-
hfhed in the mifcellaneous works of thefe authors, or
in the journals and tranfadlions of academies.
We fhall divide this article into three chapters. In
the firft we (hall briefly deferibe the principal inftru-
ments made ufe of in magnetical experiments 5 in the
fecond we {hall endeavour to arrange under diftindt
heads or propofitions, the leading principles of magne¬
tifm, point out how thefe may be illuftrated by experi¬
ment, and explain the conftrudlion and ufes of the mag¬
netical apparatus, as they are deducible from the prin-
ciples laid down; and in the third we ftiall notice the
more important theories of magnetifm, and exemplify
the illuftration of fome of the preceding fadts by that
theory which we (hall feel moft difpofed to adopt.
Chap. I. Of JMagnetical Apparatus.
The principal inftruments employed in magnetical Magmical 4
experiments and obfervations, are reducible to three inftru-
heads : Firft, Magnets of various kinds and forms •tnents-
Secondly, Magnetic needles and compajfes ; and, Third¬
ly, the Dipping needle. Of compafles we have nothing
to fay here, having fully treated of them under Com¬
pass.
Magnets, as we have faid, are either natural ox arti- Magnets.
feia/. The natural magnet may be cut into various 2
forms, according to the experiments that are to be
made with it. The moft ufual lhape is oblong, having
the poles at the two moft diftant extremities. Dr Gil¬
bert, whom we (hall mention more at large hereafter,
made his magnets of a fpherical ftiape, fo as to refem-
ble the terreftrial globe. Magnets of this Ihape are
called terrelice, or little earths, and have ufually mark¬
ed upon their furface the magnetic poles, meridian, and
equator.
. Natural magnets of an oblong ftiape have ufually a Armature
piece of foft iron attached to each pole, called the con-oimagnets.
dudlor; and another piece of foft iron placed fo as to
join two of the extremities of the former pieces, and
ufually furnifhed with a hook or hole in the middle.
The magnet thus fitted up, as reprefented at fig. 1. is ccxcvin
faid to be armed, and the iron pieces CD, CD, are cal- fig. 1.
led the armature of the magnet AB. The magnet
with its armature is commonly inclofed in a brafs box,
reprelented in the figure by the dotted lines DC, CC*
CD : and to the upper part of the box is fixed a ring
E, for holding the magnet.
One of the moft common forms of the artificial mag¬
net is that, of an oblong bar, as NS, fig. 2. of which Fio-.
N is the north pole, and S the fouth, having the north &
end marked with a tranfverfe notch. Thefe bars are
made of hardened fteel, and are either fold feparately,
or, what is more common, in fets of fix in a box.
Another very common form of the artificial magnet
is
"hap.
ixperimen
si [lluftra
tions.
T4.
Magnetic
leedle.
''?■ 4-
IS
)ippmg
leedle.
•\ S’
II. M A G N
-is tliat of a liorfe flioe, fucli as fig. 3. having the two
■ poles N, S, brought near each other, and commonly
united by a piece of foft iron or conduftor. The horfe-
Ihoe magnets fometimes confift only of a fingle crooked
bar 5 but they are frequently compofed of feveral fuch
bars united together by their flat furfaces, and inclofed
in a leathern covering that envelopes all but the poles,
and thus preferves the bars from rutting.
Inftead of the very arched form of which horfe-fhoe
magnets are uf’ually made, they are fometimes conftru6t-
ed fo as to form nearly a femieircle, and in this ftiape
they are very convenient for feveral experiments.
Artificial magnets, like the natural, when of an ob¬
long fhape, are fometimes armed at each end, fo as to
enable them to apply both poles to a ferruginous body
at the fame time. One material advantage of the horfe-
ftioe magnet is, that in it fuch an armature is unnecef-
fary, as the poles are brought fo near each other as ea-
fily to be applied to the object it is propofed to lift, as
a key, &c.
A magnetic needle is an oblong piece of fteel, tem¬
pered fo as commonly to aiTume the blue tinge that is
feen in watch-fprings, and fupported on a brafs point,
fo as, when left at liberty, to arrange itfelf in the mag¬
netic meridian, but in a horizontal pofition. Thefe
needles are fometimes made pointed at both extremi¬
ties j fometimes the northern extremity is made in the
form of a crofs \ but perhaps the beft form is that of the
oblong, with extremities that are nearly obtufe, fuch as
is reprefented at fig. 4. To balance the needle on its
pivot, it is furniflied near its middle with a hollow cap,
which is formed of fome fubftance that is not attracted
by the magnet. The cap is ufually of brafs ; but for
nice experiments it is fometimes made of agate, as this
latter does not w'ear fo fall as brafs, and confequently
the needle will longer retain its original fufpenfion.
The dipping needle, fig. 5. confifts of an oblong bar
of fteel, AB, balanced between two horizontal flips of
brafs, CD, CD, fo as when magnetifed to form an
angle with the horizon, equal to the dipping of the
needle at the place where the inftrume.nt is made. The
two horizontal flips of brafs are either fixed to a gra¬
duated femicircle that is fupported on a ftand of wood,
or more commonly they form diameters to a brafs ring
which is graduated on its circumference, and furnilhed
with a ring H, by which it may be held on the
finger.
The conftruftion and ufes of thefe inttruments will be
fully explained in the next chapter 5 our only object
here being to bring the reader acquainted with the
names and general form of the inftruments that are
made ufe of in the experiments which we are about to
defcribe, for illuftrating the principles of magnetifm.
Several fmaller articles will be required by the expe-
rimentalift ; but thefe are eafily procured, and need no
particular defcription. Such are a number of fewing
needles of various .fizes, foft iron bars, pieces of iron
wire, fmall iron balls, iron filings, &c.
Chap. II. Experimental Illujlrations of the Principles
of Magnetifm.
Sect. I. Of Magnetical Polariiij.
We have ftated (N° 3.) that when a magnet is fuf-
E T I S M. 363
pended at perfect freedom, it afiumes a certain determi- Experimen-
nate pofition with refpeifl to the aftronomical meridian. talt^sftra"
This is but a particular cafe of a much more general .. y „ j
fail, which may be expreffad by the following propofi-
tion,
If cn oblong piece of iron be fo adjuftcd, as to be at iron ar-
libertij to take any poftion ; it will ajfume a certain dc- ranges itfelf
terminate direSlion with refpeSl to the axis of the earth,m a deter-
differing according to the place where the experiment is
made.
Experiment 1.—Take a moderately fized ftraight iron
rod, as a piece of iron wire about the thicknefs of a
goofs quill, and about eight or ten inches long *, pafs it
through one extremity of a large wine cork, fo that it
may be at right angles to the axis of the cork, and ad-
juft it in fuch a manner that it may fwim in water in a
horizontal pofition. Now, provide a pretty large
earthen veflel, as a hand bafon or round deep dilh,
nearly filled with water ; and when the water is free
from agitation, cautioufly put in the wire, in fuch a di¬
rection as not to be very far from the north and fouth
line. The iron rod will, after fome time, be found to
have arranged itfelf fo as, in Britain, to form an angle
with the meridian of about 25 degrees.
This experiment requires fome nicety, and it will
fometimes be long before the iron afiumes its proper po¬
fition j but if due attention be paid to all the particu¬
lars above mentioned, it will at length arrange itfelf in
the magnetic line. It is neceflary that the red fhould
be placed not too far from the magnetic line, as, if it be
laid at right angles to that line, it will never acquire
the proper direction. The fituation of the rod in this
experiment is in the true magnetic line, fo far as re-
fpefts the meridian \ but, as it is horizontal, it is not
in the pofition that a magnet would afiume, if freely fuf-
pended by its centre of gravity. An iron rod may,
however, be made to take fuch a pcfition, as well as a
magnet.
Exper. 2.—Inftead of palling the iron rod through
the extremity of a cylindrical or conical piece of cork,
let it be paflfed through the centre of a fpherical piece
of cork or wood, fo that the centre of gravity may
coincide with the centre of the fphere, and let the
whole be of fuch a fpecific gravity as to remain fufpend-
ed in any part of the water, without afcending or de-
fcending. If the iron rod thus fitted be placed as in the
laft experiment, it will at length arrange itfelf in the
true magnetic dire&ion, fo as to make an angle of
about 25 degrees with the meridian, and with one ex¬
tremity deprefled below the horizon at an angle of a-
bout 73 degrees.
Thefe experiments were contrived by Dr Gilbert, p
and fully {hew that the property of afluming a determi-;ron
nate direction withrefpeft to the earth’s axis is not con-r*ry.
fined to magnets, or iron rendered magnetical by the
ufual procefles. There is, however, a remarkable dif¬
ference between the polarity of unmagnetifed iron and
that of natural and artificial magnets. It is of no con-
fequence in the former which extremity be placed to¬
wards the north, or which below the furface of the wa¬
ter, as either will retain the pofition it firft acquired,
unlefs difturbed by agitation, or by the proximity of a
magnet •, and both extremities may eafily be made to
change fituations. The effect produced on the iron is
therefore temporary. But if a magnetic needle be
' 7. z 2 freely
Latitude.
' .364 MAGNETISM.
ul^Iiluftra- ^r€e^ ^Pen^ed, the fame extremity always points lo¬
tions. ^,ar<^s ^ie north, and. this northern extremity always
v—...■ dips below tne horizon, at leaft in thefe northern lati-
iS tudes ‘7 and if the pofition of the needle be difturbed by
Of magnets mechanical motion, or by the application of a magnet,
it will be relumed when the difturbing caufe is removed.
, 19 1 he polarity of magnets therefore is permanent.
hi..i We have faid that the magnetic line varies at differ¬
ent times, and in different places. The declination of
the magnet is fo uncertain as to impofe great impedi¬
ments to the art of navigation, as it is neceffary in the
courfe of a jong voyage, frequently to afeertain the de¬
gree of variation for any particular time or place. The
method of doing this is mentioned under Compass.
The declination obferved in different places at different
times, has been laid down in tables ; and as fuch tables
are very ufeful, we fiiall here fubjoin one, given by
Mr Cavallo.
Chap,
varies.
Latitude.
North.
70° if
69 38
66 36
65 4"
63 58
59 39
58 14
55
53 37
50 8
48 44
40 41
33 45
3i 8
28 30
23 54
20 30
l9 45
16 37
!5 25
!3 32
12 21
11 51
8 55
6 29
4 23
3 45
2 40
1 14
0 5i
o 7
South.
1 1.3
2 48
3 37
4 22
s o
Longitude.
Weft.
163° 24'
164 11
i67 55
170 34
165 48
149 8
i39 19
135 o
J34 53
4°
o
II 10
M 5°
r5
17
18
20
3°
o
20
3
20 39
22 50
23 36
23 45
23 54
24 5
22 50
20 5
21 2
22 34
24 10
26 2
27 10
27 o
28 58
29 37
3° 14
3° 29
31 40
Declination
Eaft.
30° 21/
31 o
27 50
27 58
26 25
22 54
24 40
23 29
20 32
Weft.
20 36
22 38
22 27
18 7
17 43
14 o
15 4
14 35
13 11
10 33
9 *5
9 25
9 48
8 19
8 38
9 44
9 1
8 27
7 42
5 35
4 59
4 27
3 12
2 52
2 14
2 54
1 26
Years in
which the
ohfervations
were made.
1779
1778
1776
South.
6° o'
6 45
7 5°
8 43
10
12 40
13 23
14 11
15 33
16 12
18 30
20 8
21 37
24 *7
26 47
28 19
5° 25
33 43
35 37
S8 52
40 36
42 4
44 52
4^ 15
48 41
Longitude.
Weft.
3 2° 50'
33 30
34 20
34 20
34 5°
34 49
34 49
34 49
34 49
34 4°
35 20
35 5°
36 1
36 9
36 8
34 27
32 20
26 28
16. 30
9 30
23 20
Eaft.
i73 34
167 32
i55 47
i44 5°
69 10
Declination
Weft.
o° 6'
Eaft.
0 35
Weft,
o 7
o 15
Eaft.
o 44
Weft,
o 38
Eaft.
1 12
9
15
4
2
26
24
24
44
58
37
Weft.
4 44
5 51
22 12
Eaft.
J3 47
13 ^7
Weft.
9 28
14 48
27 39
Years in
which the
obfervations
were made.
1776
'.II
Experimer
tal Illuftts
tions.,
It is of ftill more importance to know the progref-
five change of the declination at any certain place,
and we fhall therefore give here the following table
of the declination as obferved at London in different
years, from 1576 to 1808.
Years.
'Sit
1580
1612
1622
1633
1634
1636
1665
1666
1672
Declination.
Obfervers.
Eaft.
Ii° 15'
11
IQ
O
6
11
6
6
4
4 5
Weft,
o 0
1 224
1 35i
Burrows.
Gunter.
Gellibrand,
Bond.
Gellibrand.
Halley.
Z
I
'hap. H-
{periraen-
1 [lluftra-
tions.
MAGNETISM.
365
Tears.
1683
1692
1700
I7I7
1723
1748
1760
!765
I77°
I773
I775
1780
17^5
1787
1790
I795
1800
1802
1801;
Declination.
Weft.
4 3°
6 o
8 o
10 42
14 17
17 40
19 12
20 o
20 35
21 9
21 30
22 10
22 50
23 19
23 34
23 57
24
24
24
Obfervers.
Graham.
Heberden.
Gilpin.
Gilpin.
Gilpin.
From 1792 to 1794 21° 54' Stationary.
In 1798 - 22 17
1799 - 22 o
1800 - 22 12
1801 - 22 1
1802 - 21 45
1803 - 21 59
1804 - 22 10
At Jamaica 1805 - 6 30 E.
At Alexandria in Egypt,
Experimen¬
tal Illuftra-
tions.
In 1761
1798
In 1761
1798
- *3
At Cairo,
12°
12
4'W.
6
25' W.
From this laft table it appears that when the declin¬
ation was firft obferved, the north pole of the magnetic
needle declined to the eaftward of the meridian of Lon¬
don, that fince that time it advanced continually to¬
wards the weft till 1657, when the needle pointed due
north and fouth, and that ever fince it has continually
declined more and more towards the weft, in which di¬
rection it appears to be ftill advancing.
At Paris, in different years, the declination has been
obferved as follows:
fcJa !
c
*1
In 1550
1640
1660
1681
*759
1760
8°
3
o
2
18
18
o' Eaft.
o
o
2 Weft.
10
20
£ i
S I
H. M.
o 18
6 4
8 30
9 2
20
40
5°
38
10
20
12
40
10
11
o
1
3
7
9
In
12°
18
18
18
18
J9
*9
!9
*9
18
*9
18
7!
58
55
54
57
4
9
8
8
59
6
51
The mean Variation for
the
The declination of the magnetic needle has been
found to be different, even at different hours of the day.
The following table contains the refult of fome obferva-
tions made by Mr Canton on the daily variation, and,
on the mean variation of each month.
The declination cbferved at different hours of the
fame day. June 27. 1759.
Degrees
Decl. W. of the each Month
Therm. Year.
f o 18 12° 7' 62° January,
62 February,
65 March,
67 April,
69 May,
684- June,
70 July,
70 Auguft,
68 September,
61 | October,
59 I November,
57I ' December,
7'
8
11
12
*3
J3
J3
12
11
10
8
6
8"
52
J7
26
o
21
*4
*9
43
36
9
58
Table of the Mean Monthly Variation of the Magnetic Needle for 20 Tears at London*.
Year'. January, February March. April
23 I9.2
23 25.6
38.9
35-6
41.1
46.9
54-2
23 19.8
23 48.3
23 20.3
23 48.8
57-5
1.1
I*5
0.6
1.1
3-6
5-2
6.o
8.0
9.4
8.7
23 l8-S
23 36-
23 46.
May.
23 17.O
23 41.9
23 47-3
Jure.
July. Augult.
23 18.323
23 28.923
23 34-2
23
23
48.5
57-i,
58.7
0.2
59-4
0.6
j .8
2.8
5-3
7-°
6.0
7.8
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
19.6
29.8
39-°
36.7
5°-5
54-4
57-1
59-2
°*3
o.c
1.8
3- o
4- 1
6.0
7-9
8.4
7.8
23 21.9
43-6
48.6
57-2
:.eptemb.
23 16.4
23 22.8
43-9
52.6
58.1
0.4
C.I
M
1.4
2- 9
3- 6
3-8
*•7
10.5
8.9
10.0
Octobe:. Novemb. Decemb.
23 18.4
23 24.5
23 32-I
23 45-6
23 52.3
17*3
25.0
23 45-9
23 5i-9
* Phil.
Tranf.
1806,
p.4i(L
23 41-2
366 MAG N
Lxperimcn- Chaits have been conftru&ed for {hewing the decli-
tions. na*-ion of the needle in various parts of the earth by
'—ly— means of cur.ve Refpefting thefe charts and fe-
veral other circumftances with regard to this fubjeft,
fee Variation of the Compafs.
It may not be improper here to point out the gene¬
ral method of applying the polarity of the niagnet to
the ufeful purpofes of navigation, mining, &c.
A mariner’s compafs, or magnetic needle in a cafe,
is fo placed as to be as little as poflible difturbed by the
motion of the veflel, perfon, &c. In a fhip, it is pla¬
ced in the binnacle (fee Binnacle), or fufpended from
the upper deck in the cabin. Then the head of the
velfel is kept by the helm in fuch a direction as to make
any required angle with the line of the needle, or
the perfon (in mining or travelling) advances in a
limilar manner. Thus, fuppoling that a veflel fets out
from a certain part, in order to go to another place
that is exaftly veftward of the former } as for example,
from the Land’s End in Cornwall to Newfoundland on
the coaft of North America. The veflel muft be diredl-
ed in fuch a way, as that its courfe may be always.at
right angles with the dire&ion of the magnetic needle,
or fo that the part of the needle or compafs card,
which points to the northward, (allowing for the varia¬
tion) may be always kept to the right hand of the man
at the helm, or to the {larboard fide of the veflel. The
reafon of this is evident; for, fuppofing the needle to
point duly north and fouth, the direftion of eaft and
weft being perpendicular to it, this muft be the true
courfe of the veflel. From this example, a little re¬
flexion will eafily point out how a veffel may be fleered
20 in any other courfe (a).
Polaritydif- The declination of the magnetic needle is difturbed by
turbed by the near approach of a ferruginous body, efpecially if this
Proach" of ^ confiderable fae.
iron. ' On holding the extremity of a pretty large iron rod,
fuch as a poker, near one end of a magnetic needle pro¬
perly fufpended, the needle will be found to turn con-
fiderably from its -ufual direXion. This circumftance,
though proper to be mentioned here, will be better un-
derftood when we have confidered the attraXive power
of the magnet. The faX is ufeful, as it teaches us to
keep magnetic needles in fuch a fituation as not to be
aXed on by any confiderable body of iron.
A magnet, whether natural or artificial, has a great-
ETISM- _ Chap.,
er effeX in difturbing the polarity of a magnetic needle ExperinJ
than is produced by iron. tal l!iud
Magnetic polarity feems alfo to be affeXed bv t;°™-
changes in the ftate of the atmofphere ; and the follow- ^
ing axioms refpeXing this effeX on the declination of
the needle, colleXed by M. la Cotte, are deferving of
attention. °
i. The greateft declination of the needle from the
north towards the weft, takes place about two in the
afternoon j and the greateft approximation of it towards
the north, about eight in the morning ; fo that from
the laft-mentioned hour till about two in the afternoon,
it endeavours to remove from the north, and between
two in the afternoon and the next morning, to ap¬
proach it.
2. The annual progrefs of the magnetic needle is as
follows:—Between January and March, it removes
from the _ north ; between March and May it ap¬
proaches it 5 in June it is ftationary j in July it re¬
moves from it j in Auguft, September, and OXober it
approaches it ; its declination in OXober is the fame
as in May; in November and December it removes
from the north j its greateft weftern declination is at
the vernal equinox, and its greateft approximation to
the north, at the autumnal equinox.
3. 1 he declination of the magnetic needle is differ¬
ent, according to the latitude ; among us, (i. e. in
France) it has always increafed fince 1657 5 before that
period it was eafterly.
4. Before volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, the
magnetic needle is often fubjeX to very extraordinary
movements.
5. The magnetic needle is agitated before and af¬
ter the appearance of the northern lights : its declina¬
tion on thefe occafions is about noon greater than
ufual.
So much has already been faid refpeXing the pheno-
mena, &c. of the dipping needle, under the article
DIPPING Needle, that it is unneceflary here to add
much more on the fubjeXt It was there noticed, that
at the equator the dipping needle lies quite horizontal,
and that one of its extremities inclines more towards the
earth, according as the inftrument is carried farther
from the equator. We may here add, that from fome
late obfervations made by expeiimentalifts with bal¬
loons, it appears that the higher we afcend above the
furface
(a) In reply to fome inquiries refpeXing the mode of employing the compafs in mining, we were favoured by
an ingenious friend, who is manager of one of the moft extenfive coalworks in this ifland,’ with the following re¬
marks : “ The compafs is ufed in all mines where great accuracy is required. In fome coal mines the cleats or
faces of the coal are the guides to the miners in excavating the mine, and the compafs is ufed to afcertain the fi¬
tuation and extent of the excavations. In other coal-mines the courfes of the excavations are at firft direXed by
the compafs. In doing this, the compafs is placed in a given fituation, and is made to point the defired courfe.
Then from the centre of one fight a perpendicular line is conveyed to the roof of the mine, and a fmall mark is
there made with chalk •, then a perfon looks at a candle (placed fo as nearly to touch the roof), through the lower
part of the fight of the compafs neareft to him, and through the upper part of the oppofite fight. The candle at
the roof is moved in any direXion until he fees it through both fights of the compafs. It is then in a proper place,
and a chalk mark is made in the roof immediately above it. A line ftruck with a chalked chord, between thefe
two marks upon the roof, marks the proper courfe, by which the workmen are direXed in making the excavation.
By applying one part of a chalked cord along part of the courfe or white line thus begun on the roof, and ex¬
tending the other part of the cord paft it to any required diftance, and then ftriking the cord, the courfe may be
continued from time to time as the excavation advances.”
lap. IT.
lerimen-furface ef the earth, the lefs is the angle of inclination
llluftra-which the dipping needle makes with the horizontal
tions. jing
? ,r' It is worthy of remark that, under the fame circum-
T 8vo. fiances, the declination of the needle was not found dif-
3.54. ferent from what it would have been on the earth at
the fame place, and its polarity with refpedl to iron was
unchanged.
tions.
MAGNETISM. 367
In an aeroftatic voyage made at St Peterlburgh in Experimen-
1804 by M. M. Sacharof and Robertfon, it was 0b-ta^^u^ra"
ferved that the fouth pole of a magnetic needle, balan¬
ced on a pin, dipped below the horizon nearly 10 de¬
grees.
The following table {hows the magnetic dip as ob-
ferved at feveral different places at various times.
Latitude.
longitude.
North.
53* 55'
49 36
44 5
38 53
34 57
29 18
24 24
20 47
r5 8
12
10
Eaft.
I93° 39'
233 10
Weft.
8 10
N. Foie below
the Horizon.
12 I
14 8
16 7
18 11
r9 36
23 38
23 35
22 52
20 10
69° 1 o'
72 29
71 34
70 30
66 12
62 17
59 °
56 15
5r °
48 26
44 12
37 2 5
Tears of
Obfervation.
1778
1776
Latitude.
South.
3'
40
o
4
7
11
3
25
45
19 28
21 8
35 55
4i 5
45 .47
Prince of Wales’s
Ifland.
Longitude.
N. Pole below
the Horizon.
27° 38'
30 34
33
34 24
Eaft.
208 12
204 ii
185 o
18 20
!74 J3
166 18
1
3°° 3'
22 1 c
J7 57
9 15
S.Polebelow
29 28
41 O
39 1
45 37
63 49
70 3
5 10
Tears of
Obfervation
Table of the Magnetic Hip at London from 1786 to 1805.*
Poles Reverfed.
 A 
1786 September
O&ober
November
December
1787 January
February
March
April
May
June
July
Auguft
September
October
November
December
1788 January
1789 January
December
1790 January
1791 January
1795 Oftober
1797 Oflober
1798 April
Oftober
1799 October
1801 April
1803 Odtober
1805 Auguft
Face eaft.
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
71
71
7i
70
70
70
70
70
28.7
29,9
7,6
10.6
11.4
*9A
19.1
24.4
24.4
22.6
22.6
22,3
22.3
23.1
23>I
22.8
22.8
16,0
lTS
16.9
43.9
12,8
4,9
4,7
55.6
56>o
47.4
3°,9
25,2
Face weft.
72
71
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
70
M
59,o
17,6
2,2
1.8
10.8
11.9
9.5
9.6
7.9
7,9
6.7
6,7
2,5
2.5
2,0
2,0
0,0
59.4
57.7
36,1
9.5
10,9
J4,5
14.5
13.5
5.6
9.9
55.7
Face eaft. Face weft. True dip
71
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
71
71
71
71
70
71
71
71
70
70
70
57.3
0,4
2.4
2.2
1,0
1.5
o,5
o,5
4.2
4.2
59.9
59.3
2,9
2,9
2,7
2.7
2.6
51.9
38.9
40.2
37.2
13.9
56.3
2.3
7.7
II,5
52.4
40.5
26.9
72
72
7i
71
7i
7i
7i
71
71
71
7i
7i
7i
71
71
71
71
71
71
7i
7i
71
70
70
70
70
69
69
69
5,1
' 1,2
46.7
58.4
56,0
55.8
52,2
52,2
52.9
52.9
55.1
55.2
51,0
51,0
50.3
50,3
48.8
31.1
42.8
40.2
9.4
44.7
19.8
22.2
7.9
38.2
46,7
36.3
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
7i
71
71
7i
71
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
8,1
7.6
3.6
3.4
2.5
6.9
5.9
6.6
7.8
6.8
6.4
5.9
5.7
4.9
4.7
4.4
4,0
54,8
54.6
53.7
23.7
11.4
59.2
55.4
55,o
52.2
35,6
32,0
21,0
1777
*774
i777
J773
1799
* P/;//.
Tranf
1806.
To
MAGNETISM.
To what was laid under DjPPING Needle, refpedting of a
22
A magnet
attiadls
the conftruftion of that inftrument, wre may add, that
notwithftanding the great improvements that have been
lately made in the arts, the making of a dipping nee¬
dle is one of the moft delicate and difficult talks that an
inltrument-maker can undertake. The needle muft be
made of tempered Heel which ive are certain has no
magnetifm before it is touched j it mult be poifed fo
nicely, and with fuch a perfect coincidence of its cen¬
tre of gravity and axis of motion, that it will retain any
pofition (before being magnetifed) that is given it. A
good dipping needle cannot be had below twenty gui¬
neas.
Sect. II. On Magnetic AttraBion and Repuljion.
A magnet attra£is iron, and all bodies, into the com-
pojition of which 'iron enters in any confiderable degree.
iron and all This principle is illultrated by very limple experiments,
bodies1”0115 which will readily occur to every reader. It is of con-
fequence here to obferve, that the purer and fofter the
iron to w hich the magnet is prefented, the Itronger will
be the attra&ion ; thus, a magnet attracts a piece of
foft and clean iron much more ftrongly than it attra£ls
any other ferruginous body of the fame lhape and
weight. Hard Iteel, or the harder ores of iron, are
lefs forcibly attraffed than foft Heel, and dill lefs than
foft iron $ and all pieces of iron are lefs forcibly attraft-
ed in proportion as they are more oxygenated.
The attraflive power of a magnet is not equally
ftrong on every part of its furface. It is mod powerful
at the poles of the magnet, and it is found to diminidi
in proportion as the part of the furface is more didant
from the poles. Thus, in an oblong magnet, the at-
traftion is lead at about its middle, where it is often
very trifling.
It is by this property of the magnet that we are en-
findfrig the abled to difeover the poles of a magnet, where they are
poles of a not ye£ afcertained j a circumdance w'hich is often ne-
' ceflary with refpeft to natural magnets, in which,
when of an irregular lhape, it would otherwife be diffi¬
cult to difeover the poles. The ufual method of afeer-
taining the poles of a magnetic body is, to prefent va¬
rious parts of the body to be examined, fucceflively to
the poles of a magnetic needle, when it will foOn be
difeovered which parts of the body have mod influence
on the needle, by the pole of the latter handing per¬
pendicularly to that part of the body. It will prefently
•appear, that in this way it may alfo be afeertained
which of thefe poles is the north, and which the fouth,
as the fouth pole of the body under examination will
have mod influence on the north pole of the needle, and
vice verfa.
A good magnet Ihould have no more than two poles,
and thefe Ihould be fituated in the extreme furface of
the magnet •, but it fometimes happens, efpecially in na¬
tural magnets, and in artificial magnetic bars, if they
be very long, that there are more than two poles, or
that the poles are very confufed. For example, in a
very long magnetifed bar, there may be a drong north
pole at one extremity, a fouth pole a little farther on,
then a weaker north pole, and fo on to the extremity,
which will be found pofleffed of a dill weaker fouth po¬
larity. Thefe poles are to be difeovered by prefenting
to the feveral parts of the bar one or other of the poles
[22]
Attra<5tion
greateft at
the poles.
23
Method of
Chap. ]j
magnetic needle j for, as we lhall immediately Expenn l
mention, each pole of the needle will be attracted to-tal 11
wards that part of the rod which is poffeded of the con-, tlt;ns
trary polarity. ,r‘'
The attractive power of the magnet and the iron is
mod forcible when the two bodies are in conraft, and
it diminilhes as they are made to recede from tach
other. The exaft law according to which this diminu¬
tion takes place, has nor yet been completely afeertain¬
ed. We {hall fee in the next chapter, what approxi¬
mation has been made to it.
A magnet is not capable of lifting above a certain Differeni
weight of iron j and all magnets of the fame form andatttadiv
fize are not able to lift the fame weight. Among thePoweroi
natural magnets the fmalleft feem in general to poffefs maSI1£ts
a greater attraClive power in proportion to their fize,
than thofe of larger dimenfions. Mr Cavallo mentions a
fmall magnet that weighed not more than 6 or 7 grains,
and was capable of lifting about 300 grains j and Sir
Ifaac Newton poffeffed a magnet that he wore in a ring,
weighing but about 3 grains, which is faid to have lift¬
ed 746 grains, or nearly 250 times its own weight.
The larger natural magnets are very weak in proportion
to thefe. Thofe of two pounds fcarcely lift more than
ten times their own weight. It feems extraordinary,
that a piece cut off from a large magnet is fometimes
much dronger in refpeft of its attractive power, than
the magnet from which it w'as taken. »
It has been faid that the attractive power of magnets
is greateft at their poles. Both poles, however, are
feldom equal in this refpeCt j and it appears, that in
thefe northern parts of the world, the north pole of
magnets is more powerful than the fouth. In the fouth-
ern hemifphere the contrary effeCt is faid to take place.
The attractive power of the magnet is mod forcible
when both poles are made to aCt conjointly j hence an
armed magnet, or one.of the horfe-ihoe form, is bed
adapted for experiments on the force of magnetic at¬
traction.
It is of little confequence whether the iron that is 25
prefented to the magnet be in one piece, or confid of
feveral pieces. The attraction is indeed dronger in the
former cafe ; but if feveral pieces of iron are prefented
to the magnet, they will either all adhere about the
pole of the magnet, or w ill adhere to each other, fo as
to form a fort of chain. If a fmall iron ball be made
to adhere to the pole of a magnet, this ball will fupport
a fecond \ and this latter, if the magnet be pretty
ftrong, will fupport a third. If the magnet be of the
horfe-{hoe form, and have thefe three balls hanging by
one ball, if two others be fufpended from the other
pole, all the five may be made to adhere, fo as to form
a curved chain. It will be evident, that pieces of iron
which prefent a greater extent of furface than the above
fpherical balls, will be more powerfully attradvd.
One of the moft pleafing experiments on the aitrac-Addon clj
tion of the magnet for iron, is (hewn by means of iron”13'11^(
ru* iron film
filings.
Exper.—Let a paper be placed above a bar magnet,
and let iron filings be fiiaken on the paper through a
gaufe fieve. They will arrange themfelves round the
magnet in a very beautiful manner, forming curves and
arches of curves, as reprefented in fig. 6. At the two Fig. ft
ends of the magnet, as a a, there are chains of filings
ftanding out nearly perpendicular j and along the fides
• they
i7
ttra&wn
;tween
e magnet
id iron
utual.
hap. II. M A G N
penmen- they form complete curves, bending outwards away
Illuftra-frorn tha magnet towards its middle, and having their
t10^ extremities bounded by the poles of the magnet ; and
at the corners there are a number of arches that feem
to form imperfeft curves.
A limilar effedt may be produced by ftrewing iron
filings on a piece of paper, lb as to leave a vacancy in
the middle, capable of receiving a bar magnet. When
the magnet is placed on the paper, and the paper gently
tapped, fo as to agitate the filings, thefe will arrange
themfelves about the magnet, in curves, as above de-
fcribed.
The form of thefe curves will be better defined if the
magnet be laid at the bottom of an earthen or glafs
veffel of water, and the iron filings be lifted over it fo
as to pafs through the water.
The attraction between a magnet and a ferruginous
body is mutual.
Exper—Place a piece of iron or other ferruginous
body upon a piece of cork or wood, fo that it may float
on the furface of water in an earthen or wooden veflel.
Bring a magnet within a moderate diftance of the float¬
ing body, and the latter will approach the former, and
may be drawn by it in any diredlion. Again, place
the magnet on cork or wood, fo as to float on the wa¬
ter, and prefent to it a piece of iron, or other ferrugi¬
nous body. The magnet will now approach the iron,
and may be drawn by it as the iron was before. Laft-
ly, PI ace both the magnet and the iron on feparate
pieces of wood or cork, within a moderate diftance of
each other, on the furface of the water. They will
gradually approach each other, with a velocity that
becomes greater in proportion as they approach nearer
each other.
Magnetic attraction is not fcnfibly impeded by the in-
terpofition of bodies of any kind, that do not contain iron
in their compofitton.
Exper.—Suppofe that a magnet, placed at the dif¬
tance of an inch from a piece of iron, exerts a certain
dies not degree of attraction, it will be found that the attraftion
•ruguious. js not fenfibly weakened by the interpofition of a plate
of glafs, a flieet of paper, a piece of copper, or any
other fimilar fubftance. A needle, inclofed in a glafs
globe, will be ftiil attracted by the magnet.
It is not eafy to afcertain correctly the degree of at-
meaiur- tra&ive force exerted between a magnet and a ferrugi-
iftlv at" nous The ufual method of obferving this is, to
rCe 'e fallen a magnet to one arm of a balance, and placing
the body to be attracted at different diltances below
the magnet, to counterpoife the attraction with weights
placed in the oppofite fcale of the balance. Proceeding
in this way, then, if we find that it requires the weight
of an ounce to counterpoife the attractive power of a
magnet, when prefented immediately to a piece of iron,
it will be found that it requires the fame counterpoife,
if a plate of any matter that is not ferruginous be in-
,n terpofed.
Not only is iron attracted by the magnet, but under
certain circumjiances, one piece of iron exerts an attrac¬
tive power on another piece of iron.
Exper.—-Let an oblong piece of iron be fixed in a
fpherical piece of wood or cork, fo as to float in water
in the true magnetic line, as in Exper. 2. of N° 16.
When the iron is nearly in the magnetical pofilipn,
Vol. XII. Part I.
J3
agnetic
tradlion
t fenfibly
Tened by
e interpo-
lon of
29
ml mode
on at-
afts iron
certain
nations.
E T I S M. 369
bring the extremity of a large iron rod, as the point ofExpermten-
a new poker, holding it in a pofition not very differenttal r<1"
from that of the iron wire, within about a quarter of ..j
an inch of the upper extremity of the floating iron, and
hold it there for fome time, a little towards one fide.
The floating wire will gradually approach the iron rod
with an accelerated motion, will at length touch it, and
may be drawn through the water in any diredtion. A
fimilar attradlion will take place between the head of
the poker and the extremity of the wire that is below
the water. 31
The attractive power of the magnet is increafed by the Magnetic
near approach of a piece of iron. . fnereafeef
Exper. 1.—Suppofe we have a magnetic bar that isj^ron>
capable of fupporting a fmall key by one of its extre¬
mities, but which will not lift a key fomewhat larger.
If we bring a confiderable oblong piece of iron near
the oppofite extremity of the bar, it will be found
capable of fupporting the larger key, or at leaf! of
lifting a weight fomewhat greater than it fuftained be¬
fore.
Exper. 2.—Let an oblong magnetic bar be fupported
in a horizontal pofition, and let a piece of iron wire,
about an inch in length, be hung by a fhort thread, fo
that its extremity is juft oppolite one of the poles of the
magnetic bar, but fo far out of the reach of the bar’s
attractive power as not to be brought from the perpen¬
dicular. Now, if a confiderable iron bar be brought
with one end within a moderate diftance of the oppofite
pole of the magnet, the fufpended wire will be drawn
towards the magnet, thus the wing that the power of the
latter has been increafed by the juxtapolition of the
bar of iron. If the bar of iron be brought ftill nearer
the oppofite pole of the magnet, the fufpended wire will
be drawn ftill nearer its adjacent pole } but if the bar
of iron be drawn back from the magnet, the wire will
fall into its original pofition.
This fadt leads to many important pradtical conclu-
fions in the management of magnets. As the juxta-
pofition of iron to the poles of a magnet improvqs its
powers, we may infer, that if we keftp a piece of foft
iron in contadl with the poles, the magnet will be im¬
proved by it ; and this is in fadt the cafe, and it thews
the utility of the armature and condudtor mentioned in
N° 13. But of this more hereafter. '
The attractive power of a magnet may be improved by Power of a
increajing the weight appended to it. magnet m-
This is belt drown by a horfe-lhoe magnet, having a y
condudtor of foft iron attached to its two poles, and a weights to
brafs ring at the convex part by which it may be fuf- it.
pended. If a fmall bag be hung to the condudtor, and
if the magnet is capable of fuftaining a certain weight
at any particular time, it will, by adding a little more,
fuppofe a few ftrot, to the bag, at moderate intervals,
be made to.fupport gradually a much greater weight.
If the magnet, on a firft trial, was able to lift a fmall
key, it will foon be able to lift a larger one, &.c. How
far this increafe of power may be carried, has not, we
believe, yet been afeertained.
It fometimes happens that a magnet does not fhew
any great attractive power, as exemplified in its power
of lifting a confiderable weight of iron, though it may
have a great effedt in exciting or in altering magnetic
polarity. This was obferved by Dr Gilbert, who re-
3 A marks
37° M A G N
Experimen- marks that the ihre&ive power of a magnet extends
tal than its attraBive power.
The contrary poles of two wagnets attraB each other;
that zV, the north the fouth, and vice verfa.
Expet'. i,—Place two oblong magnets on cork or
wood. !o as to fio'aft in water, or fufpend each by a pretty
tions.
33
Contrary
poles of
magnets at-
Fig- 7-
34
Correl pond¬
ing poles
repel each,
other.
traft each thread, with the north pole of the one oppofed to
other. the louth pole of the other. They will gradually ap¬
proach, and will at length rufh together.
A fimilar effect will be produced, if the north pole
of a bar magnet be held near the fouth pole of a mag¬
netic needle-, the latter will be attracted, and the fame
th'n g will happen if the fouth pole of the bar is brought
near the north pole of the needle.
Exper. 2.—Take two femicircular magnets, and dip
their extremities into iron filings. The filings will of
coarfe adhere to the extremities of the magnets, and
will appear as if radiating from them. Now, prefent
the two magnets with their adhering filings to each
other, fo that the north and fouth pole of the one is
oppofite to the.contrary poles of the other, and the iron
filings at their extremities will approach each other,
and coalefce, as reprefented in fig. y.
The attraction exerted between two magnets is not
fo flrong in proportion, as between a magnet and a
piece of foft iron in contact but it has been found to
commence at a greater diftance.
The correfponding poles of two magnets repel each
other; that is, the north the north, and the fouth the
fouth.
Exper. i.—Make the two magnets float on w-ater, or
fufpend them by threads, fo that the north or fouth
pole of the one may be oppofite to the north or fouth
pole of the other. They will recede from each other j
and the repulfion will evidently be greater, in propor¬
tion as they are brought nearer together.
Exper. 2.—Take two femicircular magnets, and dip
their ends in iron filings, as mentioned above. Prefent
them to each other, fo that their correfponding poles
may be mutually oppofed. The filings at their extre¬
mities will {tart back, and leave a vacancy between the
oppofed poles of the magnets, fomewhat like what is
Fig. 8. reprefented in fig. 8.
It fometimes happens that the correfponding poles of
two magnets do not repel each other, but either mu¬
tually attract, or are quite indifferent. In this cafe, it
will, in general, be found that one of them is ftronger
than the other *, and the reafon of the phenomenon will
appear hereafter.
The repulfive power of a magnet is generally in a
35 lefs proportion than its attractive power.
Ufual mode It is by the attractive power of the magnet that w-e
of after- ufually afcertain w hether any fubftance be magnetic j
whether a ^-at ’9» whether the magnet poflfefs any attractive power
body is f°r it* If the body contain any confiderable quantity
magnetic, of iron in its compofition, its magnetifrn is eafily afcer-
taihed, by approaching it w ith the pole of a pretty
ftrong magnetic bar. If, however, the magnetifm is
too feeble to be difcovered in this way, it may be af-
certaihed by placing the body on a piece of cork or
wood, fo that it may float on the furface of water or
mercury, in an earthen* or wooden veflel, and bringing
the pole of the magnet within a fmall diftance of the
floating body. It will fometimes be neceffary to bring
a
E T I S M. Chap. ]
the magnet within one-tenth of an inch of the body, Experm
when, if it poflelfes any magnetifm, it vdll gradually tal Ulufi
approach the magnet. This experiment is moft fatis- tioi1s)
faCtory when the body to be examined is made to float* ^
on mercury but in that cafe the veffel containing the
mercury muft not be too fmall, otherwife the natural
convexity of the furface of the mercury will caufe the
floating body perpetually to fall down towards the fides
of the veflel. A common foup plate will anfwer the
purpofe very well. It is alfo neceffary that the mer¬
cury be very pure, and as clean as poflible. To infure
this, it will be proper, before ufing the mercury, to
pafs it through a conical piece of writing paper, rolled
up fo as to terminate in a very fmall apertuie j or, what
is better, to fqueeze it through a pretty thick piece of
fhamois leather. It need ficarcely be remarked, that
in thefe delicate experiments, the air of the room fliould
be kept as ftill as poflible.
By the above methods, Mr Cavallo and others dif¬
covered, that the following fubftances are in fome mea-
fure affeCfed by the magnet. Moft metallic ores, efpe-
cially after their having been expofed to a fire ; zinc7
bifmuth, and particularly cobalt, as well as their ores,
are almoft always attraCied. Of the earths, the calca¬
reous is the leaft, if at all, and the filioeous is the moft;
frequently, attraCfed. The ruby, the chryfolite, and
the tourmalin, are attraCied. The emerald, and parti¬
cularly the garnet, are not only attraCied, but frequent¬
ly acquire a permanent polarity. The opal is weakly
attraCied, elpecially after combuftion. Moft animal
and vegetable fubftances, after combuftion, are attraCi¬
ed. Even foot, and the dull which ufually falls upon
whatever is left expofed to the atmofphere, are fenfibly
attrafted by the magnet. ^
“ It has long ago been remarked, that platina, nickel, Coulomb!
and feveral other bodies, acquire a fenfible degree ofe*Perinie
magnetifm j but fome philofophers attribute this pro-°nunive
perty only to a portion of iron not eafy to be feparated,^^”^1'
and conclude, that by obtaining a greater degree of
purity, we might fucceed in rendering them perfeflly
indifferent to the aClion of the magnetic bar.
“ The new experiments which Citizen Coulomb has
made and repeated before the inftitute, lead us on the
contrary to think, that the aClion of magnetifm extends
through all nature j for none of the bodies he has yet
tried was found to refill this power.
“ But however real this aClion may be, it is not a-
like in all bodies, and in moft of them it muft be ne-
eefiarily very fmall, to have efcaped the attention of
philofophers to this time. In order therefore to exhi¬
bit and to meafure thefe refults, we muft begin by pla¬
cing the bodies in a fituation w hich {hall allow them to
yield to the tveakeft aClion.
“ For this purpofe, Citizen Coulomb falhioned his
fubjeds into the'form of a cylinder or (mail bar; and
in this Hate he fufpended them to a filken thread, futh
as is drawn from the filk-worm’s cone, and in this ftate
he placed them between the oppofite poles of two mag¬
netic bars of fteel. The fingle thread of filk could
hardly bear the weight of a quarter of an ounce with¬
out breaking, confequently it became neceffary to form
fmall bars very light and thin. Citizen Coulomb made
them about feven or eight millimetres in length (or lefs
than half an inch), with three-fourths of a millimetre
(or
hap. M A G N
penmen- (or about an hundredth part of an inch) in thicknefs,
Illuftra- ancj he gave the metals about one-third of this thick-
tlon' nefi.
~''t “ In his experunents he placed the fteel bars in the
fame right line, their oppofite poles being five or fix
millimetres farther afunder than the length of the
needle intended to ofcillate between them. The refult
of the experiment Ihewed, that whatever might be the
fubftance of the needle, it always difpofed jtfelf accord¬
ing to the direction of the two bars j and that if they
were turned from this direction, they always recovered
it, after ofcillations of which the number was often
more than 30 per minute. It was therefore eafy in
every cafe to determine, from the weight and figure
of the needle, the force which had produced the ofcilla-
tion.
“ Thefe experiments were fuccefsfully made with
fmall needles of gold, filver, copper, lead, tin, fmall
cylinders of glafs, a piece of chalk, a fragment ©f bone,
and different kinds of wood.
“ Citizen Coulomb has proved, that the force of tor-
fion of the filk thread is fo flight, that in order to draw
it round the entire circle, it would require a force
fcarcely equal to the one hundred thoufandth part of a
gramm, (or about one feven hundredth part of a grain).
A quantity fo minute cannot therefore fenfibly derange
the meafure of magnetic force in the different bodies $
and its effeft, even if it were admitted to be of percep¬
tible magnitude, may alfo be urged in proof of the ge¬
neral conclufion of Citizen Coulomb, becaufe the mag¬
netic power muff overcome this refiftance of the thread
in order to manifeft itfelf. Our author gives, in the
third volume of the Memoirs of Natural Philofophy and
Mathematics of the National Inftitute, a very fimple
formula to determine the magnetic force of a body from
the time of its ofcillations *, and he means to ftiew in
another memoir, the method of determining this refult
in different bodies of the fame figure placed between
the poles of two bars. He thinks it now proved, that
all the elements which enter into the compofition of
our globe are fubje&ed to the magnetic power, and
that the whole mafs colle&ively forms one Angle
magnet.
“ In favour of thofe who might be defirous of repeat¬
ing his experiments, and rendering them very fenfible,
the author remarks, that the method of fucceeding con-
lifts in diminiftiing the fize of the ofcillating bodies.
From fome effays, of which the refults terminate this
memoir, it feems to follow', that the accelerating forces
are inverfely as the mafles, or very nearly in the diredft
proportion of the furfaces j but Citizen Coulomb gives
this rule only as a firft deduftion, which requires to be
confirmed*.’1
The opinion of the general influence of magnetifm
on all terreftrial bodies was, as we (hall fee hereafter,
maintained by our countryman Dr Gilbert, though
Coulomb has certainly the merit of having put it to the
left of experiment.
Befides the experiments which w'e have related, there
are fonie that depend on the attractive power of the
magnet, and which are ranked among fcientific amufe-
ments. We ftiall here defcribe a few of thefe.
Before we relate the manner of making thefe expe¬
riments, it may be proper to defcribe an inftrument
that is employed in fome of them. This, from its form
E T I S M. 371
and apparent ufe, is called the magnetic perfpeCHveExpenmen-
glafs, and is thus conffruCled. ta*
Provide an ivory tube about 2^- inches long, and of ,
fuch a form as is expreffed in fig. 9. The Tides of this 3S
tube muft be fo thin as to admit a confiderable quanti-Conltmc-
ty of light. It is to open at one end with a fcrew, and1'0110, t^e
at that end muft be placed an eye-glafs of about twomap^i‘:j
inches focus, and at the other end any glafs you pleafe. ^jafSi
Have a fmall magnetic needle like that in a compafs.Fig. 9.
It muft be ftrongly touched, and fo placed at the bot¬
tom of the tube that it may turn freely round. It is
to be fixed en the centre of a fmall ivory circle C, of
the thicknefs of a counter, placed on the objeft-glafs
D, and painted black on the fide next it. This circle
muft be kept fall by a circular rim of pafteboard, that
the needle may not rife off its pivot, in the fame man¬
ner as in the compafs. This tube will thus become a
kind of compafs fufficiently tranfparent to fliow the mo¬
tions of the needle. The eye-glafs ferves more clearly
to diftinguifti the direction of the needle, and the glals
at the other end, merely to give the tube the appear¬
ance of a common perfpe&ive glafs. It will appear, *
from what has been already ftated, that the needle in
this tube, when placed over and at a fmall diftance
from a magnet, or any machine in which it is contain¬
ed, will neceffarily place itfelf in a pofition diredted by
that magnet, and confequently (how where the north
and fouth pole of it is placed ; the north end of the
needle conftantly pointing to the fouth end of the mag¬
net. This effeft will take place, though the magnet
be enclofed in a cafe of wood, or even metal. You
muft obferve, however, that the attrafting magnet mud
not be very far diftant from the needle, efpecially if it
be fmall, as in that cafe its influence extends but to a
(hort diftance. This tube may be differently conftrudt-
ed, by placing the needle in a perpendicular diredlion,
on a fmall axis of iron, on which it muit turn quite
freely, between two fmall plates of brafs placed on
each fide of the tube ; the two ends of the needle
fhould be in exadl equilibrium. The north and fouth
ends of the needle will, in like manner, be attracted by
the fouth and north ends of the magnetic bar. The
former conftruiEHon, however, appears preferable, as it
is more eafily excited, and the fituation of the needle
much more eafily diftinguiftied.
Nichol.
urn. 8vo,
IL ii.
37.
itertain-
Exp. I. T/ie Communicative Piece of Money.
59
Take a crown or dollar, and drill a hole in the fide Coma.uni-
of it, in which place a piece of wire, or a large needle cat‘vc-Pletf
well polilhed, and ftrongly touched with a magnet.ot inone*v'
Then clofe the hole with a fmall piece of pewter, that
it may not be perceived. Now, the needle in the mag¬
netic perfpeftive before defcribed, when it is brought
near to this piece of money, will fix itfelf in a direction
correfponding to the wire or needle in that piece. De¬
fire any perfon to lend you a crown piece or dollar,
which you dexteroufly change for one that you have
prepared as above- Then give the latter piece to ano¬
ther perfon, and leave him at liberty either to put it
privately in a fnuff-box, or not j he is then to place the
box on a table, and you are to tell him by means of
your glafs, whether -the crown is or is not in the box.
Then bringing your perfpe&ive clofe to the box, you
will know, by the motion of the needle, whether it be
there or not $ for as the needle in the perfpedive will
3 A 2 always
372 M A G N
t^TlIuftra'al'Va5rS- ^6eP t0 t^‘e n°r^1 ^ >r°u do not Per-
tions. pe*ve l,as any motion, you conclude the crown is not
u»»—in the box. It may happen, however, that the wire in
the crown may be placed to the noijth, in which cafe
you will be deceived. J herefore, to be fure of fuccefs,
when you find the needle in the perfpeftive remain fta-
tionary, you may, on fome pretence defire the perfon to
move the box into another pofition, by which you will
certainly know whether the crown-piece be there or
not. You mud remember that the needle in the per-
ipeflive muft here be very fenlible, as the wire in the
crown cannot poffibly have any great attra&ive force.
Exp. 2. The Magnetic Table.
4°
Magnetic Under the top of a common table place a magnet
table. that turns on a pivot, and fix a board under it, that
nothing may appear. There may alfo be a drawer
under the table, which you pull out to fhew that there
is nothing concealed. At one end of the table there
muft be a pin that communicates with the magnet, and
by which it may be placed in different pofitions j this
pin muft be fo placed as not to be vifible to the fpefla-
tors* Strew fome fteel filings or very fmall nails over
that part of the table where the magnet is. Then afk
any one to lend you a knife or a key, which will then
attraft part of the nails or filings. Then placing your
hand in a carelefs manner on the pin at the end of the
table, you alter the pofition of the magnet, and giving
the key to any perfon, you defire, him to make the ex¬
periment, which he will then not be able to perform.
You then give the key to another perfon, at the fame
time placing the magnet, by means of the pin, in the
firft pofition, when that perfon will immediately perform
the experiment.
Exp. 3. The Mysterious Watch.
Serious '^ou defire any one in company who has a watch
watch. with a fteel balance (b), to lend it you for a few mi¬
nutes, alking him whether it will continue to go when
laid on the table. He will probably fay it will. To
prove to him that he is wrong, you lay it on that part
of the table below which you have previoufly placed
a ftrong bar-magnet (as in Exp. 2.), fo that the watch
may be above one of the poles. It will immediately
Hop. Now, if you fluft the pofitien of the magnet,
and give the watch to another perfon to lay it on the
table, it will not flop ; but replacing the magnet, and
defiring a third perfon to try the experiment, he will
fucceed. All this, to thofe who are not acquainted
with the fecret, will appear very extraordinary.
4* .
Magnetic
dial.
Fig. 10.
and 11.
Exp. 4. The Magnetic Dial.
Provide a circle of wood or ivory, of about five or
fix inches diameter, as fig. 10. which muft turn quite
free on the ftand B (fig. 11.), in the circular border
A : on the circle muft be placed the dial of pafteboard
C (fig. 10.), whofe circumference is to be divided into
12 equal parts, in which muft be infcribedthe numbers
from x to 12, as on a common dial. There muft be a
fmall groove in the circular frame D, to receive the
E T I S M. Chap. U,
pafteboard circle j and obferye that the dial muft be lixperimen.
made to turn fo freely that it may go round without talIiiuftra-
moving the circular border in which it is placed. Be- tions-
tween the pafteboard circle and the bottom of the
frame, place a fmall artificial magnet E (fig. i2.)p;o.
that has a hide in its middle, or a fmall protuberance. ^
On the outfide of the frame place a fmall pin P, which
ferves to (hew where the magnetic needle I, that is
placed on a pivot at the centre of the dial, is to flop.
This needle muft turn quite freely on its pivot, and its
two Tides ftiould be in exaft equilibrium. Then pro¬
vide a fmall bag, that has five or fix divifions, like a
lady’s work-bag, but fmaller. In one of thefe divifions
put fmall fquare pieces of pafteboard on which are writ¬
ten the numbers from x to 12, and if you pleafe you may
put feveral of each number. In each of the other divi¬
fions you muft put 12 or more like pieces, obferving,
that all the pieces in each divifion muft be marked
with the fame number. Now the needle being placed
upon its pivot, and turned quickly about, it Avill ne-
ceffarily ftop at that point where the north end of the
magnetic bar is placed, and which you previoufly knew
by the fituation of the fmall pin in the circular border.
You therefore prefent to any perfon that divifion of the
bag which contains the feveral pieces on which is writ¬
ten the number oppofite to the north end of the bar,
and tell him to draw any one of them he pleafes. Then
placing the needle on the pivot, you turn it quickly
about, and it will neceffarily ftop, as we have already
faid, at that particular number.
Another experiment may be made with the fame
dial, by defiring two perfons to draw each of them one
number out of two different divifions of the bag j and
if their numbers, when added together, exceed 12, the
needle or index will ftop at the number they exceed it j
but if they do not amount to 12, the index will ftop at
the fum of thofe two numbers. In order to perform
this experiment, you muft place the pin againft the
number 5, if the two numbers to be drawn from the
bag be 10 and 7 ; or againft 9, if they be feven and
two. If this experiment be made immediately after
the former, as it eafily may, by dexteroufly moving the
pin, it will appear the more extraordinary.
Exp. 5. The Divining Circles.
On the top of a thin box, as AB fig. 13. pafte two Divining
circles drawn on paper, as F, G, each of which is di- circles,
vided into compartments. In thofe of one circle, as G, l$'
are written queftions, and in thofe of the other, as F,
appropriate anfwers. Through the centre of the circle
G an axle paffes, carrying a toothed wheel, and which
works into the pinion </, to the axis of which is fixed
another pinion, and this receives the teeth of another
wheels, whofe axis is paffed through the centre of the
circle F. On the axis of the wheel c is to be fixed an
index a above the paper circle, and to the axis of the
wheel ,f, juft below the cover of the box, is fixed a bar
magnet qq, turning together with the axis; while on
the part of the axis that projects above the circle F a
loofe needle at a? is balanced, fo as to move independent¬
ly of the axis. A carton of ftrong paper, of the fize
(b) The balance of a watch is fometimes, though very feldom, made of brafs, when it is fcarcely fufceptible of
magnetic influence,
hap. II. M A G N
perimen-of F {hould cover the pa fled circle, and turn eafily on
Illuftra- t]ie centre e ; and it {hould have a triangular piece as
tion^ jr cut out, in order to fee the anfwers. If now the
needle be taken off its point, and a perfon be defired to
alk fome of the queftions on the circle G, the index
mult be turned to the queftion, and then the needle
placed on its pivot, giving it a whirl round. When it
flops, its point will Hand over the proper anfwer,
which may be feen by turning the open part of the car¬
ton to that place.
SECT. III. Of the Communication and Produ&lon of
Magnetfm.
The whole of this important part of the fubjedt may
be faid to depend on one general fa£t, which we {hall
therefore firll lay down and illuftrate.
^ Any piece of iron when in the neighbourhood of a tnag-
mes mag- net, is itfelf a magnet, and pojpfj'es all the material pro-
tical by perties of that body.
oximity x—Let there be a large and flrong magnet pro-
ra mas* perly fupported in the horizontal dire&ion, at a diftance
from iron or other fimilar bodies, and with its poles per-
fedlly free. Take alfo any fmall piece of common iron,
not more than two or three inches long, fuch as a com¬
mon fmall key, and take another piece of iron, as a
' fmaller key, or fhort piece of wore about the fize of a
goofe quill.
In the firft place hold the key in a horizontal pofi-
tion, with one end oppofite one of the poles of the mag¬
net, but fo as not to be in contadl with it. Then bring
the other piece of iron to the other end of the key, and
it will hang by the key, and will fo continue to hang,
though we withdraw the key from the magnet horizon¬
tally, till there is a certain interval between the key
and the magnet, when the former will be no longer
able to fupport the piece of iron. Even at this diftance
the key will, however, be found capable of fupporting a
piece of iron confiderably fmaller than the former, till
its diftance from the magnet be increafed.
Again, hold the key with one extremity below one
of the poles of the magnet, and touch the other extre¬
mity with the fmall piece of iron, the latter will ad¬
here till the key be removed too far below the magnet.
Thirdly, Hold the key with one of its extremities
above one of the poles of the magnet, but at fuch a
diftance that there is room for the fmall piece of iron
to go between the key and the magnet, without touch¬
ing the latter. The piece of iron will be fupported by
the key, as in the two former inftances.
Fourthly, Let the magnet be placed in a vertical po-
fition, and hold the key with one extremity immedi¬
ately below or above one of the poles. The piece of
iron will be fupported in a fimilar manner, in the form¬
er cafe by the extremity of the key that is moft remote
from the magnet, and in the latter by that which is ad¬
jacent.
If, inftead of approaching the magnet with the key,
we reverfe the circumftances, the effedl of the magnet
in rendering the key magnetical will be ftill more evi¬
dent. Suppofe the piece of iron to be lying on the
table j let one end of it be touched w ith the key, and
there will be found no attraftion between them : but if
while we hold the key very near one extremity of the
wire, we bring the pole of the magnet near the other
4
E T I S M.
373
end of the "key, we fixall fee the wire rife from the -^pMnncn-
table, and adhere to the key. ta ra"
In all thefe cafes the attra6live power of the key, . i
that is, its magnetifm, is evidently derived from its
juxtapofition to the magnet.
Exp. 2.—Let two pieces of iron wire be fufpended by
feparate ends of a piece of thread, fo that they may be
hung from a pin in the wall in a fituation parallel to
each other, or in contact. Now bring one end of a
bar magnet a little below the wires, and they will re¬
pel each other. If thefe wdres are of foft iron, they
will collapfe immediately on the magnet being with¬
drawn j but if they are formed of hard iron or of fteel,
they will continue apart for a confiderable time.
Here the two wires are, by the proximity of the
magnet, become magnets, and the extremities next the
bar have each acquired a fimilar polarity, i. e. both
contrary to that of the adjacent pole of the bar. They,
therefore, repel each other.
Exp. 3.—Let a bar-magnet, fuch as N, S, fig. 14. Fig. 14.
be laid in a horizontal pofition, and let a fmall key, as
B, C, be held near the north pole of the magnet, in
the direftion of its axis. Let a very fmall magnetic
needle, fupported on a (harp pivot, be brought near that
end of the key C, which is moft remote from N. The
needle will immediately turn its fouth pole towards C,
as is indicated by the feathered part of the arrow c.
Hence it appears that the key has acquired a diredlive
power like a magnet, and that its remote extremity
performs the office of a north pole, as it attracts the
fouth pole of the needle, and repels its north pole. If
it be faid that the magnetic needle in this cafe is affedl-
ed diredlly by the diredive power of the magnet, as it
would take the above pofition though the key were not
prefent; to fhew that the effed is produced through
the medium of the key, remove the needle into another
fituation as b, and it will ftill arrange itfelf with the
fame pole oppofite C, and if it be carried to the prox¬
imate extremity of the key, as at a, it will turn round,
and prefent its north pole to B, thus (hewing that it is,
at leaft in fome meafure, influenced by the key. ^
In general, when a piece of iron is prefented to the j^eareftend
pole of a magnet, the extremity next that pole is pof- acquires a
feffed of the contrary polarity, and the remote extre-P°^arh>r
mity has acquired a fimilar polarity. The fituation
the poles, however, depends much on the form of the a(jjacent
piece of iron, and on the part of its furface w’hich is pole of the
prefented to the pole of the magnet. If the form be magnet*
that of an oblong bar, one extremity of which is pre¬
fented to the pole, w'hich is the molt ufual cafe, the
circumftances will be as we have juft mentioned. If
the oblong bar be prefented to the pole in a perpendi¬
cular diredion, with its middle very near the pole of
the magnet, this middle point will be poffeffed of a po¬
larity contrary to that of the adjacent pole, while the
two extremities have acquired the fame polarity. If
the prefented iron be in the form of a circular plate,
and its centre be held near the pole of the magnet,,
this centre will have the contrary polarity, and every
point of the circumference the fame polarity. If the
plate have its circumference fafhioned into points, each
of thefe points will acquire a very ftrong polarity, con¬
trary to that of the pole near which the centre of the
plate is held.
The communication of magnetic power from the
magnet 1
4*
Induced
47
Apparent
exception,
374 M A G N
Experimen niagnet to the key in the foregoing experiments, will
tions b.e ftl11 m°re ftrongly illuftrated by holding another
v.—„„i piece of wire to the wire that is already fufpended by
the key, Ihe new piece of wire will alfo be fufpend¬
ed, and fo feveral more may be fufpended by one ano¬
ther, like the links of a chain, according to the ftrength
of the magnet. I his fa6t was known to the ancients,
who fpeak of a loadftorte caufing an iron ring to carry
another ring j and that a third, till the whole puts on
the appearance of a chain.
m i netifm ^ be ^oun^ lbe magnet has left none of its
nagne 1 m. pOWer ^ proc}ucjng niagnetifm in the iron, and of
courfe, that nothing has been transferred from the
magnet to the iron. The magnetifm of the iron thus
caufed by its juxtapolition to a magnet is called induced
Tnagnetifmy or magnetifm by induction.
There is an apparent exception to the univerfality of
the above propofition. If the key be held in fuch a
pofition as that it ftiall be perpendicular to the, magnet,
with one extremity either oppofite one of the poles, or
a little above the centre of the maghetj the bit of wire
will not be attrafted by that extremity, and we may
hence fuppofe that the key has acquired no magnetic
power by its proximity to the magnet. But if we bring
a needle or a piece of iron wire near its remote end, it
will be ftrongly attracted, and (hew that end to have
the fame polarity with the neareft pole of the magnet.
Now, the ends both of the key and the wire that are
next the magnet, having the fame polarity with the pole
of the magnet neareft them, cannot attraft each other,
but on the contrary will repel each other, and there¬
fore the wire cannot adhere to the key, though by the
change produced by the other extremity, it is evident
that the key has acquired magnetic power.
There is, however, one exception. If the key in the
ftfft experiment, with the wire hanging to it, be carried
from any of the fituations there defcribed, towards the
middle of the magnet, the wire will fall off as foon as it
arrives very near the middle. If we fuppofe a plane to
pafs through the centre of the magnet in a direction
perpendicular to its axis, fo as to form the magnetic
equator, a flender piece of iron held any where within
this plane can acquire no fenfible magnetifm, which is
demonftrated by its fhewing no figns of polarity, and not
being attradfed by the magnet. Now it is well known
that the greateft aflivity of a magnet refides in its two
poles, and that thofe magnets are the beft in which
this aftivity is leaft diffufed. A certain circumference
of every magnet is entirely inaftive, as we fee in the
experiment with the iron filings defcribed in N° 26.
where the filings colled themfelves principally on two
points of the furface, between which there is a fpace all
round, to which no filings are attached. Many cir-
tumftances fhew that the two poles of a magnet have
contrary adions •, the north pole producing a ftrong
northern polarity in the remote end of an iron bar
brought near it, and a fouth polarity in the proximate
end, while an oppofite effed is produced by its fouth
pole. Now’, adopting this principle, that 'he adions of
the two poles are oppofite, it follows that if thefe adions
afe equal, and ad in a fimilar manner, each muft coun-
terad and prevent the adion of the other, and pro¬
duce what may be called a magnetic equilibrium.
Therefore it a fh-nder iron rod or thin plate be placed
fo -that every part of it lies within the magnetic equator,
48
Real ex
ception.
E.TISM. Chap. ii.
it will exhibit no magnetifm, will not be attraded by Experimen.
the magnet, and will not attrad iron. This will beta!Ehiftra"
feen more fatisfadorily when we have explained the tions-
theory of magnetifm. ^ J
The confideration of the above important fads will
enable us to explain, efpecially after what will be
ftated in the next chapter, the produdion or communi¬
cation of magnetifm in all the methods by which thefe
are ufually effeded.
Magnetifm may be produced artificially in a piece of Artigcia!
iron or fteel, by various methods. magnetifm
I. By touching the iron or fteel either with a watara/produced;
magnet, or with a feel bar already magnetised. S°
The procefs of communicating magnetifm by natural ^
or artificial magnets, or by what has been called touch-‘
ing, has undergone various improvements and modifica¬
tions, which we (hall endeavour briefly to trace.
The moft Ample method of magnetizing a bar of Old me-
fteel is to apply the north pole of a magnet to that ex- thods.
tremity of the bar which we wifti to acquire a fouth po¬
larity. In this way, merely by contad, a flight degree
of magnetic power will, after feme time, be imparted to
the bar, and the communication will be expedited by
ftriking the bar fo as to make it found. Only a flight
degree of magnetifm can, however, be communicated
in this way, and unlefs the fteel bar be very Ihort, its
poles will be much confufed.
Another method of communicating magnetifm to a
bar of this kind is, to apply the pole of a magnet to one
end of the bar, and pafs it on to the other end, giving
a moderate degree of preffure. This is repeated feveral
times on both fides of the bar, taking care always to
begin the ftroke at the fame end as at firft, and inftead
of drawing the magnet back along the bar, lifting it up
every time that we come to the other end. The fol¬
lowing defeription will beft explain the mode of com¬
municating magnetifm in this way, by one or two mag¬
netic bars.
When only one magnetic bar is to be made ufe of,
one of its poles muft be applied as reprefented fig. 15. Fig. 15.
where CD reprefents the needle or fteel bar to be im¬
pregnated. The magnet AB is then to be drawn all
along the furface of it, till it reaches the extremity D.
The magnet being then removed, rauft be applied to
the extremity C, and drawn over the needle as before.
Thus the needle muft be rubbed feveral times, by
which means it will acquire a confiderable degree of
magnetifm. In this method, the other extremity of
the needle which the magnet touched laft acquires the
contrary magnetifm j that is, if B be the north pole of
the magnet, C will be the north pole and D the fouth
of the needle. This method, however, is never found
tci be equally effectual with that in which two magnets,
or both poles of one magnet, are made ufe of.
To communicate magnetMm by means of two mag¬
netic bars, place the bar or needle AB, fig. 16. upon aFfir. iC.
table ; then fet the two magnetic bars CD, EF, 0
ftraight upright upon it at a little diftance, equal on
both fides from the middle of the bar AB, and in fuch
a manner that the fouth pole D of one of the bars may
be neareft to that end of the bar AB which is to be¬
come the north pole, &c. Thefe two bars muft then
be did gradually towards one extremity of the bar,
keeping them conftantly at the fame diftance from each
other j and when one of them, for inftance CD, is ar¬
rived
:hap. II. M A G N
Ixperimen-rived at A, then they muft be (lid the contrary way,
U IHuftra-gp arrives at B ; and thus the bar AB muft be
tlons rubbed a greater or fmaller number of times, till it
will be found by trial to have acquired a confiderable
power. When the magnetic bars are powerful, and
the bar AB of very good fteel, and not very large, a
dozen of ftrokes are fully fufficient; but when the bars
are to be removed from the bar AB, care muft be ta¬
ken to bring them to the fame fituation where they were
firft placed ; viz. a little and equal diltance from the
middle of the bar AB, from which they may be lifted
l,P-
The mode of employing two bars inftead of one was
an improvement, and the method was ftill farther im¬
proved by placing them in an inclined petition, with
their extremities C, E, remote from each other, and
Hiding them contraryways from the middle towards
each extremity of the bar AB, lifting them up when
they come to the extremities, and replacing them on
the middle of the bar, thus repeating the operation as
often as required.
Method of Horfe-lhoe bars, or thofe of a femicircular form, may
outh be magnetized in a fimilar manner, except that the
urvedbars. 1Tiagnetjc bars employed for the purpofe muft follow the
curvature of the bar to be impregnated. The follow¬
ing is the method ulually employed for magnetizing
bars of this kind. The crooked bar is laid flat upon a
table, and to each of its extremities is applied a flraight
fig. 17. magnetic bar, as DF, EG, fig. 17. and the remote ex¬
tremities of thefe bars F, G, are joined by the condu&or
or piece of foft iron EG. Then to its middle are to be
applied two magnetic bars, with their oppofite. poles at
a little diftance from each other, H, I, and with thefe
the crooked bar is to be ftroked from end to end, fol¬
lowing the direftion of the crooked bar, fo that on one
fide of it the magnetic bars may Hand in the direftion
reprefented by the dotted lines at K and L. When in
this manner the piece of fteel ABC has been rubbed
a fufficient number of times on the one fide, it is to be
turned, and the fame operation repeated on the other tide,
taking care that the adhering magnetic bars, and the
condu&or of foft iron, be preferved in the fame lituation
as at firft. It muft be obferved that in this procefs the
magnets DF, DG, as well as the magnets H, I, muft be
placed fo that their fouth poles (hall be towards that ex-
^ tremity of the bar which is to be made a north pole.
Duhamel’s A material improvement in the procefs for commu-
mprove- nicating magnetifm from artificial magnets to fteel bars,
mem. was introduced by Duhamel. He formed a right-
angled parallelogram, two of the Tides of which were
made by two equal bars of fteel, that were intended to
be magnetized, while the other two were formed by
joining the extremities of the fteel bars by two pieces of
foft iron, alfo equal to each other in length, but much
ftiorter than the fteel bars. Then taking two parcels of
bars already magnetized, he brought together their op¬
pofite poles towards the middle of one of the fteel bars
forming the parallelogram, and inclining the parcels as
Fig. 18. in fig. 18. he made them glide gently, feparating them
from each other towards the extremities of the bar j
and this operation was repeated as often as required,
when the inclined parcels of magnetic bars were car¬
ried to the oppofite bars of the parallelogram, and this
■^as-rubbed in a fimilar manner. After the bars were
E T I S M. 375
rubbed fufficiently on one fide, they were, as in former ExPefir“en~
, J tal ILluftra-
cales, turned on the other. tions
This method is one of the heft that we can employ
for magnetizing the needles of compafles, and fuch
fteel bars as are of a moderate thinnefs, efpecially if we
employ magnetic bars ftrongly impregnated for the pur¬
pofe of rubbing the fteel bars. 54
Much about the time that M. Duhamel contrived Improve-
the above method, the fame objeft was employing
attention of experimental philofophers in England,
where the procefs of magnetizing bars was much im¬
proved by Mr Mitchell and Mr Canton.
Mr Mitchell employed two parcels of bars already
ftrongly magnetized, joined together in a parallel di-
redlion, with their oppofite poles united at each extre¬
mity, but in fuch a manner, that there remained be¬
tween the two parcels a fmall interval. He then placed
a number of equal fteel bars in a ftreight line, and
made one extremity of the magnetized bars Hide over
the line formed by the fteel bars at right angles j and
this he repeated as ufual. In this way he found that
the intermediate bars in the ftraight line acquired a
great degree of magnetic power.
Mr Canton placed the bar which he wifhed to mag¬
netize, fo as to form part of a parallelogram, as in the
method of M. Duhamel, and then employed the fame
means as Mr Mitchell for impregnating the bar, after
which he feparated the two parcels of magnets, and in¬
clining them to each other in the manner of Duhamel
upon the bar, he made them Hide from the needle to¬
wards the extremities. This laft method confiderably
augmented, according to Mr Canton, the magnetic-
power of the bar but by Coulomb it is confidered as
the only effedlual part of the proctfs. Thefe methods
of Mitchell and Canton conftitute what has been call¬
ed the double touch, which was ftill farther improved
by the celebrated ^Epinus. ^
This philofopher, after having formed a parallelo-Method or
gram w ith fteel bars, and pieces of foft iron, in the man- ^Epir.us.
ner of Duhame], placed upon the bar to be magne¬
tized, two paicels of magnetic bars inclined in fuch a
way that each of them formed «n its own fide an angle
of 150 or 20° with the fteel bar on which it was placed j
their oppofite poles being at a very fmall diftance from
one another. Keeping the parcels of magnetic bars in
the fame relative fituatien with refpeft to each other,.
he made both parcels Aide along alternately from the
middle of the bar towards each extremity, begiiwiing at
every renewal of the operation from the middle of the
bar. This method has a very great advantage over the
former, as by it we may magnetize bars of confiderable
length and thicknefs, by means of magnetic bars that
have no great magnetic- power. ^
In all thefe. prcceftes it muft be remaiked, that, in Remarks,
order to proceed properly, it is neceffary to employ a
confiderable degree of prefiure. A parallelogram of fteel
bars and foft iron ffiould be. kept firm by wedges, fome-
whab in the manner of printers types, and the extremi¬
ties of the magnetic bars ftiould be perfeftly cleaned.
Dr Robifon fuppofed, that wetting thefe extremities
confiderably aided the procefs ; but he found that the
leaft particle of oil between the bars greatly obftrufted
it, as did the fmalleft piece of the thinneft gold leaf.
He found that bars which were rough acquired a more
powerful
57
Improve-
rnents of
Coulomb.
Fig.
Fig. 2C.
M A G N
•powerful magnetifm than, tliofe which were moderately
' polilhed j but that, if moderately rough, they acquired
the fir ft degrees of magnetifm more expeditioufly than
fmooth bars, but did not receive fo ftrong an impregna¬
tion as the latter.
The method of making artificial magnets has been
greatly improved by M. Coulomb, who in a feries of
memoirs, printed in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences, and of the National Inftitute of Paris, has
communicated a number of valuable obfervations and
experiments, that have contributed, perhaps more than
any preceding labours, to the advancement both of
the theory and practice of magnetifm. Many years ago
he publifhed his procefs for making very powerful arti¬
ficial magnets.
In his operations he ufes four very ftrong magnets
previoufly impregnated. He placed his two ftrongeft
magnets, (as NS, NS, fig. 19.) on a horizontal plane
in one right line, at fuch a diftance that they might be
a few lines nearer to each other than the length of the
needle n s intended to be magnetized. He afterwards
took the two magnets N' S', and inclining them as in
the method of ALpinus, he placed them firft on the
middle of the needle, or with their poles nearly in con-
ta61:. He then drew each magnet, without changing
its inclination, to the extremity of the needle, and re¬
peated this-operation 5 or 6 times on each face of the
needle. It is clear, that in this operation the poles of
the needle n s remain fixed and invariable at the extre¬
mities of the needle, by means of the two ftrong mag¬
nets NS on which it refts. The effect produced by
thefe can only be augmented by the aftion of the two
fuperior magnets, which concur in magnetizing all the
particles of the needle in the fame dire&ion.
He found likewife, that in this method of magneti¬
zing there is a greater certainty of giving to both fur-
faces of needles intended to determine the magnetic
meridian, an equal degree of magnetifm ; a circum-
ftance deferving of the greateft attention in the con-
ftru&ion of compaffes, if the needle be fufpended with
its broadeft furface parallel to the horizon.
After thefe previous proceffes, he took 30 bars of
fteel hardened and tempered to the temper of a fpring,
five or fix lines broad, two or three lines thick, and 36
inches long. The blades of fencing foils, fuch as are
found in the (hops, make pretty good magnets. Eng-
lilh flieet fteel cut into pieces one inch wide, harden-'
ed and lowered to fpring temper, is preferable. When
each compound magnet is to contain no more than 15
or 20 pounds of fteel, it is fufficient to make the bars 30
or 36 inches long.
He magnetized each bar fingly, according to the me¬
thod already defcribed. He then took two reftangular
parallelopipedons of very foft iron, well polilhed, fix
inches in length, between 20 and 24 lines broad, and
10 or 12 lines thick. With thefe two parallelopipedons,
reprefented fig. 20. at N and S, he formed the armour
of his magnet, by enveloping one extremity of each
parallelopipedon with a ftratum of his magnetic bars, fo
that the extremities of the parallelopipedons may project
beyond the extremities of the bars 20 or 24 lines, and
the other end may be enveloped by the ends of the fet
of bars. On this firft layer of fteel bars of three or four
lines thick he places a fecond, three inches Ihorter than
the firft, fo that the firft proje&s beyond the fecond
E T I S M. Chap. I
about 18 lines on each fide. The whole is fecured Expermie
at the ends by two binding pieces of copper, whichta* Mluftr
prefs the bars clofe together, and prevent the armour , tl0n;‘
from efcaping.
Fig. 20. reprefents two artificial magnets compofed Fig. j0.
according to the method juft defcribed. N and S are
the extremities of the two iron parallelopipedons. The
two other extremities are inclofed by the bars. Each
magnet thus compounded is folidly connected together
by the copper pieces marked o, b} a\ b'. The pieces
of contact A, R, join the oppofite poles of the mag¬
nets.
He found by experience, that with an apparatus of
this form, each part weighing 15 or 2olbs. a force of
80 or looib. will be required to feparate the pieces of
contaft; and that when an ordinary needle of the com-
pafs is placed on the two extremities of the compound
bars, fig. 20. they become magnetized to faturation,
without its being neceffary to rub them with the upper
pair. When magnets of greater force are defired, it is
neceflary, in proportion as the number of bars is in-
creafed, to augment their length allb, and the dimen-
fions of the parallelopipedons of iron which ferve for
the armour. It would be eafy to afcertain the differ¬
ent dimenfions which the magnets ought to have, in a
manner fufticiently accurate for pradtice, from the laws
of magnetifm, and thepofition of the centre of action of
the bars of fteel of different lengths and thicknefs. ^
2. Iron or Jleel is rendered magnetic a l by being placed \xmw
in a pojition correfponding to the magnetic meridian, fteel be-
It h as been often obferved, that a bar of iron which con.lw m
has flood for a long time exaftly or nearly in the mag-nofaio/
netic dire6tion, has acquired a degree of magnetic^
poiver, the extremities poffefling oppofite polarity. In
this and other northern parts of Europe, old vanes of
turrets, window bars, and even pokers that have flood
long inclined in the chimney corner, are often very fen-
fibly magnetic, their lower extremity becoming a north,
and the upper a fouth pole. In the higheft part of the
fteeple of St Giles’s church in Edinburgh, on the north
fide, the upper bar of a hand-rail leading to a flair is
very magnetical. It is worthy of remark, that thofe
parts of fuch old bars which have become foliated and
crumbly by expofure to the air are the moft magneti¬
cal. This magnetic ftate of perpendicular iron bars
was, as we are informed by Dr Gilbert, firft obfer¬
ved in the vane fpindle of the Auguftine church at
Mantua. ^
3. yf bar of feel long hammered or expofed to violent By ham-
fri&ion, while lying in the magnetic meridian, becomes mer‘ng ot|
magnetic. ' * ^
This fa£t was well known to Dr Gilbert, who in
a plate reprefents a blackfmith hammering a bar of
fteel in the magnetic pofition. Many fmiths tools,
fuch as long drills, that receive great preffure while in
motion,, broaches that are worked with a long le¬
ver, fo as to adl very fall, become very fenfibly mag¬
netical ; the lower end, in thefe latitudes, being always
a north pole. When a fteel punch is driven hard into
a piece of iron, the punch has fometimes been render¬
ed magnetical by a fingle blow. There is fcarcely a
cutting or boring tool in a fmith’s {hop that does
not poffefs fome degree of magnetic power. Even foft
fteel and iron w'ill acquire it by being violently twifted
or expofed to great friction, and the magnetifm thus ac¬
quired
hhap. IL M A G N
Lperimen-quired is cdmttionly permanent. From this circum-
h llluitra-^ErncQ it is difficult to procure for nice experiments
t'onSi' pieces of iron that do not poffefs fome degree of magne-
tilm, and hence thefe experiments do not always fuc-
ceed. It is therefore convenient to know how to de¬
prive iron and fteel of magnetifm, and the method of
doing this will appear from what will be faid in the
next feftion.
The fteel balances of watches are often magnetic,
fometimes even (hewing evident polarity ; a circum-
ftance which is found to have fome effedft in difturbing
the proper going of fuch watches or time-pieces. Hence
it is recommended to make the balances of brafs. See
a paper on this fubjedt by Mr Varley, in the firft vo¬
lume of the Philofophical Magazine.
4. Magnetifm mag be mduced on fubjlances that are
60 fufceptible of it, by heat.
yheat. Hr Gilbert remarks that fuch ores of iron as are in
that particular metallic (late, which he confiders as
moft fufceptible of magnetifm, will acquire this power
by being kept long in a red heat, while in a magnetic
diredtion ; and that their polarity correfponds to their
pofition, that end of the mafs which is oppofite the
north becoming a north pole. By many experiments
made both by Dr Gilbert, and lince his time by Dr
Hooke, on iron and fteel bars, it appears that thefe ac¬
quire permanent magnetifm by being expofed to a
ftrong heat, and fuffered to cool gradually while lying
in the magnetic diredtion ; but that the magneti'm thus
acquired by fteel rods is much ftronger and more du¬
rable, if they are fuddenly quenched with cold water,
fo as to give them a very hard temper. Dr Hooke
found that the end of the bar next the north, or the
lower end of a vertical bar, always became its perma¬
nent north pole, and the upper end, even when quench¬
ed, while the reft was fuffered to cool gradually, be¬
came a very fenfible fouth pole. If thefe operations
were performed on bars placed in a pofition at right
angles to the magnetic diredtion, no magnetifm was
acquired. Dr Gilbert makes a remarkable obfervation
refpedfing the pofition of a magnetic needle brought
near an ignited bar of iron, which was fome years ago
repeated in the Philofophical Tranfadtions as a new dif-
covery. “ Bacillum ferreum, valide ignitum appone ver-
forio excito : fiat verforium, nec ad tale ferrum conver-
titur : fedflatim ut primum de candore aliquantulum re-
mi fer it, confluit i/lico.'n Thus it appears that iron is
not fufceptible of magnetifm when red hot, but that it
acquires magnetic power during its cooling. Dr Gil¬
bert afeertained the degree of heat moft favourable to
the produdtion of magnetifm, but from his want of pro¬
per thermometers he did not fucceed. Dr Robifon
found that though a bright red or a white heat does
not make iron fufceptible of magnetifm while it is ex¬
pofed to fuch a heat, it predifpofes it for becoming
magnetical. He found that when a bar of fteel was
made to acquire magnetifm by being tempered in the
magnetic diredlion, the acquired magnetifm was much
ftronger when the bar was firft made very hot, even
though allowed to acquire its moft magnetical ftate be¬
fore being quenched, than if it had been heated only to
this latter degree. Nay, he always found it ftronger if
quenched while red hot.
He alfo found that when he heated a fmall fteel bar
;red hot, and quenched it while lying between two
Vol. XII. Part I.
E T I S M. 377
magnets, it acquired a much ftronger magnetic power
than it would acquire in any other way. ll t;ons>
Mr Canton contrived the following method of pro- —
ducing magnetifni in fteel bars, without the affiftance
either of natural or artificial magnets. 61
Take twelve bars, fix of foft, and fix of hard fteel,^^^.
the former three inches long, one-fourth of an i“ch ar-
broad, and one-twentieth of an inch thick ; with two tificiaimag.
pieces of iron, each half the length of one of the bars j nets,
but of the fame breadth and thicknefs. 'Hie fix hard
bars ffiould be each five inches and a half long, one-
half inch broad, and three twentieths of an inch thick,
with two pieces of iron of half the length, but of the
fame breadth and thicknefs as one of the hard bars j
and let all the bars be marked with a line quite round
them at one end j then take an iron poker and tongs,
or two bars of iron, the larger they are, and the longer
they have been ufed, the better ; and fixing the poker
upright, or rather in the magnetical line between the
knees, hold to it, near the top, one of the foft bars,
having its marked end downwards, by a piece of few-
ing filk, which muft be pulled tight by the left hand,
that the bar may not Aide ; then grafping the tongs
with the right hand, a little below the middle, and
holding them nearly in a vertical pofition, let the bar
be ftroked by the lower end from the bottom to the
top about ten times on each fide, which will give it a
magnetic power fufficient to lift a fmall key at the
marked end j which end, if the bar were fufpended on
a point, would turn towards the north, and is there¬
fore called the north pole, and the unmarked end, for
the fame reafon, is called the fouth pole. Four of the
foft bars being impregnated after this manner, lay the
other two parallel to each other, at a quarter of an
inch diftant, between the two pieces of iron belonging
to them, a north and a fouth pole againft each piece of
iron j then take two of the bars already made magne¬
tical, and place them together fo as to make a double
bar in thicknefs, the north pole of the one even with
the fouth pole of the other, and the remaining two be¬
ing put to thefe, one on each fide, fo as to have two
north and two fouth poles together, feparate the north
from the fouth poles at one end by the interpofition of
fome hard fubftance (I, fig. 21.), and place them per-Fig. it.
pendicularly with that end downward on the middle of
one of the parallel bars AC, the two north poles to¬
wards its fouth end, and the two fouth poles towards its
north end. Slide them three or four times backward
and forward the whole length of the bar ; then remo¬
ving them from the middle of this bar, place them on
the middle of the other bar BD as before dire&ed,
and go over that in the fame manner ; then turn both
bars the other fide upwards, and repeat the former ope¬
ration : this being done, take the two bars from between
the pieces of iron, and placing the two outermoft: of
the touching bars in their ftead, let the other two be
the outermoft of the four to touch thefe with ; and this
procefs being repeated till each pair of bars have been
touched three or four times over, will give them a con-
fiderable magnetic power.
When the fmall bars have been thus rendered mag¬
netic, in order to communicate the magnetifm to the
large bars, lay two of them on the table, between their
iron condudfors as before j then form a compound mag¬
net with the fix fmall bars, placing three of them with
3 B the
373
f-^uhuZ' L!ie r0lt,h i:)oles downwardsJ and the three others with
tions. ^16 ^outh poles downwards. Place the two parcels at
«——y  an angle, as was done with four of them, the north ex-
tremity of the one parcel being put contiguous to the
lOUth extremity of the other, and with this compound
magnet ftroke four of the large bars, one after another,
about twenty times on each fide, by which means they
will acquire fome magnetic power.
When the four large bars have been fo far rendered
magnetic, the fmall bars are laid afide, and the large
ones are ftrengthened by themfelves, in the manner
followed with the fmall bars.
1 o expedite the operation, the bars ought to be fix¬
ed in a groove, or between brafs pins, otherwife the
attraction and fridtion between the bars will be conti¬
nually deranging them when placed between the con¬
ductors.
M A ONE T I S M.
Fig. 22.
6 2
Marcel’s
jnetbod.
This whole procefs may be gone through in about
half an hour, and each of the large bars, if well har¬
dened, will lift about 28 ounces troy, and they are fit¬
ted for all the purpofes of magnetifm in navigation and
experimental philofophy. The half dozen being put
into a cafe in fucn a manner, as that no two poles of
the fame name may be together, and their irons with
them as one bar, they will retain the virtue they have
leceived 5 but if their power firould, by making experi¬
ments, be ever fo much impaired, it may be reftored
without any foreign afiillance in a few minutes.
-thefe bars mult be kept in a w'ooden box, arranged
in fuch a manner that their oppofite poles may lie to¬
gether, as reprefented at fig. 22.
There are various methods of communicating a per¬
manent magnetifm to ferruginous bodies, by means of
a bar rendered magnetic, by pofitfon, of which the moft
fimple is that defcribed by Mr Marcel, whofe experi¬
ments were made in the year 1726. Being employed
in making^ fome obfervations on the magnetic power
which he found in great pieces of iron, he took a large
vice weighing 90 pounds, in which he fixed a large
anvil weighing 12lbs. The fteel to which he wiflred
to give the magnetic power was laid upon the anvil in
a north and fouth pofition, which happened to be the
diagonal of the fquare furface of the latter. He then
took a four-cornered piece of iron an inch thick every
way5 33 inches long, weighing about 8lbs. having one
end rounded and brightly polifhed, the other being
tapered. Holding then the fieel faft upon the anvil
with the one hand, he took the iron bar in the other
and holding it perpendicularly, he rubbed the fteel
hard with the rounded part towards him from north to
fouth, always carrying the bar far enough round about
to begin at the north. Having thus given 10 or 12
ftrokes, the fteel tvas turned upfide down, and rubbed
as much on the other fide. Proceeding in this manner
till it had been rubbed 400 times, the fteel w-as as
ftrongly magnetic as if it had been touched by a power¬
ful loadilone. The place where he began to rub was
always the north pole. In thefe experiments it fome-
times happened that the virtue was imparted by a few
ftrokes; nay, by a firigle ftroke a fmall needle was
made to receive a very confiderable power. Thus he
imparted to twro compafs needles fuch a degree of mag¬
netic power, that one lifte’d three-fourths, and another
a whole ounce of iron, and although thefe needles were
anointed with lintfeed oil to keep them from rufting,
3
Chap. Ih
and a hard coat was thus formed upon them, they Experimen
neverthelefs retained their power. Thus alfo a knife ^ UluftE
was made fo ftrongly magnetical, that it would take up tioi,s-
an ounce and three-iourths of iron. Tour fmall pieces ^ ,l,a
of fteel, each an inch long, and one-twelfth of an inch
broad, as thin as the fpring of a w atch, were thus im¬
pregnated with the magnetic power, and then joined
into a fmall artificial magnet; which at its firft forma¬
tion took up eight times its own weight of iron 5 and
after being nx years kept in the moft carelefs manner,
was found to have gained rather than loft any thing of
its power. In the courfe of his experiments, Mr Mar¬
cel found, that the end at which he began to rub was
always the north pole, whatever pofition the fteel was
laid in. On rubbing a piece of fteel from one end to
the middle, and then from the other end to the middle,
it acquired two north poles, one at each end, the middle
being a fouth pole. Beginning to rub from the middle
towards each end, he found a north pole in the middle,
and a fouth pole at each extremity. ^
Magnetifm may be communicated to a fmall pieceMethodcf ;
of foft fteel in the following manner : take two iron maSneti;
bars of about an inch fquare, and upwards of three feet zjn,gfa
in length ; keep them in the magnetical line, or in aoUottltee-
perpendicular pofture, as reprefented fig. 23. Let the Fig. 23.
piece of fteel CB be either faftened to the edge of a
table, or held by an aftiftant j and placing the lower
extremity of the bar AB, and the upper extremity of
the bar CD, on oppofite fides, and in the middle of
the fteel, ftroke the latter from the middle towards
its extremities, moving both bars at the fame time.
When both are arrived at the extremities of the fteel,
remove them from it, and apply them again to the
middle. Do fo for 40 or 50 times, and the fteel will
be found to have a confiderable degree of magnetic
power. Care, however, mull be taken, in removing
the bars, not to draw them along the furface of the
fteel, or the experiment will not fucceed, becaufe the
magnetifm is deftroyed by the contrary ftrokes.
The late Dr Gowin Knight poffefled a furprifing Dr Knight’s.!
fkill in magnetifm, being able to communicate an ex-artificial
traordinary degree of attradlive or repulfive powrer, and ^oa^^ones* f
to alter or reverfe the poles at pleafure j but as he re-
fufed to difcover his methods upon any terms what¬
ever (even as he faid, though he Ihould receive in re¬
turn as many guineas as he could carry), thefe curious
and valuable fecrets have died with him. In the 69th
volume of the Philofophical Tranfadtions, however, Mr
Benjamin Wilfon has given a prccefs, which at leaft
difcovers one of the leading principles of Dr Knight’s
art, and may perhaps be a means of difcovering the
whole to thofe who ftiall be lefs referved. The doc¬
tor’s procefs, according to Mr Willon, wras as follows.
Having provided himielf with a great quantity of clean
iron filings, he put them into a large tub, that was
more than one-third filled with clean water ; he then,
with great labour, w'orked the tub to and fro for many
hours together, that the friftion between the grains of
iron by this treatment might break off fueh fmaller
parts as would remain fulpended in the water for a
time. I he obtaining of thefe very final] particles in
fufficient quantity feemed to him to be one of the prin¬
cipal defiderata in the experiment. The water being
by this treatment rendered very muddy, he poured the
fame into a clean iron veffel, leaving the filings be¬
hind j.
r ^
hip. II. M A G N
Aperimen-hind j and when the water had flood long enough to
al Illuftra- clear, he poured it out carefully, without diflurbing
t'ons’ ^ fuch of the fediment as flill remained j which now ap-
” v peared reduced almoft to an impalpable powder. This
powder was afterwards removed into another veffel in
order to dry it; but as he had not obtained a proper
quantity thereof by this one ftep, he was obliged to re¬
peat the procefs many times. Having at lafl procured
enough of this very fine powder, the next thing was to
make a pafte of it, and that with fome vehicle which
would contain a confiderable quantity of the inflammable
matter •, for this purpofe he had recourfe to lintfeed oil
in preference to all other fluids. With thefe two in¬
gredients only he made a fliff pafte, and took particular
care to knead it well before he moulded it into conve¬
nient ftiapes. Sometimes, while the pafte continued in
its foft ftate, he would put the impreflion of a leal upon
the feveral pieces j one of which is in the Britilh Mu-
feum. This pafte was then put upon wood, and fome-
times on tiles, in order to bake or dry it before a mo¬
derate fire, at about the diftance of a foot. He found
that a moderate fire was moft proper, becaufe a greater
degree of heat made the compofition frequently crack
in many places. The time required for the baking or
drying of this pafte was generally about five or fix
hours before it attained a fufticient degree of hardnefs.
When that was done, and the feveral baked pieces
were become cold, he gave them their magnetic power
in any direction he pleafed, by placing them between
the extreme ends of his large magazine of artificial
magnets for a few feconds or more as he faw occafion.
By this method the power they acquired was fuch, that
when any of thefe pieces were held between two of his
bell ten guinea bars, with its poles purpofely inverted,
it immediately of itfelf turned about to recover its na¬
tural diredtion, which the force of thofe very powerful
bars was not fufficient to counteradl.
In the 66th volume of the Philofophical Tranfadlions
we have the following account from Dr Fothergill, of
Dr Knight’s method of imitating natural magnets, but
which is by Mr Cavallo fuppofed to be fome mi-flake
or mifinformation. “ I do not know,” fays he, “ that
ever the dodlor (Dr Knight) left behind him any de-
feription of a compofition he had made to form artifi¬
cial loadftones. I have feen in his pofieffion, and many
other of his friends have likewife feen, fuch a compofi¬
tion, which retained the magnetic virtue in a manner
much more fixed than either any real loadftone, or any
magnetic bar, however well tempered. In the natural
ones he could change the poles in an inftant, fo like¬
wife in the hardeit bars, but in the compofition the
poles were immoveable. He had feveral fmall pieces
of this compolition which had ftrong magnetic powTers.
The largeft was about half an inch in breadth, very
little longer than broad, and near one-fourth of an inch
thick. It was not armed, but the ends were powerfully
magnetic ; nor could the poles be altered, though it
was placed between two of his largeft bars, and they
were very ftrongly impregnated. The mafs was not
very heavy, and had much the appearance of a
piece of black lead, though not quite fo fhining. I
believe he never divulged the compofition, but I think
he once told me, the bafis of it was filings of iron re¬
duced by long-continued attrition to a perfeftly hnpal-
E T I S M.
379
pable ftate, and then incorporated with fonie pliantE£per>men-
matter to give it due confiftence. ta^
From thefe accounts it appears that the bafis of Dr , ‘ J' ' f
Knight’s artificial loadftones was the black powder to
which iron filings are reduced by being fhaken with
water, or the black oxide of iron, formerly called mar¬
tial aethiops. Hence Mr Cavallo fuppofes that the fol¬
lowing receipt for imitating the natural magnets will
anfwer the purpofe.
Take fome martial aethiops, reduced into a very fine
powder, or, which is more eafily procured, black oxide
of iron, the feales which fall from red-hot iron when
hammered, and are found abundantly in fmiths ihops.
Mix this powder with drying lintfeed oil, fo as to form
it into a very iliff pafte, and ftiape it in a mould fo as
to give it any form you require, whether of a terrella, a
human head, or any other. This done, put it into a
warm place for fome weeks, and it will dry fo as to be¬
come very hard 5 then render it magnetic by the ap¬
plication of powerful magnets, and it will acquire a con-
liderable power.
Sect. IV. Of the Circumfanccs which tend to impair or
, defray the Magnetic Power.
The magnetic power in all its modifications, whether Magnetifm
of attraction, repulfion, or polarity, is in general tern- ^ or ^e*
porary and periihing. The beft magnets, whether na-0;ro^e<*‘
tural or artificial, unlefs carefully preferved, with at¬
tention to certain circumftances that will prefently ap¬
pear, are obferved to have their magnetic power dimi-
niftted. Natural magnets, and artificial magnets made
of fteel tempered as hard as poflible, retain'their power
moft obftinately, and feldom entirely lofe it except un¬
der circumftances which we know to be unfavourable
to its durability. Magnets of fteel of a fpring temper,
are much fooner weakened, lofe more of their force
merely by keeping, and finally retain little or none of
it. Soft fteel and iron feldom retain magnetic power
when removed from the magnet where they acquired
it, unlefs their metallic ftate undergoes fome change.
The following circumftances have been obferved to
be moft powerful in diminiftiing or deftroying the power
of magnets. ^
1. Improper poftion. Nothing has fo much effeft in By impro-
impairing the power of a magnet as keeping it in an per pod-
improper pofition, that is, too far from the magnetic^011’
line. If the axis of the magnet be placed in a direc¬
tion that is at right angles with the magnetic meridian,
that is, in this latitude nearly E. N. E. and W. N. W.
it will fooneft lofe its magnetic power 5 and if it be
placed in the magnetic line, but in a contrary polition,
or with the north pole where the foulh pole fhould be,
if permitted to vibrate freely, it will gradually become
weaker every day, and unlefs it be a natural magnet,
or an artificial one made of very hard tempered fteel,
it will, in no very long time, entirely lofe its magnetic
Power- ... 67
2. Heat. The diflipation of magnetic power is great-by heat;
ly promoted by heating the magnet. The heat of
boiling water has a fenfible effedl in this way *, but if
the magnet be expofed to a red heat, its power is en¬
tirely deftroyed, as has been long known. Dr Gilbert
obferved that the power of magnets was deftroyed by a
3 B 2 heat
'Ey violent
M A G N
heat that was not fufficient to make the metal vifible in
the dark*, and Mr Canton found that the heat of boil¬
ing water weakened the power of a magnet, but that
the greateft part of this was recovered as the magnet
cooled. If the heat be applied when the magnet lies
in a pofition moft favourable to the diflxpation of mag-
netifm, the power is fooneft deftroyed; hence, the bed;
way to deprive iron or fteel of accidental magnetifm
is, to heat it red hot, and allow it to cool while
lying in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic
line.
M. Coulomb has afcertained that at 200 degrees of
heat, two-fifths of the magnetifm of a magnet is diilr-
pated, and that at 500 degrees the whole is loft.
By violent treatment. It is very extraordinary
tieatment; tpe p0Wer 0f a magnet is impaired by rough ufage.
Dr Gilbert oblerved that a magnet which he had
powerfully impregnated was greatly weakened by a
fingle fall on the floor; and fince his time it has been
obferved that when a magnet falls on a ftone, or re¬
ceives any concufiion that makes it ring, it is injured
much more than by being beaten with any thing foft
and yielding. When a natural magnet is ground with
coarfe powders, in order to bring it to any required
form, it is confiderably weakened. This fhows the
propriety of altering the natural form of loadftones as
little as poffible, and when this is necefiary, of doing
it as expeditinufly as may be, by cutting them brifkly
in the thin difks of a lapidary’s wheel,
by fimilar 4* Placing them near each other with their fimilar
poles beingj&o/fr oppojite. Magnets fituated in this way always
oppofite. weaken each other, and when a powerful magnet is
placed near a weaker, with their fimilar poles oppofed,
the polarity of the weaker is frequently reverfed, that
is, if the pole wrere north it becomes fouth, and vice
verfa. When the weaker magnet is a natural loadftone,
or has been made of hard tempered fteel, its original
polarity is reftored when the improper pofition is
changed *, but if it has been made of fpring-tempered
fteel, the alteration is generally permanent, and often
as complete as while the magnets were in the neigh¬
bourhood of each other.
Chap. III. Theory of Magnetifn.
" 7°
Opinions of Respecting the notions w’hich the ancient philo-
the anci- fophers entertained about the caufe of magnetic pheno-
mena, we know very little. One curious opinion which
they entertained of the reafon why a magnet was im¬
proved by the contact of iron, is vrorth noticing. They
conceived that the magnet jffv/ upon the iron, and hence
acquired additional attra61ive power; and when de¬
prived of this pabulum, it grew w'eak and languid.
 “ Nam ferro nurunt vitam, ferrique vigore
Vefcitur *, hoc dulces epulas, hoc pabula novit $
Hinc proprias renovat vires, hinc firfa per artus
Afpera fecretum fervant alimenta vigorem.
Hoc abfente peril, trifti morientia torpent
Membra fame, venafque fitis confumit apertas.”
Claudian.
In the 16th century, the philofephers of modern
times firft began to fpeculate about the caufe of magne¬
tic polarity, a phenomenon which then became intereft-
ing on account of the difference of declination obferved
E r I S M. Chap. IH>
by navigators. Various trifling opinions were publifhed theory,
on the fubjeft. Some faid that the needle was dire&ed ~v—J
by a certain point in the heavens, which was little more
than faying that it pointed one way. Others aferibed
the diredion of the needle to vaft magnetic rocks fitua¬
ted in the earth ; but as to the exad fituation of thefe
rocks, they did not give themfelves the trouble to in¬
quire, till Fracafteri obferved, that, if thofe rocks are
fuppofed to be fituated in any part of the globe yet vi-
fited by navigators, and if, as we muft fuppofe, they
ad like loadftones, they will caufe the diredion to be
very different from what is obferved. He therefore
placed them fomewhere in the inacceflible polar regions,
though not immediately at the poles. Norman, who,
as we have feen (DIPPINGNeedle}, difeovered the dip
of the magnetic needle, and obferved that in every part
of Europe, the north pole pointed very far below the
horizon, was naturally led to aferibe this effed to the
influence of the earth, though he does not exprefs him-
felf as if he thought that the needle was attraded by
any point within the earth, but only that it was always
direded to fuch a point. ^
From comparing the different pofitions of the com-Gilbert's
pafs needle, as deferibed by Norman, with the pofitionst^eorlr‘>
which he had himfelf obferved fmall needles to affume
in relation to a magnet, Dr Gilbert was naturally led
to confider the earth as a great loadftone, or elfe con¬
taining a great loadftone within it, w'hich arranged the
dipping needle, or the needle of the compafs, in the
fame manner as he obferved a fmall needle poifed on its '
pivot, to be arranged by a large magnet. Dr Gilbert
has explained his theory at large in his Physiologia Nova
de Magnete, et de Tellure Magno Magnete. It may be
briefly expreffed in the following terms. All the ap¬
pearances of natural magnetifm are fimilar to what
would be obferved in the earth, were a large magnet
with its poles fituated near the poles of the equator, viz.
the north pole not far from Baffin’s bay in North Ame¬
rica, and the fouth pole in about the oppofite part of
the glebe. If a dipping needle were expofed to the
influence of fuch a large magnet, it muft arrange itfelf
in a plane palling through the magnetic poles, a pofi¬
tion indicated very nearly by the mariners needle j and
the more we recede from the equator of the great mag¬
net, the more muft the dipping needle be inclined to
the horizon.
Dr Gilbert’s theory was equally ingenious and im- 73
portant, and affords, if firmly eftablilhed, a complete
explanation of all the phenomena of magnetifm. At
the time it was firft publiffied, however, obfervations
were neither fufficiently numerous, nor fufficiently ac¬
curate, to enable the author to affign the real pofition
of the great magnet, nor to afeertain its laws of aftion.
The theory was chiefly founded on obfervations made
by the dipping needle, and though thofe inftruments
made by Norman were more accurate than might have
been expefled at fo early a period of the fcience, the ob¬
fervations made with them cannot, from many circum*
fiances, be implicitly relied on. We are ftill in want of a
numerous collection of obfervations on the dip, in order to
perfeCt our knowledge of the magnetic poles. We can
only fay that the earth aCts on the compafs needle in
the fame manner as a large magnet would aCt; but the
appearances do not feem to refemble the effeCts of what
we ffiould confider as a good loadftone having two vi¬
gorous
hap. HI.
Theory.
73
M A G N E
gorous poles, but rather fuch as would refult from the
action of a very irregular loadftone with its poles very
much diffuted.
It is unfortunate that our moft numerous obfervations
of the dip have not been made in thofe places where
they would be the moft inftruftive. Dr Robifon was of
opinion that a feries of obfervations ftiould be obtained,
extending from New Zealand northward, acrofs the
Pacific ocean to Cape Fairweather on the weftern coaft
of North America, whence it fhould be continued
through that part of the continent. A fecond feries
might extend from the Cape of Good Hope along the
weftern coaft of Africa to the tropic of Capricorn j
thence acrofs the interior of the African continent
through Sicily, Italy, Dalmatia, the eaftern part of
Germany, the gulf of Bothnia, Lapland, and the v’eft-
ern part of Greenland. This feries would be nearly in
a plane palling through the probable fituations of the
poles. A third feries might extend at right angles to .
the laft, fo as to form a fmall circle crofting the former,
palling near Japan, through the illand of Borneo, and
the weftern part of New Holland } near Mexico, and
a fewr degrees weft of Falter ifland. Here and at Bor¬
neo there w'ould be a conliderable inclination of the
magnetic plane to the horizon, though this cannot be
found out. There are, however, other points of this
circle in which the dip is conliderable, where the incli¬
nation may be difeovered. In Ihort, all circumftances
feem to indicate a multiplicity of poles, or, what renders
calculation moft difficult, an irregular magnetifm in
which the polarity is very much diffufed.
Philofophers are very much divided refpe£ling the
fituation of the magnetic poles of the earth. We lhall
here ftate only a fewr of their opinions, referving a fuller
account of fome of them for the article VARIATION of
the Compafs.
Dr Halley thought that the north magnetic pole was
near Baffin’s bay in North America.
Profeflbr Krafft(fee Peterlhurgh Comment, vol.xvii.)
poles’, places the north pole in N. Lat. 70° and W. Long.
23° from London j and the fouth pole in S. Lat. 50°,
and E. Long. 920.
Wilcke of Stockholm places the north pole in
N. Lat. 750 near Baffin’s bay, and in the longitude of
California, while he fixes the fouth pole in S. Lat 70°
in the Pacific ocean.
Churchman fuppofes the north pole to be in N. Lat.
390, and W. Long. 1350, a little inland from Cape
Fairweather ; and the feuth in S. Lat. 590, and E.
Long. 165°, direftly fouth of New Zealand. (See
Variation).
Euler (Memoirs of the Acad, of Berlin, vol. xvi.)
places the north pole in N. Lat. 750. Lemounier
(L ois du Magnetifme') in N. Lat. 730. Buffon in N.
Lat. 710.
La Lande places it in N. Lat. 770 4', and in about
W. Long. 98° from Paris. (See ConnoiJJance des Terns,
an. xii.).
However ingenious this hypothefis of Dr Gilbert
was, it appears to have been nothing more than a faga-
cious conjefture. The hypothefis, however, is con¬
firmed into a rational theory by many obfervations and
e truth exPer’'raents which were unknown or unthought of in
thetheo-^r Gilbert’s time.
Mr Hindlhaw’s beautiful experiment on the effeiR of
. ’4
unions
to the
nation of
e magne
75
roofs of
T I S M. 381
an upright iron bar on the oppofite ends of a compafs- Theory,
needle, according as one end or the other of the bar is v""'
next the earth (lee VARIATION of the Compafs') is an
abundant proof of the juftnefs of this theory.
We can imitate that experiment in a very fatisfaftory
manner by artificial magnetifm ; thus forming a juft
comparifon between the aftion of the earth and that of
a magnet.
Let a large bar magnet, as SAN (fig. 24.) be fup-Fig. 24.
ported fo as to have its ends detached from furrounding
bodies. Then place a fmall needle nicely poifed, as B,
about three inches below N, the north pole of the mag¬
net, and fo that its directive power for the magnet may
be very weak. Now take a fmall piece of foft iron, and
hold it in fuch a pofition as is reprefented at C j its
lower end becoming a north pole, will attract the fouth
pole of the needle. Now, while the needle is kept in
the fame pofition, turn round the piece of iron into the
pofition D ; the fouth pole of the needle will be feen to
avoid it, and the north pole will be attrafted. Here
the magnet may be compared to the earth, and the
fmall piece of iron to the iron bar in Mr Hindffiaw’s
experiment.
Again, it has been feen that magnetifm may be pro¬
duced in iron or fteel by hammering or heating them
while in a determinate pofition with refpeft to the
earth. The fame effect will be produced by the fame
proceffes while the iron or fteel is in the neighbourhood
of a powerful magnet.
Laftly, the circumftance of the magnetic inclination
of the north pole of the dipping needle being diminifti-
ed, and the horizontality of the compafs needle de-
ftroyed, as we afeend above the earth, is an additional
and certain evidence of the truth of this theory.
In ffiort, w'e may confider it as demonftrated, that
the earth is a great magnet, or contains a great mag¬
net, by the influence of which the direftion of the
needle and all the magnetic power acquired by iron,
when placed in a proper pofition, are produced.
A further illuftration and application of this theory
will be given prefently, when we have confidered fome
other hypotheles pofterior to that of Dr Gilbert. ^
It was very early an objedt with philofophers to af-Theories of
fign the immediate caufe of magnetic attradlion and re-impulfion.
pulfion, and of that faculty of mutual impregnation
which fo remarkably diftinguifties iron from all other
fubftances. In particular, the curious arrangement of
iron filings ftrewed round a magnet forcibly attradfed
their attention. It is fcarcely poffible to obferve this
arrangement without conceiving the idea of a ftream of
matter ilTuing from one of the poles of the magnet,
moving round it, entering by the other pole, and again
ifluing by its former outlet. Accordingly, fuch an
idea was entertained in the earlieft times 5 but very dif¬
ferent notions prevailed as to the manner in which fuch
a ftream produced the cffedls obferved. One of the
fimpleft methods was, to conceive it adling by impul¬
fion, like any other ftream of fluid matter. This idea
was entertained by Lucretius, who fuppofed the fur¬
rounding air to be fwept out of the way by the impul¬
fion of the fluid, which thus rulhing round the magnet
carried the iron filings towards it.
In the laft century Euler framed an hypothefis of Euler’s hy~
magnetifm on this theory of impulfion. He fuppofes,
that the two principal caufes which concur in producing
the <
.182 M A G N E T I S M.
, Theory, the wonderful properties of a magnet, are, Firft, A
Fig. 25.
* Lett res a
■une Prin-
-cejje cV'Al-
temagne.
7S
particular ftrmfture of the internal pores of the magnets,
and of magnetical bodies ; and, Secondly, An external
agent or fluid, which a£ls upon, and pafles through
thefe pores. this fluid he fuppofes to be the folar at-
mofphere, or that fubtile matter called ether, which fills
our fyftem.
Indeed, moft writers on this fubjeft agreed in fuppo-
fing that there are corpufcles of a peculiar form and
energy, which continually circulate around and through
a magnet 5 and that a vortex of the fame kind circulates
around and through the earth.
“ A magnet, befides the pores which it has in com¬
mon with other bodies, has alfo other pores confider-
ably fmaller, deftined only for the paflage of the mag¬
netic fluid. Thefe pores are fo difpofed as to commu¬
nicate one with the other, forming tubes or channels,
by which the magnetic fluid pafles from one end to the
other. The pores are fo formed, that this fluid can
only pafs through them in one dire&ion, but cannot re¬
turn back the fame way ; fimilar to the veins and lym¬
phatic veflels of the animal body, which are furnithed
with valves for this purpofe : So that the pores of the
magnet may be conceived to be formed into feveral
narrow contiguous tubes, parallel to each other, as at
A, B, fig. 25. through which the finer part of the
ether pafles freely from A to B, but cannot return back
on account of the refiftance it meets with at a, a, b, b,
nor overcome the refiftance of the grofler ether, which
occafions and continues the motion. For fuppofing the
pole A of a magnet, filled with feveral mouths or open
ends of fimilar tubes, the magnetic fluid, prefled by the
grofler part of the ether, will pafs towards B with an
inconceiveable rapidity, which is proportionable to the
elaflicity of the ether itfelf j this matter which, till it
arrives at B, is feparated from the tubes by the grofler
parts, then meets with it again, and has its velocity re¬
tarded, and its direftion changed j the ftream, reflect¬
ed by the ether, with which it cannot immediately mix,
is bent on both fides towards C and D, and deferibes,
but with lefs velocity, the curves DE and CF e, and
approaching by the curves d and c, falls in with the
effluent matter mvi, and again enters the magnet; and
thus forms that remarkable atmofphere, which is vifible
in the arrangement of fteel filings on a piece of paper
that is placed over a magnet*.”
We have already had occafion (fee the article Im¬
pulsion) to make fome obfervations on the general
do&rine of impulfion, and thefe need not be here re¬
peated. Refpe&ing the explanations afforded by the
canals and dock-gates in Euler’s hypothefis, opening in
one direftion and {hutting in the other, we may ob-
ferve, that as thefe conftruftions are altered in a mo¬
ment in a bar of foft iron, merely by changing the po-
fition of the magnet, it is aftoniftiing that they ftiould
ever have been conceived by fo acute a philofopher.
Even fuppofing fuch circumftances to take place, the
effefts refulting from them ftiould be thereverfe of what
are actually obferved, as the impelling ftream fhould
move thofe bodies leaft which afford the readieft chan¬
nels for its paflage. If the iron filings were arranged
by this impelling ftream, they (hould be carried along
with it, and if they are carried towards one pole of
the magnet, they ftiould be driven away from the
other.
_ . Chap
/Epinus, of the academy of Peterlhurgh, whofe theory '
of eleftricity we have explained and iiluftrated at confi- ■
derable length, was led by the analogy obferved be¬
tween the phenomena of eledfricity and thofe of magne- 5*
tifm, and in particular from the refemblance between l'
the attractions and repulfions of the tourmalin and
thofe of a magnet, to conceive the idea that both claffes
of phenomena might be explained in a fimilar manner
or that the phenomena of magnetifm, like thofe of elec¬
tricity, were to be attributed to the motions of a cer¬
tain fluid exifting in all bodies lulceptible of magne¬
tifm. This conjeCture rvas confirmed by obferving, that
when magnetifm was induced on a piece of iron by its
proximity, to a magnet, the power oi the magnet is not
lenfibly diminiftied. The following is an abflraCi of
Mr ALpinus’s hypothefis.
1. There exifts in all magnetic bodies a fubftancc
which may be called the magnetic fluid, the particles
of which repel each other with a force that decreafesas
the diftance increafes.
2. I here is a mutual attraction, varying according
to the fame law, between the particles of the magnetic
fluid, and the particles of iron.
3. There is.a mutual repulfion among the particles
of iron, following the fame law.
4. Ihe magnetic fluid is capable of moving through
the pores of iron, and foft fteel, without any confider-
able difficulty : but its motion is more and more ob-
ftruCted as the ftetd receives a harder degree of temper;
and in fteel of the hardeft temper, and the ores of iron,
it moves with the greateft difficulty.
5* Erom the luppofed attraClion between the magne¬
tic fluid and iron, the latter may contain a certain de¬
terminate quantity of the former, and this quantity will
be fuch that the accumulating attraClion of a particle
of it for the whole of the iron, balances the repulfion
between the particles of the whole fluid contained in the
iron.; fuppofing the quantity of fluid competent to a
particle of iron to be luch, that the repulfion between
it and the fluid competent to another particle of iron,
is alfo equal to its attraClion for that particle of iron!
1 herefore the attraClion between the fluid in one iron
bar A, and the iron of another bar B, is juft equal to
the.repulfion. between the iren in A and the iron in B.
This determinate quantity of fluid in the iron is called
its natural quantitij.
6. From the mobility of the fluid through the pores
of iron, it may, by the agency of a proper external
force, be abftraCled from one end of an iron bar, and
condenfed in the other end. ’I his, however, is a vio¬
lent ftate, and the mutual repulfion between the parti¬
cles of condenfed fluid, together with the attraClion be¬
tween the fluid and that part of the iron which it has
quitted, tend to produce a more uniform diftributiojj.
It is evident that fomething of this tendency muft take
place in every ftate of condenfation and rarefaction, and
that a perfed equilibrium can be produced only when
the fluid is diffufed with perfeft uniformity. This ftate
of uniformity may be called the natural ftate of the
body.
7. The produClion of fuch a uniform diftribution will
depend on the nature of the refiftance to the motion of
the fluid, oppofed by the iron in its various ftates. If
this refiftance arifes merely from the communication of
motion, like that which perfeCt fluids eppofe to the mo-
C ap. III. ~ M A G N
11 1 p'jry. tion of folid bodies, iucii refinance may be overcome
u by the weakeft tendency to uniform diffufion \ but if,
as feems moft likely, the obflruftion is like that of a
clammy fluid, or of a foft plaftic body like clay, after
the accumulation arifing from the aftion of an external
force, it may remain after that force is removed *, and the
diffafion will ceafe when there is a perfect equilibrium
between the obftruftion and the diftufing force.
As the illuftration of this theory in general cafes is
precifely fimilar, mutatis mutandis, with that of eleftri-
city, fo fully detailed under the article Electricity,
from N° 299. to 348. we need not repeat it here, but
may refer the reader to that treatife, requefting him
to eonflder the illuftration as relating to the magnetic
fluid.
It is proper, however, to remark here, that the phe¬
nomena of magnetifm are limited by this circum-
ftance 5 that magnets always contain their natural
quantity of fluid. Of courfe, their action on iron, and
on each other, depends entirely on its unequal diftri-
bution.
The moft important part of this theory is that which
explains the indudlion of magnetifm on iron and fteel
by juxtapofltion to a magnet; but before we can
properly enter on that, we muft notice fome other
particulars refpefting the theoretical part of our fub-
• So jeft.
L of A very material point in magnetifm, as in ele&ricity,
m ictic Js £0 afcertain the law of action, according to which this
1- power afts on the particles of iron and other matter $
and accordingly this has long been an objedl of atten¬
tion with philofophers. The difficulty of afcertaining
this law is extremely great, as will readily appear by
the following conftderation.
In the aftion of two magnets on each other, as A
and B, there are four different actions to be confidered
that act at the fame time, though with different de¬
grees of force, and in different direftions. Thus the
north pole of A repels the north pole of B, and at¬
tracts its fouth pole, while the fouth pole of A exerts
a repulfion on the fouth pole of B, and an attraction on
its north pole. Now the force, which we attempt to
meafure, is compounded of thefe four forces j and thefe
we cannot meafure feparately. The attraction obferved
is the excefs of twro attractions that are unequal above
two unequal repulfions, and v. v. with refpeCt to the
obferved repulfion. Further, if we refleCt that it is pof-
fible for a mutual aCtion to exift between every two par¬
ticles of the different magnets, and that the intenfity of
this aCtion may vary, not only at different diftances,
but at the fame diftance, the difficulty will be greatly
, st increafed.
ri- Numerous experiments have been made with a view
:J! sh^ °f afcertaining this law. Mr Cavallo has detailed many
‘ of thofe made by Mufchenbroeck but their refults are
fo anomalous, that their inaccuracy is apparent. In¬
deed, the attempt to afcertain this law by obferving
8i merely the attractions and repulfions, was very unphilo-
[ of awkf- fophical. The method employed by Mr Hawkfbee and
B k TaDr^r -^ro°k Taylor, viz. obferving how far the aftion of
'It ^ a magnet made a compafs needle deviate from the meri¬
dian at different diftances, was much more fcientific, as
this deviation is occafioned by the difference of the two
fums of the fame forces ; and this may be made many
times greater than the other, and muft of courfe be
E T I S M. 3 8 3
much more fenfible. The thape of the magnets em- Theory,
ployed by them was, however, very improper. Some ' ^
experiments made by Mr Lambert of the academy °f0f Lain
Berlin, were very judicious. He placed a magneticbert.
needle at various diftances from a magnet, but in the
direction of its axis, and marked the declination from
the magnetic line produced by the aCtion of the mag¬
net, and the obliquity of the magnet to the axis of the
needle. Thus the aCtion of the magnet and the natu¬
ral polarity of the needle were placed in oppofition and
equilibrium ; but the great difficulty was to difcover
the proportional change of thefe forces by their obli¬
quity of aCtion on this fmall lever.
Mr Lambert obferved, that when the obliquity of
the magnet to the axis of the needle was =30°, the
needle was made to decline 150 j and when the obli¬
quity was =750, the needle declined 30°. Let us call
the obliquity 0 and the declination d, and let us put Z'
for that funCtion of the angle which is proportional to
the aCtion. Alfo let us call the natural polarity of the
needle p, and the force of the magnet m. Then it is
evident that p x/: 15 = w* X/: 30; and p : m—
f 30 \f, 155 and for the fame reafon p : ni—f, 75 :
f, 30, and therefore/, 15 :/, 30=/ 30 :/, 75. But
fine 15 : 30z=fine 30 : r 75 ; hence Mr Lambert con¬
cluded, that the fne was that funCtion of the angle
which was proportional to the aCtion of magnetifm on
a lever. As this point, however, could not be deter¬
mined by one experiment, he compared feveral other
obliquities and declinations with the fame diftances, and
with different diftances of the magnet, and fully proved
that he was right in his conjeCture.
The refultof Mr Lambert’s experiments fully proves
the fallacy of the theories of impulfion, which pretend
to explain magnetic aCtion by the impelling power of a
ftream of fluid, or by preffure produced by the motion
of fuch a ftream 5 as in fuch a cafe the preffure on the
needle muft have diminifhed in the duplicate ratio of
the fine ; or with the angle 90° the directive power
muft have been four times as much as with the angle
of 30°, whereas it is (hewn by obfervation to be only
twice as much.
When Mr Lambert had afcertained the effeCt of ob¬
liquity, he proceeded to examine that of diftance ; and
he found, that if we put/for the force of the magnet,
and ^ for the diftance of the neareft pole of the magnet
from the centre of the needle, and a for a conftant
quantity nearly equal to two-thirds of the length of the
needle,/will be proportional to —«*).
Dr Robifon endeavoured to inveftigate this law in a Dr Robi-
very fimple maimer. He caufed to be made fome mag-fen’s nvdt:-
nets confifting of two balls connected by a {lender rod. SatIons.
By a particular mode of impregnation (which we fup-
pofe to be quenching them, after being red hot, be¬
tween two magnets) he gave them a pretty good mag¬
netifm ; and the force of each pole appeared to be near¬
ly confined to the centre of the ball, which was his ob¬
ject in making them of fuch a fliape, as it reduced the
examination of their attractive and directive power to a
very eafy computation. The refult of his experiments
was, that the force of each pole varied inverfely as the
fquares of the diftances, or at leaft the error arifing
from fuch an hypothefis was very fmall, amounting on¬
ly to one-fifteenth of the whole.
Dr Robifon made a near approximation to the law
of
3*4 ’ ; MAG N
liienry. r f action, by fuppofing that the fun&ion of the diftance
v expreffing that law, reprefented by the ordinates of a
curve fmblar to the hyperbola, referred to its aflymp-
tote as an axis, towards which its curve was of courfe
always convex. On this fuppofition he explained the
attractions and repulfions of magnets nearly in the fol-
S - lowing manner :
Picture of Let there be two magnets, A and B (fig. 26.) pla-
the mague- ced fo that their four poles, S, N, n, may be in a
Fi°- 0j6eS' ^ne* Now, on the flraight line O q take O w,
0 0/>, O n, O q=Ns, Nn, S s, S n ; and let MPNQ be a
curve line, whofe afymptotic axis is the faid line O q.
D raw the ordinates m M, /> P, N <7 to the curve,
and thefe will reprefent the intenfities of the forces ex¬
erted between the poles of the magnets, lire distance
between w, /?, or between p and q~ the length of the
magnet A, and tnp ov n q— that of B, and M m, P/>,
N and are pairs of ordinates that are equally
diflant. Now, it is eafy to fee from the figure, that in
■whatever fituation the pairs of cquidiftant ordinates may
be, M m + &<? will always exceed P/>-j-N n, or the
fum of the attractions will be always greater than that
of the repulfions.
Let the chords MQ, PN, MP, N£) be drawn. Bi-
fect them in B, D, E, E, and join EF. Draw the or¬
dinates E e, Ff, and BD (cutting EF in C). Draw
P « parallel to the axis, cutting E e in s. Draw alfo
Qi parallel to the axis, cutting Ff in <p. Alfo draw
FHL parallel to the axis, and F 0 t parallel to Q^N 5
and draw PL /, and F ex, cutting M m in /and x.
Let each ordinate be reprefented by the letter at its
interfeCHon with the axis. Thus, the ordinates M m
and £) <7 may be reprefented by m and q, &c. Be-
caufe MP is bifeCled in E, M ^ is double of E s, M /
is double EL, and M x double of E e. Again, P t
being parallel to £)«, and Fu to Q z', tu equals
N i.
S6 If thefe ordinates are fuppofed to reprefent the mu¬
tual aClion of the magnetic poles, their tendency to or
from each other, that is, their attraClions or repulfions,
may be expreffed by (z/z-f-?)—(w+/0 which reprefent
the excefs of the fum of the aCtions of the neareft and
mofl remote poles above the fum of the aClion of the in¬
termediate diftant poles. This tendency may often be
conveniently reprefented by (zz—p) — (zz—q~) or the ex¬
cefs of the difference of the aCtions exerted by the near¬
eft pole of A on the two poles of B, above the differ¬
ence of the aClions of the remote pole of A on the fame
poles of B. Now, 1. If we fuppofe the diflimilar poles
of A and B to front each other, wz-f*y will reprefent
attractions, and /> + zzz repulfions', but m-\-q is greater
than p-\-n, therefore A and B will attraCt each other.
Again (pn-\-q)—(/>-}-zz) equals M /, = 2 E 0 = 2 BD
= 4 CD.
The above aCtion will be increafed by any one of
four circumftances, as, 1. By increafing the ftrength of
either magnet. 2. By leffening the diftance between
the two magnets. 3. Increafing the length of A, the
diftance between it and B remaining the fame. 4. By
increafing the length of B, the diftance between it and
A remaining the fame.
2dly, Let us place the magnets, fo that their fimilar
poles front each other. Here it is evident that the or¬
dinates which in the for er cafe reprefented attrac¬
tions, will now reprefent repulfions, and that the repel-
£ T I S M.
Cliap. Hi,
ling forces of the magnets are equal to the former at- Theorv.
trading forces at the fame diftances. As magnets are v-—
feldom perfeCt, the repelling forces are, however, ufual-
ly weaker than the attrading.
To explain the diredive power of magnets, Dr R0-E
bifon luppofed the magnet A not to be at liberty to ap-tion ofdl
pi-oaeh B or recede from it, but to be fupported at itsr<;ft>ve
centre B, fo as to turn round it. Now, its fouth polel?ower'
s being more attracted by N than it is repelled by S,
B is on the whole attraded by A, and by this attrac¬
tion would vibrate like a pendulum fupported at the
centre B. Again, the north pole zz being repelled by
N more than it is attraded by S, will be on the whole
repelled, and B zz would alfo vibrate round B. Thus B
would be kept in the pofition r B zz. This will be more
evident if we fuppofe the magnet B arranged at right
angles to the line AB, as in the dotted reprefentation
/ B zz' 5 for now s' and zz' are urged in oppofite con-
ipiring diredions with equal forces, which, if the mag¬
net be very fmall, will ad nearly at right angles to zz'j'.
If the pofition were oblique, the forces would be fome-
what unequal; and allowances muft be made for the ob¬
liquity of the adion, that we may know the precife ro¬
tative momentum. This modification of the adion of
A on B, we call the diredive power of A j and the
modification of B, by which it tends to or from A, we
call the polarity of B.
Now, the diredive power of A and the polarity of
B may be increafed, I* By increafing the ftrength of
either A or B, or both 5 2. By diminithing the diftance
between A and B •, 3. By increafing the length of A;
and, 4. By diminilhing the length of B, the diftance be¬
tween them remaining the fame.
We may remark, that the diredive power of A is
always greater than its attradive power, by a certain
meafure which we may reprefent by the formula
2 (p—y) which is thus derived. The difference be¬
tween them may be expreffed by 11—2 0 L ; but s e~
P p—p, and i L—:P p—F f—F p—£) q—F <p—P p—
Q <7 — os: therefore 0 L P p—Q q, and 11 —
This pidure of the forces, attentively examined, will
fuggeft to the reader many interefting and inftrudive jg
particulars. Dr Robifon ufed to relate a curious and Curious
inftrudive phensmenon that he was long puzzled toP^er‘omeai
explain, refpeding the mutual adion of large magnets. non‘
Amufing himfelf with fome experiments rm magnetifm,
with two large ftrong magnets, as AB. fig. 27. which
were placed at about the diftance of three inches with
their oppofite poles fronting each other, he had placed
a fmall needle balanced on a point between them as at
D, which arranged itfelf in the fame line with the mag¬
nets j but happening to fet it off to a confiderable dif¬
tance on the table, as at F, he was furprifed to fee it
inftantly turn round on the point, and arrange itfelf in
an oppofite diredion. When brought back to D, it
reaffumed its former pofition, but when he carried it
out gradually along the line DF, perpendicular to N s,
he found it grow fenfibly more feeble, vibrating more
flowly j and when arrived at a certain point E, it Ihew-
ed no polarity towards either A or B, but retained any
pofition given it: but when carried farther out, it again
acquired polarity to the magnets, though in a contrary
diredion, arranging itfelf parallel to NS, with its
north pole next to N, and fouth pole next to S. Being
interrupted
—
8p
' of ac-
III. M A G N
interrupted in the profecution of this experiment, but
having marked the line DF on the table, he afterwards
replaced the magnets and needle, placing the latter
at E, where he expedited it to be neutral j but it now
turned its north pole towards B, and did not become
neutral till carried further out. When handing there,
fomething happened to move the magnets A and B,
■which intlantly ruflied together, and at the fame
inftant the needle turned itfelf brilkly, and arranged
itfelf as before at F. In fliort, by gradually withdraw¬
ing the magnets from each other, he found that the
needle firll became weaker, then neutral, and then
turned into the oppofite polition.
Dr Robifon explained -this curious phenomenon by
what he calls primary and fecondary magnetic curves,
fuch as NHM, NEL, and SGK, SEI ; but our limits
do net permit us to enter here on the inveftigation of
thefe curves.
From all Dr Robifon’s experiments and calculations,
nproba- he appears to have been fully convinced, that the true
■ in- Jaw of magnetic action is in the inverfe duplicate ratio
"fely a! of the di/lances, and his opinion is ftill farther ilrer.gthen-
ibe di- fhe ingenious experiments of M. Coulomb related
nces. in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at Paris
for 1786 and 1787, or the Jour, de Phi/, vol. xliii.
We are now prepared to examine the induftlon of
magnetifm in iron or tleel by juxtapofition to a magnet,
the general fafts of which are mentioned and illuilrated
in N° 44.
It was remarked in N° 46. that the indu&ion of mag¬
netifm in the iron by being near a magnet was not pro¬
duced by a transference of fomething from the magnet
to the iron. It follows that there mull be fome inhe¬
rent property in iron, which is only excited, as it were,
or roufed into aftion, by the proximity of the magnet.
it has been remarked, that the magnetifm of iron is
momentary ; but this muft be underftood only of the
fined and pured iron, as when this metal is in the date
of ore, or has undergone any change, as by expofure to
the air, or by cementation, its magnetifm becomes
permanent, in proportion to the hardnefs of the me¬
tal.
It is of great importance to obferve that the acquifi-
gnetifm tion of induced magnetifm is gradual and progredive,
dual and that this gradation is more perceptible according as
the iron is in a harder date. In foft iron the induftion
appears to be indantaneous throughout, unlefs the bar
be exceedingly long •, but when a magnet is brought
near a bar of tempered deel, the near end acquires a
contrary polarity long before the remote end appears
affefted, and it is a long time before the remote end
acquires the fame polarity with the proximate end of
9I the magnet.
In at- From what has been faid we may infer, that a piece
ded on- of iron brought near a magnet, is attracted only be-
lecomes cau^e ^ becomes magnetical by induction, and that
gnetical.^6 attra<^ir)u of a loaddone for iron, or the tendency
of iron to the loaddone, is the confequence of the pro¬
per difpofition of the magnetifm induced in the iron.
It has already appeared, that this phenomenon arifes
from the excels of two attradlions above two repulfions,
and this is farther proved by the following confidera-
tions: 1. That the magnetilm of the two poles is evi¬
dently of an oppofite nature, the one attracting what
the other repels, and vice verfa. If a piece of iron is
Vol. XII. Part I.
90
luced
9*
E T I S M.
attracted by one, it ought therefore to be repelled by
the other} but each pole, by inducing on the near end
of the iron a magnetifm oppofite to its own, and on the
remote end a fimilar magnetifm, and its aCiion duni-
nilhing as the didance increafes, the attraction mud
always be in excefs, and the iron mud on the whole be
attracted. 2. When we have two magnets placed in a
parallel pofition, with their oppofite poles together,
if a piece of common iron be brought near their extre¬
mities, the different poles counteracting each other, the
piece of iron will not be fupported by the two magnets
together, unlefs there is an inequality of aCtion 5 but it
is evident that either of them alone would be capable
of fupporting the iron. 3. In all the cafes where the
induCtion of magnetifm is flow, the attraction is pro¬
portionally weak, and the attraction inereafes exaCtly
according to the increafe of the progredive induction.
4. An ore of iron that is not capable of acquiring
magnetifm, is not attracted by the magnet, and on the
other hand it is an univerfal faCt, that no fubftance
which is not attracted by the magnet, can be rendered
magnetical.
The induCtion of raagnetifm by juxtanofition affords ^rninge*
a complete explanation of the curious arrangement ofment
• 1 , ^ T r P iron filings
iron tilings round a magnet. Bet us iuppote a great eKpiaineja
many fmall oblong pieces of iron to be lying near each
other on the furface of mercury, and that a drong
magnet be brought into the midd of them. They are
all immediately rendered magnetical by induCtion; any
one that is neared the north pole of the magnet acquiring
two poles, one a north and the other a fouth pole, tyrns
the fouth pole towards the north pole of the magnet,
and the north pole away from it 3 a fimilar effeCt is pro¬
duced on another piece or filing that lies near the fird,
and fo on of the red. All thofe that lie near eac*h
other mud mutually attract, as the magnetifm of each
is fo difpofed that both ends of it are in a date of at¬
traction towards one or other of its neighbours. They
will therefore arrange themfelves by coalefcence in a
particular manner; if they are near enough, they will
unite by their extremities, and if they are at fome di¬
dance they will point towards each other, forming
curved lines. ^
It is found that the magnetifm of magnets, whether Magnetifas
natural or artificial, is continually tending to decay. c ‘' be re-
Now as we find that this magnetifm may be inducedvet^*
merely by the approach of a magnet, and as we know
that in producing magnetifm, magnets may oppofe each
other, it is reafonable to conclude, that when a flight
though permanent magnetifm has been acquired by a
piece of iron by its vicinity to a magnet, it may be
dedroyed, and the contrary magnetifm induced, by
applying a magnet in the oppofite dire&ion. Accord¬
ingly it is a well-known faCI, that the poles of magnets
made of foft deel can be reverfed at pleafure.
This explains why magnetic repulfion is always
weaker than attraction at the fame diffanCe, as magnets,
when placed with their fimilar poles fronting each
other, in order to try their repulfion, are thereby weak¬
ened ; whereas, on the contrary, magnets applied with
their oppofite pi les, fo as to attraCt each other, are
thereby improved, and their attradive powers are
made to appear greater than they really are.
It has been obferv* d that a magnet is not weakened
by inducing magnetifm on iron. In fact, it is rather
3 C improved
386 M A G N
, fhgory- , improved by fuch indu£tion, and this will increafe the
effedt j for as the magnet is improved, the induced
magnetifm of the iron will be thereby increafed, and
thus the magnet will be thus farther improved.
After what has been faid, we need not enter further
into an explanation of the phenomena, or of the pro-
ceffes employed in making artificial magnets. They
are all referable to this one faft of the induflion of
magnetifm by juxtapofition, and explanations will rea-
dily fuggeft tbemfelves to readers who carefully confi-
der the preceding fafls, and compare them with Dr
94 Gilbert’s theory of terreftrial magnetifm.
Objection It is now time for us to return to Dr Gilbert’s hypo-
mao- an<^ confider an objection that has been ftrongly
nctifrn anl Urfed againft it-
fv/ered. There is obferved no tendency in the magnetic needle
towards the great terreftrial magnet, that is, though,
when made to float on water, it fpeedily acquires diredlive
power, it does not in thefe latitudes approach the north
fide of the veffel, nor does an iron bar appear heavier
’.vhen its fouth pole is uppermoft, as ought to be the
cafe on account of the attraction of the great magnet.
Dr Gilbert faw this objection, and it appears to have
given him fome concern. He attempted to get rid of
it by obferving that the directive power of a magnet is
greater than its attractive force ; a faCt in fupport of
which he brings many experiments. A much more
fatisfaCtory anfwer may be derived from what has been
Hated refpeCting the aCtions of the four poles. We
thence find, that the polarity of the needle depends on
the difference of the funis of the aCtions of each pole of
the magnet on both poles of the needle j whereas its
tendency towards the magnet arifing from the attraction
between them, depends on the difference of the differ-
snces of the fame aCtions. Hence the former may be
very great, while the latter is very fmall. We find
that fmall iron filings are much lefs forcibly attracted
by magnets than coarfe ones, and, if we confider that
the largeft magnets which we employ do not bear fo
great a proportion to the earth, as the fineft iron filings
to an ordinary magnet, we fhall not wonder that the
attractive power of the earth is not very fenfible.
As this objection is one of the ftrongeft that can be
brought againft the theory, and as we may confider
this as done away, we may now receive the theory as
juft fo far as it goes. We muft remark, that though
we call that pole of a magnet which inclines towards
the earth in the northern latitudes, a north pole, it is
properly fpeaking a fouth pole j for as we muft call
that pole of the great magnet the north pole which is
in the north, and as this pole produces the contrary
polarity in the proximate end of a needle, that end muft
be poffeffed of fouth polarity. We fhall return to this
fubjeCt in the article Variation.
Some valuable obfervations on terreftrial magnetifm
have lately been made in France by M. M. Humboldt
and Biot, and as they would fuffer materially by a-
bridgement, we fhall prefent our readers with the great-
eft part of the memoir nearly as tranflated in the Phi-
lofophical Magazine, vol. xxii.
Obferva- After explaining the objeCt of the memoir, and
tiom of giving an account of the ihare ihat he had in conduCl-
and biot. t^e °bfervations, M. Biot proceeds as follows
It. is neceffary to confider the aClion of terreftrial
E T I S M. Chap, m
magnetifm under different points of view, correfpond- Theory
ing to the different claffes of the phenomena which it 
produces. ^
If we confider it firft in general, we find that itMa&netifn
aCls on the whole furface of the globe, and that it ex-a<^s,ontllf
tends beyond it. This faCl, which was doubted, has flcet/TI
been lately proved by M. Guy-Luflac, during his two globe! ' 1
aeroftatic voyages. And if thefe obfervations, made
with all the care poflible, have not fhewn the leaft fen¬
fible diminution in the intenfity of the magnetic force,
at the greateft height to which man can attain, we
have a right to conclude that this force extends to an
indefinite diftance from the earth, where it decreafes,
perhaps, in a very rapid manner, but which at prefent
is unknown to us.
If we now confider magnetifm at the furface even
of the earth, we fhall find three grand claffes of pheno¬
mena which it is neceffary to ftudy feparafely, in order
to have a complete knowledge of its mode of adlion.
Thefe phenomena are, the declination of the magnetic
needle, its inclination, and the intenfity of the magne¬
tic force, confidered either comparatively in different
places or in themfelves, paying attention to the varia¬
tions which they experience. It is thus that, after hav¬
ing difcovered the action of gravity as a central force,
its variation, refulting from the figure of the earth,
was afterwards afcertained in different latitudes.
The declination of the magnetic needle appears to
be that phenomenon which hitherto has more particu¬
larly fixed the attention of philofophers, on account, no
doubt, of the afliftance which they hoped to derive
from it in determining the longitude j but when it was
known that the declination changes in the fame place,
in the courfe of time, when its diurnal variations were
remarked, and its irregular traverfing occafioned by
different meteors, in a word, the difficulty of obferving
it at fea, within one degree nearly, it was neceffary to
abandon that hope, to confider the caufe of thefe phe¬
nomena as much more complex and abflrufe than had
been at firft imagined. 5_
In regard to the intenfity of the magnetic power Magnetic [l
in different parts of the earth, it has never yet beenPowerin' jl
meafured in a comparative manner. The obfervations
of M. Humboldt on this fubjeft have difcovered a very [0r to tfce i
remarkable phenomenon *, it is the variation of the in- poles,
tenfity in different latitudes, and its increafe proceed¬
ing from the equator to the poles.
The eompafs, indeed, which at the departure of
M. Humboldt gave at Paris 245 ofcillations in 10 mi¬
nutes, gave no more in Peru than 211, and it con-
ftantly varied in the fame direction ; that is to fay, the
number of the ofcillations always decreafed in approach¬
ing the equator, and always increafed in advancing to¬
wards the north.
Thefe differences cannot be afcribed to a diminution
of the for e in the magnetifm of the compafs, nor can
we fuppofe that it is weakened by the effect of time and
of heat; for after three years refidence in the warmeft
countries of the earth, the fame compafs gave again in
Mexico ofcillations as rapid as at Paris.
There is no reafon to doubt the juftnefs of M.
Humboldt’s obfervations, for he often obferved the
olcillations in the vertical plane perpend cular to that
meridian j and by decompofing the magnetic force in
the
I lap.
lieory.
;netic
ator.
Ill, M A G N
the latter plane, and comparing it with its total adlion,
which is exercifed in the former, we may from thefe
data calculate its direction, and confequently the di¬
rection of the needle (c). This inclination, thus calcu¬
lated, is found always comformable to that which M.
Humboldt obferved direftly. When he made his ex¬
periments, however, he could not forefee that they
would be fubjefted to this proof by which M. Laplace
verified them.
As the juftnefs of thefe obfervations cannot be
oontefted, we mutt allow alfo the truth of the refult
which they indicate, and which is the increafe of the
magnetic force proceeding from the equator to the
poles.
, nboIdt-s To follow thefe refults with more facility, it wdll
Xrmina- be proper to fet out from a fixed term *, and it appears
1 of the natural to make choice for that purpofe of the points
where the inclination of the magnetic needle is null,
becaufe they feem to indicate the places where the op-
pofite aftion of the two terreftrial hemifpheres is equal.
The feries of thefe points forms on the furface of the
earth a curved line, which differs very fenfibly from the
terreftrial equator, deviating from it to the fouth of the
Atlantic ocean, and to the north in the fouth fea. M.
Humboldt found this equator in Peru about 70 T S. Lat.
which for that part of the earth places it nearly in the
fpot where Wilke and Lemounier had fixed it.
The places fituated to tile north of that point may
be divided into four zones, the three firft of which, be¬
ing nearer the equator, are about 40 of latitude, while
the latter, more extenfive and more variable, is 140.
So that the fyftem of thefe zones extends in America
from the magnetic equator to 230 of north latitude,
and comprehends in longitude an interval of about
50°.
The firft zone extends from 70 i' of fouth lati¬
tude to 20 54'. The mean number of the ofcillations
of the needle in the magnetic meridian in io' of time
is there 211.9 : no obfervation gives lefs than 21 x, or
more than 214. From M. Humboldt’s obfervations
one might form a fimilar zone on the fouth fide of
the magnetic equator, which would give the fame re¬
fults.
The fecond zo^e extends from 2° 13' of fouth la-
E T I S M.
tiude to 30 ij7 of nbrth latitude. The mean term of
the ofcillations is there 217.9: they are never below
210, nor above 226.
The fourth zone, broader than the other two, ex¬
tends from 90 15' to 230 8' of north latitude. Its
mean term is 237 : it never prefents any obfervaticn
below 229, nor above 240.
We are unacquainted, in regard to this part of the
earth, with the intenfity of the magnetic force beyond
the latitude of 230 north ; and on the other hand, in
Europe, where we have obfervations made in high lati¬
tudes, we have none in the neighbourhood of the equa¬
tor ; but we will not venture to compare thefe two
claftes of obfervations, which may belong to different
fyftems of forces, as will be mentioned hereafter.
However, the only comparifon of refults, colle&ed
in America by M. Humboldt, appears to us to efta-
blifh with certainty the increafe of the magnetic force
from the equator to the poles j and, without wilhing to
connect them too clofely with the experiments made in
Europe, we muft remark, that the latter accord fo far
alfo with the preceding as to indicate the phenomenon.
If we have thus divided the obfervations into zones
parallel to the equator, it is in order that we may more
eafily fhew the truth of the fadl which refults from
them, and in particular to render the demoftration in¬
dependent of thofe fmall anomalies which are inevitably
mixed with thefe refults.
Though thefe anomalies are very trifling, they are
however, fo fenfible, and fo frequently occur, that
they cannot be afcribed entirely to errors in the obfer¬
vations. It appears more natural to afcribe them to the
influence of local circumftances, and the particular at-
traftions exercifed by collections of ferruginous mat¬
ters, chains of mountains, or by the large maffes of the
continents.
One of them, indeed, having carried to the Alps the
magnetic needle employed in an aerial excurfion, he
found that its tendency to return to the magnetic meri¬
dian was conftantly ftronger in thefe mountains than it
was at Paris before his departure, and than it has been
found fince his return. This needle, which made at
Paris 83.9° in io' of time, has varied in the following
manner in the different places to which it was carried.
3 C 2 Places
(c) Let HOC (fig, 28.) be the plane of the magnetic meridian palling through the vertical OC ; let OL be
the direction of the needle fituated in that plane, and OH a horizontal. The angle LOH will be the inclina¬
tion of the needle, which we {hall denote by I. If F reprefent the total magnetic force which aCts in the di¬
rection OL, the part of this force which aCts according to OC, will be F fine of I: but the magnetic forces
which determine the ofcillations of the needle in any plane, are to each other as the fquares of the ofcillations
made in the fame time. If we denote them by M, the number of ofcillations made in 10' of time in the magne¬
tic meridian, and by P, the number of ofcillations made alfo in xo', in the perpendicular plane, we lhallhave the
following proportion:
F fin. I P*
from whence we deduce
F ~
Sin. I r=
M*
P»
M1'
The inclination then may be calculated by this formula, when we have ofcillations made in the fame planes.
In like manner, by making a needle ofcillate fucceflively in feveral vertical planes, we might determine the
direction of the magnetic meridian.
MAGNETISM.
99
Terreftrial
Number of- Ofcil/ations in
I o' oj Tune.
83-9
- 87.2
88.2
87.4
87-3
86.5
84.5
• 83.9.
experiments were made with the greateft
Tlaces of Ohfervation.
Paris, before his departure,
Turin,
On Mount Genevre,
Grenoble,
Lyons,
Geneva,
Dijon,
Paris, on his return,
Thefe a 
SSfbyCare’ c,.,nj°intly with excellent obfervers, and "always
local dr- employing the fame watch verified by fmall pendulums,
cumftances. ant^ taking the mean terms between feveral feriefes of
obfervations, which always differed very little from
each other. It appears thence to refult, that the aclion
of the Alps has a fenfible influence on the intenfity of
the magnetic force. M. Humboldt obferved analo¬
gous efledls at the bottom of the Pyrenees $ for example,
at Perpignan. It is not improbable that they arofe
from the mafs of thefe mountains, or the ferruginous
matters contained in them j but whatever may be the
caufe, it is feen by thefe examples that the general
action of terreltrial magnetifm is fenfibly modified by
local circumflances, the differences of which may be
perceived in places very little diflant from each other,
ihis truth will be further confirmed by the following
obfervations.
^ It is to caufes of tiffs kind, no doubt, that we muff
aferibe the diminution of the magnetic forces obferved
in fome mountains 5 a diminution which, on the firft
view, might appear contrary to the refults obtained du¬
ring various aerial voyages. Thisconje&ure is fupported
by feveral obfervations of M. Humboldt. By making
his needle to ofcillate on the mountain of Guadaloupe,
which rifes 338 toifes above Santa-Fe, he found it in
10' of time give two ofcillations lefs than in the plain.
At Silla, near Caracas, at the height of 1316 toifes
above the coaft, the diminution went fo far as five of¬
cillations ; and on the other hand, on the volcano of
Antifana, at the height of 2467 toifes, the number of
ofcillations in 10 minutes was 230 j though at Quito
?t was only 218, which indicates an increafe of inten¬
fity. A fimilar effuff was obferved on the fumnfft of
Mount Genevre, at the height of 800 or 900 toifes, as
may be feen from the numbers already given 5 and on
this mountain M. Biot found the greateft intenfity of
the magnetic force. He faw on the hill of La Super-
ga, in the. neighbourhood of Turin, an example of
thefe variations equally ftriking. Oblerving, with Vaf-
fali, on this hill, at the elevation of 300 toifes, they
found 87 ofcillations in jo minutes of time. On the
fide of the hill they had 88.8 ofcillations, and at the
bottom, on the bank of the Po, they obtained 87.3.
L hough thefe refults approach very near to each other,
their difference is, however, fenfible, and fully (hews
that their final] variations muff be confidered as flight
anomalies produced by local circumftances.
Phis examination leads us to confider the intenfity of
magnetifm on the different points of the furface of the
globe, as fubjeft to two forts of differences. One kind
are general j they depend merely on the fituation of the
places in regard to the magnetic equator, and belong to
a general phenomenon, which is the increafe of the in-
5
hap. II]
tenfity of the magnetic forces in proportion as we re- iheer
move from the equator $ the other kind of variations
which aie much imaller and altogetlier irregular, feem
to depend entirely on local circumftances, and modify
either more or lets the general refults.
If we confider terreitrial magnetifm as the effedt of
an attra&ive force inherent in ail the material particles
of the globe, or only in fome of thefe particles, which
we are far from determining, the general law will be
the total relult of the lyftem of attraction of all the par¬
ticles, and the fmall anomalies will be produced by the
particular attraaions of the partial fyftems of the mag¬
netic moleculae diffufed irregularly around each point}
attractions rendered more fenfible by the diminution of
the diftance.
It now remains to confider the inclination of the
magnetic needle in regard to the horizontal plane. It
has been long known that this inclination is not every
where the fame $ in the northern hemifphere the needle
inclines towards the north ; in the foathern towards the
fouth ; the. places where it becomes horizontal form
the magnetic equator j and thofe where the inclination
is equal, but not null, form on each fide of that equa¬
tor curved lines, to which the name of magnetic paral¬
lels has been given, from their analogy to the terreftri¬
al parallels. One may fee in feveral works, and parti¬
cularly in that of Lemounier, entitled Lois du Mag?ie-
tifme, the figure of thefe parallels, and their difpofition
on the face of the earth.
. ^ evidently refults from this difpofition, that theinchmtion
inclination is in proportion as we recede from the magne- of the
tic equator j but the law which it follows in its increafe r,fecile in*
has not yet, as far as appears to us, been given. To’crearts iS.
afeertain this law, however, would be of great utility ;S7he
for the inclination feems to be the moft conftant of all magnetic
the magnetic phenomena, and it exhibits much fewer eclaator‘
anomalies than the intenfity. Befides, if any rule well
confirmed could be difeovered on this fubjedl, it might
be employed with advantage at fea to determine the la¬
titude, when the weather does not admit an obfervation
of the fun ; which is the cafe in various places during
the greater part of the year. We have fome reafon to
expect this application, when we fee the delicacy of
that indication in the obfervations of M. Humboldt
where we find 35' 6" of difference between two towns
fo near each other as Nifmes and Montpellier. Thefe
motives have induced us to ftudy with great interefl the
feries of obfervations made by M. Humboldt in regard
to the inclination ; and it appears to us that they may
be reprefented very exadtly by a mathematical hypothe-
fis, to which we are far from attaching any reality in
itfelf, but which we offer merely as a commodious and
fure mode of connedling the refults.
> difeover this law, we mult firft exadUy deter¬
mine the pofition of the magnetic equator, which is as
an intermediate line between the northern and the
fouthern inclinations. For this purpofe we have the
advantage of being able to compare two diredt obferva¬
tions, one of La Peroufe, and the other of M. Hum¬
boldt. The former found the magnetic equator on the
coafts of Brafil at io° 57' of fouth latitude, and 25° 23'
of weft longitude, counted from the meridian of Paris,
The latter found the fame equator in Peru at 70 1' of
fouth latitude, and 8o° 41' of weft longitude, alfo rec¬
koning from the fame meridian. Thefe data are fuffi-
cient
iap. IN. M A G N I
f'heory. cicnt to calculate the pofition of the magnetic equator,
■"V*"' fuppofing it to be a great circle of the terreftrial fphere $
an hypothelis which appears to be conformable to ob-
fervations. The inclination of this plane to the terref-
trial equator is thus found to be equal to io° 58' 56",
and its occidental node on that equator is at 120° 2' 5"
weft from Paris, which places it a little beyond the
continent of America, near the Gallipagos, in the South
fea ; the other node is at 590 57' 55" to the eaft of Pa¬
ris, which places it in the Indian Teas (d).
“ We do not give this determination as rigoroufly
exaft; fome corrections might no doubt be made to it,
had we a greater number of obfervations equally pre-
cife j but we are of opinion that thefe corrections would
be very fmall, and it will be feen afterwards that, in¬
dependently of the confidence which the two obferva¬
tions we have employed deferve, we have other reafons
for entertaining this opinion (e).
“ It is very remarkable that this determination of
the magnetic equator agrees almoft perfectly with that
given long ago by Wilke and Lemounier. The latter
in particular, who for want of direft obfervations had
difcufied a great number of correfponding obfervations,
indicates the magnetic equator in Peru towards 70 201
of fouth latitude, and M. Humboldt found it in the
fame place at 70 i'j befides, Lemounier’s chart, as well
as that of M. Wilke, indicates for the inclination of the
magnetic meridian about 11°, and they place the node
about 140° of weft longitude, reckoned from the meri¬
dian of Paris.
“ Can it be by chance, then, that thefe elements,
found more than 40 years ago, Ihould accord fo well
with ours founded on recent obfervations ? or does the
inclination of the magnetic equator experience only
very fmall variations, while all the other fymptoms of
terreftrial magnetifm change fo rapidly ? We ftiould
T I S M.
not be far from admitting the latter opinion, when we
confider that the inclination of the magnetic needle has
changed at Paris 30 in 60 years fince it has been ob-
ferved ; and that at London, according to the oblerva-
tions of Mr Graham, it has not changed 2° in 200
years, while the declination has varied more than 2c0
in the fame interval, and has paffed from eaft to weft :
but on the other hand the obfervation of the inclination
is fo difficult to be made with exaftnefs, and it is fo
ftiort a time fince the art of meafuring it with pre-
cifion was known, that it is perhaps more prudent to
abftain from any premature opinion on phenomena, the
caufe of which is totally unknown to us.”
To employ the other obfervations of M. Humboldt
in regard to the inclination, the terreftrial latitudes
and longitudes reckoned from the magnetic equator
were firft reduced. The latter, being reckoned from
the node of that equator in the South fea, M, Biot firft;
perceived by thefe calculations that the pofition of that
plane determined by preceding refearches was pretty
exaft ; for fome of the places, fuch as Santa-Fe and
Javita, where M. Humboldt obferved inclinations aimoft
equal, were found nearly on the magnetic parallel, t hough
diftant from each other more than 6o° of longitude.
When thefe reduflions were made, M. Biot en¬
deavoured to reprefent the figns of the inclinations ob¬
ferved, and to leave as little to chance as poffible. He
firft tried a mathematical hypothefis conformable enough
to the idea which has hitherto been entertained in re¬
gard to terreftrial magnetifm.
He fuppofed in the axis of the magnetic equator,
and at an equal diftance from the centre of the earth,
two centres of attractive forces, the one auftral and the
other boreal, in fuch a manner as to reprefent the two
oppofite magnetic poles of the earth. He then calcu¬
lated the effeCt which ought to refult from the aCtion
of
Th .
(d) To calculate this pofition, let NEE' (fig. 29.) be the terreftrial equator ; NEIL the magnetic equator,
fuppoled alfo to be a great circle, and HL the two points of that equator, obferved by Meffrs Humboldt and
La Peroufe. The latitudes HE, LE', and the arc EE\ which is the difference of longitude of thefe two points,
is known ; consequently, if we fuppofe HE—LE'—<P, EE'zr'y, EN=:x, and the angle ENH^, we ftyall
have two fpherical triangles NEH, NE'L, which will give the two following equations ;
fm. „y—
tang, b cot. y
from which we deduce
and developing
R
fin. (#-}-;>) —
 tang b' cot. y
R
^ (.r-}-T»') tang, b'
tin. x tang. If
tang, b fin. v
cot. x~ -—-
cof.
tang.b
Let us now take an auxiliary angle tp, fo that we may have
tang, b fin. v
tang. <p—
fin. v
tang, b’ ’
fin. v fin.
tang, x— - ,   
" fin. (v—^>)
and we fliall have
By thefe equations we may find x, and then y, by any of the firft two.
(e'I La Peroufe. aHer having doubled Cape Horn, fell in a fecond time with the magnetic equator in 18' north
latitude, and 119° 7' of longitude weft from Paris. Tie was therefore very in ar the node of the magnetic equa¬
tor, fuch as w£ have deduced it from obfervntions. This f ft eftabli'hes' in a pofitiv* manner two important eon-
fequences: Fu <, that th -receding deirfmmnftt'os teg*.-re or.1% v. <7 flight cor reft ions; and the fecond, that the
magnetib equator is -realty a great cue' . not exaftly, at Icaft very nearly.
CQ g
<*■> ‘
Fig. 30.
M A G N
of tliefe centres m any point ox the furface of the earth,
making their attraftive force reciprocally vary as the
fquare of the dillance ; and in this manner he obtain¬
ed the direction r-f the refult of their forces, which
ought to be that alfo of the magnetic needle in that
latitude.
He fuppofes that the point B (fig. 30.) is the north
magnetic pole of the earth, and that the point A is the
fouth magnetic pole j he fuppofes alfo that there is in
tne point M, at the lurface of the earth, a molecula
of the auftral fluid which is attrafted by B and repel¬
led by A in the inverfe ratio of the fquare of the di-
ftance ; and he requires what will be the direction of
the power refulting from thefe two forces adting on
that molecula. It is evident that this diredtion will be
that alfo which would be affumed in the point M by
the needle of a compafs freely fufpended ; for, in con-
fequence of the fmallnefs of the needle in comparifon of
the radius of the earth, the lines drawn from its points
to one centre, B or A, may be confidered as parallel,
efpecially if the points A and B are near the centre of
the earth, which is the cafe with nature, as may be
feen.
He firfl: fuppofes that the earth has d fpherical fi¬
gure, and that the two poles A and B are equal in
force, and he then examines how far the latter fuppofi-
tion agrees with the refults obferved.
Let AM then = D', BM = D, CP = a?, PM = y,
the angle MCP=:», CA = CB=r a. He then makes
drrrKr; r being = the radius of the earth, and K a
conftant but indeterminate quantity.
Let; X, Y, alfo be the forces which attradf M in
the diredtion of the axes of the co-ordinates, and |8 the
angle which the refulting force makes with the axis
ABC. .
E T I S M, Chap, Ur,
. He then gives the following equations, in which F Theory.'
is the magnetic force, at a distance equal to unity. '■
K F
* = — cof. MBD— — cof. MAD J
+ 2 axis
Y = — fin. MBD—jr~fln. MAD 5
+ —■<?)’=: r*— 2 axis -f-a% or, by putting for
the colines their values :
^ F (x—a) F (jv -j-a)
~ D3 D"3
D3 D'3’
and as we have
Y
tang. /3 ~
we fliall have alfo
tang, ~
X’
_Y ^Y
D3 IF3
.v ci x -prr
y (D'3—D3)
D3 D'3 - (D'3—D3)—a (D'3 + D3) i
and by putting for x, y and a, their values, cof. u ; r
fin. u
fin. k, K r ,•
tang./3 =
—(SSS)-
tang. /3 =
D's = ;-l(I-f-2 K cof. a-f-K*) j
D* =7^(1—2 K cof. a-FK1) j
which gives the fyftem of the two equations,
fin. a
cof. a-
/D'3+D3\
K
D/3-f-D3\ _ (I + 2K cof. a-f-Kt)~^-f-(I—2K cona-fKaF
D/3-
-D3/
(I-}-2 K cof. a-j-K*)'2'—(I—2K cof. a-f-K) ^
K.
Thefe equations determine the diredfion of the mag¬
netic needle in regard to each point M, the diftance
of which from the magnetic equator is known $ but it
is feen that this diredtion depends on the quantity K,
which reprefents the drltance of the magnetic centres
from the centre of the earth ; this diltance being ex-
preffed in parts of the terreftrial radius, wre mult there¬
fore firlt determine this quantity from obfervations.
To do it in the manner of approximation, and thus
acquire a firlt idea of the value of K, M. Biot chofe
an obfervation made by M. Humboldt at Carichana in
6° 34' 5" of north latitude counted from the terreftrial
equator, and 70° 18' weft longitude reckoned from the
meridian of Paris, which gives 140 52'25" of longitude
counted from the magnetic equator, and 48° 51' 53" of
weft longitude, proceeding from the node formed by that
equator with the equator of the earth. The inclina¬
tion of the magnetic needle was obferved in that place
by M. Humboldt in the month of Meflidor, year 8,
and found to be equal to 33.78° of the centigrade divi-
fion. A comparifon of this refult with the other ob¬
fervations of M. Humboldt, (hews that it may indeed
be confidered as agreeing to that latitude.
2
To make ufe of it, M. Biot fucceffively gave to K
different values in the formula $ he calculated the in¬
clinations refulting from that latitude j and comparing
thefe refults with that which M. Humboldt really ob¬
ferved, the progrefs of the errors naturally led him to
the moft proper fuppolition. The following is a table
of thefe trials.
Values of K. Inclinations of the Needle. Errors.
K=I 7-73° 26.04
K=:o.6 18.80 I4*97
Kzro.j 22.04
K=co.2 29.38 4.39
K=o.i 30.64 3.13
Kzro.oi 31*04 2.73
K=o.ooi 3I‘°7 2.7
The firft value of K would place the centre of the
magnetic forces at the furface of the earth and the
poles of the magnetic equator. It is feen that this fup-
pofition cannot be admitted, becaufe it would give an
increafe of inclination much lefs rapid than that indi¬
cated by obfervations. The cafe is the fame with the
following
hap
Theory,
. III. M A G N
following refults, which place the centres of action on
the terreftrial radius at different diftances from the
centre of the earth j but it is feen alfo in general, that
they approach more and more to the truth in proportion
as this diftance becomes lefs •, which evidently (hews
that the two centres of aftion of the magnetic forces
are lituated near the centre of the earth. All the other
obfervations of M. Humboldt would alfo lead to the
fame confequence.
The moft proper fuppofition would be to make K
null, or fo fmall that it wmuld be needlefs to pay atten¬
tion to it} which amounts to the fame thing as to con-
fider the two centres of aftion placed, as we may fay,
in the fame molecula. The refult, indeed, obtained in
this manner is the moft exaft of all j it is =31.0843°^
this value is ftill a little lefs than that which M. Hum¬
boldt obferved, and the diflerence is =2.69 j but it
muft be confidered alfo that the formula from which
we derive thefe values fuppofes the pofition of the mag¬
netic equator is perfectly determined j but it may not
be fo with the utmoft exadtnefs, according to the two
only obfervations of La Peroufe and Humboldt, which
we have employed. It is therefore by ftudying the
progrefs of the formula, and comparing it with the ob¬
fervations, that we are able to appreciate it juftly 5 af¬
ter which we may think of remedying the fmall errors
with which it may be accompanied.
To obtain the refult here mentioned, and which is,
as it were, the limit of all thofe which may be obtained
by giving ro K different values, it is to be remarked
that the quantity
K
/DS-fDH
VD'3—DV ’
(I-f 2K cof. K-f-K*)7-f-(I—2K cof. u+K'y
IV 3 3
(I + 2K cof. w-j-K*)2—(I—2K cof. a-j-Kz)?
becomes ^ when K is null 5 but by applying to it the
methods of known quantities, it will be found that its
value in this fuppofttion is really determinate and
By fubftituting this in the formula we
3 cof. «*
lhall have
tang. /3—-
fin. u
cof. a—
3 col. a
an equation which may be reduced to this form :
tans-
fin. a
2a+|’
which will eafily give the value of /3 ; and when this
value is known, w’e ftiall have the inclination I, by the,
following formula :
I=ioo-f-«—/8,
which will ferve throughout the whole extent of the
twro hemifpheres.
From the progrefs thus traced out, it is feen that the
preceding formula is not merely an empyrie conftruc-
tion of obfervations j on the contrary, it is totally in¬
dependent, and only fuppofes the inclination of the
E T I S M.
magnetic needle to be produced by a magnet infinitely
fmall, placed in the centre of the terreftrial lurface j
but by calculating from this formula the inclination for
the different latitudes, M. Biot found precifely the
fame numbers as M. Humboldt obferved either in Eu¬
rope or America j and it is not his obfervations only
that are reprefented in this manner *, but thofe which
have been made in Ruflia, and at Kola in Lapland,
during the laft tranfit of Venus, are alfo comprehended
under the fame law.
It is feen that the refults of the formula deviate very
little from the obfervations j but thefe differences may
be rendered ftill fmaller. By examining, indeed, the
progrefs of the errors, it is feen that the numbers given
by calculation are a little too fmall in America for the
low latitudes, and a little too great for the high lati¬
tudes, which (hews that the whole may be allowed,
with fome flight modifications, either by changing,
however little, the node and inclination of the magne¬
tic equator, which two obfervations cannot determine
with the utmoft exaflnefs, or by difplacing ever fo
little our fmall magnet, leaving, however, its centre
in the plane of the magnetic equator, and placing it in
fuch a manner that it (hall be a little nearer America
than Europe. It is by thefe obfervations themfelves,
when we (hall have a greater number, that we muft be
guided in thefe fmall corrections.
In a word, it muft not be expeCted that we can re-
prefent in a rigorous manner, by a mathematical law,
all the inclinations obferved •, for the phenomenon of
the inclination, though more regular than the other
magnetic effeCts, is not free from fome anomalies j this
may be eafily feen on conftruCting the curve given by
the obfervations themfelves. Thus, for example, the
inclination obferved at Popayan is 0° ic/ greater than
at St Carlos del Rio Negro, though the magnetic la¬
titude of the latter is 30 7' greater. The cafe is the
fame with obfervations made at Javita and Santa Fe.
Other anomalies are difeovered in the comparative pro¬
grefs of the obfervations and formula. This is the cafe
in regard to Carichana, St Thomas de la Guyane, and
Carthagena. The increafe of the inclination from the
firft to the fecond of thefe points is by no means in har¬
mony with the increafe from the fecond to the third j
and if we compare together the intenfities obferved in
thefe different places, the anomalies they exhibit an¬
nounce in fome meafure thofe which the inclination
ought to experience.
The caufe of thefe anomalies becomes evident from
what has been already remarked •, they are merely the
effeft of local circumftances, and arife from the fmall
fyftems of attraClion by which the general phenomena
are modified. This muit be fenfible in particular for
that part of America which M. Humboldt travelled
over, and which is traverfed throughout its whole
length by the grand chain of the cordillera of the An¬
des. It is alfo in thefe places that the moft confider-
ble differences exift. Popayan, for example, is fituat-
ed near the volcanoes of Sotara and Pourace •, it is
joined to bafaltic mountains abounding with magnetic
iron. Near Sulumito, to the tail of Popayan, thefe
bafaltic columns have very ftriking poles: in like man¬
ner Mexico is fituated at the height of 1160 toifes on
the ridge of the grand cordillera of Lenfchtitltm j the
ground there is covered with porous bafaltes and amyg-
daloids,
.39-2
Theory.
M A G N
_ haloids, which are alraoft all charged with magnetic
iion. Mafl not all thefe caufes have a fenfible influ¬
ence on the inclination of the magnetic needle j and
mult not the di-flerent dxfnofitions of the ferruginous
maffes, or their change of ftate, in confequence of the
aftion of nature, produce alfo variations ? M. Hum¬
boldt made on this point a decifive obfervation: the
earthquake of the 4th November 1799 changed at
Cumana the inclination of the needle. On the ift of
November it was 430 65'on the 7th it was only 420
JS'y and ten months after it returned to 42® 8 (f'., but
it did not regain its former value ; the intenfity of the
magnetic force was not changed by the effedh of this
earthquake.
It is proved, then, by thefe obfervations, that local
circumftances may have on the inclination a fenfible
influence ; and this influence is remarked in the coun¬
tries traverfid by M. Humboldt.
It appears, therefore, that the mathematical hypo-
thefis which we have employed really exprefies the
law of nature, at leafl: to the north of the magnetic
equator ; for, though the firft refults obferved towards
the fouth feem to bend to it alfo, the uncertainty under
which we are, in regard to the true caufe of thefe phe¬
nomena, mull Hop our conje&ures, and prevent "us from
extending too far the eonfequences of the laws which
we obferve (r).
From the preceding refults, we may calculate the
points where the axis -of the magnetic equator pierces
the terreftrial furface } for their latitudes are equal to
the complements of the obliquity of that equator, and
their meridian is at ioo° of longitude from its nodes.
The north magnetic pole is found alfo at 79® 1' 4" of
north latitude, and at 30° 2' 5" of longitude well from
Paris, which places it to the north of America. The
other magnetic pole, fymmetric to the preceding, is
fituated in the fame latitude fouth, and at 1490 67'55"
of longitude call from Paris, which places it amidll the
eternal ice ; indications entirely analogous to thofe of
Wilke and Lemounier.
If we could reach thefe poles, the compafs would
be feen vertical •, but if any confidence can be placed
in the law which we have difeovered, this would be the
only difterence which would be obferved in regard to
the inclination, and we fliould be Hill as far diftant
as in Europe from the real centres which produce
it. This refolt might appear to be of fuch a nature
as to diminilh the intereft one might have in vifi-
ting thele horrid regions, had we not alfo the hope
of difeovering there new phenomena in regard to the
intenfity of the magnetic force, and the influence of me¬
teors.
Thefe confequences do not entirely accord with the
opinion pretty generally received, and which aferibes
E T I S M, ^ jjj
the increafe of the magnetic effe&s towards the north ’
to the great quantity of iron difperfed throughout thefe 
regions ; but it appears to us that this opinion is not
agreeable to the truth. The cordillera of the Andes
contains an enormous quantity of magnetic iron • the
native iron of Chaco, that problematic mats analogous
to that of Pallas, and thofe of Xacatares in Mexico is
found even under the tropics.
On feeing the inclinations of the compafs fo exa&ly
reprefented in the hypothefis, they endeavoured to dif-
cover whether it could be applied to the intenfities ob-
ferved by M. Humboldt; but they found that it did not
apply. It gives indeed, an increafe of the magnetic
forces from the equator to the pole ; but this increafe*
which at firft is too flow, becomes afterwards too rapid.
M. Biot has not yet been able to try whether the fmall
difplacement of the terreftrial magnet will contribute
towards reprefenting them better; but it mutt be re¬
marked, that the feries of the intenfities is extremely
whimfical, and contains an infinite number of anoma¬
lies, fo that local phenomena may have on this pheno¬
menon a much more fenfible influence than on the in¬
clination.
On reviewing the refults which have been given, it
is feen that we have firft determined the polition of the
magnetic equator by direct obfervations, which had
never been done before; we have then proved that the
magnetic force increafes in proceeding from that equa¬
tor to the poles ; in the laft place, we have given a mit-
thematical hypothefis, which, when reduced to a for¬
mula, fatisfies all the inclinations hitherto obferved.
Suppofing,. as has been done in this formula, the
ftnall corrections of which it is fufceptible, its utility
becomes evident, either for making known, in the courle
of time, the variations which may take place in the
a&ion of the terreftrial magnetifm, or to afeertain or
even forefee the value of the inclination, which in a
great many cafes is of the utmoft importance.
For example, near the magnetic equator, the increafe
or diminution of the inclination will indicate to a veffel
on a voyage whether (he has gained or loft in latitude
by currents. This knowledge of the latitude is fome-
times as important as that of longitude. On the eoafts
of Peru, for example, the currents tend from Chiloe to
the north and north-eaft with fuch force, that one may
go from Lima to Guayaquil in three or four days, and
two, three, and fometimes five months are ntceiTary to
return. It is confequently of the greateft importance
for veffels coming from Chili which ftretch along the
coaft of Peru, to know their latitude. If they go be¬
yond the pert to which they are bound, they mull work
to the fouthward, and every day’s progrefs requires of¬
ten a month of return. Unfortunately, the fogs which
prevail during four or five months on the coaft of Peru,
prevent
(F) Obfervations made at the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Horn, and New Holland, by different navigators
are very exattly reprefented by the above-mentioned formula ; and it follows, that it extends alfo to the auftral
hemifphere. We hope foon to have numerous and very exaft obfervations on the inclination of the needle in
that part of the earth. But we have thought it our duty to add to our table fuch refults as relate to it, and which
we have been able to procure. We have inferted alfo two obfervations on the intenfity, made with great care
by M. Boffel, during the expedition of d’Entrecafteaux, which are very important, as they prove that the
terreftrial magnetic force increafes alfo in the auftral hemifphere in proportion as one removes from the equa¬
tor. ^
hap. III. M A G N
'heory. prevent navigators from diftinguithing the form of the
-V*-' coaft j nothing is feen but the fummits of the Andes,
and that of the peaks which rife above that ftratum of
vapours-, but the figure of it is fo uniform that pilots
fall into miftakes. They often remain 12 or 15 days
without feeing the fun or ftars, and during that interval
they come to anchor, being afraid of overlhooting their
port; but if we fuppofe that the inclination of the mag¬
netic needle in the ports to the fouth of Lima is known,
for example at Chaneay, Huaura, and Santa, the dip¬
ping needle will {how whether it be, in regard to Lima,
to the fouth or to the north. It will {how at the fame
time oppofite what point of the coaft a vefiel is; and
this indication will be attended with more exaflnefs
that one could hope for, becaufe in thefe feas the in¬
clination varies with extraordinary rapidity. M. Hum¬
boldt, to whom we are indebted for thefe remarks, ob-
ferved in thefe feas the following values.
P/aces.
Huancey
Huaura
Chancay
South Latitudes.
I o° 4'
II 3
11 33
Inclinations.
6.8q°
9.00
io-35
Thefe obfervations prove that the error of three or
four degrees in the inclination in thefe feas would pro¬
duce but a degree of error in latitude 5 and, on account
of the tranquillity of the Pacific ocean, the inclination
may be obferved to within a degree nearly. Frequent
inftances of fuch refults may be feen in books of voy¬
ages. In like manner, if one knew exaftly the incli¬
nation at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, it would
be very ufeful to navigators, who, when the Pamperos
/vlow, remain 15 or 18 days without feeing the heaven-
y bodies, and go on different tacks for fear of lofing
the parallel of the mouth of that river.
In a word, the inclination may indicate alfo the lon¬
gitude in thefe feas j and this method may be employ¬
ed when others fail. A veffel which fails there in the
direftionof a parallel could not find its longitude either
by a chronometer or the declination of Halley, unlefs
a ftar could be feen, in order to take a horary angle or
the magnetic azimuth. The dipping needle then
throws light on the longitude amidft the thickeft fogs.
We point out this method as one of thofe which have
only a local application but hitherto little attention
has been paid to it. Thefe ideas may be extended and
redlified by able navigators.
In general, if the inclination of the needle, and the
law we have tried to eftablifti, could be depended on,
to obferve the inclination and the terreftrial latitude
would alfo be fufficient to determine the longitude 5 but
we have not yet examined the extent of the errors of
which this method may be fufceptible, and confequent-
ly we confine ourfelves to a mere indication of it.
The phenomenon of the inclination has in maritime
obfervations a peculiar and very remarkable advantage,
namely, that of not being fubjedl to thofe great pro-
greffive variations which affedt the declination. With¬
out repeating what we have already faid above on the
fuppofed conftancy of this phenomenon, it may be re¬
marked that our formula even affords a new proof that
it may comprehend in the fame law the obfervations
made many years ago in Lapland, thofe which Lacaille
brought back in 1751 from the Cape of Good FI ope,
Vol. XII. Parti.
E T I S M.
and thofe which M. Humboldt has lately made in A-
merica.
In ftiort, when We tried to reprefent the inclinations
in different latitudes by the fuppofition of a magnet in¬
finitely fmall, very near the centre of the earth, and
perpendicular to the magnetic equator, we did not pre¬
tend to confider that hypothefis as any thing re‘al, but
only as a mathematical abftradlion ufeful to conned! the
refults, and proper to afcertain in future whether any
changes exilt. In regard to the declination and inten-
fity, we freely confels that we are entirely unacquaint¬
ed with their laws or their caufes; and if any phiiofo-
pher is fo fortunate as to bring them to one principle,
which explains at the fame time the variations of the _
inclination, it will no doubt be one of the greateft dif-
coverijes ever made. But this refearch, exceedingly
difficult, requires, perhaps, before it be attempted,
more obfervations, and in particular more precife ob*
fervations, than have hitherto been colledled. For this
reafon we have prefented the preceding refearches, im-
perfedl as they are, hoping our readers will receive
them with indulgence *. * Phil.
We would willingly have entered into a more full V0‘*
illuftration of the theory of /Epinus, and compared it I0I
with the phenomena noticed in Chap. II. but the im¬
portant paper juft given has taken up fo much room,
that this article is already extended to very nearly the
utmoft limits affigned to it. We muft, therefore, con¬
tent ourfelves with giving fome idea of the indu£tion of
magnetifm by juxtapofition according to Alpinus’s hy¬
pothefis, and muft refer for the reft to his Tentamen
Theories E/eSlricitatis et Magnet if mi, or to the abridge¬
ment of it in Van Swinden’s work Sur PAnalogic de
LEleSlricite et du Magnetifme, tom. ii. 104
Let NAS (fig. 31). be a magnet, of which the part Induced
next the north pole AN is overcharged, and let a bar maAetllnl
of iron r B « be brought near the north pole of the
magnet, fo that their axes are in the fame ftraight line, plained.
Now, in this theory, the overcharged pole N a£ls on Fig 31.
the iron only by its redundant fluid, for that part of the
fluid which is merely fufficient to faturate the iron will
repel the fluid in B as much as the iron in AN attrafts
it, and of courfe can produce no change in B. In the
fame way SA a£ls on B merely by its redundant iron.
Now, were the fluid in r B « immoveable, no fenfible
effeft would be produced on it; but as it is fuppofed to
be eafily moveable, the redundant fluid in AN will
have the effeft of repelling it towrards ny till the refift-
ance met with there, added to its own tendency to dif-
fufe itfelf uniformly, juft balances the repulfion of AN.
In the mean time, however, an attraflion exifts between
the redundant iron in AS, and the fluid in B, by which
the latter would be drawn from B », and condenfed in
B r, the attraction oppofing the repulfion above men¬
tioned ; but fince AS is more diftant from every point
of B than AN from the fame point, the redundant
fluid will prevail, and on the whole the fluid will be
condenfed towards //, and rarefied towards r. The more
diffufed w-e fuppofe the fluid and iron in the magnet to
be, the more removed will be the centres of effort of
its poles from their extremities, the fmaller will be the
aftion, and the difference of action of AN and AS,
and of courfe the fmaller the condenfation towards w,
and the rarefaction tow-ards s. From this we learn,
3 D that,
94-
Theory. that, according as the poles of a magnet are more
counteracted, the greater will be its power of action j
and as this is agreeable to obfervation, it gives addi¬
tional credit to the hypothefis.
Now, we fee that the piece of iron « B r is attracted
in confequence of its fluid being repelled towards its re¬
mote extremity, and diftfibuted fomething like the
fluid in NAS. In this hypothefis rnagnetifrn is fuppof-
ed to depend entirely on the dififufion of magnetic fluid.
The iron B has become a magnet, and by having mag-
netifm induced on it, is attracted by the magnet A.
In a fimilar way we might explain the adtion of
the magnet, if its fouth or deficient pole were prefenled
oppofite to B.
Coulomb’s When the notion of a magnetic fluid was once en-
theory. tertained, it is not furprifing that philofophers, reafon-
ing from the analogy between eledtricity and magnetifm,
and the different effedts arifing from the fouth and
north pole of a magnet, fhould be led to the idea of
the magnetic fluid being compounded of two fluids.
Accordingly the hypethefis of two magnetic fluids has
long been a favourite on the continent, where it has
been chiefly fupported by Coulomb and Haiiy. As
the experiments and obfervations of the former philofo-
pher entitle him to the higheft refpedt, we fhall here
give a fketch of his theory of magnetifm.
1. Coulomb admits of two magnetic fluids, one of
which may be called the northern, and the other the
fouthern fluid.
2. The particles of each of thefe two fluids are mu¬
tually repulfive of each other j that is, the particles of the
fluid N mutually repel each other, and the particles of
the fluid S repel each other.
3. There is a mutual attradlion between the particles
of one of thefe fluids and the particles of the other $ or
the particles of the fluid N attradl and are attradled by
the particles of the fluid S.
4. In the ordinary ftate of iron not magnetized, thefe
two fluids are found mixed together, and hence a piece
of ordinary iron under the ufual circumftances exhibits
no figns of magnetifm.
5. In a magnetized body thefe two fluids are fepa-
rated, and this feparation takes place as foon as we be¬
gin to magnetize the body ; one of the fluids N, retir¬
ing towards one extremity, and the other fluid S to the
other extremity of the magnetized body.
6. The attraction and repulfion of two magnetic bo¬
dies, when they approach each other, is the refult of
the mutual aftion of the two fluids.
Suppofe we have two needles A and B. If we make
them approach each other on the fide of the two poles
of the fame name, N or S, they will repel each other j
but if they are made to approach on the fide of differ¬
ent poles, as when the needle A prefents its north pole
to the fouth pole of the needle B, they will attract
each other. Here there are four forces in aCtion $ 1.
the fluid N of the needle A repels the fluid N of the
needle B. 2. The fame fluid N of the needle A at¬
tracts the fluid S of the needle B. 3. The fluid S of
the needle A repels the fluid S of the needle B *, and,
4. The fluid S of the needle A attraCis the fluid N of
the needle B. Now, if the extremity N of the needle
A be^very near the extremity S of the needle B, the
mutual attraction between the two fluids N and S, will
be ftronger than the mutual repulfion between the two
Chap. Hi,
fluids N, N, and the two fluids S, S, and confequently Theory,
the two needles will approach each other. " —-y—^
7. The attraction and repulfion of the two magnetic
fluids is in the direCt ratio of the maffes, and in the in-
verfe ratio of the diftanceS.
This important part of the theory Coulomb deduces
from a feries of very delicate experiments made with
his magnetic bars, iimilar to thofe by which he proved
the fame law to take place with refpeCt to the aCtion of
the eledric fluid. See Electricity, Part IV. chap. ii.
8. The magnetic fluid is entirely in the interior of
magnetic bodies, for as the magnetic fluid moves with
difficulty in the interior of a magnetic body, it cannot
diffufe itfelf over the furface, which is the reafon why
filings of iron brought near a magnetic bar, remain at¬
tached to it.
9. Confequently magnetic bodies can have no mag¬
netic atmofphere.
10. In a magnetic needle, the centres of magnetic
aClion are near the extremities of the needle.
11. A magnetic needle being broken in any place,
each of its parts is found to have two poles.
12. The forces which attradl a needle towards one
pole, are equal to thofe which draw it toward the other
pole.
13. Magnetic bodies do not aft on other bodies fuf-
ceptible of magnetifm, in any other wray than by at-
traftion or repulfion j for the magnetic fluid remains
entirely within the interior of thefe bodies.
14. Magnetic attraftion ought to be regarded as a
particular power, analogous, however, to the pow'er
which we call univerfal gravitation, the only dif¬
ference being, that gravitation afts very fenfibly on
all bodies, whereas magnetifm afts moft powerfully on
iron.
15. This magnetic power or attraftion is therefore a
particular power produced neither by impulfion, nor by
the aftion of any other fluid.
Though the inftrument which is ufually employed to Coulomb’s
meafure the inclination of the magnetic needle is very mode of
Ample in its conftruftion, it is neverthelefs. liable to afcerta'imif!
great errors, which in general arife from the almofl: ab-
folute impoflibility of placing the needle in all the pofi-
tions it can take in equilibrium with regard to the ef-
feft of gravitation, that is to fay, fo that its centre of
gravity may always exaftly agree with the point on
which it turns. When the dimenfions are conflderable,
a new inconvenience arifes from a degree of flexure,
which, though fcarcely fenfible, is neverthelefs pro-
duftive of very great effefts from the flighteft dif-
placement of the centre of gravity producing a com¬
bination of the power of gravitation with that of mag¬
netifm.
To obviate thefe difficulties, Citizen Coulomb, in-
ftead of endeavouring to afcertain immediately, as has
been hitherto done, the direftion of the magnetic
needle in the vertical plane which pafles through the
magnetic pole, conceives the force of this pole to be
decompofed or refolved into two others in the fame
plane, the one afting in a horizontal, and the other in
a vertical direftion. He determines feparately the in-
tenfity of each of thefe lafi: forces, and the refult gives
the direftion in which the magnetic force afts, and
which a needle governed fingly by this force would
take.
M A G N E T I S M.
Citizen
nr.
M A G N
Citizen Coulomb lias proved, in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences for the year 1789, that the mag¬
netic needle fufpended by its centre of gravity is incef-
fantly brought back to its true diredtion by a conftant
force at the fame place and time. It thence follows,
that by obferving the number of ofcillations made in a
given time by a needle horizontally fufpended, the ra¬
tio of the horizontal component part of the magnetic
power with gravity may be obtained. As to the verti¬
cal component part, it is meafured by determining with
care the weight necelfary to be added to the fouthern
part of the magnetic needle, to maintain it in a perfect¬
ly horizontal pofition. That being done, if A and B
reprefent the refpedtive meafures of the horizontal and
22
vertical component parts of the magnetic power, — will
be the tangent of the angle made by their refult with
the horizontal force, and confequently, it will be the in¬
clination of the magnetic needle.
In the experiments made by Citizen Coulomb, the
needle had the form of a right-angled parallelopipedon,
very thin in proportion to its breadth, and always fuf¬
pended fo that its breadth was kept in a vertical plane.
Let P reprefent the weight of the needle, / the half of
its length, A the length of a pendulum that performs
its ofcillations in the fame time as the needle when it
obeys the magnetic power in a horizontal plane. Cou-
P/*
lomb then gives the formula to calculate the mo-
8 3 A
mentum of the magnetic force referred to the arm of a
lever of one millimeter in length. The length of the
needle was 427 millimeters, its breadth 13, and its
weight 88,753 milligrammes. It was fufpended hori¬
zontally by a thread of filk in a box well clofed, and it
made 30 ofcillations in 286 feconds, and by applying
thefe data to the preceding formula, Coulomb found
that the logarithm of the momentum of the horizontal
magnetic force is 4.1740.
Coulomb having placed his needle in a clip, having
knife edges, which refted on two cylinders of glafs,
in the manner of the beam of a balance, endeavoured
firft to bring it to an equilibrium in a horizontal litua-
tion coinciding with the magnetic meridian, by placing
the edges in a proper manner, and when they were fuf-
ficiently near the point where the equilibrium took
place, he completed it by the addition of fmall weights.
He then reverfed the poles of the needle by the magne¬
tic touch, but without altering the pofition of the clip,
and again bringing it to an equilibrium in this new
ftate, the fum of the momenta of the additional weights
placed in thefe two operations gave him the double of
the momentum of the vertical component parts of the
74467
magnetic force, valued at -—^—. The refult of this
force, and of the horizontal force, is inclined 68° 9'.
In repeating thefe operations three times, Coulomb
found fucceflively 68° 9', 68° 13', and 68° ll'. Though
the differences of thefe refults are very trifling, he
thinks they are to be entirely attributed to errors in the
obfervation \ for he is alfured they do not amount to fo
much. It is poflible that the needle is fubjeft to varia¬
tions in the vertical fimilar to thofe which are known to
take place in the horizontal plane.
E T ISM. 395
Daniel Bernoulli contrived an ingenious dipping Theory. ^
needle that may anfwer the purpofe of an univerfal in- ^ _
ftrument for making accurate obfervations on the dip. j>ernoutii’s
It depends on the following principle. If a dipping dipping
needle be made by an ordinary workman, and balanced needle,
with fome care, fo that when impregnated withmagne-
tifm, it may fhow nearly the true dip, and if it be
touched, and the dip obferved, then its magnetifm de-
ftroyed, and its balance fo altered, that without any
magnetifm it will take nearly the inclination of the true
dip 5 and if it be then touched again, giving it the fame
polarity as it had before, it is evident that it will now
approach very nearly to the true dip, fince, by its want
of perfect equilibrium, it was deranged only a few de¬
grees from its proper direftion. If the fecond obferva¬
tion of the dip fhould, from the inaccurate formation of
the needle, differ conliderably from the firft, the opera¬
tion muft be repeated j and in this third obfervation
there will very feldom be an error'of more than half a
degree.
Bernoulli’s inftrument is as follows. A very light
graduated brafs circle EFG (fig. 32.) is fixed on one Fig. 32.
fide of the dipping needle, fo as to be concentric with
its axis, and the whole is balanced with as much nicety
as may be, before being impregnated. CD is a very
light index fixed to the axis in fuch a manner as to turn
on it with fome difficulty. By this the equilibrium of
the needle will be deftroyed. If great care has been
taken in forming the inftrument, and if it has been ba¬
lanced with great accuracy, it will, by the addition of
the index, be made to fettle fo as to have the index
perpendicular to the horizon, at whatever degree of the
circle the needle may happen to point. As fuch accu¬
racy, however, is fcarcely to be expefted, let the in¬
dex be fet to feveral different degrees of the circle, and
note the inclination taken by the needle before being
magnetized, correfponding to each pofition of the index,
and let all thefe be written down. For example, let
us fuppofe that when the index is at 50°, the needle in¬
clines 46° from the horizon; if we obferve at any place
that the needle, after being magnetized, inclines 46°,
when the index is at 50°, we may be fure that the for¬
mer is the true magnetic dip at that place, as the needle
is not deranged by the magnetifm that has been given
it, from the fituation it would affume by gravity alone.
We ufually know fometbingof the dip that may be ex¬
pected at any place. If we fet the index accordingly,
and if the needle does not then point out the expeCted
dip, change the pofition of the index, and again obferve
the dip ; examine whether this fecond pofition of the
index and the fecond dip form a correfponding pair of
numbers, fuch as we have written down ; if they do,
we have got the true dip, but if not, another pofition
of the index muft be tried. Thus, by noticing whe¬
ther the agreement of this laft pair be greater or lefs
than that of the former pair of numbers, we learn whe¬
ther we are to change the pofition of the index in the
fame or in the oppofite direction. ^
A clofe analogy has long been remarked between the Analogy
phenomena of magnetifm and thofe of induced eledrici-between
ty, efpecially thofe of attraftion and repulfion. The me-ele£ricity
chanical com pofition of thefe aftions produces a directive
power and polarity, both in eleCtrical and magnetical
bodies. It is eafy to form an eleCtrical needle that will
3 D ^ arrange
107
fitter’s ex'
jcriments.
M AON
arrange itfelf with reipect to the overcharged and under¬
charged ends of a body eleflrified by polition, juft as a
magnetic needle arranges itfelf with refpeft to the mag¬
net. A ftick of fealing wax may be touched in a manner
fimilar to the double magnetic touch, fo as to acquire
poles of confiderable force, and very durable. Again,
melted fealing wax, when cooled in the neighbourhood
of a pofitive and negative ele&ric, acquires permanent
poles, juft as a red-hot fteel bar acquires them by be¬
ing quenched near a magnet. Laftly, lightning fome-
times gives polarity to needles, fometimes deftroys it,
and fometimes reverfes their polarity.
From thefe various circumftances of refemblance,
fome have fuppofed that both phenomena originate from
the fame cauie, but there are feveral circumftances
which fhow their original caufes to be different. Thus,
V'e find that eleftricity is common to all bodies, and
can be excited or induced on all in a degree that is
pretty nearly equal. Magnetifm, on the contrary,
though from Coulomb’s experiments, it appears in fome
degree to affedl all terreftrial bodies, a6ts, however,
very imperceptibly on all but iron and its compounds.
The adtiqn of lightning muft not be confidered as a
proof of their identity, fince that is accompanied with
a great degree of heat, and we have already feen that
this power, under favourable circumftances, is a very
aftive agent, both in producing and deftroying mag¬
netifm. Again, there is nothing in magnetifm like a
body being entirely overcharged, or entirely under¬
charged, as in eledlricity; but a magnetic body having
two poles, muft always be overcharged at one extremi¬
ty, and undercharged at the other. There is nothing
in magnetifm refembling that inconceivably rapid mo¬
tion which we fee in eleftricity. In fine, the only per¬
fect refemblance is between the induced magnetifm of
common iron, and the induced electricity of a conduc¬
tor. On the arguments that have been employed for
and againft the identity of magnetifm and eledlricity,
our readers may confult Van Swinden, Sur l'Analogic
cle PEleftricite et du Magnetifme, and a trad by iEpinus
De Similitudine FJecincitatis et Magnetifmi.
Some late experiments of Ritter tend to fhow a greater
analogy than has yet been fuppofed, between magne¬
tifm and that modification of electricity which we call
galvanifm.
Mr Ritter’s firft experiments with the magnet wrere
on frogs. He found that a magnetic iron wire, with
another not magnetic, excited a galvanic palpitation in
thefe animals. Prefently he obferved, that the fouth
pole excited ftronger palpitations, and the north pole
weaker, than the iron not magnetic. Having conftant-
ly noticed, that the metals moft fufceptible of oxidation
excited the ftrongeft palpitations, he inferred, that the
fouth pole poffeffes a greater affinity for oxygen than
ftmpie iron, and the north pole lefs.
This fuppofition he confirmed by means of feveral
chemical re-agents. He placed a magnetic iron wire
on pieces of glafs in a plate of earthen ware, and pour¬
ed upon it a very weak nitric acid. The fouth pole
was attacked by the acid much more powerfully than
the north 5 and was foon furrounded by a depofition of
oxygen, the quantity of which greatly exceeded that of
the other pole.
The different oxidability of the magnetic pole is very
E T 1 S M- Chap. Uj
well exhibited like wife, by taking three fmall bottles Theory,
of equal fize, filled with water, either pure or flightly
acidulated, and putting into one the fouth polar end of
a magnetic ware, into a fecond the north polar end of
a fimilar wire, and into the third the end of an equal
wire not magnetic ; the fouth pole will firft begin to
depofit oxide, the unmagnetic iron a little after, and
the north pole laft. This experiment requires confide¬
rable care. The furface of the water muft be covered
with very freffi oil of almonds, to exclude all accefs of
air. Care muft be taken too, that one of the bottles
is not more expofed to the fun than the others, becauffi
light accelerates oxidation. Ritter convinced himfelf
of this by direft experiments j expofing two iron wires
m water to the iun, but covering one of the phials with
black paper, when that in the phial left uncovered was
oxidated much more quickly.
If infufion of litmus be fubftituted inftead of the wa¬
ter in the three phials in the preceding experiment, the
relative oxidations will be the fame, but they will be
attended with a change of colour, fhowing that an acid
is produced proportional to each oxidation ; fo that the
fouth pole not only undergoes the greateft oxidation,
but likewife reddens the infufion of litmus moft. The
action that takes place in this experiment is very feeble,
and frequently requires a week to produce a diftineft eff
feft j and indeed to accelerate it fo much as this, it is
neceffary to add, previoufty to the infufion, as much
acetic acid as will incline it to red, without completely
changing its colour. The infufion reddened in this ex¬
periment refumes its blue colour on expofure to the air ;
but we muft not hence conclude, that the acid produced
by the a&ion of the magnet is very volatile, for infufion
of litmus reddened' by phofphoric acid, or any other,
exhibits the fame phenomenon.
. The following experiment exhibits fome things pecu¬
liar, and therefore we ffiall give it more at large. It
has not been repeated, but the harmony of its refults is
in favour of its accuracy. Sixteen magnetic wires, of
equal fize and power, were placed in fix veffels, all
equally full of a mixture of one part nitric acid, and
36 parts water, in the following manner : in the firft
glafs were placed two wires, one with the north pole
immerfed in the fluid, the other with the fouth, and not
more than half a line afunder : in the fecond, the fame,
but the wires an inch and three-fourths apart : in the
third and fourth were each three wires, with the fouth
poles of all immerfed, but their diflances in the two
glaffes different, as in the firft and fecond : in the fifth
and fixth were wires fimilarly arranged, but with the
north poles immerfed. Different quantities of oxide
were gradually depofed, and to exprefs the whole in
few words, we will call the fouth pole S, the north
pole N, their greater diftance^, and their lefs />, and we.
will exprefs the order of oxidations as follows : SNg~^
SN/c^3 S/>-^3 Sg-^j Ngz^. On the
nineteenth day it was obferved, that the lofs of fluid by
evaporation had not been equal in all the veffels, but
took place in the inverfe order of the oxidations. All
the magnetic wires were weakened in power j NS^
leaft y NS/> more : of the wires 3 S/>, two had loft lefs
power than the third ; and in like manner 3 S3 N/>,
3 N^-, had each two left more powerful than the third y
the ftrongeft were equal to NS^.
In
Ft?ArcA*l>a/d Jfu/f* /
—
MAGNETISM.
PLATE CCXC1X.
* S'/Yf -.Q-i. .
PLATE CCC
' ?'ftl. 25.
/f'f- *7-
M A GNE TISM.
' Ly . 2#.
50.
 - T3B
ft. A-r/z* 7ft fcZ Sculjp -c
7': ^
*
III. M A G N E
In another experiment, where two little veffels filled
with infufion of litmus were employed, one of them
containing two magnetic wires, the fouth poles of which
■were immerfed in the fluid 5 the other two fimilar wires,
of which the oppofite poles were immerfed} the oxida¬
tion was greateft in the latter veffel.
The analogy between galvanifm and magnetifm is
fliil farther proved by other experiments of Ritter on
galvanising metals, which he does by placing them in a
ftream of galvanic fluid proceeding from a ftrong pile.
He found that a golden needle thus galvanized and ba¬
lanced on a pivot, exhibited, like a magnetized iron
needle, both direftive power and horizontal inclination.
Some late experiments of Ritter, referring flill more
direftly to the analogy between magnetifm and galva¬
nifm, were communicated to the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Munich, and the following are their gene¬
ral refults.
1. Every magnet is equivalent to a pair of heteroge¬
neous metals united together j its different poles repre-
fent as it were different metals.
2. Like them, it gives eleftricity ; that is to fay,
one of the two poles, the pofitive eledtricity, and the
other the negative.
3. By following the fame procefs a certain number
of magnets, as well as a certain number of pairs of
metals, afforded eledlricity ; and in this manner the
eledlricities afforded by the poles of different magnets,
have been fuccefsfully indicated by the eledlrometer.
4. By means of thefe eledtricities, one of thefe bat¬
teries of magnets, accordingly as it is more or lefs
ftrong, produces upon dead and living bodies, all the
397
Theory.
T I S M.
phenomena which are produced by a pile of Volta, of
the common kind, and of the fame force. v “
5. The experiments which prove this, fliow, that in
magnetized iron, the fouth pole gives pofitive eledtrici-
ty, and the north pole negative eledlricity j but that
on the contrary in magnetized fteel, the north pole af¬
fords the pofitive, and the fouth pole the negative.
6. The fame inverfe difpofition is alfo obferved with
regard to the polar oxidability of the magnetized body
in which this change is produced by magnetifm. In
magnetized iron the fouth pole is moft oxidable, and the
north pole leaft •, whereas in magnetized fteel the north
pole is moft oxidable, and the fouth leaft.
7. Mr Ritter thinks, that by confidering the earth
as an immenfe magnet, thefe refults might ferve to ex¬
plain various phenomena of nature, fuch as the phyfical
difference between the two.hemifpheres, the aurora
borealis and aurora auftralis. In fa£l, after what has
been juft ftated, the earth confidered as a magnet, may
be taken as an equivalent to an immenfe pile of Volta,
of which the poles are on one fide fufficiently clofed by
the waters of the ocean. And the adlion of this pile
muft produce, and has produced the greateft; chemical
changes, in the materials of the earth j changes which
muft have differed according to the poles -y and of which
pile the poles at the other extremity have always fuch
an abundance of eledlricity as to caufe its fplendour to
appear by radiations in the vaft fpaces of the heavens*. *Nichol-
The foregoing experiments appear to prove that mzg-f071*
netifm has fome effedt in producing chemical changes, ^ ’xv’ f‘
iand thence we may infer that perhaps it would not be
altogether inadlive in the animal economy.
INDEX.
tCTION, magnetic, law of, N° 80, 89
inveftigated by
Lambert,
by Robifon,
'pinus's method of touching bars,
theory of magnetifm,
ncients, opinions of, refpedting the
I caufe of magnetic attradlion,
'iparalus, magnetical,
•mature of magnets,
YtraSliony magnetic,
between iron and the
magnet neutral,
ptrachon, magnetic, not fenfibly di-
imniihed by interpofition of non-
; ferruginous bodies,
howufually mea-
fured,
increafedby iron,
by an increafed
weight,
explained,
|m of a magnet,
83
84
55
79
70
p. 362
N°i3
p. 368
N° 27
28
29
31
3 2
85
7
B.
■rnoulh\ dipping needle,
105
obfervations on terreftrial mag¬
netifm, N° 95
C.
Canton’s method of touching bars, 54
of making artificial
magnets, 61
Communicative piece of money, 39
Cotte's axioms refpedting the magne¬
tic declination, p. 366
Coulomb''s experiments on univerfal
magnetifm, ' N° 36
method of making artificial
magnets, _ 57
theory of magnetifm, 103
method of finding the mag¬
netic dip, 95
D.
Declinationy magnetic, 3
varies, 19
tables of, p. 364
axioms refpedting, 366
Dialy magnetic, N° 42
Dipy magnetic, tables of, p. 367
diminilhes as we af-
cend above the
earth, 366
Dip, magnetic, Coulomb’s method of
afcertaining, N° 95
Dipping of the magnet,
needle,
Bernoulli’s,
DireElivc power, what,
explained,
Divining eircles,
Duhamel's method of touching bars,
E.
4
I5
105
2
87
43
53
Earth, magnetifm of, firft rationally
explained by Gilbert, 71
illuftrated, 7 5
ebjedtiontoan-
fwered, 94
Ele&ricity and magnetifm, analogy
between, ic6
Equator of a magnet, 7
magnetic, determined by
Humboldt, 98
Euler’s theory of magnetifm, 77
Experiments iliuftrating magnetic po¬
larity, . _ p. 363
on magnetic attradlion, 368
repulfion, N034
entertaining, . 37
Experimentsy
398
Experiments, Ritter’s, N° 107
F.
Forces, magnetic, picture ofj 85
G.
Galvanifm and magnetifm, analogy
between, 107
Gilbert's theory of magnetifm, 71
proofs of, 75
H.
Hawhjbee's attempts to inveftigate
the law of magnetic adtion, 82
Hindjhaw's experiment illuftrating
terreftrial magnetifm imitated, 75
Humboldt's obfervations on terreftrial
magnetifm, 95
determination of the mag¬
netic equator, 98
I.
Inclination of the needle increafes as
vve proceed from the magnetic
equator. See Dip. IOO
Induced magnetifm, what, 46
gradual, 90
Iron naturally arranges itfelf in a de¬
terminate manner, 16
polarity of, temporary, 17
attracted by the magnet, 22
filings, a£tion of a magnet on, 26
attra&s iron, 30
becomes magnetical by proxi¬
mity to a magnet, 44
by pofition, 58
by hammering or fri&ion, 59
by heat, 60
attrafted only becaufe it becomes
magnetical by induftion, 91
filings, arrangement of, explain¬
ed, 92
K.
Knight's artificial loadftones, 64
L.
Lambert's inveftigation of the law of
magnetic a6lion, 83
M.
Magnet, what, J, 12
MAGNETISM.
Magnet, declination of, N° 4
dipping of, 3
artificial, 6,
modes of making, 51 —
axis and equator of,
armature of,
polarity of, permanent,
poles of, how found,
attractive power of, varies,
Magnetifm, general idea of,
utility of,
works on, lift of,
how applied to ufe,
how ufually difcovered, N°35
univerfal, Coulomb’s ex¬
periments on,
communication of, p.
induced, what, N'
artificial, produced by
touching with a mag¬
net,
artificial, produced by
poiition,
artificial, produced by
friCtion
artificial, produced by
heat,
impaired by improper po¬
fition,
by heat,
by rough ufage,
by oppofition of
fimilar poles, 69
theories of, p. 380
terreftrial, of Gilbert, N° 71
obfervations on, by Biot
and Humboldt, 93
Marcel's method of touching bars, 62
Mining, ufe of the compafs in, p. 366
Mufchenbroeck's attempt to inveftigate
the law of magnetic aCtion, NG 81
!3
64
7
18
23
24
1
9
10
366
36
373
46
50
58
59
60
66
67
68
Needle, magnetic,
dipping,
N.
FerfpeRive glafs, magnetic, 38
Polarity, magnetic, what, 2
difturbed by the
approach of iron, 20
-Index
Polarity, magnetic, affeded by the
atmofphere, j^0
contrary, induced on iron
by a magnet,
Poles of magnet, how found,
contrary, attraCl each other, J
correfponding, repel each other,
Power, magnetic, ^
R.
Ritter's experiments on the analogy
of magnetifm and galvanifm,
Robifon's inveftigation of the law of
magnetic aCtion,
explanation of magnetic at¬
traction,
of directive
power,
S.
Steel, foft, how magnetized,
T*
Table, magnetic,
Taylor's attempts to find the law of
magnetic aCtion,
Terrejlrial magnetifm, obfervations on,
by Humboldt and Biot,
magnetifm aCts on the
whole furface of the
earth,
magnetifm increafes from
the equator to the poles,
magnetifm modified by lo¬
cal circumftances,
Theory of Gilbert,
Euler,
./Epinus,
Coulomb,
Touch, double, what,
Touching magnetic bars,
old methods of,
of curved bars,
how impoved by Duhamel,
by Michell
and Canton,
by jEpinus,
by Coulomb,
W.
Watch, myfterious,
107
85
87
63
43
82
95
96
97
99
7i
77
79
J03
54
5°
51
52
53 ;
54
55
57
41
MAG
Animal Animal MAGNETISM, a fympathy fuppofed by feme
Magnetilm. perfons to exifl. between the magnet and the human
~V body ; by means of which the former, it was thought,
pofleffed the property of curing many difeafes.
I he notion of animal magnetifm appears to have
originated, in I774> with a German philofopher named
Father Hehl, who greatly recommended the ufe of the
magnet in medicine. M. Mefmer, a phyfician of the
MAG
fame country, by adopting the principles of Hehl, be- Animal
came the direCt founder of the fyftem j but, afterwardsMagnetlfni;
deviating from the tenets of his inftruCtor, he loft his v
patronage, as well as that of Dr Ingenhoufz, which he
had formerly enjoyed. Mefmer had already diftinguifh-
ed himfelf by “ A differtation on the influence of the
Stars upon the human body,” which he publicly de¬
fended in a thefis before the univerfity of Vienna} but
he
M AG [ 399 ]
tnimal he was fo unable to Hand before the oppofition of Hehl nlcated, propa
ignetifm- ancj Ingenhoufz, that his fyftem fell aimed indantly
into difrepute. Mefmer appealed to the Academy of
Sciences at Berlin ; but they rej.edted his principles as
deditute of foundation, and unworthy of the fmalled
attention. He then made a tour through Germany,
publifhing everywhere the great cures he performed by
means of his animal magnetifm, while his enemies eve¬
rywhere purfued him with detedlions of the falfehood of
his aiTertions.
Mefmer, dill undaunted by fo many defeats, return¬
ed to Vienna 5 but meeting there with no better fuccefs
than before, he retired to Paris in the beginning of the
year 1778. Here he met with a very different recep¬
tion. He was fird patronized by the author of the
Di&ionnaire des Merveilles de la Nature; in which
work a great number of his cures were publifhed, Mef¬
mer himfelf receiving likewife an ample tedimony of
his candour and folid reafotiing. Our piiyfician foon
collefted fome patients } and in the month of April
1778 retired with them to Creteil, from whence he in
a (hort time returned with them perfeftly cured. His
fuccefs was now as great as his former difappointment.
Patients increafed fo rapidly that the doftor was foon
obliged to take in pupils to affid him in his operations.
Thefe pupils fucceeded equally well as Mefmer him¬
felf 5 and fo well did they take care of their own emo¬
lument, that one of them named M. Hedon realized
upwards of ioo,oool. derling. In 1779 Mefmer pub-
lidied a memoir on the fubjedt of Animal Magnetifm,
promifing afterwards a complete work upon the fame,
which fhould make as great a revolution in philofophy
as it had already done in medicine.
The new fydem now gained ground daily ; and foon
became fo fadiionable, that the jealoufy of the faculty
was roufed, and an application concerning it was made
to government. In confequence of this a committee
was appointed to inquire into the matter, confiding
partly of phyficians and partly of members of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, with Hr Benjamin Franklin at
their head. This was a thunderdroke to the fupporters
of the new dodlrine.—Mefiner himfelf refufed to have
any communicatien with the committee j but his mod
eelebrated pupil Defion was lefs fcrupulous, and ex¬
plained the principles of his art in the following man¬
ner :
1. Animal magnetifm is an univerfal fluid, condi-
tuting an abfolute plenum in nature, and the medium
of all mutual influence between the celeflial bodies,
and betwixt the earth and animal bodies.
2. It is the mod fubtle fluid in nature j capable of a
flux and reflux, and of receiving, propagating, and con¬
tinuing all kinds of motion.
3. The animal body is fubjefted to the influences of
this fluid by means of the nerves, which are immedi¬
ately affedled by it.
4. The human body has poles and other properties
analogous to the magnet.
5. The a&ion and virtue of animal magnetifm may
be communicated from one body to another, whether
animate or inanimate.
6. It operates at a great didance without the interr
vention of any body.
7. It is increafed and refle&ed by mirrors j commu-
4
M A G
rated, and increafed by found ; and may Animal
be accumulated, concentrated, and tranlported.
8. Notwithdanding the univerfality of this fluid, all
animal bodies are not equally affedted by it 5 on the
other hand, there are fome, though but few in num¬
ber, the prefence of which dedroys all the effedts of
animal magnetifm.
9. By means of this fluid nervous diforders are cured
immediately, and others mediately j and its virtues, in
fliort, extend to the univerfal cure and prefervation of
mankind.
From this extraordinary theory, Mefmer or M. Def¬
ion, had fabricated a paper, in which he dated that
there was in nature but one difeafe and one cure, and
that this cure was animal magnetifm : and, laflly,
M. Deflon engaged, 1. To prove to the commiflioners,
that fuch a thing as animal magnetifm exided j
2. To prove the utility of it in the cure of difeafes ;
after which he was to communicate to them all that
he knew upon the fubjeft. The commiflioners accord¬
ingly attended in the room where the patients under¬
went the magnetical operations. The apparatus con¬
fided of a circular platform made of oak, and raifed
about a foot and a half from the ground ; which
platform was called the baquet. At the top of it w'ere
a number of holes, in which were iron rods with move-
able joints for the purpofe of applying them to any part
of the body. The patients were placed in a circle round,
each touching an iron rod, which he could apply to any
part of the body at pleafure j they were joined to one
another by a cord palling round their bodies, the de-
fign being to increafe theeft'edt by communication. In
the corner of the room was a piano forte, on which
fome airs were played, occafionally accompanied with a
fong. Each of the patients held in his hand an iron
rod ten or twelve feet long ; the intention of which, as
Deflon told the commiflioners, was to concentrate the
magnetifm in its point, and thus to render its effe&s
more fenfible. Sound is another condudlor of this
magnetifm 5 and in order to communicate the magnet¬
ifm to the piano forte, nothing more is neceifary than
to bring the iron rod near it. Some magnetifm is al-
fo furnilhed by the perfon who plays it} and this mag¬
netifm is tranfmitted to the patients by the founds.
The internal part of the platform was faid to be fo
contrived as to concentrate the magnetifm, and was
the refervoir whence the virtue diffufed itfelf among
the patients. Its ftrufture, however, is not mention¬
ed} but the committee fatisfied themfelves, by means
of a needle and ele&rometer, that neither common
magnetifm nor eledlricity was concerned,
Belides the different ways of receiving the magnetifm
alreadykmentioned, viz. by the iron, cord, and piano
forte, the patients alfo had it direflly from the dodtor’s
finger, and a rod which he held in his hand, and which
he carried about the face, head, or fuch parts of the
patient as were difeafed} obferving always the direc¬
tion of what he called the poles. The principal appli¬
cation of magnetifm, however, was by preffure of the
hands or fingers on the hypochondria or lower regions
of the ftomach.
The effedts of thefe operations upon Dellon’s pa¬
tients were very different. Some felt nothing, neither
had the magnetifm any effedl whatever upon them.,
Some
Magnetifm-
M A G
Ammai Some fplt, coug'hed, fweat, and felt, or pretended to
■ ag"eti feel, extraordinary heats in different parts of the body.
Many women, but very few men, had convulflons,
which Deflon called their crifis, &c.—The commif-
fioners at laft found that they could come to no fatis-
faftory conclufion while they attended in this public
w'ay, and therefore determined to try the experiments
themfelves privately. As the fluid itfelf, however,
was totally imperceptible by any of the fenfes, they
could only afcertain themfelves of its exiftence by ul¬
timately curing difeafes, or by its obfervable effefts
upon the human body. Being well affured, however,
that though many difeafes were cured, it would not
amount to any proof of the exiftence of animal mag-
netifm, they determined to obferve its effedls on the
animal economy. For this purpofe they made the fol¬
lowing experiments :
1. They tried it upon themfelves, and felt no¬
thing.
2. Seven of Deflon’s patients were magnetized at
Dr Franklin’s houfe, four of whom felt nothing; three
felt, or aflfedted to feel, fomething.
3. Several perfons in a higher fphere of life were
magnetized, and felt nothing.
4. The commiflioners, now determined to difcover
what (hare imagination had in this bufinefs, blind¬
folded feveral of the common people, and made them
fometimes think that they were magnetized, at other
times they magnetized them without letting them
know that they did fo: the confequence was, that
when they fuppofed themfelves magnetized, the pa¬
tients like wife thought they felt fomething, and vice
verfa.
5. A magnetized tree was faid to produce convul-
fions •, a young man, blindfolded, fell into convulftons
when he imagined himfelf near the tree, though he
was really at a conftderable diftance from it. Deflon
accounted for this on the principle of all trees being
magnetic : but in this cafe', every one, fuceptible of
magnetifm, would be feized with convullions when he
approached a tree. The fame influence of imagina¬
tion was obferved in a woman accuftomed to have con-
vulfions when magnetized. They came on when no¬
thing was done to her, on being told, when blinded,
that fhe was magnetized.
Other inftances are given, from which it was evident,
either that the patients were impoftors, or in fuch a moft;
wretched ftate of debility both of mind and body, that
the moft: trifling effefts of the former had the moft:
powerful effefts on the latter. The commiflioners there¬
fore entirely difapproved of the whole. The touch,
imitation, and imagination, they concluded, were the
great caufes of the effe61s produced by M. Dqflon’s
operations 5 and by means of thefe they fuppofed, that
convulfions, which in themfelves are a very violent dif-
order, might be fpread much farther than could be
wiftied, .even through a whole city. It was obferved
that the operator fometimes prefled ftrongly, and for a
length of time, upon different parts of the body, parti¬
cularly the hypochondria and pit of the ftomach j and
it is veil known that a ftrong preffure on thefe parts
will produce difagreeable fenfations in thofe who enjoy
perfeft health.
It is needlefs to add more upon this fubjeft, than
that Mefmer complained of the report of the commif-
M A H
fioners,. petitioned parliament, was by them command- Animal
ed to difcover the myfteries of his do&rine ; and that
it is now exploded by every man of fenfe.—The con- 0.
clufion of the academicians concerning it was, that it is . Ma(lli;-
not entirely ufelefs even to philofophy ; as it is one faSl
more to be configned to the hiftory of the errors and il-
lufions of the human mind, and a fignal inftance of the
power of imagination.
MAGNIFYING, the making of objecls appear
larger than they would otherwife do j whence convex
lenies, which have the power of doing this, are called
magnifying glajfes. See Optics.
MAGNITUDE, whatever is made up of parts lo¬
cally extended, or that has feveral dimenftons j as a
line, furface, folid, &c.
MAGNOLIA, the Laurel-leavedTulipTree,
a genus of plants belonging to the polyandria clafs j
and in the natural method ranking under the 52d or¬
der, CoaduncJce. See Botany Index.
MAGNUS campus, in Ancient Geography, a traft
lying towards Scythopolis, or Bethfan in Galilee, be¬
yond which it extends into Samaria j Jofephus placing
the common boundary between thefe two diftriifls in
the Campus Magnus. Called alfo Efdrelon, (Judith) •,
30 miles long, and 18 broad j having Samaria with
Mount Ephraim to the fouth, the lake Genefareth to
the eaft, Mount Carmel to the weft, and Lebanon to
the north.
MAGNUS Forties, in Ancient Geograph/, a port of
the Belgae, in Britain, on the Channel. Now thought
to be Portfmouth in Hampftiire.—Another Portus Mag¬
nus of Bsetica in Spain j a port to the eaft of Ab-
dera.
MAGO, the name of feveral Carthaginian generals.
See Carthage.
Mago, in Ancient Geography, a citadel and town of
the Balearis Minor, or Minorca. Now Maon, or Ma¬
hon. E. Long. 4. b. N. Lat. 39. 5.
MAGONTIACUM, Mogontiacum, or Mogon-
tiacus, truncated afterwards by the poets to Mogontia,
Maguntia, and Moguntia : a town of Gallia Belgica.
Now Ment%, capital of the electorate of that name j
fituated at the confluence of the Rhine and Maine.
E. Long. 8° N. Lat. 50°.
MAGOPHONIA (formed from peya?, “magus,”
and “ flaughter”), the name of a feafl: among
the ancient Perfians, held in memory of the expulfion
of the Magians. The Magian Smerdis having ufurp-
ed the throne of Perlia, upon the death of Cambyfes,
521 years before Jefus Chrift, feven of the principal
lords of the court confpired to drive him out of it.—
Their defign was executed with good fuccefs. Smer¬
dis and his brother, another Magian, called Patizithes,
were killed. Upon which the people alfo arofe, and put
all the Magi to the fword, infomuch that there would
not one have efcaped, had not night come upon them.
Darius, fon of Hyftafpes, was then eledted king j and,
in memory of this maffacre of the Magi, a feaft was
inftituted, fays Herodotus, called Magophonia. See
Magi.
MAGPIE. See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
MAHIE, the name given by the inhabitants of
Otaheite, or George’s ifland, to their bread-fruit when
made into a kind of four pafte, which, in confequence
of having undergone a fermentation, v ill keep a con-
fiderable
[ 400 1
'
MAH [ 401 ] M A H
Kahie fiderable time, and fupply them with food when no
II ripe fruit is to be had. When therefore they fee a
ahoraet. great 0f ne,tV frujt on t}-ie treeSj them
ail at once of their former crop, of which they make
mahie. This fuccedaneum for ripe bread-fruit is thus
made. They gather the fruit before it be perfectly
ripe, and laying it in heaps, cover it clofely with leaves.
In.this date it ferments, and becomes difagreeably
fvveet j the core is then taken out entire, and the reft
of the fruit thrown into a hole in their Houfes, dug on
purpoie, and neatly lined in the bottom and fides with
grafs. The whole is then covered with leaves, and
heavy ftones are laid upon it. In this ftate it under¬
goes a fecond fermentation, and becomes four ; after
which it will fuffer no change for many months. It is
taken out of this hole as it is wanted for ufe, and being
made into balls, it is wrapped up in leaves and baked,
and thus dreffed it will keep for five or fix w'eeks. It
is eaten, both cold and hot, and the natives of thole
countries feldom make a meal without it j but to Cap¬
tain Cook and his company the tafte was as difagree-
able as that of a pickled olive generally is the firft time
it is eaten.
M A.HO. See Hibiscus, Botany Index.
MAHOGANY. See Swietenia, Botany Index.
MAHOMET, or Mohammed, ftyled the Impojlor,
was born in the reign of Anulhirwan the Juft, empe¬
ror of Perfia, about the end of the 6th century of the
Chriftian era. He came into the world under fome
difadvantages. His father Abd’allah was a younger
Ion of Abd’almotalleb ; and dying very young, and in
his father’s lifetime, left his widow and infant fon in
very mean circumftances, his whole fubilance confift-
ing but of five camels and one Ethiopian fhe-flave.
Abd’almotalleb was, therefore, obliged to take care of
his grandchild Mahomet; w hich he not only did during
his life, but at his death enjoined his eldeft fon Abu-
Taleb, who v'as brother to Abd’allah by the fame mo¬
ther to provide for him for the future-, which he very
affectionately did, and inftruCted him in the bufinefs of
a merchant, which he followed 5 and to that end he
took him into Syria when he was but 13. He after¬
wards recommended him to Khadijah, a noble and
rich widow, for her faftor ; in whole fervice he be¬
haved himfelf fo well, that by making him her hulband
(he foon railed him to an equality with the richeft in
Mecca. »
After he began by this advantageous match to live
at his eafe, it was, that he formed the fcheme of efta-
blilhing a new religion, or, as he expreffed it, of re¬
planting the only true and ancient one profeffed by
Adam, Noah, Abraham, Mofes, Jefus, and all the pro¬
phets, by deftroying the grofs idolatry into which the
generality of his countrymen had fallen, and weeding
out the corruptions and fuperftitions which the latter
Jews and Chriftians had, as he thought, introduced
into their religion, and reducing it to its original puri¬
ty, which confifted chiefly in the worlhip of one only
God.
Before he made any attempt abroad, he rightly
judged that it was neceffary for him to begin with the
converfion of his own houfehold. Having therefore
retired with his family, as he had done feveral times
before, to a cave in Mount Hara, he there opened the
fecret of his miflion to his wife Khadijah j and ac-
Vol. XII. Part II.
quainted her, that the angel Gabrie^had juft before ap¬
peared to him, and told him that he was appointed
the apoftle of God : he alfo repeated to her a pafibge
which he pretended had been revealed to him by the
miniftry of the angel, with thofe other circumftances
of this firft appearance, which are related by the Ma¬
hometan writers. Khadijah received the news with
great joy \ fwearing by him in whofe hands her foul
was, that fhe trufted he would be the* prophet of his>
nation ; and immediately communicated what ftie had
heard to her coufin Warakah Ebn Nawfal, who, be¬
ing a Chriftian, could write in the Hebrew charafter,
and was tolerably w'ell verfed in the feriptures j and he
as readily came into her opinion, affuring her that the
fame angel who had formerly appeared unto Mofes was
now fent to Mahomet. The firft overture the prophet
made was in the month of Ramadan, in the 40th year
of his age, which is therefore ufually called the year of
his miflion.
Encouraged by fo good a beginning, he refolved to
proceed, and try for fome time what he could do by
private perfuafion, not daring to hazard the whole af¬
fair by expofing it too fuddenly to the public. He foon
made profelytes of thofe under his own roof, viz. his
wife Khadijah, his fervant Zeid Ebn Haretha, to whom
he gave his freedom on that occafion, (which after¬
wards became a rule to his follow-ers), and his coufin
and pupil Ali, the fon of Abu Taleb, though then
very young: but this laft, making no account of the
other two, ufed to ftyle himfelf the firjl of believers.
The next perfon Mahomet applied to was Abd’allab
Ebn Abi Kohafa, furnamed hbu Beer, a man of great
authority among the Koreilh, and one whofe intereft
he well knew would be of great fervice to him -, as it
foon appeared : for Abu Beer, being gained over, pre¬
vailed alfo on Othman Ebn Affan, Abd’alraham Ebn
Awf, Saad Ebn Abbi Wakkas, A1 Zobeir Ebn al
Awam, and Telha Ebn Obeid’allah, all principal men
of Mecca, to follow his example. Thefe men were
the fix chief companions, who, with a few more, were
converted in the fpace of three years j at the end of
which, Mahomet having, as he hoped, a fufficient in¬
tereft to fupport him, made his miflion no longer a fe-
cret, but gave out that God had commanded him to
admonifti his near relations ; and in order to do it with
more convenience and profpedt of fuccefs, he direfted
Ali to prepare an entertainment, and invite the fons
^and defeendants of Abd’almotalleb, intending then to
open his mind to them. This was done, and about 40
of them came j but Abu Laheb, one of his uncles,
making the company break up before Mahomet had
an opportunity of fpeaking, obliged him to give them
a fecond invitation the next day 5 and when they were
come he made them the following fpeech: “ I know
no man in all Arabia who can offer his kindred a more
excellent thing than I now do you \ I offer you happi-
nefs both in this life, and in that which is to come j God
Almighty hath commanded me to call you unto him :
Who, therefore, among you will be afliftant to me
herein, and become my brother and my vicegerent i1”
All of them hefitating, and declining the matter, Ali
at length rofe up, and declared that he would be his
afliftant; and vehemently threatened thofe who ftiould
oppofe him. Mahomet upon this embraced Ali with
great denjonffrations of affeftion, and defired all who
3 E were
MAH
Mahomet
were prefent to hearken to and obey him as his depu
ty •, at which the company broke out into a great
laughter, telling Abu Taleb that he muft now pay
obedience to his fon.
I his repulfe, however, was fo far from difcouraging
Mahomet, that he began to preach in public to the
people ”, who heard him with fome patience, till he came
to upbraid them with the idolatry, obftinacy, and per-
verfenefs of themfelves and their fathers: which fo
highly provoked them, that they declared themfelves
his enemies; and would foon have procured his ruin,
had he not been prote&ed by Abu Taleb. The chief
of the Koreilh warmly iblicited this perfon to defert
his nephew, making frequent remondrances againft
the innovations he was attempting 5 which proving in-
eft'e&ual, they at length threatened him with an open
rupture, if he did not prevail on Mahomet to defift.
At this Abu Taleb was fo far moved, that he earneft-
ly diffuaded his nephew from purfuing the affair any
farther, reprefenting the great danger he and his friends
mult otherwife run. But Mahomet was not to be in¬
timidated •, telling his uncle plainly, that if they fet the
fun againft him on his right hand, and the moon on his
left, he would not leave his enterprife: And Abu Taleb,
feeing him fo firmly refolved to proceed, ufed no fur¬
ther arguments, but promifed to ftand by him againft
all his enemies.
The Koreilh, finding they could prevail neither by
fair words or menaces, tried what they could do by
force and ill treatment j ufing Mahomet’s followers fo
very injurioully, that it was not fafe for them to con¬
tinue at Mecca any longer : whereupon Mahomet gave
leave to fuch of them as had not friends to protect
them to feek for refuge elfew'here. And accordingly
in the fifth year of the prophet’s miflion, 16 of them,
four of whom were women, fled into Ethiopia j and
among them Othman Ebn Affan and his wife Rakiah,
Mahomet’s daughter. This was the firft flight j but
afterwards feveral others followed them, retiring one
after another, to the number of 83 men and 18 wo¬
men, befides children. Thefe refugees w'ere kind¬
ly received by the Najalhi, or king of Ethiopia $
■who refufed to deliver them up to thofe whom the
Koreilh fent to demand them, and, as the Arab wri¬
ters unanimoufly atteft, even profefled the Mahometan
religion.
In the fixth year of his miflion, Mahomet had the
pleafure of feeing his party ftrengthened by the con-
verfion of his uncle Hamza, a man of great valour and
merit; and of Omar Ebn al Kattab, a perfon highly
efteemtd, and once a violent oppofer of the prophet.
As perfecution generally advances rather than obftru&s
the Ipreading of a religion, Iflamifm made fo great a
progrefs among the Arab tribes, that the Koreilh, to
fupprefs it effe&ually if pofiible, in the feventh year of
Mahomet’s miflion, made a folemn league or covenant
againft the Halhemites and the family of Abd’almo-
talleb, engaging themfelves to contrafl no marriages
with any of them, and to have no communication with
them ; and, to give it the greater fandlion, reduced it
into writing, and laid it up in the caaba. Upon this
the tribe became divided into two fadtions j and the
family of Haftiem all repaired to Abu Taleb, as their
head : except only Abd’al Uzza, furnamed ^Ibu La-
heb, who, out of inveterate hatred to his nephew and
[ 402 i
MAH
his dodlrine, went over to the oppofite party, whofe Mahomet
chief was Abu Sofia'a Ebn Harb, of the family of 
Ommeya.
The families continued thus at variance for ihree
years; but in the tenth year of his million, Mahomet
told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifeftly
Ihowed his difapprobatkm of the league which the'Ko-
reilh had made againft them, by lending a worm .to
eat out every word of the inttrument except the name
of God. Of this accident Mahomet had probably fome
private notice : for Abu Taleb went immediately to
the Koreilh, and acquainted them with it $ offering, if
it proved falfe, to deliver his nephew up to them 3 but
in cafe it were true, he infilled that they ought to lay
slide their animofity, and annul the league they had
made againft the Halhemites. To this they acquiefcedj
and going to infped the writing, to their great afto-
niftrment found it to be as Abu Taleb had laid j and
the league was thereupon declared void.
In the fame year Abu Taleb died, at the age of
above fourfeore, and it is the general opinion that he
died an infidel : though others fay, that when he was
at the point of death he embraced Mahometanilm •, and
produce fome paflages ©ut of his poetical compofitions
to confirm their affertion. About a month, or, as fome
■write, three days after the death of this great benefac¬
tor and patron, Mahomet had the additional mortifica¬
tion to lofe his wife Khadijah, who had fo generoufly
made his fortune. For which reafon this year is called
the year of mourning.
On the death of thefe two perfons, the Koreilh be¬
gan to be more troublefome than ever to their prophet,
and efpecially fome who had formerly been his inti¬
mate friends j infomueh that he found himfelf obliged
to feek for {belter elfewhere, and firft pitched upon
Tayef, about 60 miles call from Mecca, for the place
of his retreat. Thither therefore he went, accompa¬
nied by his fervant Zeid, and applied himfelf to two
of the chief of the tribe of Thakif who were the inha¬
bitants of that place j but they received him very cold¬
ly. However, he ftaid there a month j and fome of the
more confiderate and better fort of men treated him
with a little refpeft : but the Haves and inferior peo¬
ple at length rofe againft him ; and bringing him to
the wall of the city, obliged him to depart and return
to Mecca, where he put himfelf under the prote&ion
of Al Motaam Ebn Adi.
This repulfe greatly difeouraged his followers. How¬
ever, Mahomet was not wanting to himfelf j but boldly
continued to preach to the public affemblies at the pil¬
grimage, and gained feveral prolelytes j and among
them fix of the inhabitants of Yathreb of the Jewilh
tribe of Khazraj ; who, on their return home, failed
not to fpe'ak much in commendation of their new reli¬
gion, and exhorted their fellow citizens to embrace the
fame.
In the 12th year of his miflion it was that Mahomet
gave out that he had made his night-journey from
Mecca to Jerufalem, and thence to heaven, io much
fpoken of by all that write of him. Dr Prideaux
thinks he invented it, either to anfwer the expeftations
of thofe who demanded fome miracle as a proof of his
miflion j or elfe, by pretending to have converfed with
God, to eilablilh the authority of whatever he fliould
think fit to leave behind by way of oral tradition, and
make
MAH [ 403 ] M ~iA H
lahomet. make his fayings to ferve the fame purpofe as the oral
—Y—'law of the Jews. But it does not appear that Maho¬
met himfelf ever expe&ed fo great a regard Ihould be
paid to his fayings, as his followers have fince done
and feeing he all along difclaimed any power of per¬
forming miracles, it feems rather to have been a fetch
of policy to raife his reputation, by pretending to have
aftually converfed with Ged in heaven, as Mofes had
heretofore done in the Mount, and to have received fe-
veral inftitutions immediately from him, whereas be¬
fore he contented Tiimfelf with perfuading them that
he had all by the miniftry of Gabriel.
However, this ftory feemed fo abfurd and incredible,
that feveral of his followers left him upon it ; and had
probably ruined the whole defign, had not Abu Beer
vouched for his veracity, and declared, that if Maho¬
met affirmed it to be true, he verily believed the whole.
Which happy incident not only retrieved the prophet’s
credit, but increafed it to fuch a degree, that he was
fecure of being able to make his difciples fwallow
whatever he pleafed to impofe on them for the future.
And thisfiflion, notwithftanding its extravagance, was
one of the moft artful contrivances Mahomet ever put
in praftice, and what chiefly contributed to the raifing
of his reputation to that great height to which it af¬
terwards arrived.
In this year, called by the Mahometans the accepted
year, 12 men of Yathreb or Medina, of whom 10 were
of the tribe of Khazraj, and the other two of that of
Aws, came to Mecca, and took an oath of fidelity to
Mahomet at A1 Akaba, a hill on the north of that city.
This oath was called the women's oath ; not that any
women were prefent at this time, but becaufe a man
was not thereby obliged to take up arms in defence of
Mahomet or his religion ; it being the fame oath that
was afterwards exafted of the women, the form of
which we have in the Koran, and is to this effe£l:: viz.
That they ihould renounce all idolatry ; that they
fiiould not (leal nor commit fornication, nor kill their
children (as the Pagan Arabs ufed to do when they
apprehended they fhould not be able to maintain them),
nor forge calumnies 5 and that they fhould obey the
prophet in all things that were reafonable. When they
had folemnly engaged to all this, Mahomet fent one of
his difciples, named Mnfab Ebn Omair, home with
them, to inftruft them more fully in the grounds and
ceremonies of his new religion.
Mafab being arrived at Medina, by the afiiflance of
thofe who had been formerly converted, gained feveral
profelytes, particularly Ofaid Ebn Hodeira, a chief
man of the city, and Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the
tribe of Aws ; Mahometanifm fpreading fo fall, that
there was fcarce a houfe wherein there were not fame
who had embraced it.
The next year being the 13th of Mahomet’s mif-
fion, Mafab returned to Mecca, accompanied by *73
men and two women of Medina who had profeifed ifla-
rmfm, befides fome others who were as yet unbelievers.
On their arrival they immediately fent to Mahomet,
and offered him their affiftance, of which he was now
in great need j for his adverfaries were by this time
grown fo powerful in Mecca, that he could not ftay
there much longer without imminent danger. Where¬
fore he accepted their propofal, and met them oneN
night, by appointment, at A1 Akaba above mentioned,
attended by his uncle A1 Abbas 5 who, though he was Mahomet,
not then a believer, wilhed his nephew well, and made
a fpeech to thofe of Medina, wherein he told them
that as Mahomet was obliged to quit his native city,
and feek an afylum elfewhere, and they had offered
him their prote£tion, they would do well not to de¬
ceive him ; that if they were not firmly refolved to de¬
fend, and not betray him, they had better declare their
minds, and let him provide for his fafety in fome‘other
manner. Upon their protefting their fincerity, Ma¬
homet fwore to be faithful to them, on condition that
they Ihould protedl him againft all infults as heartily
as they would their own wives and families. They
then alked him what recompenfe they were to expeft
if they Ihould happen to be killed in his quarrel 5 he
anfwered, Paradiie. Whereupon they pledged their
faith to him, and fo returned home 5 after Mahomet
had chofen 12 out of their number, who were to have
the fame authority among them as the 12 apoffles of
Chrift had among his difciples.
Hitherto Mahomet had propagated his religion by
fair means; fo that the whole fuccefs of his enterprife,
before his flight to Medina, muff be attributed to per-
fuafion only, and not to compulfion. For before this
fecond oath of fealty or inauguration at A1 A.kaba, he
had no permiffion to ufe any force at all; and in feve¬
ral places of the Koran, which he pretended were re¬
vealed during his ftay at Pvlecca, he declares his bufi-
nefs was only to preach and admonifh ; that he had
no authority to compel any perfon to embrace his re¬
ligion j and that, whether people believe or not, was
none of his concern, but belonged folely unto God.
And he was fo far from allowing his followers to ufe
force, that he exhorted them to bear patiently thofe
injuries which were offered them on account of their
faith ; and, when perfecuted himfelf, chofe rather to
quit the place of his birth and retire to Medina, than
to make any refiftance. But this great paffivenefs and
moderation feem entirely owing to his want of power,
and the great fuperiority of his oppofers for the firft
12 years of his miffion ; for no fooner was he enabled,
by the affiffance of thofe of Medina, to make head
againft his enemies, titan he gave out, that God had
allowed him and his followers to defend themfelves
againft the infidels j and at length, as his forces increaf¬
ed, he pretended to have the divine leave even to at¬
tack them, and to deftroy idolatry, and fet up the
true faith by the fword : finding, by experience, that
his defigns would otherwife proceed very flowly, if
they w'ere not utterly overthrown 5 and, knowing, on
the other hand, that innovators, when they depend
folely on their own ftrength, and can compel, feldom
run any rifk ; from whence, fays Machiavel, it fol¬
lows, that all the armed prophets have fucceeded, and
the unarmed ones have failed. Mofes, Cyrus, Thefeus,
and Romulus, would not have been able to eftablifh the
obfervance of their inftitutions for any length of time
had they not been armed. The firft paffage of the
Koran, which gave Mahomet the permiffion of defend¬
ing himfelf by arms, is faid to have been that in the
22d chapter ; after which a great number to the fame
purpofe were revealed.
That Mahomet had a right to take up arms for his
own defence againft his unjuft perfecutors, may per¬
haps be allowed 5 but whether he ought afterwards to
3 E 2 have
MAH [ 404 ] MAH
Mahomet, have made ufe of that means for the eftablifhing of his
*" 1 ”y religion, it is not fo eafy to determine. How far the
fecular power may or ought to interpofe in affairs of
this nature, mankind are not agreed. The method of
converting by the fword gives no very favourable idea
of the faith which is fo propagated, and is dilallowed
by every body in thofe of another religion, though the
fame perfons are willing to admit of it for the advance¬
ment of their own : fuppofing that, though a falfe re¬
ligion ought not to be eftablifhed by authority, yet a
true one may : and accordingly force is almoft as con-
ftantly employed in thefe cafes by thofe who have the
power in their hands, as it is conftantly complained of
by thofe who fuffer the violence. It is certainly one
ef the mold convincing proofs that Mahometanifm was
no other than a human invention, that it owed its pro-
grefs and eftablifhment almoft entirely to the fword ;
and it is one ot the ftrongeft demonftrations of the di¬
vine original of Chriftianity, that it prevailed againft
all the force and powers of the world by the mere dint
of its own truth, after having flood the affaults of all
manner of perfecutions, as well as other oppofitions,
for 300 years together, and at length made the Roman
emperors themfelves fubmit thereto •, after which time,
indeed, this proof feems to fail, Chriftianity being then
eftablifhed, and Paganifm abolifhed, by public autho¬
rity, which has had great influence in the propagation
of the one and deftruftion of the other ever fince. But
to return.
Mahomet, having provided for the fecurity of his
companions as well as his own, by the league offenfive
and defenfive which he had now concluded with thofe
of Medina, directed them to repair thither, which they
accordingly did ; but himfelf with Abu Beer and Ali
ftaid behind, having not yet received the divine per-
miffion, as he pretended, to leave Mecca. Ihe Koreifh
fearing the confequence of this new alliance, began to
think it abfolutely neceffary to prevent Mahomet’s
efcape to Medina j and having held a council thereon,
after feveral milder expedients had been rejefted, they
came to a refolution that he fhould be killed j and
agreed that a man fhould be chofen out of every tribe
for the execution of this defign *, and that each man
ihould have a blow at him with his fword, that the
guilt of his blood might fall equally on all the tribes,
to whofe united power the Halhemites were much in¬
ferior, and therefore durft not attempt to revenge their
kinfman’s death.
This confpiraey was fcaree formed, when, by feme
means or other, it came to Mahomet’s knowledge ; and
he gave out that it was revealed to him by the angel
Gabriel, who had now ordered him to retire to Me¬
dina. Whereupon, to amufe his enemies, he directed
Ali to lie down in his place, and wrap himfelf up in
his green cloak, which he did ; and Mahomet efcaped
miraculoufly, as they pretend, to Abu Beer’s houfe,
unperceived by the confpirators, who had already af-
fembled at the prophet’s door. They, in the mean
time, looking through the crevice, and feeing Ali,
whom they took to be Mahomet himfelf, afleep, con¬
tinued watching there till morning, when Ali arofe,
and they found themfelves deceived.
From Abu Beer’s houfe Mahomet and he went to
a cave in Mount Thur, to the fouth-eaft of Mecca,
accompanied only by Amer Ebn Foheirah, Abu Beer’s
J
fervant, and Abd’allah Ebn Oreitah, an idolater whom Mahomet
they had hired for a guide. In this cave they lay ■
hid three days, to avoid the fearch of their enemies j
which they* very narrowly efcaped, and not without
the affifiance of more miracles than one : for fome fay
that the Koreifh were ftruck with blindnefs, fo that
they could not find the cave j others, that after Ma¬
homet and his companions were got in, two pigeons
laid their eggs at the entrance, and a fpider covered
the mouth of the cave with her web, which made
them look no farther. Abu Beer, feeing the prophet
in fuch imminent danger, became very forrowful j
whereupon Mahomet comforted him with thefe words
recorded in the Koran, Be not grieved, for God is with
us. Their enemies being retired, they left the cave,
and fet out for Medina, by a by-road •, and having
fortunately, or, as the Mahometans tell us, miracu¬
loufly, efcaped fome who were fent to purfue them,
arrived fafely at that city 5 whither Ali followed them
in three days, after he had fettled fome affairs at
Mecca.
The firft thing Mahomet did after his arrival at
Medina, was to build a temple for his religious wor-
fhip, and a houfe for himfelf, which he did on a parcel
of ground which had before ferved to put camels in,
or, as others tell us, for a burying-ground, and be¬
longed to Sahal and Soheil the fons of Amru, who
were orphans. This aftion Dr Prideaux exclaims
againft, reprefenting it as a flagrant inftance of in-
juftice j for that, fays he, he violently difpoffeffed
thefe poor orphans, the fons of an inferior artificer
(whom the author he quotes calls a carpenter), of this
ground, and fo founded the firft fabric of his worfhip '
with the like wickednefs as he did his religion. But,
to fay nothing of the improbability that Mahomet
fhould aft in fo impolitic a manner at his firft coming,
the Mahometan Avriters fet this affair in a quite differ¬
ent light : one tells us that he treated with the lads
about the price of the ground, but they defired he
Avould accept it as a prefent: however, as hiftorians
of good credit affure us, he aftually bought it ; and
the money was paid by Abu Beer. Befides, had
Mahomet accepted it as a prefent, the orphans rvere
in circumftances fufficient to have afforded it : for
they were of a very good family, of the tribe of Naj-
jer, one of the moft illuftrious among the Arabs j and
not the fons of a carpenter, as Dr Prideaux’s author
writes, who took the word Najjer, which fignifies “ a
carpenter,” for an appellative, whereas it is a proper
name.
Mahomet, being fecurely fettled at Medina, and
able not only to defend himfelf againft the infults of
his enemies, but to attack them, began to fend out
fmall parties to make reprifals on the Kortifh ; the
firft party confifting of no more than nine men, who
intercepted and plundered a caravan belonging to that
tribe, and in the aftion took two prifoners. But what
eflabliflied his affairs very much, and was the founda¬
tion on Avhich he built all his fucceeding greatnefs,
was the gaining of the battle of Bedr, which was
fought in the fecund year of the Hegira, and is fo fa¬
mous in the Mahometan hiftory. Some reckon no lefs
than 27 expeditions wherein Mahomet was perfonally
prefent, in nine of which he gave battle, befides feve¬
ral other expeditions in which he was not prefent.
MAH f 4°
I,hornet. His forces he maintained partly by the contributions
-^v of his followers for this purpofe, which he called by
the name of 'zacat or alms, and the paying of which he
very artfully made one main article of his religion ;
and partly by ordering a fifth part of the plunder to
be brought into the public treafury for that purpofe,
in which matter he likewife pretended to aft by the
divine diretdion.
In a few years, <by the fuccefs of his arms (not-
withftanding he fometimes came off by the worft) he
coniiderably raifed his credit and power. In the fixth
year of the Hegira he fet out with 1400 men to vifit
the temple of Mecca, not with any intent of commit¬
ting hoftilities, but in a peaceable manner. However,
when he came to A1 Hodeibiya, which is fituated partly
within and partly w-ithout the facred territory, the
Koreifh fent to let him know that they would not
permit him to enter Mecca, unlefs he forced his way ;
whereupon he called his troops about him, and they
all took a folemn oath of fealty or homage to him,
and he refolved to attack the citybut thofe of Mec¬
ca fending Arwa Ebn Mafun, prince of the tribe of
Thakif, as their ambaffador to defire peace, a truce
was concluded between them for ten years, by which
any perfon was allowed to enter into league either
with Mahomet, or with the Koreifh, as he thought
fit.
It may not be improper, in order to fhow the incon¬
ceivable veneration and refpeft the Mahometans by this
time had for their prophet, to mention the account
which the above-mentionedambaffador gave the Koreifh,
at his return, of their behaviour. He laid he had been
at the courts both of the Roman emperor and of the
king of Perfia, and never faw any prince fo highly re-
fpefled by his fubjefts as Mahomet was by his compa¬
nions ; for, whenever he made the ablution, in order
to fay his prayers, they ran and catched the water that
he had ufed •, and, whenever he fpit, they immedfately
licked it up, and gathered every hair that fell from him
with great fuperflition.
In the feventh year of the Hegira, Mahomet began
to think of propagating his religion beyond the
bounds of Arabia ; and fent meffengers to the neigh¬
bouring princes, with letters to invite them to Maho-
metanifm. Nor was this projeft without fome fuccefs.
Khofru Parviz, then king of Perfia, received his let¬
ter with great difdain, and tore it in a paffion, fend¬
ing away the meffenger very abruptly j which wdien
Mahomet heard, he faid God Jhall tear his kingdom.
And foon after a meffenger came to Mahomet from
Badhan king of Yaman, who was a dependant on the
Perfians, to acquaint him that he had received orders
to fend him to Khofru. Mahomet put off his anfw'er
till the next morning, and then told the meffenger it
had been revealed to him that night that Khofru was
fain by his fon Shiruyeh : adding that he was well
affured his new religion and empire fhould rife to as
great a height as that of Khofru ; and therefore bid
him advife his mafter to embrace Mahometanifm. "I he
meffenger being returned, Badhan in a few days re¬
ceived a letter from Shiruyeh, informing him of his
father’s death, and ordering him to give the prophet
no further difturbance. Whereupon Badhan and the
Perfians with him turned Mahometans.
The emperor Heraclius, as the Arabian hiflorians
5 ] MAH
affure us, received Mahomet’s letter with great refpeft, MahomeA
laying it on his pillow', and difmiffed the bearer ho¬
nourably. And fome pretend that he would have pro-
feffed this new faith, had he not been afraid of lofing
his crown.
Mahomet wrote to the fame effett to the king of
Ethiopia, though he had been converted before, ac¬
cording to the Arab writers ; and to Mokawkas, go¬
vernor of Egypt, who gave the meffenger a very fa¬
vourable reception, and fent feveral valuable prefents
to Mahomet, and among the reft two girls,, one. of
which, named Mary, became a great favourite with
him. He alfo fent letters of the like purport to feve¬
ral Arab princes 5 particularly one to A1 Hareth Ebn
Abi Shamar king of Ghaffan, who returning for an-
fwer that he would go to Mahomet himfelf, the pro¬
phet faid, May his kingdom perifh ; another to Hawd-
ha Ebn Ali, king of Yamama, who was a Chriftian,
and, having fome time before profeffed Iflamifm, had
lately returned to his former faith j this prince fent
back a very rough anfwer, upon which Mahomet curf-
ing him, he died foon after : and a third to Al Mon-
der Ebn Sawa, king of Bahrein, who embraced Ma¬
hometanifm, and all the Arabs of that country follow'ed
his example.
The eighth year of the Hegira was a very fortu¬
nate year to Mahomet. In the. beginning of it, Kha-
led Ebn al Walid and Amru Ebn al As, both excel¬
lent foldiers, the firft of whom afterwards conquered
Syria and other countries, and the latter Egypt, be¬
came profelytes to Mahometanifm. And foon after the
prophet fent 3000 men againft the Grecian forces, to
revenge the death of one of his ambaffadors, who, be¬
ing fent to the governor of Bofra on the fame errand
as thofe who went to the above-mentioned princes,
was flain by an Arab, of the tribe of Ghaffan, at
Muta, a town in the territory of Balka in Syria,
about three days journey eaftward from Jerufalem,
near which town they encountered. The Grecians
being vaflly fuperior in number (for, including the
auxiliary Arabs, they had an army of r00,000 men),
the Mahometans were repulfed in the firft attack, •
and loft fucceflively three of their generals, viz. Zeid
Ebn Haretha Mahomet’s freedman, Jaafar the fon of
Abu Taleb, and Abdallah Ebn Rawaha : but Khaled
Ebn al Walid fucceeding to the command, overthrew
the Greeks with a great daughter, and brought away
abundance of rich fpoil ; on occafion of which adlion
Mahomet gave him the title of Seif min foyuf Allah,
“ one of the fwords of God.”
In this year alfo Mahomet took the city of Mecca,
the inhabitants whereof had broken the truce con¬
cluded on two years before. For the tribe of Beer
who were confederates with the Koreifli, attacking
thofe of Khozaah, who were allies of Mahomet, killed
feveral of them, being fupported in the adtion by a
party of the Koreifti themfelves. The, confequence
of this violation was foon apprehended ; and Abu So-
fian himfelf made a journey to Medina on purpofe to
heal the breach and renew the truce : but in vain }
for Mahomet, glad of this opportunity, refufed to fee
him : whereupon he applied to Abu Beer and Ali;
but they giving him no anfwer, he was obliged to re¬
turn to Mecca as he came.
Mahomet immediately gave orders for preparations
MAH [ 406 ] M
^ '' ’hat he might mrprife the Meccans while Greek literature was then
they were unprovided to receive him : in a little time
he oegan 3iis march thither j and by that time he came
near the city, his forces were increafed to 10,000 men.
I hofe of Mecca, being not in a condition to defend
themfelves againft fo formidable an army, furrendered
at difcretion 5 and Abu Sofian faved his life by turning
Mahometan. About 28 of the idolaters were killed
by a party under the command of Khaled ; but this
happened contrary to Mahomet’s orders, who, when
he entered the town, pardoned all the Koreilh on
their fubmiffion, except only fix men and four wo¬
men, who were more obnoxious than ordinary (fome
of them having apoftatized), and were folemnly pro-
fcribed by the prophet himfelf $ but of thefe no more
than three men and one woman were put to death,
the relt obtaining pardon on their embracing Maho-
metanifm, and one of the women making her efcape.
The remainder of this year Mahomet employed in
deftroying the idols in and round M^ecca, fending feve-
ral of his generals on expeditions for that purpofe, and
to invite the Arabs to Iflamifm : wherein it is no w'on-
der if they now met with fuccefs.
Phe next year, being the ninth of the Hegira, the
Mahometans call the year of embajfies : for the Arabs
had been hitherto expedhing the iffue of the war be¬
tween Mahomet and the Koreifh : but, fo foon as that
tribe, the principal of the whole nation, and the ge¬
nuine defcendants of Ilhmael, whofe prerogatives none
offered to difpute, had fubmitted, they were fatisfied
that it was not in their power to oppofe Mahomet 5
and therefore began to come in to him in great num-
oeis, and to fend embaffies to make their fubmiflions
to him, both to Mecca, while he ftaid there, and alfo
to Medina, whither he returned this year. Among
tne reft, five kings of the tribe of Hamyar profef-
fed Mahometanifm, and fent ambaffadors to notify the
fame.
In the 10th year, Ali was fent into Yatnan to
propagate the Mahometan faith there ; and, as it is
laid, converted the whole tribe of Hamdan in one
day. . Their example was quickly followed by all the
inhabitants of that province, except only thofe of
Najran, who, being Chriftians, chofe rather to nay
tribute. 1
Thus was Mahometanifm eftabliihed, and idolatry
rooted out, even in Mahomet’s lifetime (for he died
the next year), throughout all Arabia, except only
Yamama, where Mofeilama, who fet up alfo for a pro¬
phet as Mahomet’s competitor, had a great party, and
was not reduced till the caliphate of Abu Beer : and the
Arabs being then united in one faith, and under one
prince, found themfelves in a condition of making thofe
conquefts which extended the Mahometan faith over fo
great a part of the world.
Mahomet, the name of feveral emperors of the
T urks $ of whom the moft celebrated is,
Mahomet II. furnamed the Great, their feventh
fultan. See Turkey.
He was born at Adrianople the 24th of March
M3° i and is to be remembered chiefly by us for tak-
ing Conftantinople in 1453* and thereby driving many
learned Greeks into the weft, which was a great
caufe of the reftoration of learning in Europe, as the
A H
introduced here.
He was Mahomei
one of the greateft men upon record, with regard to
the qualities neceffary to a conqueror j for he con¬
quered tw’o empires, twelve kingdoms, and two hun¬
dred confiderable cities. He was very ambitious of
the title of Great, and the Turks gave it him ; even
the Chriftians have not difputed it with him j for he
was the firft of the Ottoman emperors whom the Weft-
ern nations dignified with the title of Grand Seig¬
nior or Great Turk, which pofterity has preferved to
his defcendants. Italy had fuffered greater calamities
but the had never felt a terror equal to that which this
fultan’s victories imprinted. The inhabitants feemed
already condemned to wear the turban : it is certain
that Pope Sixtus IV. reprefented to himfelf Rome as
already involved in the dreadful fate of Conftanti¬
nople 5 and thought of nothing but efcaping into Pro¬
vence, and once more transferring the holy fee to A-
vjgnon. Accordingly, the news of Mahomet’s death,
which happened the 3d of May 1481, was received at
Rome with the greateft joy that ever was beheld there.
Sixtus caufed all the churches to be thrown open,
made the trades people leave off their work, ordered a
feaft of three days, with public prayers and proceflions,
commanded a difeharge of the whole artillery of the
caftle of St Angelo all that time, and put a ftop to his
journey to Avignon.
He appears to be the firft fultan who was a lover of
arts and feienees j and even cultivated polite letters.
He often read the Hiftory of Auguftus, and the
other Cfcefars ; and he perufed thofe of Alexander,
Conftantine, and Theodofius, with more than ordi¬
nary pleafure, becaufe thefe had reigned in the fame
country wuth himfelf. He was fond of painting, mu-
fic, and fculpture; and he applied himfelf to the ftudy
of agriculture. He was much addi&ed to aftrology j
and ufed to encourage his troops by giving out, that
the motion and influence of the heavenly bodies pro-
mifed him the empire of the world. Contrary to the
genius of his country, he delighted fo much in the
knowledge of foreign languages,, that he not only
fpoke the Arabian, to which the Turkilh laws, and
the religion of their legiflator Mahomet, are appropri¬
ated, but alfo the Perfian, the Greek, and the Ffench,
that is, the corrupted Italian. Landin, a knight of
Rhodes, colle&ed feveral letters which this fultan
wrote in the Syriac, Greek, and Turkiflr languages,
and tranflated them into Latin. Where the originals
are, nobody knows ; but the tranflation has been pub-
lilhed feveral times ; as at Lyons 1520, in 410 ; at
Bafil 1554, X2mo; in a colle&ion publiflied by Opo-
rinus, at Marpurg 1604, in 8vo; and at Leipfic 1690,
in i2mo. Melchior Junius, profeffor of eloquence at
Strafburg, publ.fhed at Montbeliard, 1595, a collec¬
tion of letters, in which there are three written by
Mahomet II. to Scanderbeg. One cannot difeover
the leaft air of Turkilh ferocity in thefe letters : they
are written in as civil terms, and as obliging a man¬
ner, as the moft polite prince in Chriftendom could
have written.
MAHOMETANISM, or Mahometism, the fy-
ftem of religion broached by Mahomet, and ftill ad¬
hered to by his followers. See Mahomet, and Al¬
coran.
Mahome
taialm.
Mahometanifm
MAH
[ 4°7 J
M A H
ahome- Mahometanifm is profeffed by the Turks, Perfians,
anifm. an(i feveral nations among the Africans, and many
  among the E'tft Indians.
The Mahometans divide their religion into two ge¬
neral parts, faith and pra&ice : of which the firlt is
divided into fix diftinft branches : Belief in God, in
his angels, in his fcriptures, in his prophets, in the
refurredlion and final judgment, and in God’s abfolute
decrees. The points relating to pradtice are, prayer,
with walkings, See. alms, fatting, pilgrimage to Mecca,
and circumcifion.
1. Of the Mahometan Fa it A.] I. That both Maho¬
met, and thofe among his followers who are reckoned
orthodox, had and continue to have juft and true no¬
tions of God and his attributes, appears fo plain from
the Koran itfelf. and all the Mahometan divines, that
it would be lofs of time to refute thofe who fuppofe
the God of Mahomet to be different from the true
God, and only a fiftitious deity or idol of his own
creation.
2. The exigence of angels, and their purity, are
abfolutely required to be believed in the Koran 5 and
he is reckoned an infidel who denies there are fuch
beings, or hates any of them, or aflerts any diftindlion
of fexes among them. They believe them to have pure
and fubtle bodies, created of fire •, that they neither
eat nor drink, nor propagate their fpecies ; that they
have various forms and offices, fome adoring God in
different poftures, others finging praifes to him, or
interceding for mankind. They hold, that fome of
them are employed in writing down the adlions of
men ; others in carrying the throne of God, and other
fervices.
The four angels, whom they look on as more emi¬
nently in God’s favour, and often mention on account
of the offices afligned them, are, Gabriel, to whom
they gives feveral titles, particularly thofe of the /to///
Spirit, and the angel of revelations, fuppofing him to
be honoured by God with a greater confidence than
any other, and to be employed in writing down the
divine decrees ; Michael, the friend and proteftor of
the Jews; Azrael, the angel of death, who feparates
men’s fouls from their bodies; and Ifrafil, whofe office
it will be to found the trumpet at the refurreftion.
The Mahometans alfo believe, that two guardian an¬
gels attend on every man, to obferve and write down
his aftions, being changed every day, and therefore
called al Moakkibat, or “ the angels who continually
fucceed one another.”
The devil, whom Mahomet names F.blis, from his
defpair, w as once one of thofe angels who are neareft
to God’s prefence, called A%a%il$ and fell, according
to the deftrine of the Koran, for refufing to pay ho¬
mage to Adam at the command of God.
Befides angels and devils, the Mahometans are
taught by the Koran to believe an intermediate order
of creatures, which they call jin or genii, created alfo
of fire, but of a groffer fabric than angels, fince they
eat and drink, and propagate their fpecies, and are
fubjedl to death. Some of thefe are fuppofed to be
good and others bad, and capable of future falvation
or damnation, as men are ; whence Mahomet pre¬
tended to be fent for the converfion of genii as well
as men.
3. As to the Scriptures, the Mahometans are taught
4
by the Koran, that God, in divers ages of the world, Maheme-
gave revelations of his will in writing to feveral pro- t:ir!lrrj-
phets, the whole and every one of which it is abfo¬
lutely neceflary for a good Moflem to believe. The
number of thele facred books was, according to them,
104. Of which xq were given to Adam, 50 to Seth,
30 to Edris or Enoch, 10 to Abraham ; and the other
four, being the Pentateuch, the Pfalms, the Gofpel,
and the Koran, were fueceffively delivered to Moles,
David, Jefus, and Mahomet; which laft being the
feal of the prophets, thofe revelations are now eiofed,
and no more are to be expected. All thefe divine
books, except the four laid, they agree to be now en¬
tirely loft, and their contents unknown; though the
Sabians have feveral books which they attribute to
fome of the antediluvian prophets. And of thole four,
the Pentateuch, Pfalms, and Gofpel, they fay, have
undergone fo many alterations and corruptions, that,
though there may poffibly be fome part of the true
word of God therein, yet no credit is to be given to
the prelent copies in the hands of the Jews and Chri-
ftians. The Mahometans have alfo a gofpel in Arabic,
attributed to St Barnabas ; wherein the hiftory of
Jefus Chrift is related in a manner very different from
what we find in the true golptls, and correfpondent to
thofe traditions which Mahomet has followed in his
Koran. Of this gofpel the Morifcoes in Africa have
a tranllation in Spanilh ; and there is, in the library
of Prince Eugene of Savoy, a manufeript of fome. an¬
tiquity, containing an Italian tranflation of the fame
golpel ; made, it is to be fuppoied, for the ule of re¬
negades. This book appears to be no original forgery
of the Mahometans ; though they have, no doubt, in¬
terpolated and altered it fince, the better to ferve their
purpofe ; and in particular, inftead of the Paraclete,
or Comforter, they have in this apocryphal gofpel in-
ferted the word Periclyte, that is, the “ famous,” or
“ illuftrious by which they pretend their prophet
was foretold by name, that being the fignification of
Mohammed in Arabic : and this they lay to juftify
that paffage of the Koran, where Jefus Chrift is for¬
mally afferted to have foretold his coming, under his
other name of Ahmed, which is derived from the lame
root as Mohammed, and of the fame import. From
thefe, or fome other forgeries of the fame ftamp, it
is that the Mahometans quote feveral paffages, of
which there are net the leaft footfteps in the New
Teftament.
4. The number of the prophets, which have been
from time to time fent by God into the world,
amounts to no lefs than 224,000, according to one
Mahometan tradition ; or to 124,000, according to
another ; among whom 313 were apoftles, fent with
fpecial commiflions to reclaim mankind from infidelity
and fuperftition ; and fix of them brought new laws
or difpenfations, which fucceflively abrogated the pre¬
ceding ; thefe were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moles,
Jefus, and Mahomet. All the prophets in general,
the Mahometans believe to have been free from great
fins and errors of confequence, and profeffors of one
and the fame religion, that is, Mam, notwithftanding
the different laws and inftitutions which they ob-
ferved. They allow of degrees among them,- and hold
fome of them to be more excellent and honourable
than others. The firft place they give to the revealers
f) ‘ andi
MAH r 408 ] M A H
Mahom;- and efhtblifhers oi new dHpenfation? and the next to tdie
a pottles.
In this great number of prophets, they not only
reckon divers patriarchs and perfons named in fcrip-
ture, but not recorded to have been prophets, (where¬
in the Jewith and Chriftian writers have fometimes led
the way), as Adam, Seth, Lot, Ithmael, Nun, Jofhua,
&c. and introduce lome of them under different names,
as Enoch, Heber, and Jethro, uho are called, in the
Koran, EJris, Hud, and Shoaib: but feveral others
whofe very names do not appear in Scripture (though
they endeavour to find fome perfons there to fix them
on), as Saleh, Khedr, Dhu’lkefl, &c.
5. The belief of a general refurreftion and a future
judgment.
When a corpfe is laid in the grave, they fay he is
received by an angel, who gives him notice of the
coming of the two examiners j who are two black livid
angels, of a terrible appearance, named Monher and
Nakir. Thefe order the dead perfon to lit upright •, and
examine him concerning his faith, as to the unity of
God, and the miffion of Mahomet: if he anfwer right¬
ly, they fuffer the body to reft in peace, and it is re-
frefhed by the air of paradife j but, if not, they beat
him on the temples with iron maces, till he roars out
for anguilh fo loud, that he is heard by all from eaft to
weft, except men and genii. They then prefs the
earth on the corpfe, which is gnawed and flung till
the refurreftion by 99 dragons, with feven heads
each •, or, as others fay, their fins will become venom¬
ous beafts, the grievous ones flinging like dragons,
the fmaller like fcorpions, and the others like ferpents:
circumftances which fome underftand in a figurative
fenfe.
As to the foul, they hold, that, when it is feparated
from the body by the angel of death, who performs his
office with ea!e and gentlenefs towards the good, and
with violence towards the wicked, it enters into that
which they call al berzakh, or the interval between
death and the refurre&ion. If the departed perfon
was a believer, they fay two angels meet it, who con¬
vey it to heaven, that its place there may be affigned,
according to its merit and degree. For they diftin-
guifh the fouls of the faithful into three clafles : The
firft of prophets, whofe fouls are admitted into para¬
dife immediately ", the fecond of martyrs, whofe fpirits,
according to a tradition of Mahomet, reft in the crops
of green birds, which eat of the fruits and drink of the
rivers of paradife ; and the third of other believers,
concerning the ftate of whofe fouls before the refurrec-
tion there are various opinions.
Though fome among the Mahometans have thought
that the refurredlion will be merely fpiritual, and no
more than the returning of the foul to the place
whence it firft came (an opinion defended by Ebn Si-
na, and called by fome the opinion of the philofophers') ;
and others, who allow man to confift of body only,
that it w ill be merely corporeal j the received opinion
is, that both body and foul will be raifed : and their
doctors argue ftrenuoufly for the poffibility of the re-
furreflion of the body, and difpute with great fubtility
concerning the manner of it. But Mahomet has taken
care to preferve one part of the body, whatever be-
ncomes of the reft, to ferve for a bafis of the future edi-
Jice, or rather a leaven for the mafs which is to be join¬
ed to it. For he taught, that a man’s body was entire- MahomJ
ly conlumed by the earth, except only the bone called taniim.
al ajb, which we name the os coccygis, or rumpbone •, v"'
and that, as it was the firft formed m the human body,
it will alfo remain uncorrupted till the laft day, as a
feed from whence the whole is to be renewed ; and this,
he faid, would be efFedled by a forty years rain, which
God ftiould fend, and which w'ould cover the earth to
the height of 1 2 cubits, and caufe the bodies to fprout
forth like plants. Herein, alfo, is Mahomet beholden
to the Jews; who fay the fame things of the bone Luz,
excepting that what he attributes to a great rain, will
be effefted, according to them, by a dew impregnat¬
ing the dull; of the earth.
The time of the refurreflion the Mahometans allow
to be a perfedf fecret to all but God alone 5 the angel
Gabriel himfelf acknowledging his ignorance in this
point, when Mahomet alked him about it. How-’
ever, they fay, the approach of that day may be
known from certain figns which are to precede it.
Thefe figns they diftinguilh into two forts, the lefler
and the greater.
The leffer figns are, 1. The decay of faith among
men. 2. The advancing of the meaneft perfons to
eminent dignity. 3. That a maid fervant fhall become
the mother of her miftrefs (or mafter) ; by which is
meant, either that towards the end of the world men
ffiall be much given to fenfuality, or that the Maho¬
metans ffiall then take many captives. 4. Tumults
and feditions. 5. A war with the Turks. 6. Great
diftrefs in the world, fo that a man, when he paffes by
another’s grave, (hall fay, Would to God I were in
his place ! 7. That the provinces of Irac and Syria
(hall refufe to pay their tribute. And, 8. That the
buildings of Medina (hall reach to Ahab, or Yahab.
The greater figns are, 1. The fun’s riling in the
weft ; which fome have imagined it originally did.
2. The appearance of the beaft, which ffiall rife out of
the earth, in the temple of Mecca, or on Mount Safa,
or in the territory of Tayef, or fome other place. This
beaft, they fay, is to be 60 cubits high ; though
others, not fatisfied with fo fmall a fize, will have her
reach to the clouds and to heaven, when her head only
is out j and that ffie will appear for three days, but
ffiow only a third part of her body. They defcribe
this monfter, as to her form, to be a compound of
various fpecies j having the head of a bull, the eyes of
a hog, the ears of an elephant, the horns of a flag,
the neck of an oftrich, the breaft of a lion, the colour
of a tiger, the back of a cat, the tail of a ram, the
legs of a camel, and the voice of an afs. Some fay
this beaft is to appear three times in feveral places,
and that ffie will bring with her the rod of Mofes and
the feal of Solomon ; and, being fo fwift that none
can overtake or efcape her, will with the firft ftrike all
the believers on the face, and mark them with the
word tnumen, i. e. believer j and with the latter will
mark the unbelievers on the face likewife, with the
word Cafer, i. e. infidel, that every perfon may be
known for what he really is. They add, that the fame
beaft is to demonftrate the vanity of all religions ex¬
cept Iflam, and to fpeak Arabic. All this fluff feems
to be the refult of a confufed idea of the beaft in the
Revelation. 3. War with the Greeks, and the taking
Conftantinople by 70,000 of the pofterity of Ifaac, who
M A H [ 409 ] M A H
home- (Kail not win that city by force ox afms, but the walls
n.l’in. (hall fall down while they cry out, There is no God but
'V—'' God, God is rnoj} great! As they are dividing the fpoil,
news will come to them of the appearance of Anti-
chrifl} whereupon they {hall leave all, and return
back. 4. The coming of Antichrift, whom the Ma¬
hometans call Majib al Dajjal, i. e. the falfe or lying
Chrilt, and limply al Dajjal. He is to be one-eyed,
and marked on the forehead with the letters C. F. Ft.
dignifying Cafer, or infidel. They fay that the Jews
give him the name of MeJJiah Ben David; and pretend
he is to come in the lalt days, and to be lord both of
land and fea, and that he will reftore the kingdom to
them. 5. The defcent of Jefus on earth. They pre¬
tend that he is to defcend near the white tower to the
call of Damafcus, when the people are returned from
the taking of Conftantinople : that he is to embrace
the Mahometan religion, marry a wife, get children,
kill Antichritf j and at length die after 40 years, or,
according to others, 24 years continuance on earth.
Under him, they fay, there will be great fecurity
and plenty in the world, all hatred and malice being
laid alide j when lions and camels, bears and (beep,
fhall live in peace, and a child {hall play with ferpents
unhurt. 6. War with the Jews ; of whom the Ma-
Jiometans are to make a prodigious {laughter, the
very trees and {tones difcovering fuch of them as hide
themfelves, except only the tree called gJiarkad, which
is the tree of the Jews. 7. The irruption of Gog and
Magog, or, as they are called in the eaft, Yajuj and
Majuj; of whom many things are related in the Koran
and the traditions of Mahomet. Thefe barbarians,
they tell us, having paffed the lake of Tiberias, which
the vanguard of their vaft army will drink dry, will
come to Jerufalem, and there greatly diftrefs Jefus and
his companions 5 till, at his requeft, God will deftroy
them, and fill the earth with their carcafes, which,
after fome time, God will fend birds to carry awray, at
the prayers of Jefus and his followers. Their bows,
arrows, and quivers, the Moflems will burn for feven
years together j and at laft God will fend a rain to
cleanfe the earth and to make it fertile. 8. A fmoke
which ihall fill the whole earth. 9. An eclipfe of the
moon. Mahomet is reported to have faid, that there
would be three eclipfes before the laft hour $ one to be
feen in the eaft, another in the weft, and the third in
Arabia. 10. The returning of the Arabs to the wor-
Ihip of Allat and Al Uzza, and the reft of their an¬
cient idols, after the deceafe'of every one in whofe
heart there was faith equal to a grain of muftard feed,
none but the very worft of men being left alive. For
God, they fay, will fend a cold odoriferous w ind, blow¬
ing from Syria Damafcena, which ftiall fweep away the
fouls of all the faithful, and the Koran itfelf, fo that
men will remain in the grofleft ignorance for 100 years.
11. The difcovery of a vaft heap of gold and lilver by
the retreating of the Euphrates, which will be the de-
ftrudlion of many. 1 2. The demolition of the Caaba,
or temple of Mecca, by the Ethiopians. 13. The
fpeaking of beafts and inanimate things. 14. The
breaking out of fire in the province of Hejaz j or, ac¬
cording to others, in Yaman. 15. The appearance of
a naan of the defendants of Kahtan, who {hall drive
men before him with his ftaff. 16. The coming of the
Mohdi, or director; concerning whom Mahomet pro-
VOL. XII. Pan II. •
phefied, that the world iliould not have an end till one Mahome-
of his own family fttould govern the Arabians, wdiole tarilim'
name ftiould be the lame with his own name, and
whofe father’s name (hould alio be the fame with his
father’s name j and who {hould fill the earth with
righteoufnefs. This perfon the Shiites believe to be
now alive, and concealed in fome fecret place till the
time of his manifeftation j for they fuppofe him no other
than the ialt of the 12 imams, named Mahomet A-
bu'lkafem, as their prophet was ; and the fon of Half n
al Alkeri, the nth of that fucceflion. He was born
at Sermanrai, in the 255th year of the Hegira. From
this tradition, it is to be prefumed, an opinion pretty
current among the Chriftians took its rife, that the
Mahometans are in expectation of their prophet’s re¬
turn. 17. A wind which {hall fw^eep away the fouls of
all who have but a grain of faith in their hearts, as has
been mentioned under the tenth fign.
Thefe are the greater figns, which, according to
their doCtrine, are to precede the refurreftion, but flill
leave the hour of it uncertain : for the immediate fign
of its being come will be the firft blaft of the trumpet,
which they believe will be founded three times. The
firft they call the blajl of confer nation ; at the hearing
of which all creatures in heaven and earth fhall be
ftruck with terror, except thofe whom God {hall pleafe
to exempt from it. The effedts attributed to this firft
found of the trumpet are very wonderful : for they fay
the earth will be ftiaken, and not only all buildings,
but the very mountains levelled*, that the heavens ihall
melt, the fun be darkened, the ftars fall, on the death
of the angels, who, as fome imagine, hold them fu~
fpended between heaven and earth 5 and the fea {hall be
troubled and dried up, or, according to others, turned
into flames, the fun, moon, and ftars being thrown in¬
to it: the Koran to expreis the greatnefs of the ter¬
ror of that day, adds, that women who give hick {hall
abandon the care of their infants, and even the fhe ca¬
mels which have gone 10 months with young (a molt
valuable part of the fubftance of that nation) {hall be
utterly negle&ed. A farther effeft of this blaft will be
that concourfe of beafts mentioned in the Koran, though
fome doubt whether it be to precede the refurreftion or
not. They who fuppofe it will precede, thinK. that all
kinds of animals, forgetting their refpeclive natural
fiercenels and timidity, will run together into one place,
being terrified by the found of the trumpet and the hid¬
den {flock of nature.
The Mahometans believe that this firft blaft will be
followed by a fecond, which they call the blaf of exina*
nition ; by which all creatures both in heaven and earth
{flail die or be annihilated, except tflofe which God
{flail pleafe to exempt from the common fate j and this,
they fay, fhall happen in the twinkling of an eye, nay
in an inftant j nothing furviving except God alone,
with paradile and hell, and the inhabitants of thofe tw’o
places, and the throne of glory. The laft who {flail
die will be the angel of death.
Forty years after this will be heard the blaf of re-
furreBion, when the trumpet {flail be founded the third
time by Ifrafil, who, together with Gabriel and Mi¬
chael, will be previoufly reftored to life, and, {landing
on the rock of the temple of Jerufalem, {flail, at God’s
command, call together all the dry and rotten bones,
and other difperfed parts of the bodies, and the very
3 F hairs
Mahome.
tanifra.
MAH [41
hairs to judgment. This angel having, by the divine
order, fet the trumpet to his mouth, and called toge¬
ther all the fouls from all parts, will throw them into
his trumpet, from whence, on his giving the laft found,
at the command of God, they will fly forth like bees,
and fill the whole fpace between heaven and earth, and
then repair to their refpe&ive bodies, which the open¬
ing earth will fuffer to arife j and the firft who fhall
fo arife, according to a tradition of Mahomet, will be
himfelf. For this birth the earth will be prepared by
the rain above mentioned, which is to fall continually
for 40 years, and will referable the feed of a man, and
be fupplied from the water under the throne of God,
which is called living water ; by the efficacy and vir¬
tue of which the dead bodies ffiall fpring forth from
their graves as they did in their mother’s womb, or
as corn fprouts forth by common rain, till they become
perfedl; after which breath will be breathed into them,
and they will fleep in their fepulchres till they are raifed
to life at the laft trumpet.
When thofe who have rifen ffiall have waited the li¬
mited time, the Mahometans believe God will at length
appear to judge them; Mahomet undertaking the of¬
fice of intercelfor, after it fhall have been declined by
Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Jefus, who ffiall beg de¬
liverance only for their own fouls. They fay, that on
this folemn occafion God will come in the clouds fur-
rounded by angels, and will produce the books where¬
in the actions of every perfon are recorded by their
guardian angels, and will command the prophets to
bear witnefs againft thofe to whom they have been re-
fpe&ively fent. Then every one will be examined con¬
cerning all his words and actions uttered and done by
him in this life; not as if God needed any information
in thefe refpefts, but to oblige the perfon to make pu¬
blic confeffion and acknowledgment of God’s juftice.
The particulars, of which they ffiall give an account,
as Mahomet himfelf enumerated them, are, of their
time, how they fpent it ; of their wealth, by what
means they acquired it, and how they employed it; of
their bodies, wherein they exercifed them ; of their
knowledge and learning, what ufe they made of them.
To the queftions we have mentioned each perfon ffiall
anfwer, and make his defence in the beft manner he
can, endeavouring to excufe himfelf by calling the
blame of his evil deeds on others ; fo that a difpute
fhall arife even between the foul and the body, to which
of them their guilt ought to be imputed : The foul fay¬
ing, 0 Lord, my body I received from thee ,• for thou
createdf me without a hand to lay hold with, a foot to
walk with, an eye to fee with, or an underfunding to
apprehend with, till l came and entered into this body ;
therefore pur,if) it eternally, but deliver me. The body,
on the other fide, will make this apology : 0 Lord,
thou createdf me like a fock of wood, having neither
hand that l could lay hold with, nor foot that I could
walk with, till this foul, like a ray of light, entered into
me, and my tongue began to fpeak, my eye to fee, and m.y
foot to walk ; therefore punifh it eternally, but deliver
me. But God will propound to them the following
parable of the blind man and the lame man, which, as
well as the preceding difpute, was borrowed by the
Mahometans from the Jews. A certain king, having
a pleafant garden, in which were ripe fruits, fet two
perfons to keep it, one of whom was blind, and the
I
1
MAH
other lame ; the former not being able to fee the fruit, Mahom
nor the latter to gather it: the lame man, however, tanifinl
feeing the fruit, perfuaded the blind man to take him W“Y'“
upon his ffioulders, and by that means he eafily'gather-
ed the fruit, which they divided between them. The
lord of the garden coming fome time after, and inquir¬
ing after his fruit, each began to excufe himfelf: the
blind man faid he had no eyes to fee wdth ; and the
lame man, that he had no feet to approach the trees.
But the king, ordering the lame man to be fet on the
blind, paffed fentence on and puniffied them both.
And in the fame manner will God deal with the body
and the foul. As thefe apologies will not avail on that
day, fo it will be in vain for any one to deny his evil
aftions ; fince men and angels, and his own members,
nay, the very earth itfelf, will be ready to bear witnefs
againft him.
At this examination, they alfo believe, that each per¬
fon will have the book wherein all the adlions of his
life are written delivered to him : which books the righ¬
teous will receive into their right hand, and read with
great pleafure and fatisfadlion ; but the ungodly will
be obliged to take them, againft their wills, in their
left, which will be bound behind their backs, their
right hand being tied up to their necks.
To ffiow the exaft juftice which will be obferved on
this great day of trial, the next thing they defcribe is
the balance, wherein all things ffiall be weighed. They
fay it will be held by Gabriel; and that it is of fo vaft
a fize, that its two fcales, one of which hangs over pa-
radife, and the other over hell, are capacious enough
to contain both heaven and hell. Though fome are
willing to underftand what is faid in the Koran con¬
cerning this balance allegorically, and only as a figura¬
tive reprefentation of God’s equity; yet the more an¬
cient and orthodox opinion is, that they are to be ta¬
ken literally ; and fince words and aflions, being mere
accidents, are not capable of being themfelves weigh¬
ed, they fay that the books wherein they are written
w'ill be thrown into the fcales, and according as thofe
wherein the good or evil aftions are recorded ffiall
preponderate, fentence will be given : thofe whofe
balances laden with good works ffiall be heavy, will
be faved ; but thofe whofe balances are light, will be
condemned. Nor will any one have caufe to complain
that God fuffers any good a&ion to pafs unrewarded,
becaufe the wicked for the good they do have their
reward in this life, and therefore can expefl no favour
in the next.
This examination being paft, and every one’s works
weighed in a juft balance, that mutual retaliation will
follow-, according to which every creature will take ven¬
geance one of another, or have fatisfaftion made them
for the injuries which they have fuffered. And, fince
there will then be no other way of returning like for
like, the manner of giving this fatisfadlion will be by
taking away a proportional part of the good works of
him who offered the injury, and adding it to thofe of
him who fuffered it. Which being done, if the angels
(by whofe miniftry this is to be performed) fay, Lord,
we have given to every one his due, and there remaineth
■of this perfoti’s good works fo much as equalUih the
weight of an ant, God will, of his mercy, caufe it be
doubled unto him, that he may be admitted into para-
dife $ but if, on the contrary, his good works be ex-
hauftedji
M A H
[ 411 3
M A II
haufled, and there remain evil works only, and there
be any who have not yet received fatisfaction from him,
God will order that an equal weight of their fins be
added unto his, that he may be pun idled for them in
their dead, and he will be lent to hell laden with both.
This will be the method of God’s dealing with man¬
kind. As to brutes, after they (hall have likewife taken
vengeance of one another, he will command them to
be changed into dull j wicked men being referved
to more grievous puniihment, fo that they diail cry out,
on hearing this fentence palled on the brutes, Would
to God that we were dujl alfo ! As to the genii, many
Mahometans are of opinion, that fuch of them as are
true believers, will undergo the fame fate as the irra¬
tional animals, and have no other reward than the
favour of being converted into dull: and for this they
quote the authority of their prophet.
The trials being over, and the affembly diflblved, the
Mahometans hold, that thofe who are to be admitted
into paradife will take the right hand way, and thofe
who are deftined to hell-fire will take the left j but
both of them mull firft pafs the bridge called in Arabic
al Sirat, which they fay is laid over the midft of hell,
and defcribe to be finer than a hair, and (harper than
the edge of a fword •, fo that it feems very difficult
to conceive how any one (hall be able to Hand upon it;
for which reafon, moll of the fe£t of the Motazalites
rejeft it as a fable •, though the orthodox think it a
fufficient proof of the truth of this article, that it was
ferioully affirmed by him who never afferted a false¬
hood, meaning their prophet: who, to add to the
difficulty of the paffage, has likewife declared, that
this bridge is befet on each fide with briars and hook¬
ed thorns j which will however be no impediment to
the good ; for they (hall pafs with wonderful eafe and
fwiftnefs, like lightning, or the wind, Mahomet and
his Modems leading the way 5 whereas the wicked,
what with the llipperinefs and extreme narrownefs of
the path, the entangling of the thorns, and the extinc¬
tion of the light which dire&ed the former to paradife,
will foon mifs their footing, and fall down headlong in¬
to hell, which is gaping beneath them.
As to the puniffiment of the wicked, the Mahome¬
tans are taught, that hell is divided into feven (lories
or apartments, one below another, defigned for the re¬
ception of as many diftinft claffes of the damned.
The firft, which they call Jehennam, they fay, will be
the receptacle of thofe who acknowledge one God,
that is, the wicked Mahometans 5 who, after having
there been puniffied according to their demerits, will
at length be releafed. The fecond, named Ladhay
they affign to the Jews $ the third named al Hotama,
to the Chriftians; the fourth, named al Sair, to the
Sabians; the fifth, named Sakar, to the Magians $
the fixth, named al Jahim, to the idolaters j and the
feventh, which is the lowed and word of all, and is
called a/ Hawyat, to the hypocrites, or thofe who
outwardly profefled fome religion, but in their hearts
were of none. Over each of thefe apartments they
believe there will be fet a guard of angels, 19 in num¬
ber; to whom the damned will confefs the juft judg¬
ment of God, and beg them to intercede with him for
fome alleviation of their pain, or that they may be de¬
livered by being annihilated.
Mahomet has, in his Koran and traditions, been
very exa£l in defcribing the various torments of hell, M. home-
which, according to him, the wicked will (ufter both t"r^lll“ ,
from intenfe heat and exceffive cold. We (hall, how¬
ever, enter into no detail of them here ; but only ob-
ferve, that the degrees of thefe pains will alfo vary
in proportion to the crimes of the fuffirer, and the
apartment he is condemned to; and that he who is
puniffied the moft lightly of all will be (hod with (hoes
of fire, the fervour of which will caufe his (kull to boil
like a cauldron. The condition of thefe unhappy
wretches, as the fame prophet teaches, cannot be pro¬
perly called either life or death ; and their mifery will
be greatly increafed by their deipair of being ever de¬
livered from that place, fince, according to that fre¬
quent expreffion in the Koran, they muft remain therein
for ever. It muft be remarked, however, that the in¬
fidels alone will be liable to eternity of damnation ;
for the Modems, or thofe who have embraced the true
religion, and have been guilty of heinous fins, will be
delivered thence after they (hall have expiated their
crimes by their fufferings. The time which thefe be¬
lievers (hall be detained there, according to a tradition
handed down from their prophet, will not be lefs than
900 years, nor more than 7000. And, as to the man¬
ner of their delivery, they fay that they (hall be di-
ftinguiffied by the marks of proftration on thofe parts
of their bodies with which they ufed to touch the
ground in prayer, and over which the fire will there¬
fore have no power; and that, being known by this
charafteriftic, they will be releafed by the mercy of
God, at the interceffion of Mahomet and the blelled :
whereupon thofe who (hall have been dead, will be re-
ftored to life, as has been faid ; and thoie whofe bodies
(hall have contra&ed any footinefs or filth from the
flames and fmoke of hell, will be immerfed in one of
the rivers of paradife, called the river of life^ which will
waffi them whiter than pearls.
The righteous, as the Mahometans are taught to
believe, having furmounted the difficulties, and paffed
the (harp bridge above mentioned, before they enter
paradife, will be refreffied by drinking at the pond of
their prophet, who defcribes it to be an exadt fquare
of a month’s journey in compafs; its water, which is
fupplied by two pipes from Al Cawthar, one of the
rivers of paradife, being whiter than milk or filver,
and more odoriferous than mulk, with as many cups
fet around it as there are ftars in the firmament; of
which water whoever drinks will third no more for
ever. This is the firft tafte which the blefied will
have of their future and now near approaching felicity.
Though paradife be fo very frequently mentioned in
the Koran, yet it is a difpute among the Mahometans
whether it be already created, or to be created here¬
after ; the Motazalites and fome other fedlaries aflert-
ing, that there is not at prefent any fueh place in
nature, and that the paradife which the righteous will
inhabit in the next life will be different from that from
which Adam was expelled. However, the orthodox
profefs the contrary, maintaining that it was created
even before the world, and defcribe it, from their pro¬
phet’s traditions, in the following manner :
They fay it is lituated above the feven heavens (or
in the feventh heaven), and next under the throne of
God ; and, to exprefs the amenity of the place, tell
us, that the earth of it is of the fineft wheat flour, or
3 F 2 ' of
M A H ' [ 41
Mahomc- 0f the pureft mufk, or, as others 'will have it, of faf-
 ‘l fron : that its flones are pearls and jacinths, the walls
of its buildings enriched with gold and filver j and
that the trunks of all its trees are of gold, among
which the moft remarkable is the tree call Tuba, or
the tree of happinefs. Concerning this tree, they fable,
that it Hands in the palace ot Mahomet, though a
branch of it will reach to the houle of every true be¬
liever 3 that it will be laden with pomegranates, grapes,
dates, and other fruits, of furprifing bignefs, and of
taftes unknown to mortals. So that if a man defire
to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will imme¬
diately be prefented him ; or, if he choofe fiefii, birds
ready drefled will be let before him, according to his
with, ihey add, that the boughs of this tree will
fpontaneoufly bend down to the hand of the perfon
who would gather of its fruits, and that it will lupply
the blefied not only with food, but alio with filken gar¬
ments, and hearts to ride on ready faddled and bridled,
and adorned with rich trappings,, which will burft forth
from its fruits; and that this tree is fo large, that a
perfon, mounted on the fleeteft horfe, would not be
able to gallop from one end of its fiiade to the other in
100 years.
As plenty of water is one of the greateft additions
to the pleaiantneis of any place, the Koran often fpeaks
of tne rivers of paradife as a principal ornament there¬
of: forae of thefe rivers, they fay, flow with water,
fome with milk, feme with wine, and others with
honey 3 all taking their rile from the root of the tree
Tuba.
But all thefe glories will be eclipfed by the refplend-
ent and ravifhing girls of paradiie, called from their
large black eyes Hur al oyun, the enjoyment of whofe
company will be a principal felicity of the faithful.
Thefe, they fay, are created, not of clay, as mortal
women are, but of pure mufk 3 being, as their pro¬
phet often affirms in his Koran, free from all natural
impurities, defefts, and inconveniences incident to the
fex, of the ftridleft modefty, and fecluded from public
view in pavilions of hollow pearls, fo large, that as
fome traditions have it, one of them will be no lefs
than four parafangs (or, as others fay, 60 miles) long,
and as many broad.
I he name which the Mahometans ufually give to
this happy manfion, is al Jannat, or “ the garden 3”
and fometimes they call it, with an addition, Jannat
al Ferdaws, “ the garden of paradife 3” Jannat Aden,
4‘ the garden of Eden,” (though they generally in¬
terpret the word Kden, not according to its accepta¬
tion in Hebrew, but according to its meaning in their
own tongue, wherein it fignifies “ a fettled or perpe¬
tual habitation) 3” Jannat al Mawa, “ the garden of
abode 3” Jannat al Naim, “ the garden of pleafure 3”
and the like : by which feveral appellations fome un-
derftand fo many different gardens, or at leaft places
of different degrees of felicity (/or they reckon no
lefs than 100 fuch in all), the very meaneft whereof
will aft'ord its inhabitants fo many pleafures and de¬
lights, that one would conclude they muft even fink
under them, had not Mahomet declared, that, in
order to qualify the bleffed for a full enjoyment of
them, God will give to every one the abilities of 100
men.
6. God’s abfolute decree and predeftination both of
2 ] M A H
good and evil. The orthodox do&rine is, that what- Mahc
ever hath or (hall come to pafs in this world, whether
it be good, or whether it be bad, proceedeth entirely'
from the divine will, and is irrevocably fixed and re¬
corded from all eternity in the prelerved table: God
having leeretly predetermined not only the adverfe and
proiperous fortune of every perfon in this world, in the
moft minute particulars, but alfo his faith or infidelity,
his obedience or difobedience, and confequently his
everlafting happinefs or miiery after death 3 which fate
or predertination it is not pcfiible by any forefight or
wifdom to avoid.
tanifn
Of this doftrine Mahomet makes great ufe in his
Koran for the advancement of his deligns : encourag¬
ing his followers to fight without fear, and even def-
perately, for the propagation of their faith, by re-
prefenting to them, that all their caution could not
avert their inevitable deftiny, or prolong their lives for
a moment 3 and deterring them from difobeying or re-
jeding him as an impoftor, by felting before them the
danger they might thereby incur of being, by the juft
judgment of God, abandoned to fedudion, hardnefs of
heart, and a repiobate mind, as a puniihment for their
obftinacy.
II. Religiouspra&tce. I. The firft point is prayer*
under which are aifo comprehended thole legal walh-
ings or purifications which are necefiary preparations'
thereto.
Of thefe purifications there are two degrees, one
called ghojl, being a total immerfion or bathing of the
body in water 3 and the other called wodu (by the-
Perfians, abitejl}, which is the walhing of their faces,
hands, and feet, after a certain manner. The firft is
required in fome extraordinary cafes only, as after hav¬
ing lain w ith a woman, or being polluted by emiflion
of feed, or by approaching a dead body 3 women alfo
being obliged to it after their courfes or childbirth.
The latter is the ordinary ablution in common cafes,
and before prayer, and muft ntctfiarily be ufed by
every perfon before he can enter upon that duty. It
is performed with certain formal ceremonies, which
have been deferrbed by fome writers, but much cafies
apprehended by feeing them done, than by the belt
deicription.
That his followers might be more punftual in this
duty, Mahomet is faid to have declared, that theprac~
tice of religion is founded on cleanlinefs, which is the one
hdlf of the faith, and the hey of prayer, without which
it will not be heard by God. 1 hat thefe expreffions
may be the better underffood, Al Ghazali reckons four
degrees of purification ; of which the firft is the tleanf-
ing of the body from all pollution, filth, and excre¬
ments 3 the fecond, the cleanfing of the members of
the body from all wickednefs and unjuft actions 3 the
third, the cleanfing the heart from all blameable in¬
clinations and odious vices; and the fourth, the pur¬
ging a man’s fecret thoughts from all afft ftions which
may divert their attendance on God 3 adding, that i a
body is but as the outw ard {hell, in refpeft to the heart,
which is as the kernel.
Circumcifion, though it be not fo much as once
mentioned in the Koran, is yet held by the Mahome¬
tans to be an ancient divine inftitution, confiimed by
the religion of Iflam, and though not fo abfolutely
neceffary but that it may be diipenfed with in fome
cafes,.
MAH r 413 ] M A H
Mahome- cates, yet highly proper and expedient. The Arabs
tanifm. ufed this rite for many ages before Mahomet, having
"-v probably learned it from Ifhtnael, though not only his
defcendants, but the Hamyarites and other tribes prac-
tifed the fame. The Ilhmaelites, we are told, uied to
eircumeife their children, not on the eighth day, as is
the cuftom of the Jews, but when about 12 or 13 years
old, at which age their father underwent that opera¬
tion •, and the Mahometans imitate them fo far as not
to circumcife children before they may be able at lead
diftinftly to pronounce that profeflion of their faith,
There is no God but God, Mahomet is the apojile of
God ; but pitch on what age they pleafe for the pur-
pofe, between 6 and 16 or thereabouts.
Prayer was by Mahomet thought fo neceflary a du¬
ty, that he ufed to call it the pillar of religion and the
key of paradfe; and when the Thakifites, u'ho dwelt
at Tayef, fending, in the ninth year of the Hegira, to
make their fubmiffion to the prophet, after the keeping
of their favourite idol had been denied them, begged
at lead that they might be difpenfed with as to their
faying of their appointed prayers, he anfwered, That
there could be no good in that religion wherein was no
prayer.
That fo important a duty, therefore, might not be
neglefted, Mahomet obliged his followers to pray five
times every 24 hours, at certain dated times j viz.
3. In the morning before funrife : 2. When noon is
pad, and the fun begins to decline from the meridian:
3. In the afternoon, before funfet : 4. In the evening,
after funfet, and before the day be (hut in y and,
5. After the day is Ihut in, and before the fird watch
of the night. For this inditution he pretended to have
received the divine command from the throne of God
himfelf, when he took his night-journey to heaven ;
and the obferving of the dated times of prayer is fre¬
quently infided on in the Koran, though they be not
particularly prefcribed therein. Accordingly, at the
aforefaid times, of which public notice is given by the
Muedhdhins, or Criers, from the deeples of their
mofques (for they ufe no bells), every confcientious
Modem prepares himfelf for prayer, which he per¬
forms either in the mofque or any other place, provid¬
ed it be clean, after a prefcribed form, and with a cer¬
tain number of praifes or ejaculations (which the more
fcrupulous count by a dring of beads), and ufing cer¬
tain podures of worthip ; all which have been particu¬
larly fet down and defcribed, though with fame few
midakes, by other writers, and ought not to be abridg¬
ed, unlefs in fome fpecial cafes, as on a journey, on pre¬
paring for battle, &c.
For the regular performance of the duty of prayer
among the Mahometans, befides the particulars above
mentioned, it is alfo requifite that they turn their
faces, while they pray, towards the temple of Mecca y
the quarter where the fame is fituated, being, for that
reafon, pointed out within their mofques by a niche,
which they call al Mehrab; and without, by the fitu-
ation of the doors opening into the galleries of the
deeples : there are alfo tables calculated for the
ready finding out their Keblah, or part towards which
they ought to pray, in places where they have no other
dire&ion.
2. Alms are of two forts, legal and voluntary. The
legal alms are of indifpenfable obligation, being com¬
manded by the law, which diredts and determines both Mahome-
the portion which is to be given, and of what things tam^!n'
it ought to be given ; but the voluntary alms are left "
to every one’s liberty, to give more or lefs, as he fhall
fee fit. The former kind of alms fome think to be pro¬
perly called •zacat, and the latter fadakat; though this
name be alfo frequently given to the legal alms. They
are called Karat, either becaufe they increafe a man’s
dure by drawing down a bleffing thereon, and produce
in his foul the virtue of liberality y or becaufe they />r/-
rify the remaining part of one’s fubdance from pollu¬
tion, and the foul from the filth of avarice j ^.wA fadakat,
becaufe they are a proof of a man’s fincerity in the
worlhip of God. Some writers have called the legal
alms tithes ; but improperly, fince in fome cafes they
fall Ihort, and in others exceed that proportion.
3. Fafing is a duty of fo great moment, that Ma¬
homet ufed to fay it was the gate of religion, and that
the odour of the mouth of him who fajleth is more grate¬
ful to GOB than that of mufk; and Al Ghazali reckons
fading one-fourth part of the faith. According to the
Mahometan divines, there are three degrees of fading:
1. The redraining the belly and other parts of the bo¬
dy from fatisfying their luds : 2. The redraining the
ears, eyes, tongue, hands, feet, and other members,
from fin y and, 3. The fading of the heart from world¬
ly cares, and redraining the thought from every thing
befides God. 4
The Mahometans are obliged, by the exprefs com¬
mand of the Koran, to fad the whole month of Rama¬
dan from the time the new moon fird appears, till the
appearance of the next new moon y during which time
they mud abdain from eating, drinking, and women,
from daybreak till night or funfet. And this injumdion
they obferve fo dri<dly, that, while, they fad, they dif¬
fer nothing to enter their mouths, or other parts of their
body, edeeming the fad broken and null, if they Imell
perfumes, take a clyder or injedion, bathe, or even
purpofely fwallow their fpittle j fome being fo cautious,
that they will not open their mouths to fpeak led they
diould breathe the air too freely : the fad is alfo deem¬
ed void, if a man kifs or touch a woman, or if he vo¬
mit delignedly. But after funfet they are allowed to
refredi themfelves, and to eat and drink, and enjoy the
company of their wives till daybreak y though the more
rigid begin the fad again at midnight. This fad is ex¬
tremely rigorous and mortifying when the month of Ra¬
madan happens to fall in dimmer (for the Arabian year
being lunar, each month runs through all the different
feafons in the courfe of 33 years), the length and heat
of the days making the obfervance of it much more dif¬
ficult and uneafy than in winter.
The reafon given why the month of Ramadan was
pitched on for this purpofe is, that on that month the
Koran was- lent down from heaven. Some pretend,
that Abraham, Mofes, and Jefus, received their refpec-
tive revelations in the fame month.
4. The pilgrimage to Mecca is fo neceflary a point
of pra&ice, that, according to a tradition of Mahomet,
he who dies without performing it may as well die a
Jew or a Chridian y and the fame is exprefsly command¬
ed in the Koran.
The temple of Mecca dands in the midfl of the city,
and is honoured with the title of Masjad al elharam,
i. e. the facred or inviolable temple. W hat is principal¬
ly
M A H
r 4T
Mahomc- ly reverenced in this place, and gives fandrity to the
lanl^ir!‘ whole, is a fquare done building, called the Caaba j
(fee that article).
To this temple every Mahometan, who has health
and means fuffieient, ought, once at lead in his life,
to go on pilgrimage j nor are women excufed from the
performance of this duty. The pilgrims meet at differ¬
ent places near Mecca, according to the different parts
from whence they come, during the months of Shawal
and Dhu’lkaada-, being obliged to be there by the be¬
ginning of Dhu’lhajja *, which month, as its name im¬
ports, is peculiarly let apart for the celebration of this
folemnity.
At the place above mentioned the pilgrims properly
commence fuch •, when the men put on the Ibram or
facred habit, which condds only of two woollen wrap¬
pers, one wrapped about their middle to cover their
privities, and the other thrown over their Ihoulders,
having their heads bare, and a kind of dippers which
cover neither the heel nor the indep, and fo enter the
facred territory in their way to Mecca. While they
have this habit on, they mud neither hunt nor fowl,
(though they are allowed to fidi) ; which precept is
fo punctually obferved, that they will not kill even a
loufe or dea if they find them on their bodies: there
are fome noxious animals, how'ever, which they have
permidion to kill during the pilgrimage, as kites, ra¬
vens, fcorpions, mice, and dogs given to bite. Dur¬
ing the pilgrimage, it behoves a man to have a condant
guard over his words and aClionsj to avoid all quarrel¬
ling or ill language, all converfe with women, and all
obfcene difcourfe 5 and to apply his whole attention to
the good work he is engaged in.
The pilgrims, being atrived at Mecca, immediately
vifit the temple j and then enter on the performance of
the prefcribed ceremonies, which confid chiefly in go¬
ing in proceffion round the Caaba, in running between
the mounts Safa and Merwa, in making the ftation on
Mount Arafat, and flaying the vidtims, and fliaving
their heads in the valley of Mina.
In compafling the Caaba, which they do feven
times, beginning at the corner where the black ftone
is fixed, they ufe a (hort quick pace the three firfl
times they go round it, and a grave ordinary pace the
four lad j which, it is faid, was ordered by Mahomet,
that his followers might (how themfelves drong and
aCtive, to cut off the hopes of the infidels, who gave
out that the immoderate heats of Medina had rendered
them weak. But the aforefaid quick pace they are not
obliged to ufe every time they perform this piece of de¬
votion, but only at fome particular times. So often as
they pafs by the black done, they either kifs it, or
touch it with their band, and kifs that.
The running between Safa and Merwa is alfo per¬
formed feven times, partly with a flow pace and partly
running : for they walk gravely till they come to a
place between two pillars *, and there they run, and
afterwards walk again •, fometimes looking back, and
fometimes {looping, like one who had lod fomething,
to reprefent Hagar feeking water for her fon : for the
ceremony is faid to be as ancient as her time.
On the ninth of Dhu’lhajja, after morning prayer,
the pilgrims leave the valley of Mina, whither they
come the day before ; and proceed in a'tumultuous and
jruftiing manner to Mount Arafat, where they day to
4 ] M A H
perform their devotions till funfet : then they go to
Mozdalifa, an oratory between Arafat and Mina 5 and
there fpend the night in prayer and reading the Ko¬
ran. The next morning by daybreak they vifit al
Majher al Karam, or “ the lacred monument 5” and,
departing thence before fuorife, hade by Batn Mohaf-
fer to the valley ot Mina, where they throw feven domes
at thfee marks or pillars, in imitation of Abraham,
who, meeting the devil in that place, and being by him
didurbed in his devotions, or tempted to diiobedience
when he was going to facrifice his ion, was commanded
by God to drive him away by throwing bones at him j
though others pretend this rite to be as old as Adam,
who alfo put the devil to flight in the fame place, and
by the fame means.
This ceremony being over, on the fame day, the
tenth of Dhu’lhajja, the pilgrims flay their viftims in
the faid valley of Mina j of which they and their
friends eat part, and the red is given to the poor.
Thefe viftims mud be either fheep, goats, kine, or
camels: males, if of either of the two former kindsj
and females if of either of the latter j and of a fit
age. The facrifices being over, they {have their heads
and cut their nails, burying them in the fame place j
after which the pilgrimage is looked on as completed ;
though they again vifit the Caaba, to take their leave
of that facred building.
• The rapid fuccefs which attended the propagation
of this new religion was owing to caufes that are plain
and evident, and mud remove, or rather prevent, our
furprife, when they are attentively confidered. The
terror of Mahomet’s arms, and the repeated vidtories
which were gained by him and his lucceffors, were,
no doubt, the irrefidible arguments that perfuaded
fuch multitudes to embrace his religion and fubmit to
his dominion. Befides, his law was artfully and mar-
velloufly adapted to the corrupt nature of man 5 and,
in a more particular manner, to the manners and opi¬
nions of the eadern nations, and the vices to which
they w’ere naturally addidled : for the articles of faith
which it propofed were few in number, and extremely
fimple *, and the duties it required were neither many
nor difficult, nor fuch as were incompatible with the
empire of appetites and paffions. It is to be obferved
farther, that the grofs ignorance, under which the A-
rabians, Syrians, Perfians, and the greated part of
the eadern nations, laboured at this time, rendered
many an eafy prey to the artifice and eloquence of this
bold adventurer. To thefe caufes of the progrefs of
Mahometanifm, we may add the bitter diffenfions and
cruel animofities that reigned among the Chridian
fefts, particularly the Greeks, Nedorians, Eutychians,
and Monophyfites $ diffenfions that filled a great part
of the ead with carnage, affaffinations, and fuch deted-
able enormities as rendered the very name of Chridia-
nity odious to many. We might add here, that the
Monophyfites and Nedorians, full of refentment againft
the Greeks, from whom they had fufftred the bittereft
and mod injurious treatment, abided the Arabians in
the conqued of feveral provinces, into which, of confe-
quence, the religion of Mahomet was afterwards intro¬
duced. Other caufes of the hidden progrefs of that re¬
ligion will naturally occur to fuch as confider attentive¬
ly its fpirit and genius, and the date of the world at
this time.
MAHOMETANS,
Mahome¬
tans
Mahwah.
« Vol. I.
art. xiv.
MAH [ 415 ] MAI
MAHOMETANS, tliofe who believe in the reli¬
gion and divine miffion of Mahomet. See Mahomet,
Mahometanism, and Alcoran.
MAHRATTA. See Marhatta.
MAHWAH, or Mawee, in Botany; an Eaft In¬
dian tree, fo called by the natives of Bahar and the
neighbouring countries, but *f which the Shanfcrit
name is Madhuca, or Madhudruma. According to Lieut.
C. Hamilton, by whom a very particular account of
this tree is given in the Afiatic Refearches *, it is of
the clafs of the polyandria-monogynia of Linnaeus, but
of a genus not defcribed by him.
The tree, when full grown, is about the fize of a
common mango tree, with a bulhy head and oval leaves
a little pointed j its roots fpreading horizontally, are
funk but little in the earth ; the trunk, which is of¬
ten of a confiderable thicknefs, rifes feldom to any
great height, without giving off branches j it is, how¬
ever, not uncommon to fee it (hoot up clear to the
length of eight or ten feet : the wood itfelf is mode¬
rately hard, fine grained, and of a reddilh colour. By
incifion the tree affords a refinous gum from the
bark.
The flowers are of a nature very extraordinary,
“ differing effentially (fays Mr Hamilton) from thofe
of any other plant with which I am acquainted, as they
have not, in any refpedt, the ufual appearance of fuch,
but rather referable berries; and I, like many others,
had long conceived them to be the fruit of the Mah-
wah.” The tree drops its leaves in the month of Fe¬
bruary, and early in March thefe flowers begin to
come out in clufters of thirty, forty, or fifty, from the
extremity of every fmall branch and, from this pe¬
riod till the latter end of April, as the flowers come to
maturity (for they never open or expand), they conti¬
nue falling off, with their antherae, in the mornings, a
little after funrife j when they are gathered j and af¬
terwards dried by an expofure of a few days in the fun:
when thus prepared, they very much referable a dried
grape, both in tafte and flavour. Immediately after
the flowers drop off, frefh fhoots are made for the new
leaves, which foon make their appearance, coming pre-
fently to their full growth.
The fruit (properly fo called) is of two forts in fliape j
the one refembling a fmall walnut, the other fome-
what larger and pointed : it is ripe towards the middle
of May ; and continues dripping from the tree till the
whole fall, which is generally about the beginning or
towards the middle of June. The outer covering, or
pericarpium, which is of a foft texture, commonly burfts
in the fall, fo that the feeds are very 'eafily fqueezed
out of it : the feeds are fomewhat of the fliape, but
longer than an olive. Thefe feeds are replete with a
thick oil, of the confiftence of butter or ghee, which is
obtained by expreffion.
From this defcription it may eafily be conceived,
that the IVfahwah tree and its productions are of Angu¬
lar and general ufe, efpecially in thofe dry and barren
countries, which, from the nature of their fituation,
are not fo well calculated for producing in plenty or
perfection the other neceffaries of life.
The corolla or flowers, after being dried as before
defcribed, are eaten by the natives raw or dreffed with
their curries; and, when even limply boiled with rice,
they afford a {Lengthening and wholefome nourilh-
ment. They are indeed, our author tells us, often ap¬
plied to a lefs laudable purpofe ; for being fermented,
they yield by diftillation a ftrong fpirit, which the peo- v
pie here fell fo very cheap, that for one pice (about a
halfpenny) may be purchafed no lefs than a cutcha-feer
(above a pint Englifh) with which any man may get
completely drunk. Thefe flowers make an article of
trade •, being exported from this country to Patna and
elfew'here in no inconliderable quantities.
The oil yielded by the fruit, as before mentioned,
refembles ghee fo much, that, being cheaper, the na¬
tives often mix it with that commodity. They ufe it
the fame as ghee in their vi£tuals, and in the compofi-
tion of fome forts of fweetmeats j and burn it in then-
lamps. It is alfo regarded as a falutary remedy, ap¬
plied exteriorly to wounds and all cutaneous eruptions.
It is at firft of the confiftence of common oil, but foon
coagulates : after being kept for fome time, it acquires
a bitterilh tafte and rancid fmell, which renders it fome¬
what lefs agreeable as an article of food: but this is
an inconvenience which, by the oil being properly cla¬
rified and prepared at firft, might be perhaps avoided.
This oil is alfo exported both in its adulterated and ori¬
ginal ftate to Patna and other parts of the low country.
The gum has not been applied to any ufe : but might
be collected in large quantities in the months of March
and April, about the time the flowers come out.
MAIA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of Atlas
and Pleione. She was the mother of Mercury by Ju¬
piter. She was one of the Pleiades, the moft luminous
of the feven filters 5 (fee Pleiades). Alfo, a furname
of Cybele.
MAIDEN, an inftrumentfor beheading criminals.
Of the ufe and form of this inftrument Mr Pennant
gives the following account: “ It feems to have been
confined to the limits of the foreft of Hardwick, or
the 18 towns and hamlets within its precindts. The
time when this cuftom took place is unknown ; whe¬
ther Earl Warren, lord of this foreft, might have efta-
bliftied it among the fanguinary laws then in ufe againft
the invaders of the hunting rights, or whether it might
not take place, after the woollen manufactures at Hali¬
fax began to gain ftrength, is uncertain. The laft is
very probable ; for the wild country around the town
was inhabited by a lawlefs fet, whofe depredations on
the cloth-tenters might foon ftifle the efforts of infant
induftry. For the protection of trade, and for the
greater terror of offenders by fpeedy execution, this cuf¬
tom feems to have been eftabliftied, fo as at laft to re¬
ceive the force of law, which was, ‘ That if a felon be
taken within the liberty of the foreft of Hardwick, with
goods ftolen out, or within the faid precinCts, either
hand-habend, back-berand, or confeflion’d, to the va¬
lue of thirteen pence halfpenny, he {hall, after three
market days or meeting-days within the town of Hali¬
fax, next after fuch his apprehenfion, and being con¬
demned, be taken to the gibbet, and there have his
head cut from his body.’
“ The offender had always a fair trial j for as foon
as he was taken, he was brought to the lord’s bailiff at
Halifax : he was then expofed on the three markets
(which here were held thrice in a week), placed in a
flocks, with the goods ftolen on his back, or, if the
theft was of the cattle kind, they were placed by him ;
and this was dene both to ftrike terror into others,
and
Malvwah
II
Maiden.
 v  
MAI [ 4,
McitjeK gnd to produce new informations againft him. The
Maiden- ^ien fummoned four freeholders of each town
head. within the foretl to form a jury. The felon and pro-
■“— ' fecutors were brought face to face j and the goods, the
cow or horfe, or whatfoever wasftolen, produced. If he
was found guilty, he was remanded to prifon, had a
week’s time allowed for preparation, and then was con¬
veyed to this fpot, where his head was (truck off by
this machine. I fliould have premifed, that if the cri¬
minal, either after apprehenfion, or in the way to exe¬
cution, could efcape out of the limits of the foreft (part
being clofe to the town), the bailiff had no farther
power over him j but if he fhould be caught within
the precin&s at any time after, he was immediately
executed on his former fentence.
“ This privilege was very freely ufed during the
reign of Elizabeth: the records before that time were
loft. Twenty-five fuffered in her reign, and at leaft 12
from 1623 to 1650 j after which I believe the privi¬
lege was no more exerted.
“ This machine of death is now deftroyed j but I
faw one of the fame kind in a room under the parlia¬
ment houfe at Edinburgh, where it was introduced by
the regent Morton, who took a model of it as he paffed
through Halifax, and at length fuffered by it himfelf.
It is in form of a painter’s eafel, and about ten feet
high : at four feet from the bottom is a crofs bar on
which the felon lays his head, which is kept down by
another placed above. In the inner edges of the
frame are grooves; in thefe is placed a fharp axe, with
a vaft weightof lead, fupported at the very fummit
with a peg : to that peg is faftened a cord, which the
executioner cutting, the axe falls, and does the affair
effedlually, without fuffering the unhappy criminal to
undergo a repetition of ftrokes, as has been the cafe in
the common method. I muft add, that if the fufferer
is condemned for ftealing a horfe or a cow, the firing
is tied to the beafl, which, on being whipped, pulls out
this peg, and becomes the executioner.” This appa¬
ratus is now in poffeflion of the Scottifh Antiquarian
Society.
Maiden is alfo the name of a machine firft ufed in
Yorkfhire, and fince introduced into other places, for
wafhing. linen ; confifting of a tub 19 inches high,
and 27 in diameter at the top, in which the linen is
put, with hot water and foap, to which is adapted a
cover, fitting it very clofely, and faftened to the tub
by two wedges ; through a hole in the middle of the
cover paffes an upright piece of wood, kept at a pro¬
per height by a peg above, and furnifhed with two
handles, by which it is turned backward and forward :
to the lower end of this upright piece is faftened a
round piece of wood, in which are fixed feveral pieces,
like cogs of a wheel. The operation of this machine
is to make the linen pafs and repafs quick through the
water.
MAIDEN-Rents, in our old writers, a noble paid by
the tenants of fome manors on their marriage. This
was (aid to be given to the lord for his omitting the
cuftom of mareheta, whereby he was to have the firft
night’s lodging with his tenant’s wife ; but it feems
more probably to have been a fine for a licenfe to
marry a daughter.
MAIDENHEAD, a town of Berks, 26 miles from
London, with a ftone bridge over the Thames. It is
6 ] MAI
governed by a high fteward, a mayor, a fteward, and Maiden
10 aldermen, out of which laft two bridgeniafters are head
chofen every year. Here is a gaol both for debtors and .11
felons. The town Hands partly in the parifh of Bray MaiSnar
ancbpartly in that of Cookham ; and here is a chapel
peculiar to the corporation, the minifter whereof is
chofen by the inhabitants, and not obliged to attend
the bi(hop’s vifitation. Here are feveral alms-houfes-
and charities. I his town, now fo confiderable, did not
begin to fiounlb till, by the building of its bridge, tra¬
vellers were brought this way, who before ufed a ferry
at that called Bab ham's End, two miles north of it.
The barge pier bridge is maintained by the corporation,
for which they are allowed the tolls both over and un¬
der it. The bridge pier divides Berks from Bucks.
There is a great trade here in malt, meal, and timber,
which they carry in their barges to London. As this
is the great thoroughfare from thence to Bath, Briftol,
and other fouth-weft parts of England, the adjacent
wood or thicket has been noted for many robberies.
The market is on Wednefdays. The population in
1801 was eftimated at loco.
MAIDSIONE, a town of Kent, in England, 36
miles from London, feated on the river Medway," a
branch of which runs through it. It is a corporation,
fends two members to parliament, and in 1801 contain¬
ed 8000 inhabitants. Its chief trade, befides linen-
thread, which is made in great perfe&ion, is in hops ;
of which there are many plantations about the town, as
well as orchards of cherries. The tide flows quite up
to the town, and brings up barges, &c. of 50 or 60
tons, k has a fine ftone bridge. One of the public
gaols for the county is kept in this town ; and the cuf-
tody of weights and meafures, renewed by the ftandard
of King Henry VII. was committed to it by parliament,
as being in the centre of Kent: for which reafon the
knights of the (hire are always elefted, and the courts
of juftice always held here, and generally the aflizes.
The archbilhop of Canterbury is conftant parfon of this
parifli, which is his peculiar, and ferved by his cu¬
rate. Here are four charity-fchools, in which are
above 100 boys and girls, who are vifited once a-week
and catechifed by the minifter. This is fuch a plenti¬
ful country, and the lands hereabouts are fo rich, that
London is fupplied with more commodities from hence
than from any market-town in England ; particularly
with the large bullocks that come from the Weald of
Kent, which begins but fix miles off; with timber,
wheat, and great quantities of hops, apples, and cher¬
ries ; with a fort of paving ftone, eight or ten inches
fquare, that is exceeding durable ; and with the fine
white fand for glafs-houfes and ftationers. There are fo
many gentlemen’s feats within 10 miles, that it is rare
to find a town of fo much trade and bufinefs, fo full of
gentry and good company.
MAIENNE, a confiderable, handfome, and popu¬
lous town in France, formerly having the title of a du¬
chy ; feated on a river of the fame name, in W. Long,
o. 35. N. Lat. 48. 18.
MAIGNAN, Emanuel, a religious Minim, and
a philofopher of confiderable eminence, was born of
an ancient and noble family at Thouloufe in 1601.
Like the famous Pafcal, he became a complete mathe¬
matician without the afliftance of a teacher ; and filled
the profeffor’s chair at Rome in 1636, where, at the
expence
MAI
{aignan expence of Cardinal Spada, he publiilied his book De
H. Perfpe&iva Horaria. He returned to Thouloufe in
1650, and was created provincial: the king, -who in
1660 entertained himfelf with the machines and curiofi-
ties in his cell, made him offers by Cardinal Mazarine,
to draw him to Paris j but he humbly defired to fpend
the remainder of his days in a cloifter. He publilhed
a courfe of philofophy, 4 vols 8vo, at Thouloufe ; to
the fecond edition of which he added two treatifes, one
againft the vortices of Defeartes, and the. other on the
fpeaking trumpet invented by Sir Samuel Morland.
He is faid to have ftudied even in his deep, his very
dreams being employed in theorems, the demonftra-
tions of which would awaken him with joy. He died
in 1676.
MAJESTY, a title given to kings, which frequent¬
ly ferves as a term of diffinflion. The word feems
compofed of the two Latin words, major, “ greater,”
mA flatus, “ ftate.” The emperor is called Sacred Ma-
jefly. Imperial Majefly, and Ccefarean Majefly; The
king of Hungary is ftyled His /Jpoflolic Majefly. The
king of Spain is termed His mofl Catholic Mojefly: and
the king of Portugal, Hi mofl Faithful Majefly. The
king of France ufed to be called His mofl Chriflian Ma¬
jefly ; and when he treated with the emperor, the word
Sacred was added : He was afterwards called limply King
of the French. Bonaparte affuraed the title of Emperor
and King of France.—With refpetff to other kings, the
name of the kingdom is added j as, His Britannic Ma¬
jefly, His PruJJian Majefly, &c. Formerly princes were
more fparing in giving titles, and more modeft in claim¬
ing them : before the reign of Charles V. the king of
Spain had only the title of Highnefs; and before that
of Henry VIII. the kings of England were only ad-
dreffed under the titles of Grace and Highnefs.
Under the Roman republic, the title Majefty, (jnajeflas')
belonged to the whole body of the people, and to the
principal magillrates •, fo that to diminilh or wound the
majefty of the commonwealth, was to be wanting in
refpefl to the ftate or to its minifters. But the power
afterwards palling into the hands of a fingle perfon,
the appellation of Majefly was transferred to the em¬
peror and the imperial family. Pliny compliments
Trajan on his being contented with the title of Great-
ncfs ; and fpeaks very invidioufly of thofe who affefted
that of Majefly. And yet this laft feems to be the moft
roodeft and juft title that can be attributed to fove-
reigns, fince it Signifies no more than the royalty or fo-
vereign power.
MAII inductio, an ancient cuftom for the prieft
and people of country-villages to go in proeefiion to
fome adjoining wood on a May-day morning •, and
return in a kind of triumph, with a May-pole, boughs,
flowers, garlands, and other tokens of the fpring. This
May-game, or rejoicing at the coming of the fpring,
was for a long time obferved, and ftill is in fome parts
of England •, but there was thought to be fo much
heathen vanity in it, that it was condemned and pro¬
hibited within the diocefe of Lincoln by the good old
Bilhop Grofthead.
MAIL {maille'), a term primarily applied to the
mi'lhes or holes in net-work.
Coat of Mail. See Coat. It is called alfo a ha¬
bergeon, Anciently they aifo wore ftrirts of mail un-
Vol XII. Part II.
MAI
der the waiftcoat, to ferve as a defence againft fwords Mail
and poniards. We alfo read of gloves of mail. MallH
Mail, or Mall, alfo fignifics a round ring of iron *, j11
whence the play of pall-mall, from palla “ a bail,”
and maille, “ the round ring through which it is to
pafs.”
Mail, or Maille, in our old writers, a fmall kind
of money. Silver halfpence were likewife termed
Mai/les, 9 Henry V. By indenture in the mint, a pound
weight of old fterling filver was to be coined into 360
fterlings or pennies, or 720 mails or half-pennies, or
1440 farthings. Hence the word mail was derived,
which is now vulgarly ufed in Scotland to fignify an
annual rent.
Mail, or Maill, on Ihip-board, a fquare machine
compofed of a number of rings interwoven net-wife, and
ufed for rubbing off the loofe hemp which remains on
lines or white cordage after it is made.
Mail is likewife ufed for the leather bag wherein
letters are carried by the poll.
MATL-Coaches. See Coach.
ABion of Mails and Duties, in Scots Law. See
Law, p. 689, § 20.
Mail, Black. See Black-Mail.
MAILLA, Joseph-Anne Marie de Moyriac
DE, a learned Jefuit, was born in the caftle of Maillac
in the Bugey, and appointed a miflionary to China,
whither he went in 1703. At the age of 28 he had
acquired fo great a Ikill in the characters, arts, fciences,
mythology, and ancient books of the Chinefe, as to
aftonifti even the learned. He was greatly beloved
and efteemed by the emperor Kham-Hi, who died in
1722. He, together with other miflionaries, was
employed by that prince to draw a chart of China
and Chinefe Tartary, which was engraven in France
in the year 1732. He drew likewife particular charts
of fome of the provinces of this vafi empire *, with
which the emperor was fo pleafed, that he fettled the
author at his court. The great annals of China were
alfo tranflated into French by Father Mailla, and his
manufcript was tranfmited to France in 1737. This
work was publiftied in 12 volumes quarto, under , the
infpeftion of M. Grofier, and is the firft complete
hiftory of that extenfive empire. The ftyle, which
was full of hyperbole and bombaft, has been revifed
by the editor, and the fpeeches which extended to
too great a length, and had too much famenefs in
them, have been omitted. Father Mailla, after having
refided 45 years in China, died at Pekin on the 28th
of June 1748, in the 79th year of his age. Kien-Lung
the reigning emperor paid the expences of his funeral.
He was a man of a lively and gentle chara&er, capable
of the moft perfevering labour and the moft unremit¬
ting aftivity.
MAILLET, Benoit DE, defeended from a noble
family in Lorrain, was born in 1659, an(^ appointed,
at the age of 33, conful-general for Egypt. He ful-
filled this office for 16 years with great ability, fup-
ported the king’s authority againft the janizaries, and
greatly extended the trade of France into that part of
Africa. As a recompenfe for his fervices, the king
bellowed upon him the confulfhip of J_.eghorn, which
is the firft and moft confiderable confulfhip in his
gift. Being at laft appointed in 1715 to vifit the
3 G fea-ports
[ 4'7 1
MAI [4
Maillet, fea-ports in the Levant and on the coaft of Barbary,
Maim~ he was fo fuccefsful in the execution of his commif-
iion, that he obtained permiffion to retire with a confi-
derable penfion. He iettled at Marfeilles j where he
died in 1738, in the 79th year of his age. He was a
man of a lively imagination, and gentle manners •, in
fociety he was very amiable, and he pofleffed the
ftribtefl: probity. He was fond of praife, and very
anxious about the reputation of genius. During the
whole of his life he paid particular attention to the
ftudy of natural hiftory ; and his principal object was
to become acquainted with the origin of our globe.
On this important fubjeft he left fome curious ob-
fervations, which have been publifhed in oftavo under
the title of Te/Itamed, which is the name dc Maillet
written backwards. The editor Abbe Mafcritr has
given to this work the form of dialogue. An Indian
philofopher is introduced as explaining to a French mif-
iionary his opinion concerning the nature of the globe,
and the origin of mankind ; and, which is very in¬
credible, he fuppofes it to havfc' come out of the wa¬
ters, and makes an abode uninhabitable by man the
birthplace of the human race. His great object is
to prove, that all the ftrata of which this globe is
compofed, even to the tops of the higheft mountains,
have come from the bofoin of the waters j that they
are the work of the fea, which continually retires to
allow them gradually to appear. Telliamed dedicated
his book to the illuftrious Cyrano de Bergerac, author
of the imaginary “ Travels to the fun and moon.”
In the humorous epiflle which is addreffed to him,
the Indian philofopher informs us that thefe dialogues
are nothing but a colleftion of dreams and fancies.
He cannot be accufed of having broken his word j
but he may well be reproached with not having writ¬
ten them in the fame ftyle with his letter to Cy¬
rano, and with not having difplayed equal livelinefs
and humour. A fubjeft the moft extravagant is hand¬
led in the graveft manner, and his ridiculous opinion
is delivered with all the feriousairof a philofopher. Of
the fix dialogues w'hich compofe the work, the four
firll contain many curious obfervations truly philofo-
phical and important: in the other two we find no¬
thing but conjectures, fancies, and fables, fometimes
amufing, but always abfurd. To Maillet we are in¬
debted alfo for “ A Defcription of Egypt,” collected
from his memoirs by the editor of Telliamed, 1743,
4to, or in 2 vols. i2mo.
MAIM, Maihem, or Mayhem^ in Law, a wound by
which a perfon lofes the ufe of a member that might
have been a defence to him j as when a bone is broken,
a foot, hand, or other member cut off, or an eye put
out; though the cutting off an ear or nofe, or break¬
ing the hinder-teeth, was formerly held to be no maim.
A maim by caftration was anciently punilhed with
death, and other maims with lofs of member for mem¬
ber j but afterwards they were only punifhed by fine
and imprifonment. It is now enafted by the ftatute
22 and 23 Car. II. that if any perfon, from malice
aforethought, fhall difable any limb or member of any
of the king’s fubjeCls with an intent to disfigure him,
the offender, with his aiders and abettors, fhall be guil¬
ty of felony without benefit of clergy ; though no fuch
attainder fhall corrupt the blood, or occafion forfeiture
«£ lands, &.c.
8 ] MAI
MAIMONIDES, Moses, or Moses the son of Malm
Maimon, a celebrated rabbi, called by the Jews the n,’de
eagle of the doBors, was born of an illuftrious family at „ . H
Cordova in Spain, in 1131. The early part of his edn., A111P1 •
cation was undertaken by his father, who afterwards
placed him under the tuition of Rabbi Jofeph, the fon
of Megas, a perfon on whofe profound learning he has
beftowed the higheft praile •, and according to Leo A-
fricanus, he had alfo among his tutors the learned Ara¬
bians Ibn Thophail and Averroes. He is commonly
named Mofes /Egyptius, becaufe he fettled in Egypt,
where he fpent his whole life in quality of phylician to
the fultan. Here he opened a fchool, which was foon
filled with pupils from all parts, from Alexandria and
Damafcus efpecially, whofe proficiency under him fpread
his fame all over the world. He was no lefs eminent
in philofophy, mathematics, and divinity, than in me¬
dicine. Cafaubon affirms it may be truly faid of him,
as Pliny of old faid of Diodorus Siculus, that “ he was
the firft. of his tribe who ceafed to be a trifler.” It
would be tedious to enumerate all the w orks of Maimo-
nides ; fome were written originally in Arabic, but
are now extant only in Hebrew tranflations. “ Thofe
(fays Collier) w'ho defire to learn the doClrine and the
canon law contained in the Talmud, may read Maimo-
nides’s compendium of it in good Hebrew, in his book
entitled lad; wherein they will find great part of the
fables and impertinencies in the Talmud entirely dif-
carded. But the More Nevochim is the moft valued
of all his works j defigned to explain theebfcure words,,
phrafes, metaphors, &c. in fcripture, which, when li¬
terally interpreted, have either no meaning or appear
abfurd.
MAIN, an epithet ufually applied by failors to
whatever is principal, as oppofed to whatever is infe¬
rior or fecondary. Thus the main land is ufed in con-
tradiftinftion to an iiland or peninfula ; and the main
maft, the main wale, the main keel, and the main
hatchway, are in like manner diftinguiftied from the
fore and mizen raafts, the channel wales, the falfe keel,
and the fore and after hatchways, &c.
MAINOUR, Manour, or Meinour (from the
French, tnanier, i. e. manu traBare), in a legal fenfe
denotes the thing that a thief taketh away or ftealeth :
As to be taken with the mainour (P/. Cor. fol. 179.),
is to be taken with the thing ftolen about him : And
again (fol. 194.) it was prefented, that a thief was de¬
livered to the ffieriff or vifcount, together with the
mainour: And again (fol. 186.), if a man be indid-
ed, that he felonioufly ftole the goods of another, where,
in truth, they are his own goods, and the goods be
brought into the court as the mainour ; and if it be
demanded of him, what he faith to the goods, and he
difclaim them ; though he be acquitted of the felony,
he (hall lofe the goods: And again (fol. 149.), if the
defendant w’ere taken with the mainour, and the main¬
our be carried to the court, they, in ancient times,
w’ould arraign him upon the mainour, w ithout any ap¬
peal or indidment. Cow'd. See Biackjl. Comment,
vol. iii. p. 71. vol. iv. p. 303.
MAINPRIZE. See Falfe ImpuISONMENT.
The writ of mainprize, manucaptio, is a writ direct¬
ed to the ftieriff (either generally, when any man is
imprifoned for a bailable offence, and bail hath been
refufed j or fpecially, when the offence or caufe of
commitment
MAI [4
lainprvzfi is not properly bailable below), command-
8 ing him to take fureties for the prifoner’s appearance,
aintenon. uj'uai]y called mainpernors, and to fet him at large.
Mainpernors differ from bail, in that a man’s bail may
imprifon or furrender him up before the ftipulated day
of appearance •, mainpernors can do neither, but are
barely fureties for his appearance at the day : bail are
only fureties that the parties be anfwerable for the
fpecial matter for which they ftipulate, mainpernors
are bound to produce him to anfwer all charges what¬
ever. See HABEAS Corpus.
MAINTENANCE, in Law, bears a near relation
to Barretry 5 being an officious intermeddling in a
fuit that no way belongs to one, by maintaining or af-
fifting either party with money or otherwife, to pro-
fecute or defend it: a praftice that was greatly encou-
raored by the firft introduflion of ufes. Ihis is an of¬
fence againft public juftice, as it keeps alive ftrife
and contention, and perverts the remedial procefs of
the law into an engine of oppreffion. And therefore,
by the Roman law, it was a fpecies of the crimen falji,
to enter into any confederacy, or do any a£I to fup-
port another’s law fuit, by money, vvitnefles, or patron¬
age. A man may, however, maintain the fuit of his
near kinfman, fervant, or poor neighbour, out of cha¬
rity and compaffion, with impunity. Otherwife the
punilhment by common law is fine and imprifonment j
and by the ftatute 32 Henry VIII. c. 9. a forfeiture
of 10I.
MAINTENON, Madame de, a French lady of
extraordinary fortune, defcended from an ancient fa¬
mily, and whofe proper name was Frances d' Aubignc,
was born in 163J. Her parents by misfortunes being
ill able to fupport her, (he fell to the care of her mo¬
ther’s relations ; to efcape which Hate of dependence,
fhe was induced to marry that famous old buffoon the
Abbe Scarron, who fubfifted himfelf only on a penfion
allowed him by the court for his wit and parts. She
lived with him many years, which Voltaire makes no
fcruple to call the happieft years of her life ; but when
he died in 1660, Hie found herfelf as indigent as Hie
had been before her marriage. Her friends indeed en¬
deavoured to get her hufband’s penfion continued to her,
and prefented fo many petitions to the king about it,
all beginning with “ The widow Scarron moH humbly
prays your majeHy’s,” &c. that he was quite weary
of them, and has been heard to exclaim, “ MuH I al¬
ways be peHered with the widow Scarron ?” At lafl,
however, through the recommendation of Madame de
Montefpan, he fettled a much larger penfion on her,
..with a genteel apology for making her wait fo long j
and afterward made choice of her to take care of the
education of the young duke of Maine, his fon by Ma¬
dame de Montefpan. The letters Hie wrote on this
occafion charmed the king, and were the origin of her
advancement •, her perfonal merit effected all the refl.
He bought her the lands of Maintenon, the only efiate
Hie ever had •, and finding her pleafed with the acqui-
fition, called her publicly M-adame de Alaintenon ; which
was of great fervice to her in her good fortune, by re¬
leafing her from the, ridicule attending that of Scar¬
ron. Her elevation was to her only a retreat ; the
king came to her apartment every sday after dinner,
before and after fupper, and continued there till mid¬
night : here he did bufinefs with his miniffers, while
9 1 MAI
Madame de Maintenon, employed in reading or needle- Munteno!.,
work, never fliowed any defire to talk of Hate affairs, “^°u .
and carefully avoided all appearance of cabal or in¬
trigue j Hie did not even make ufe of her power to
dignify her own relations. About the latter end of
the year 1685, Louis XIV. married her, he being
then in his 48th and Hie in her 50th year ; and that
piety with which ffie infpired the king to make her a
wife inHead of a miflrefs, became by degrees a fettled
difpofition of mind. She prevailed on Louis to found
a religious community at St Cyr, for the education of
300 young ladies of quality ; and here the frequently
retired from that melancholy of which Hie complains
fo pathetically in one of her letters, and which few la¬
dies will fuppofe flie flrould be liable to in fuch an
elevated fituation. But, as M. Voltaire fays, if any
thing could Ihow the vanity of ambition, it would
certainly be this letter. Madame de Maintenon could
have no other uneafinefs than the uniformity of her
manner of living with a great king ; and this made her
once fay to the count D’Aubigne her brother, “ I
can hold it no longer j I wiffi I was dead.” The an¬
fwer he made to her was, “ You have then a promife
to marry the Almighty !” Louis, however, died be¬
fore her in 1715 } when Hie retired wholly to St Cyr,
and fpent the reH of her days in a<fls of devotion j and
what is moH furprifing is, that her huffiand left no
certain provifion for her, recommending her only to
the duke of Orleans. She would accept no more than
a penfion of 80,coo livres, which was punflually paid
her till Hie died in 1719. A colleftion of her letters
has been publiflied, and tranflated into Engliffi ; from
which familiar intercourfes her charadler will be better
known than from defcription.
MAJOR, in the art of wfar, the name of feveral
officers of very different ranks and funftions.
MAJOR-genera/. See GENERAL.
MAJOR of a Regiment of Foot, the next officer to the
lieutenant-colonel, generally promoted from the eldeff
captain : he is to take care that the regiment be well
exercifed, to fee it march in good order, and to rally
it in cafe of being broken in action he is the only of¬
ficer among the infantry that is allowed to be on horfe-
back in time of adlion, that he may the more readily
execute the colonel’s orders.
Major of a Regiment of Horfe, as well as foot, ought
to be a man of honour, integrity, underflanding, cou¬
rage, aftivity, experience, and addrefs ; he fliould be
maHer of arithmetic, and keep a detail of the regi¬
ment in every particular : he Ihould be Ikilled inhorfe-
manffiip, and ever attentive to his bufinefs : one of his
principal fundlions is, to keep an exaft rofier of the
officers for duty : he fliould have a perfect knowledge
in all the military evolutions, as he is obliged by his
pofl to inflrudl others, &c.
Town-MAJOR, the third officer in order in a garri-
fon, and next to the deputy-governor. He fliould un-
derfland fortification, and has a particular charge of
the guards, rounds, patroles, and centinels.
Brigade-MAJOR, is a particular officer appointed for
that purpofe only in camp : he goes every day to head¬
quarters to receive orders from the adjutant-general :
there he writes exaftly whatever is diflated to him :
from thence he goes and gives the orders, at the place
appointed for that purpofe, to the different majors or
3 G 2 adjutants
M A J
Major.
adjutants of the regiments which compofe that brigade,
and regulates with them the number of officers and
men which each are to furnifh for the duty of the army j
taking care to keep an exa£t roller, that one may not
give more than another 5 and that each march in their
tour : in fhort, the major of brigade is charged with
the particular detail in his own brigade, in much the
fame way as the adjutant-general is charged with the
general detail of the duty of the army. He fends every
morning to the adjutant-general an exa£t return, by
battalion and company, of the men of his brigade mif¬
fing at the retreat, or a report exprefling that none are
abfent : he alfo mentions the officers abfent with or
without leave.
As all orders pafs through the hands of the majors
of brigade, they have infinite occafions of making
known their talents and exaftnefs.
Major of Artillery, is alfo the next officer to the
lieutenant-colonel. His poll is very laborious, as the
whole detail of the corps particularly rells with him j
and for this reafon all the non-commiffioned officers
are fubordinate to him, as his title of ferjeant-major im¬
ports : in this quality they mull render him an exa<fl
account of every thing which comes to their know¬
ledge, either regarding the duty or wants of the artil¬
lery and foldiers. He fhould poflefs a perfedl know¬
ledge of the power of artillery, together with all its
evolutions. In the field he goes daily to receive orders
from the brigade-major, and communicates them with
the parole to his fuperiors, and then didlates them to
the adjutant. He fhould be a very good mathemati¬
cian, and be well acquainted with every thing belong¬
ing to the train of artillery, &.c,
MAJOR of Engineers, commonly with us called Sub-
direttor, fhould be very well fkilled in military archi-
tedlure, fortification, gunnery, and mining. He fhould
know how to fortify in the field, to attack and defend
all forts of polls, and to condufl the works in a fiege,
&c. See Engineer.
Aid-Major, is on fundry occafions appointed to aft
as major, who has a pre-eminence above others of the
fame denomination. Our horfe and foot guards have
their guidons, or fecond or third majors.
Serjeant-MAJOR, is a non-commiffioned officer, of
great merit and capacity, fubordinate to the adjutant,
as he is to the major. See Serjeant.
Drum-MAJOR, is not only the firfl drummer in the
regiment, but has the fame authority over his drummers
as the corporal has over his fquad. He inflrufts them
in their different beats *, is daily at orders with the fer-
jeants, to know the number of drummers for duty. He
marches at their head when they beat in a body. In
the day of battle, or at exercife, he mufl be very atten¬
tive to the orders given him, that he may regulate his
beats according to the movements ordered.
Fife MAJOR, is he that plays the bell on that inflru-
ment, and has the fame authority over the fifers as the
drum major has over the drummers. He teaches them
their duty, and appoints them for guards, &c.
_ Major, in Law, a perfon who is of age to manage
his own affairs. By the civil law a man is not a major
till the age of 25 years ; in England, he is a major at
21, as in Normandy at 20.
Major, in Logic, is underflood of the firfl propo-
fition of a regular fyllogifm. It is called major, becaufe
4
r 420 i
M A J
it has a more extenfive fenfe than the minor propofition
as containing the principal term. See Logic.
Major and Minor, in Mujic, are applied to concords
which differ from each other by a iemi-tone. See
Concord.
Major tone is the difference between the fifth and
fourth j and major femi-tone the difference between the
major fourth and the third. The major tone furpaffes
the minor by a comma.
MAJOR-Domo, an Italian term, frequently ufed to
fignify a fleward or mailer of the houlehold. The
title of major-domo was formerly given in the courts
of princes to three different kinds of officers. 1. To
him who took care of what related to the prince’s table,
or eating $ otherwife called eleater, pr&feBus menfce,
architriclinus, dapifer, and prmceps coquorum.—2. Ma¬
jor-domo was alfo applied to the lleward of the houfe-
hold.—3. The title of major-domo was alfo given to
the chief minifler, or him to whom the prince deputed
the adminiflration of his affairs, foreign and domeilic,
relating to war as well as peace. Initances of major-
domos in the firlt two fenfes are frequent in the En-
glifh, French, and Norman affairs.
Major, John, a fcholaftic divine and hiflorian,
was born at Haddington, in the province of Eafl Lo¬
thian in Scotland. It appears from fome paffages in
his writings, that he refided a while both at Oxford
and Cambridge. He went to Paris in 1493, and itu-
died in the college of St Barbe, under the famous John
Boulac. Thence he removed to that of Montacute,
where he began to ftudy divinity under the celebrated
Standouk. In the year 1498, he was entered of the
college of Navarre. In 1505, he was created doftor
in divinity; returned to Scotland in 1519, and taught
theology during feveral years in the univerfity of St
Andrew’s. But, at length, being difgufted with the
quarrels of his countrymen, he went back to Paris, and
refumed his leftures in the college of Montacute,
where he had feveral pupils who afterwards became
men of great eminence. About the year 1530, he re¬
turned once more to Scotland, and was cholen profef-
for of theology at St Andrew’s, of which he after¬
wards became provoft ; and there died in 1547, aged
78. His logical treatifes form one immenfe folio ; his
commentary on Ariilotle’s phyfics makes another ; and
his theological works amount to feveral volumes of the
fame fize. Thefe maffes of crude and ufelefs difqui-
fition were the admiration of his contemporaries. A
work, lefs prized in his own age, was to make him
known to pofterity. His book De Gefis Scotorum,
was firfl; publifhed at Paris by Badius Afcenfius, in
the year 1521. He rejefts in it fome of the fiftions
of former hiftorians ; and would have had greater me¬
rit if he had rejefted more. He intermingles the hi-
ftory of England with that of Scotland ; and has in¬
curred the cenfure of fome partial writers, for giving
an authority to the authors of the former nation, which
he refufes to thofe of his own. Bede, Caxton, and
Froiffard, were exceedingly ufeful to him. What does
the greateft honour to this author is, the freedom
with w'hich he has cenfured the rapacity and indolence
of ecclefiaftics, and the ttrain of ridicule with which he
treats the pope’s fupremacy. The flyle in which he
wrote does not deferve commendation*. Bifhop Spot-
tifwood calls it Sorbonnic and barbarous.
MAJORCA*
fajorea,
lairan.
MAI [42
MAJORCA, an ifland of the Mediterranean, lying
between Yvica on the wed and Minorca on the eait.
1 1'hefe three iflands were anciently called Ba/eares, fup-
pofed to be from the (kill of their inhabitants in fling¬
ing, for which they were very remarkable. Originally
they belonged to the Carthaginians $ but during the
•wars of that people with the Romans they feem to
have regained their liberty. In 122 B. C. they were
fubdued by Metellus the Roman conful, who treated
the inhabitants with fuch cruelty, that out of 30,000
he fcarce left 1000 alive. He then built two cities on
Majorca 5 one called Palma, now Majorca, to the eaft;
the other to the weft, named Pollentia, now now longer
in being. The illand continued fubjedl to the Ro¬
mans, and to the nations who overran the weftern
part of the empire, for many ages. At laft it was fub¬
dued by the Moors about the year 800. By them the
ifland was put in a much better condition than it ever
was before or fince. The Moors being very induftri-
ous, and alfo populous, furrounded the whole coaft
with fortifications, that is, with a kind of towers and
lines between them •, cultivated every fpot in the ifland .
that w as not either rock or fand ; and had no fewer
than 15 great towns, whereas now' there are not above
three. Neither was it at all difficult for the Moorifti
monarch to bring into the field an army much fuperior
in number to the inhabitants that are now upon it,
taking in all ranks, fexes, and ages. In 1229, iflancl
was fubdued by the king of Arragon, who eftabliftied
in it a new kingdom, feudatory to that of Arragon,
which was again deftroyed in 1341 by the fame mo-
narchs $ and ever fince, the ifland hath been fubje£t to
Spain, and hath entirely loft its importance. It is
about 60 miles long, and 45 broad. The air is clear
and temperate j and, by its fituation, the heat in fum-
mer is fo qualified by the breezes, that it is by far the
mod pleafant of all the iflands in the Mediterranean.
There are fome mountains j but the country is gene¬
rally flat, and of fuch an excellent foil, that it produces
great quantities of corn as good in its kind as any in
Turope. Oil, wine, and fait, are very plentiful, as al¬
fo black cattle and (beep ; but deer, rabbits, and wild¬
fowl, abound fo much, that they alone are fufticient
for the fubfiftence of the inhabitants. There are no
rivers, but a great many fprings and wells, as well as
feveral good harbours. The inhabitants are robuft,
a6!ive, and good feamen.
Majorca, a handfome, large, rich, and ftrong town
in the ifland of the fame name, with a bifliop’s fee. It
contains about 6000 houfes, and 22 churches, befides
the cathedral. The fquares, the cathedral, and the
royal palace, are magnificent ftruftures. A captain-
general relides there, who commands the whole ifland;
and there is a garrifon againft the incurfion of the
Moors. It was taken by the Engliih in 1706 ; but
Was retaken in 1715, fince which time it has been in
the hands of the Spaniards. It is feated on the fouth-
weft part of the ifland, where there is a good harbour,
70 miles north-eaft of Yvica, 1 20 fouth-eaft of Barce¬
lona, 140 eaft of Valencia, and 300 from Madrid. E.
Long. 2. 55. N. Lat. 39. 36.
MAIRAN, Jean Jacques d’Ortous de, defcend-
ed from a noble family at Befiers, was born in that city
in 1678, and died at Paris of a defluxion on the lungs
on the 20th of February 1771, at the age of 93. He
i ] MAI
was one of the moft illuftrious members of the Academy
of Sciences and of the French Academy. Being early
connected with the former fociety, he, in the year
1741, fucceeded Fontenelle in the office of fecre-
tary. This ftation he filled with the moft diftin-
guiffied fuccefs till the year 1744 ; and, like his pre-
deceffor, pofleffed the faculty of placing the moft ab-
ftradt fubjefts in the cleareft light; a talent which is
very rare, but which appears confpicuous in all his
works. The chief of them are, 1. Dj/Jertationfur la
Glace, the laft edition of which was printed in 1749,
1 2mo. This excellent little tratt has been tranflated
into German and Italian.. 2. Dfertalion fur la caufe
de la lumiere dcs Phofphores, 1717? 12mo. 3. 7raitd
hiforique et physique de P Aurore Boreale, firft publifti-
ed in i2mo, 1733, and afterwards much enlarged and
printed in 410 in 1754. The fyftem embraced by the au¬
thor is liable to be controverted ; but the book difplays
great tafte and erudition. 4. Lettre au Pere Parennin,
contenant diverfes quefions fur la Chine, i2mo. This is
a very curious work, and is full of that philofophical
fpirit which characterizes the author’s other publica¬
tions. 5. A great number of papers in the memoirs of
the Academy of Sciences (fince 1719), of which he
publiffied fome volumes. 6. Several diflertations on
particular fubjedts, which form only fmall pamphlets.
7. The Eloges of the Academicians of the Academy of
Sciences, who died in 1741, 1742, 1743, in l2mo,
1747. Without imitating Fontenelle, the author at¬
tained almoft equal excellence by his talent of difcri-
minating characters, appreciating their worth, and giv¬
ing them their due (hare of praile, without at the fame,
time concealing their defeCts.
Mairan’s reputation extended itfelf into foreign
countries. He was a member of the Imperial Academy
at Peterfburgh, of the Royal Academy of London, of
the inftitution at Bologna, of the royal focieties of
Edinburgh and Upfal, &c. The gentlenefs and fw'eet-
nefs of his manners made him be confidered as a per¬
fect model of the focial virtues. He pofleffed that
amiable politenefs, that agreeable gaiety, and that
fteady firmnefs, which never fail to procure love and
efteem. But we muft add, fays M. Saverien, that
every thing had a reference to himfelf; felf-love and
a regard to his own reputation were the motives of all
his aCtions. He was deeply affeCted with certfure or
applaufe, and yet he had many friends. Uniting
much gentlenefs of difpofition to an ingenious and
agreeable expreflion of countenance, he pofiefled the
art of infinuating himfelf into the good graces of
others, fo as to pave the way to elevation and fuccefs.
He was honoured with protection and particular marks
of regard by the duke of Orleans the regent, who be¬
queathed to him his watch in his will. The prince
of Conti loaded him with favours ; and the chancel¬
lor Daguefleau, obferving in him great originality and
ingenuity of thought, appointed him prefident of the
Journal des Spavans : a ftation which he filled very
much to the fatisfaCtion of the public and of the learn¬
ed. The private and felfifli views imputed to him by
M. Saverien never made him deficient in what was
due to the ftriCteft probity. An expreflion of his is
remembered, which could have proceeded only from
fentiment; “ An honeft roan (faid he) is one whofe
blood is refrelhed with the recital of a good aftion.”
He
Mairan.
MAI [ 422 ] MAI
He^ was ready at repartee. One day he happened to
be in company with a gentleman of the gown, and to
difler with him in opinion upon fome point which
had no more connexion with jurifprudence than with
geometry. “ Sir (faid the magitlrate, who fuppofed
that a learned man was a perfect idiot out of his own
fphere), wd are not now talking of Euclid or Archi¬
medes.”—“ No, nor of Cujas nor Barthole !” replied
the academician.
MAIRE, Streights le, a paffage to Cape Horn,
fituated between Terra del Fuego and Staten ifland
which, being difeovered by Le Maire, obtained his
name. It is now, however, lefs made ufe of than for¬
merly, fiiips going round Staten ifland as well as Terra
del Fuego.
MAISTRE, Louis Isaac le, better known by
the name of Sacy, was born at Paris in 1613. His ge¬
nius very early difeovered itfelf. After an excellent
courfe of fludy under the direftion of the abbot of
Sainft Cyran, he was raifed to the priefthood in 1648,
and foon after was chofen, on account of his virtues,
to be director of the religious of Port Royal des
Champs. As this monaftery bore the reputation of
Janfenifm, their enemies were furniflied with a pre¬
tence for perfecuting them. In 1661 the dire&or
was obliged to conceal himfelf; and in 1666 he was
committed to the Baftile. During his confinement
he compofed the book Figures dc la Bible; in which,
according to the Molinifts, allufions are made to the
fufferings endured by the Janfenifts. If we may be¬
lieve a Jefuit writer, the gentlemen of Port Royal and
thofe who oppofed their errors are reprefented in the
p2d figure, the former by David, the latter by Saul.
Rehoboam in the 116th figure, Jezebel in the 130th,
Ahafuerus in the 148th and 150th, and Darius in the
160th, in the opinion of this author, reprefent Louis
XIV. The writer of thefe anecdotes, of which we do
not anfwer for the authenticity, adds, that when Sacy
Avilhed to reproach his perfecutors, he always did it by
means of the holy fathers. If this is the key to thofe
enigmatical portraits and allufions, which it is pretend¬
ed are to be found in that book, certain we are it was
not difeovered by the fpirit of charity. Befides, it is
not certain that Sacy was the author of that book j for
it is much more probable that it was compofed by Nico¬
las Fontaine his fellow prifoner.
To Sacy’s confinement the public are indebted fora
French tranflation of the Bible. This work was finiflied
in 1668, the evening before the feaft of All Saints j
on which day he recovered his liberty, after an impri-
fonment of two years and a half. He was prefented
to the king and the minifter ; and all the favour he
afked from them was, that they would fend feveral
times a year to examine the Rate of the prifoners in
the Baftile. Le Maiftre continued at Paris till 1675,
when he retired to Port Royal, which he was obliged
to leave in 1679. went to fettle at Pompone,
where he died January 4. 1684, at the age of 71.
From him we have, 1. La TraduBion de la Bible, with
explanations of the fpiritual and literal meaning taken
from the fathers, the greater part of which was done
by Du Fofie, Hure, and Tuurneux. This is the bell
French tranflation which has yet appeared, and the
moft efteemed edition is that of Paris in 32 volumes
8vo, 1682 and following years. The author tranf-
2
lated. the New Teftament three times, becaufe the Maiftre
firft time the ftyle of it appeared too much laboured Maittairj
and too refined, and the fecond too Ample. A coun- ’"“"V-'
terfeit of the edition in 32 vols. 8vo, was publilhed at
Bruffels in 40 vols. t 2mo. The belt editions of this
verfion have been publilhed at Bruffels, 1700, in 3 vols.
4to; at Amfterdam, under the name of Par/x, 1711
8 vols i2mo; at Paris 1713, in 2 vols 410; and in
I7I5> notes and a concordance, 4 vols folio. 2.
line TraduBion des Pfeaumes felon PHebreu et la Vul¬
gate, in 1 2mo. 3. line verjion des Homelies de St Chry-
fojlomefur St Matthieu, in 3 vols 8vo. 4. La Traduc¬
tion de Limitation de Jefus Chri/f (fous le nom de Beuil
prieur de Saint-Val), Paris 1663, 8vo. 5. Celle de
Phedre, i2mo, (fous le nom de Saint-Aubinf 6. l)e
trois Comedies de Terence, in l 2mo. 7. Des Lettres de
Bongars (fous le nom de Brianvil/ef 8. Du Poe me de
St Prof per fur les ingrates, i2mo, en verfe et en profe.
9. Les Enluminures de LAlmanack des Jefuites, 16 54,
l2mo, reprinted in 1733. In 1653 there appeared
a print reprefenting the overthrow of Janfenifm ana¬
thematized by the two powers, and the confufion of
the difciples of the bilhop of Ypres, who are going
to feek refuge with the Calvinifts. The monks of
Port-Royal were greatly provoked at this print, and
Sacy thought that he would lower its reputation by
means of his Enluminures, which Racine has ridiculed
in one of his letters. It is indeed very ftrange that
men of tafte and piety fliould write fatires to the in¬
jury of one another. 10. Heures de Port-Royal, i2mo.
II. Lettres de Piete', Paris 1690, 2 vols. 8vo.
MAI FT AI RE, Michael, a learned Englilh wri¬
ter, was born in 1668. Dr South, canon of Chrifl-
Church, made him a ftudent of that houfe, where he
teok the degree of M. A. March 23. 1696. From
1695 till 1699 he was fecond mailer of Weftminlter
fchool j which was afterwards indebted to him for
Greece Lingua DialeBi, in ufum Scholce Wefmonafe-
rienfts, 1706, 8vo ; and for “ The Englilh Grammar,
applied to, and exemplified in, the Englilh Tongue,
1712,” 8vo. In 1711, he publilhed “ Remarks on Mr
Whilton’s Account of the Convocation’s proceedings
with relation to himfelf, in a Letter to the right reve¬
rend Father in God George Lord Bilhop of Bath and
Wells,” 8vo ; alfo “ An Eflay againlt Arianifm,
and fome other Herefies ; or a Reply to Mr William
Whifton’s Hillorical Preface and Appendix to his
Primitive Chriftianity revived,” 8vo. In 1709 he gave
the firlt fpecimen of his great {kill in typographical
antiquities, by publilhing Stephanorum Htfloria, vitas
ipforum ac libros compleBens, 8vo j which w as followed
in 1717 by Hi/loria Typographorum aliquot Parifen-
fum, vitas et libros compleBens, 8vo. In 1719, An-
na/es Typographid ab artis inventce origine ad annum
MB, 4to. The fecond volume, divided into twro parts,
and continued to the year 1536, was publilhed at the
Hague in 1702 j introduced by a letter of John Toland,
under the title of ConjeBura veriftmilis de prima Typo-
graphice Inventione. The third volume, from the fame
prefs, in two parts, continued to 1557, and (by an
Appendix) to 1664, in 1725. In 1733 was publilh¬
ed at Amfterdam w'hat is ufually eonfidered as the
fourth volume, under the title of Annales Typographici
ab artis inventce origine, ad annum MDCLXIV, opera
Mich. Maittaire, A. M. editio nova, auBior et emendetior •
tomi
(aittaire,
MAI [ 423 ] M A L
In 1741 the work was it is not To generally known that he was editor
tomi primi pars pojlerior (a).
clofed at London, by Annalium Typographicorutn To
nws quintus et ultimas, indicem in tomos quatuor praeun-
tes comp/edtens; divided, like the two preceding volumes,
into two parts. In the intermediate years, Mr Mait-
taire was diligently employed on various works of value.
In 1713 he publiihed by fubfcription Opera et Fragmen-
ta Veteruni Poet arum, 1713, two volumes in folio : the
title of fome copies is dated 1721. In I7I4» was
the editor of a Greek Teftament, in 2 vols. The La¬
tin writers, which he publilhed feparately, moft of them
with good indexes, came out in the following order
In 1713, Chriflus P aliens ; Jujlin; Lucretius; Phce-
drus ; Sallujl; Terence. In 1715, Catullus ; Tibullus;
Propertius; Cornelius Nepos ; Floras ; Horace ; Ju¬
venal; Ovid, 3 vols-, Virgil. In 1711, CcefaFs
Commentaries; Martial; Quintus Curtius. In 1718
and 1725, Velleius Paterculus. In 1719, Lucan. In
1720, Bonefonii Carmma. In lq2\, he publilhed, Ba-
trachomyomachia, Grace, ad veterum exemplarium jidem
recufa ; gloffa Graca, variantibus leBionibus, verjiombus
Latinis, commentariis et indicibus, illujlrata, 8vo. In
1722, Mifcellanea Gracorum aliquot Script or um Car-
mina, cum verfione Latina et notis, 4to. In 1724 he
compiled, at the requeft of Dr John Freind (at whole
expence it was printed), an index to the works of
Aretceus, to accompany the fplendid folio edition of
that author in 1723. In 1725 he publilhed an excel¬
lent edition of Anacreon in 410, of which no more than
ICO copies were printed, and the few errata in each
copy corrected by his own hand. A fecond edition
of the like number was printed in 1 741’ "’^h dx copies
on fine writing paper. In 1726 he publilhed Petri Pe-
titi Medici Parijienjis in tres priores Aretai Cappadocis
TJbros Commentarii, nunc primum editi, 410. This learn¬
ed commentary was found among the papers of Grae-
vius. From 1728 to 1733 he was employed in publilh-
ing Marmorum Arundehanorum, Seldenianorum, aho-
rumque Academia Oxonien/i donatorum, una cum Com¬
mentariis et Indice, editio fecunda, folio; to which an Ap¬
pendix was printed in 1733- Fpijlola D. Mich. Mait-
taire ad D. P. Des Mai%eaux, in qua Indicts in Annales
Tqpographicos methodus explicatur, &c. is printed in
“ The Prefent State of the Republic of Letters,” Au-
guft 1733, p- 142. The life of Robert Stephens in La¬
tin, revifed and corre&ed by the author, with a new and
complete lift of his works, is prefixed to the improved
edition of R. Stephens’s Thefaurus, 4 vols in folio, in
1734. In 1736 appeared Antiquce Infcriptiones duce,
folio; being a commentary on two large copper tables
difcovered near Heraclea, in the bay of Tarentum. In
1738 were printed at the Hague Graca Lingua Dialedli
in Schola Regia Wefimonaflerienjis ufum recogniti, opera
Mich. Maittaire. In 1739 he addrefled to the emprefs
of Ruflia a fmall Latin poem, under the title of Car¬
men Epicinium AuguftiJJtma RuJJbrum Imperatricifacrum.
His name not having been printed in the title page,
Malacca.
ofPlu- Maittaire
larch’s Apophthegmata, 1741, 4to. The laft publica¬
tion of Mr Maittaire was a volume of poems in 4to, ^
1742, under the title of Seniha, Jive Poetica aliquot in
argument is vani generis tentamina. Mr Maittaire died
in 1747, aged 79. His valuable library, which had
been 50 years colledting, was fold by audtion by Meffrs
Cock and Langford, at the dole of the fame year, and
the beginning of the following, taking up in all 44
nights. Mr Maittaire, it may be added, was patronized
by the firft earl of Oxford, both before and after that
gentleman’s elevation to the peerage, and continued a
favourite with his fon the fecond earl. He was alfo
Latin tutor to Mr Stanhope, the earl of Chefterfieid’s
favourite fon.
MAIZE, or Indian Corn. See Zea, Botany
Index.
MAKI. See Lemur, Mammalia Index.
MALABAR, the name given to a great part of
the weft coaft of the peninfula of Hindoftan on this fide
of the Ganges, extending from the kingdom of Baglala
to Cape Comorin, or from the north extremity of the
kingdom of Canara as far as Cape Comorin, and lying
between 90 and 140 N. Lat. It is bounded by the
mountains of Balagate on the eaft ; by Deccan on
the north ; and on the weft and fouth is walked by the
Indian fea.
MALAGA, in Ancient Geography, furnamed Fes-
deratorum by Pliny ; a maritime town of Bsetica :
a Carthaginian colony according to Strabo ; fo call¬
ed from Malach, fignifying “ faita place noted
for pickled or falted meat. Now Malaga, a port
town of Granada in Spain. W. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat.
36. 40.
MALACCA, the moft foutherly part of the great
peninfula beyond the Ganges, is about 600 miles in
length, and contains a kingdom of the fame name. It
is bounded by the kingdom of Siam on the north ; by
the bay of Siam and the Indian ocean on the eaft j
and by the ftraits of Malacca, which feparate it from
the illand of Sumatra, on the fouth-weft. This coun¬
try is more to the fouth than any other in the Eaft In¬
dies ; and comprehends the towns and kingdoms of
Patan, Pahan, Igohor, Pera, Queda, Borkelon, Ligor;
and to the north the tow n and kingdom of Tanaffery,
where the Portuguefe formerly carried on a great trade.
This laft either does or did belong to the king of Siam,
The people of Malacca are in general fubjedt to the
Dutch, who poffefs all the ftrong places on the coaft,
and compel them to trade on their own terms, excluding
all other nations of Europe from having any commerce
with the natives.
The Malays are governed by feudal laws. A chief,
who has the title of king or fultan, iflues his commands
to his great vaflals, who have other vafials in fubjedlion
to them in a fimilar manner. A fmall part of the na¬
tion live independent, under the title of oranicai or no¬
ble.
(a) The awkwardne.fs of this title has induced many colledlors to difpofe of their firft volume, as thinking it
fuperfeded by the feeond edition : but this is by no means the cafe ; the volume of 1719 being equally neceffary
to complete the fet as that of 1733, which is a revifion of all the former volumes. The whole work, when pro--
perly bound, confifts, ad libitum, either of five volumes or of nine.
!M A L
Malacca.
ble, and fell their fervices to thofe who pay them beft ;
while the body ef the nation is compofed of flaves, and
live in perpetual fervitude.
The generality of thefe people are relllefs, fond of
navigation, war, plunder, emigration, colonies, def-
perate enterprifes, adventures, and gallantry. They
talk inceffantly of their honour and their bravery;
whilft they are univerfally confidered by thofe with
whom they have intercourfe, as the moft treacherous,
ferocious people on earth. This ferocity, which the
Malays qualify under the name of courage, is fo well
known to the European companies who have fettle-
ments in the Indies, that they have univerfally agreed
in prohibiting the captains of their (hips who may put
into the Malay iflands, from taking on board any fea-
men from that nation, except in the greateil didrefs,
and then on no account to exceed two or three. It
is not in the leaft uncommon for a handful of thefe
horrid favages fuddenly to embark, attack a veffel by
furprife, maffacre the people, and make themfelves
mafters of her. Malay batteaux, with 24 or 30 men,
have been known to board European (hips of 30 or 40
guns, in order to take poffeflion of them, and murder
with their poniards great part of the crew. Thofe
who are not Haves go always armed : they would think
themfelves difgraced if they went abroad without their
poniards, which they call crit. As their lives are a
perpetual round of agitation and tumult, they cannot
endure the long flowing garments in ufe among the
other Afiatics. Their habits are exaflly adapted to
their fliapes, and loaded with a multitude of buttons,
which fallen them clofe to their bodies.
The country poflefled by the Malays is in general
very fertile. It abounds with odoriferous woods, fuch
as the aloes, the fandal, and cafiia. The ground
is covered with flowers of the greateft fragrance, of
which there is a perpetual fucceflion throughout the
year. There are abundance of mines of the moft precious
metals, faid to be richer even than thofe of Brazil or
Peru, and in fome places are mines of diamonds. The
fea alfo abounds with excellent fifti, together with
ambergrife, pearls, and thofe delicate birds-nefts fo
much in requeft in China, formed in the rocks with
the fpawn of fifties and the foam of the fea, by a
fpecies of fmall-fized fwallow peculiar to thofe feas.
Thefe are of fuch an exquifite flavour, that the Chi-
nefe for a long time purchafed them for their weight
in gold, and ftill buy them at an exceflive price. See
BlRDS-Ne/l.
Notwithftanding all this plenty, however, the Ma¬
lays are miferable. The culture of the lands, abandon¬
ed to flaves, is fallen into contempt. Thefe wretched
labourers, dragged inceflantly from their ruftic em¬
ployments by their reftlefs mafters, who delight in war
and maritime enterprifes, have never time or refolution
to give the neceffary attention to the labouring of their
grounds; of confequence the lands for the molt part
are uncultivated, and produce no kind of grain for
the fubfiftence of the inhabitants. The fago tree indeed
fupplies in part the deleft of grain. It is a fpecies of
the palm tree, which grows naturally in the woods to
the height of about 20 or 30 feet $ its circumference
being fometimes from five to fix. Its ligneous bark is
about an inch in thicknefs, and covers a multitude of
long fibres, which being interwoven one with another
[ 424 ]
M A L
envelope a mafs of a gummy kind of meal. As foon
as this tree is ripe, a whitilh dull, which tranfpires
through the pores of the leaves, and adheres to their
extremities, indicates that the trees are in a ftate of
maturity. The Malays then cut them down near the
root, and divide them into feveral feftions, which they
fplit into quarters: they then fcoop out the mafs of
mealy fubftance, which is enveloped by and adheres to
the fibres $ they dilute it in pure water, and then pafs
it through a ftraining bag of fine cloth, in order to
feparate. it from the fibres. When this pafte has loft
part of its moifture by evaporation, the Malays throw
it into a kind of earthen vefi'el of different fhapes,
where they allow it to dry and harden. This pafte
is wholefome nouriftiing food, and preferves for many
years.
Malacca, the capital ef the country of the fame
name, is fituated in a flat country clofe to the fea.
The walls and fortifications are founded on a folid
rock, and are carried up to a great height; the lower
part of them is waflied by the fea at every tide, and
on the landfide is a wide canal or ditch, cut from the
lea to the river, which makes it an ifiand. In 1641
it was taken from the Portuguefe by the Dutch, fince
which time it has continued in their poffeflion. In this
city there are a great many broad ftreets j but they
are very badly paved. The houfes are tolerably well
built, and fome of them have gardens behind or on
one fide. The inhabitants confift of a few Dutch,
many Malayans, Moors, Chinefe, and other Indians,
who are kept in awe by a fortrefs, which is feparated
from the city by a river, and by good walls and ba-
ftions, as well as by ftrong gates, and a drawbridge
that is on the eaftern fide. The city is well fituated
for trade and navigation. E. Long. 102. 2. N. Lat.
2. 12.
MALACHI, or the prophecy of Malachi, a
canonical book of the Old Teftament, and the lait of
the 12 leffer prophets. Malachi prophefied about 3C0
years before Chrift, reproving the Jews for their wick-
ednefs after their return from Babylon, charging them
with rebellion, facrilege, adultery, profanenefs, and in¬
fidelity j and condemning the priefts for being fcanda-
loufly carelefs in their miniftry j at the fame time not
forgetting to encourage the pious few, who, in that
corrupt age, maintained their integrity. This prophet
diftinftly points at the Mefliah, who was fuddenly to
come to his temple, and to be introduced by Elijah the
prophet, that is, John the Baptift, who came in the
fpirit and power of Elias or Elijah.
MALACIA, in Medicine, is a languilhing diforder
incident to pregnant women, in which they long fome¬
times for one kind of food and fometimes for another,
and eat it with extraordinary greedinefs.
MALACOPTERYGEOUS,in/c/z/^o/ofy, an ap¬
pellation given to fifties having the rays of their fins
bony at the extremities, but not pointed, like thofe of
acanthopterygeous fifties.
MALACOSTOMOUS fishes, thofe deftitute of
teeth in the jaivs, called in Englifh leather-mouthed, as
the tench, carp, bream, &c.
MALAGA, an ancient, rich, and ftrong town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Granada, with two caftles,
a bifhop’s fee, and a good harbour, which renders
it a place of confiderable commerce. The advantage
of
M A L
r 425 ]
M A L
Malaga, of this commerce, according to M. Bourgoanne, is
alagruia. entirely in favour of Spain, but almoit without any
■'"V-" to its navigation ; of 842 veflels which arrived at this
port in 1782, from almoit every commercial nation,
fcarcely 100 were Spanilh, even reckoning the {hips
of war which anchored there. The Englifli, who are
in poffeffion of the greateft part of the trade, cany
thither woollens and great quantities of fmaU ware j
the Dutch carry fpice, cutlery ware, laces, ribbons,
thread, &c. Thefe nations, thofe of the north, and
Italy, export to the amount of two millions and a
half of pialtres in wines, fruits, fumach, pickled an¬
chovies, oil, &c. and all they carry thither amounts
only to about a million and a half. The balance would
be ftill more advantageous for Malaga if the filk and
wool of the kingdom of Granada were exported from
this port} but thefe are employed in the country
where they are produced. The ftreets of Malaga are
narrow, but there are fome good fquares •, and the ca¬
thedral church is a fuperb building, faid to be as large
as St Paul’s. The only other building of note is the
bilhop’s palace j which is a large edifice, but looks in-
fignificant from its being fituated near the other. Its
prelate enjoys a revenue of i6,OOOl. llerling. Ma¬
laga is feated on the Mediterranean fea, at the foot
of a craggy mountain. W. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat.
36. 51.
MALAGRIDA, Gabriel, an Italian Jefmt, was
chofen by the general of the order to conduft miffions
into Portugal. To great eafe and fluency of fpeech,
for which he was indebted to enthufiafm, he added
the moft ardent zeal for the intereft of the fociety to
which he belonged. He fcon became the fafliionable
direftor j and every one, fmall or great, placed h'.m-
felf under his conduiR. He was refpefled as a iaint,
and confulted as an oracle. When a confpiracy was
formed by the duke d’Aveiro agaisft the king of Por¬
tugal, it is aflerted by the enemies of the fociety, that
three Jefuits, among whom wras Malagrida, were con¬
fulted concerning the mealure. Ihey add (what is
very improbable), that it was decided by thefe cafuifls,
that it was only a venial crime to kill a king who per-
fecuted the faints. At that time the king of Portu¬
gal, fpurred on by a miniiler who had no favour for
the Jefuits, openly declared hirnfelf againft them, and
foon after baniflied them from his kingdom. Only
three of them were apprehended, Malagrida, Alexan¬
der, and Mathos, who were accufed of having ap¬
proved this murder. But either the trial could not be
proceeded in without the confent of the pope, which
was not granted, or no proof could be got fulficient
to condemn Malagrida-, and therefore the king was
obliged to deliver him to the Inquifition, as being fu-
fpe£fed of having formerly advanced fome rafli propo-
fitions which bordered on herefy. Two publications
which he acknowledged, and which give the fulleft
indications of complete inlanily, were the foundation
of thefe fuipicions. Hie one was written in Latin,
and entitled TraBatus de vita et imficno Antlchrijli; the
other in Portuguefe, under the title ol the “ Life of
St Anne, com poled with the afiittance of the bleffed
Virgin Mary and her molt holy Son.” They are
full of extravagance and abfurdity.— I his enthufiaft
pretended to have the gift of miracles. Tie confelTed
before the judges of the Inquialion, that God him.ell
Vol. XII. Part II.
had declared him his ambaflador, apoftle, and prophet j
that he was united to God by a perpetual union and
that the Virgin Mary, with the confent of Jefus Chrifl
and of the whole Trinity, had declared him to be her
fon. In Ihort, he confeffed, as is pretended, that he felt
in the prifon, at the age of 72, fome emotions very un¬
common at that period of life, which at nrk g^o him
great uneafinefs, but that it had been revealed to him
by God that thefe motions were only the natural effedl
of an involuntary agitation, wherein there was the
fame merit as in prayer. It was for iuth extravagan¬
cies, that this unfortunate wretch was condemned Ly
the Inquifition : but his death was haftentd by a vi-
iion which he eagerly revealed. Upon occafion of toe
death of the marquis de Tancourt, commander in
chief of the province of Eftremadura, mourniul and
continued difcharges were made in honour of him by
the caflle of Lifbon, and by all the forts on the banks
of the Tagus, Thefe being heard by Malagrida in
his dungeon, he inftantly fuppoled, from their extra¬
ordinary nature, and from their happening during the
night, that the king was dead. The next day he de¬
manded an audience from the members of the Inquifi¬
tion : which being granted, he told them that he had
been ordered by God to (how the minifter of the holy
office that he was not a hypocrite, as-was pretended \
for the king’s death had been revealed to him, and he
had feen in a vifion the torments to which his majelly
was condemned for having perfecuted the religious of
his order. This was fulficient to accelerate his punifh-
ment : he was burnt on the 21ft of September 1761 *,
not as the accomplice of a parricide, butAS a falfe pro¬
phet, for which he deferved to be confined in bedlam
rather than tied to the flake. The aefs of impiety
whereof he was acculed were nothing more than extra¬
vagancies proceeding from a miflaken devotion and an
overheated brain,
MALDEN, a town of EiTex, 37 miles from Lon¬
don, fituation on an eminence at the conflux of the
Chalmer and Pant or Blackwater, where they enter the
fea. It was the firft Roman colony in Britain, and the
feat of fome of the old Britifh kings. It was befieged,
plundered, and burnt by Queen Boadicea \ but the Ro¬
mans repaired it. It wa; again ruined by the Danes,
but rebuilt by the Saxons. It has a convenient haven on
an arm of the fea for vefiels ot 4CO tons j and a confi-
derable trade in coals, iron, corn, and deals. A little be¬
yond it begins Blackwater bay, famous for the Walfleet
oyfters. The channel called Malden water is navigable
to the town. King Edward the elder (of the Saxon race)
refided here whilft he built V/itham and Hertford c a Ales.
On the Avert fide of the town are the remains of a camp.
The population in 1801 was 2J58.
MALALLUCA, the Cayputi Tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the polyadelphia ciah. See Bo¬
tany Index. This plant, which is a native of the Mo¬
luccas, yields the oil called Cayputi.
MALDIV1A ISLANDS, a duller of fmall iflands
in the Indian ocean, 500 miles, fouth-weft of the con¬
tinent of the iiland of Ceyhyn, They are about loco
in number, and a e very fmall j extending from the fe¬
cund degree of f-uth latitude to the fevenlh degree of
Mala^rida
t
Maldiva.
north latitude. They arc generally black low lands.
furrounded by rocks and fands. The natives are of
the fame complexion with the Arabians, profels the
3 H Mahometan
M A L [ 4
Maltlivia Mahometan religion, and are fubjecl to one fovereign.
Male -^-he channels between the iilands are very narrow, and
branche. f°me °f them are fordable. They produce neither rice,
—y-w corn, nor herbage ; but the natives live upon cocoa-
nuts, and other fruits, roots, and fiih. They have
little or nothing to barter with, unlefs the flrells called
cowry, or blackmore's teeth, with which they abound :
and thefe ferve inltead of imall coin in many parts of
India*
MALE, among zoologies, that fex of animals which
has the parts of generation lituated externally. See Sex
and Generarion.
The term male has alfo, from fome fimilitude to that
fex in animals, been applied to feveral inanimate things ;
thus we fay, a male flower, a male fcrew, &c. See
Mas P/anta, Masculus Flos, and Screw $ alfe Fe¬
male and Flos.
MALEBRANCHE, Nicholas, an eminent French
metaphyfician, the fon of Nicholas Malebranche, fe-
cretary to the French king, was born in 1638, and ad¬
mitted into the congregation of the oratory in 1660.
He at firft applied himfelf to the ftudy of languages
and hiftory : but afterwards meeting with Des Cartes’s
Treatife of Man, he gave himfelf up entirely to the
ftudy of philofophy. In 1699, was admitted an
honorary member of the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris. Notwith(landing he was of a delicate con-
ftitution, he enjoyed a pretty good (late of health till
his death, which happened in 1715, at the age of 77.
Father Malebranche read little, but thought 3 great
deal. He defpifed that kind of philofophy which
confifts only in knowing the opinions of other men,
fince a perfon may know the hiftory of other men’s
thoughts without thinking himfelf. He could never
read ten verfes together without difguft. He medi¬
tated with his windows (hut, in order to keep out the
light, which he found to be a difturbance to him. His
converfation turned upon the fame fubje£ts as his books 5
but was mixed with fo much modefty and deference to
the judgment of others, that it was extremely and
univerfally defired. His books are famous j particu¬
larly his Recherche de la Veriti, i. e. “ Search after
truth his defign in which is, to point to us the er¬
ror* into which we are daily led by our fenfes, imagina¬
tion, and paflions $ and to prefcribe a method for dif-
covering the truth, which he does, by darting the no¬
tion of feeing all things in God. And hence he is led
to think and fpeak merely of human knowledge, either
as it lies in written books, or in the book of nature,
compared with that light which difplays itfelf from
the ideal world y and, by attending to which, with
pure and defecate minds, he fuppofes knowledge to be
mod eafily had. The finenefs of this author’s fenti-
ments, together with his fine manner of exprefling
them, made every body admire his genius and abilities j
but he has generally pafied for a vifionary philofopher.
Mr Locke, in his examination of Malebranche’s opi¬
nion of feeing all things in God, ftyles him “ an acute
and ingenious author 5” and tells us, that there are “ a
great many very fine thoughts, judicious reafonings,
and uncommon refledtions in his Recherches.” But Mr
Locke, in that piece, endeavours to refute the chief
• principles of his fyftem He wrote many other pieces
befides that we have mentioned, all tending fome
"way or other to confirm his main fyftemj eftabliftied
:6 j M A L
in the Recherche, and to clear it from the objections
which were brought againft it, or from the confe-
quences which were deduced from it; and if he has not
attained what he aimed at in thefe feveral productions
he has certainly (hown great abilities and a vaft force
of genius.
MALESHERBES, Christian-William de La-
MOIGNON DE, was born at Paris in 1721. He was
fon of the chancellor of France, William de Lamoig.
non, who was defeended of an illuftrious family. H&is
early education he received at the Jefuits collegp,
appJying himfelf afterwards to the ftudy of the law
with great afliduity, as well as hiftory and political
economy. He was chofen a counfellor of the parlia¬
ment of Paris at the age of 24, and fucceeded his fa¬
ther as prefident of the court oi aids in the year 1730.
ith the prefidentlhip of the court of aids he received
the fuperintendance of the prefs, in whofe hands it be¬
came the means of promoting liberty to a degree be¬
yond all former example in that country. As he firm¬
ly believed that defpotifm alone had" any reafon to
dread the liberty of the prefs, he was anxious to give
it every extenfion confident with found policy and the
ftate of public opinion. Through his favour the French
Encyclopaedia, the works of Rouffeau, and many other
free fpeculations, iffued from the prefs, in defiance of
the terrific anathemas of the Sorbonne. This had its
own weight in paving the way to the horrors of the re¬
volution, which Malelherbes did not probably forefee ,
yet it had alfo the happy effeft of freeing the minds of
men from the fetters of ignorance and fuperftition, and
of enlightening them refpe&ing their rights and duties
in fociety.
1 he fuperintendance of the prefs having been taken
from him, to confer it on that tool of defpotifm Mau-
peou, he was only the more intent on fulfilling the du¬
ties of his prefidentfhip, and oppofing arbitrary power
with all his vigour, being thus freed from a number
of other cares. When the proceedings of the court
of aids were to be prohibited, on account of the fpi-
rited conduft of Maleftierbes in the cafe of one Mon-
nerat, who had been moft unjuftly treated by the far¬
mers of the revenue, he preiented a remonftrance to-
the king, containing a free proteft againft the enormous
abufes of lettres de cachet, by which every man’s liber¬
ty was rendered precarious, concluding with thefe me¬
morable words 5 “ no one is great enough to be fecure
from the hatred of a minifter, nor little enough not to
merit that of a clerk.” Soon after this he was banifh-
ed to his country-feat by a lettre de cachet, and the
duke de Richelieu at the head of an armed force abo-
liftied the tribunal. In this ftate of retirement he com¬
mitted to paper a number of obfervations on the poli¬
tical and judicial ftate of France, on agriculture and
natural hiftory, which all periftied in the wreck of the
revolution.
On the acceffion of Louis XVI. to the throne in
1774, he received an order to appear at the place
where the court of aids had fat, and refume the pre-
fidentftiip of the tribunal thus reftored. He laid be¬
fore the new fovereign an ample memoir on the cala¬
mitous ftate of tne kingdom, with a free expofure of the
faults by which it had been produced, from a firm con¬
viction that truth at all times (hould have accefs to the
throne. His fentiments fo fully accorded with thofe of
the
MaV
branciJ
Male.
flierbej
M A L [ 427 ] M A L
the young king, whole mind was not yet corrupted,
that he was chofen minifter of ilate in the year 1775,
in which elevated rank he was only ambitious to ex¬
tend the fphere of his ufefulnefs. His firft care svas to
vifit the prifons, and reftore to liberty the innocent vic¬
tims of the former reign. His adminiftration was alfo
diftinguifhed by the powerful encouragement of com¬
merce and agriculture, being fupported in his laudable
endeavours by the able and virtuous Turgot, at that
time comptroller general of the revenue, who having
loft his place through the intrigues of financiers, Male-
ftierbes did not long retain his office after him. As
he failed in his benevolent endeavours to ameliorate the
condition of Proteftants refpefiing the folemnization of
marriage and the legitimating of their children, he re-
figned his office in the month of May 1776.
Being fond of travelling, and refolved to mix freely
with people of every defeription, in order to acquire an
accurate knowledge of human nature, he aflumed the
humble title of M. Guillaume, and commenced his
journey in a fimple, frugal manner. He travelled
through France, Switzerland and Holland, frequently
on foot, and lodged in villages, to have a nearer furvey
of the ftate of the country. He made memorandums,
with the greateft care, of whatever he conceived to be
worthy of obfervation refpefting the productions of na¬
ture and the operations of induftry j and after an ab-
fence of fome years he returned to his favourite man-
fion, fully fraught with fuch a flock of valuable know¬
ledge as his age and experience qualified him to ap¬
preciate.
Finding on his return that his native country was far
advanced in philofophical principles, he drew up two
elaborate memoirs to the king, one of them on the
condition of the Proteftants, and the other on civil li¬
berty and toleration in general j and the difficulties
with which minifters now found themfelves furrounded,
induced the king to call him to his councils, being a
man who flood high in the efteem of the whole nation,
but he received no appointment to any particular of¬
fice. In the critical ftate in which he clearly faw the
king flood, he made one effort for opening his eyes, by
means of two fpirited and energetic memoirs, “ On the
calamities of France, and the means of repairing them
but, as the queen’s party carried every thing before it,
he was not even permitted to read them, and alfo de¬
nied a private interview with the ill-fated monarch,
in confequence of which he took his final leave of the
court.
When by a decree of the national convention the
unfortunate Louis was to be tried for his life, Male-
Iherbes generoufly offered to plead his caufe, nobly for¬
getting the manner in which he had been banilhed from
his councils. He was the perfon who announced to
him his cruel doom, and one of the laft who took leave
of him, when taken out to fuffer. After this eventful
period, he withdrew to his retreat with a deeply wound¬
ed heart, and refufed to hear any thing more of what
was a£fing on the bloody theatre of Paris. Walking
one morning in his gardep, he perceived four men
coming towards his houfe, fent by the convention to
arreft his daughter Mad. Lepelletier Roffambo and her
hufhand, once prefident of the parliament of Paris ; and
the accufation of Maleflierbes was followed, as a mat¬
ter of courfe, by the fentence of death. The truth
is, the convention never forgave his defence of the
king j an aftion, however, in which he himfelf always
gloried.
On the fatal day, this great man left the prifon with >.
a ferene countenance ; and, happening to Humble
again!! a ftone, he faid (with the pleafantry of Sir
Thomas More), “ a Roman would have thought this
an unlucky omen, and walked back again.” He con-
verfed with his children in the cart, took an affedlion-
ate farewell, and received the ftroke in April 1794,
in the 73d year of his age. Thus fell, by the infati-
able cruelty of a monfter, whofe hatred to men of vir¬
tue and abilities was implacable, one of the moft fpot-
lefs and exemplary charaflers of the period at which
he lived. The government afterwards made fome re¬
paration for the injuftice done him, by ordering his bull
to be placed among thofe of the great men who have
reflected honour upon their country.
MALHERBE, Francis de, the beft French poet
of his time, was born at Caen about the year 1556, of
a noble and ancient family. He quitted Normandy at
17 years of age j and went into Provence, where he
attached himi’e’f to the family of Henry Angouleme,
the natural fon of King Henry II. and was in the fer-
vice of that prince till he was killed by Altoviti in
1586. At length Cardinal de Perron, being informed
of his merit and abilities, introduced him to Henry IV.
who took him into his fervice. After that monarch’s
death, Queen Mary de Medicis fettled a penfion of 500
crowns upon our poet, who died at Paris in 1628.
The beft and moft cpmpiete edition of his poetical
Avorks is that of 1666, with Menage’s remarks. Mal¬
herbe fo far excelled all the French poets who preced¬
ed him, that Boileau confiders him as the father of
French poetry : but he compofed with great difficulty,
and put his mind on the rack in correfting what he
wrote. He was a man of Angular humour, and blunt
in his behaviour. When the poor ufed to promife
him, that they would pray to God for him, he anfwer-
ed them, that “ he did not believe they could have any
great intereft in heaven, fince they were left in fuch a
bad condition upon earth $ and that he ffiould be bet¬
ter pleafed if the duke de Luyne, or fome other
favourite, had made him the fame promife.” He
would often fay that “ the religion of gentlemen was
that of their prince.” During his laft; ficknefs he had
much ado to refolve to confefs to a prieft ; for which
he gave this facetious reafon, that “ he never ufed to
confefs but at Eafter.” And fome few moments be¬
fore his death, when he had been in a lethargy two
hours, he awaked on a fudden to reprove his landlady,
who waited on him, for ufing a word that was not good
French j faying to his confeffor, who reprimanded him
for it, that “ he could not help it, and he would defend
the purity of the French language to the laft moment
of his life.”
MALICE, in Ethics and Law, is a formed defign
of doing mifehief to another ; it differs from hatred.
In murder, it is malice makes the crime j and if a
man, having a malicious intent to kill another, in the
execution of his malice kills a perfon not intended,
the malice (hall be connefted to his perfon, and he
fhall be adjudged a murderer. The words ex malitia
prascogitata are neceffary to an indiftment of murder,
&c. And this malitia preecogitata, or malice prepenfe,
3 H 2 may
Male-
fherbes
II
Malice.
Malice
M A L f 428 1 M A L
may be either exprefs or implied in law. Exprefs ma¬
lice is, when one, with a ledate, deliberate mind, and
formed defign, kills another; which formed deflgn is
evidenced by external circumftances difcovering that
intention ; as lying in wait, antecedent menaces, form¬
er grudges, and concerted fchemes to do him fome bo¬
dily harm. Beiides, where no malice is expreffed, the
law will imply it; as where a man wilfully poifons
another, in luch a deliberate adt the law prefumes ma¬
lice, though no particular enmity can be proved. And
if a man kills another fuddenly, without any, or with¬
out a confiderable provocation, the law implies malice ;
for no perfon, unlefs of an abandoned heart, would
be guilty of fuch an aft upon a flight or no apparent
caufe.
MALIGNANT, among phyficians, a term applied
to difeal’es of a very dangerous nature, and generally
infeftious ; fuch are the dyfentery, hofpital fever, &c.
in their Worfl ftages.
Malignity among phyficians fignifies much the fame
with contagion. See Contagion.
MALL, Sea-mall, or Sea-mew. See Larus, Or-
NITHOEOGY Index.
MALLARD. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
MALLEABLE, a property of metals, whereby they
are capable of being extended under the hammer.
MALLENDERS. See Farriery Index.
MALLEOLI, in the ancient art of war, were
bundles of combuftible materials, fet on fire to give
light in the night, or to annoy the enemy; when they
were employed for the latter purpofe they were (hot
out of a bow-, or fixed to a javelin, and thus thrown
into the enemies engines, (hips, &c. in order to burn
them. Pitch was always a principal ingredient in the
compofition. The malleoli had alfo the name of pyro-
boli.
MALLET, or Malloch, David, an Englifh poet,
but a Scotfman by birth, was born in that country
about 1700. By the penury of his parents, be was
compelled to be janitor of the high fchool at Edin¬
burgh ; but he furmounted the difadvantages of his
birth and fortune ; for when the duke of Montrofe ap¬
plied to the college of Edinburgh for a tutor to edu¬
cate his fons, Malloch was recommended. When his
pupils went abroad, they were intrufted to his care ;
and having condufted them through their travels, he
returned with them to London. Here, refiding in their
family, he naturally gained admiflion to perfons of high
rank and charafter. His firft produftion was the po¬
pular and pathetic ballad of “ William and Margaret,”
which W’as printed in the Plain Dealer, N° 36. I724*
In the laft edition of his works it appears confiderably
altered. In 1733, he publiflied a poem on verbal
Critieifm, on purpofe to make his court to Pope. In
1740, he wrote a Life of Lord Bacon, which was then
prefixed to an edition of his works ; but with fo much
more knowledge of hiflory than of feience, that, w hen
.he afterwards undertook the Life of Marlborough,
lome were apprehenfive left he fhould forget thrt
Marlborough was a general, as he had forgotten th t
Bacon was a philofopher. The old duchefs of Marl¬
borough affigned in her will this talk to Glover and
Mallet, with a reward of loool. and a prohibition
to infert any verfes. Glover is fuppofed to have rejeft-
ed the legacy with difdain, fo that the work devolved
upon Mallet; who had alfo a penfion from, the duke of Mil
Marlborough to promote his indultry, and who was —“v j
continually talking of the dilcoveries he made, but left
not when he died any hiftorical labours behind. When
the prince of Wales was driven from the palace, and
kept a feparate court’ by w ay of oppofition, to increafe
his popularity by patronizing literature, he made Mal¬
let his under fecretary, with a falary of 200I. a-year.—
Thomfon likewife had a penfion; and they were affo-
ci?.ted in the compofition of the Mafque of Alfred,
which, in its original Hate, was played at Cliefden in
1740. It was afterwards almoit wholly changed by
Mallet, and brought upon the ftage of Drury Lane in
1751* but with no great fuccefs. He had before pub-
lilhed two tragedies; Eurydice, afted at Drury Lane
in 1731 > and Muftapha, afted at. the fame theatre in
1739. It w:as dedicated to the prince his mafter, and
was well received, but never was revived. His next
work was Amyntor and Theodora (1747), a long ftory
in blank verfe; in which there is copioulnefs and ele¬
gance of language, vigour of fentiment, and imagery
well adapted to take pofieffioh of the fancy. In 1753,
his ma.fque of Britannia was afted at Drury Lane, and
his tragedy of Elvira in 1763 ; in which year he was
appointed keeper of the book of entries for thips in the
port of London. In the beginning of the war, which
ended in 17.63, when the nation was exafperated by
ill fuccefs, he was employed to turn the public ven¬
geance upon Byng, and wrote a letter of accufation
under the charafter of a Plain Man. The paper
was with great induftry circulated and difperfed ; and
for his feafonable intervention he had a confiderable
penfion bellowed upon him, which he. retained to his
death. ’Towards the end of his life he went with his
wife to France ; but after a while, finding his health
declining, he returned alone to England, and died in
April 1765. He was twice married, and by his firft
wife had feveral children. One daughter, who mar¬
ried an Italian of rank named Cilelia, wrote a tra¬
gedy called Almida, which was afted at Drury Lane.
His ftature was diminutive, but he was regularly form¬
ed ; his appearance till he grew corpulent, was agree¬
able, and he fuffered it to want no recommendation that
drefs could give it. His converfation was elegant and
eafy.
Mallet, Edme, was born at Melun in 1713, and
enjoyed a curacy in the neighbourhood of his native
place till 1751, when he went to Paris to be proftffer
of theology in the college of Navarre, of which he
was admitted a doftor. Boyer, bilhop of Mirepoix,
was at firft much prejudiced againft him; but be¬
ing afterwards undeceived, he conferred upon him
the fee of Verdun as a reward for his doftrine and
morals. Janfenifm had been imputed to him by his
enemies with this prelate; and the gazette which went
by the name of Ecclejiq/lical, acculed him of impiety.
Either of tbefe imputations was equally undeferved by
the abbe Mallet : as a Chriftian, he was grieved at
the difputes of the French church ; and, as a philofo¬
pher, he was aftonithfid that the government had not,
from the very beginning of thofe diffenfions impofed
filence on both parties. He died at Paris in I755>
the age of 42. The principal of his works are,
I. Prindpes pour la leclure des Poetes, 1745’ 1 2m0>
2 vols. 2. EJJai fur PEtude des Belies Letires, 1747,.
i2mo*
M A L
[ 42
Manet. 12mo. 3. EJfaifur les bienfeance oratoires, 1753, x 2mo.
>( Llhcollo. a, Principe* pour la Icciures des Orateurs, I753> 12mo.
  Tvola. 5. Hfioire des Guerres civiles de France fous les
re pries de Franpois 11. Charles IX. FLenn III. et
Henri IV. tranflated from the Italian of d*Avila.—
jn Mallet’s work on the Poets, Orators, and the
Belles Lettres, his objeft is no more than to explain
with accuracy and precifum the rules of the great
matters, and to fupport them by examples from au¬
thors ancient and modern. The ftyle of his different
writings, to which his mind bore a great refemblance,
was neat, eafy, and unaffefted. But what mutt ren¬
der his memory eftimable, was his attachment to his
friends, his candour, moderation, gentlenefs, and mo-
detty. He was employed to write the theological and
b s lettres articles in the Encyclope'die i and whatever
he wrote in that di&ionary was in general well com-
poi'ed. Abbe Mallet was preparing two important
works when the world was deprived of him by death.
The firft was Une Hfloire generate de nos Guerres depuis
le commencement de !a Monarchic ,• the iecond, Lne Hi-
foife de Concile de Trente, which he intended to fet in
oppolition to that ol Father Paul tranllated by Father
le Courayer.
Mallet, a large kind of hammer made of wood ;
much ufed by artificers who work with a chiffel, as
fculptors, maions, and ftone-cutters, whofe mallet is
ordinarily round ; and by carpenters, joiners, &c. who
ufe it fquare. There are feveral forts of mallets ufed
for different purpofes on Ihip-board. Ihe calking
mallet is chiefly employed to drive the oakum into the
feams of a (hip, where the edges of the planks are
ioined to each other in the fides, deck, or bottom.
The head of this mallet is long and cylindrical, being
hooped with iron to prevent it from 1 pitting in ihe
exercife of calking. There is alio the ferving mallet,
ufed in ferving the rigging, by binding the ig&n yam
more firmly about it than it could poffibiy be done by
hand, which is performed in the following manner •,
the fpun-yarn being previoufly rolled up in a xaige
ball or clue, two or three turns of it are paffed about
the rope, and about the body of the mallet, which for
this purpole is furnifh'td with a round channel m its fur-
face, that conforms to the convexity of the rope intend¬
ed to be fervi d. The turns of the fpun-yarn being
flrained round the mallet, fo as to confine it firimy to
the rope, which is extended above the deck, one man
pafiVs the ball continually about the rope, whilft the
other, at the fame time, winds on the fpun-yarn by
means of the mallet, whofe handle adding as a lever
{trains every turn about the rope as firm as poffible.
MALLICOLLO, one ;of the largett of the New
Hebrides, in the Pacific bcean. It extends twenty
leagues from north to Fouth. Its inland mountains aie
very high, and clad with forefts. Its vegetable produc¬
tions are luxuriant, and in great variety cocoa-nuts,
breadfruit, bananas, fugar-canes, yams, eddoes, turme¬
ric, and oranges. Hogs and common poultiy{are fne
domeflic animals. Ihe inhabitants appear to be of a
race totally diilinft from thofe of the Friendly and So¬
ciety i(lands. Their form, language, and manners, are
widely different. I hey feera to correfpond in many
particulars with the natives of New Guinea^ particularly
, in their black colour and woolly hair. J hey go al-
moff naked, are of a {lender make, have lively but
5
9 ] M A L
very irregular ugly features, and tie a rope faff round MatticoIIo
their belly. They ufe bows and arrows as their prm- MallIlft,ury.
cipal weapons, and the arrows are faid to be fornetimes
poifoned. They keep their bodies entirely free from •
punftures, which is one particular that remarkably
dittinguifhes them from the other tribes of the Pacific
The population, according to Mr iorder, may a-
mount to 50,000, who occupy 600 Iquare miles of
ground. The fame author informs us that very few wo¬
men were feen, but that thofe few were no leis ugly
than the men, were of fmall ftature, and their heads
faces, and fhoulders were painted red. 1 hey had
bundles on their backs containing their children, and
the men feemed to have no kind of regard for them.
They appeared in faft to be oppref^ed, defpiied, and
in a date of fervility.
The men ufe bows and arrows, and a club about 30
inches long, which they hang on their right (boulder,
from a thick rope made of a kind of grals. They live
chiefly op vegetables, and apply themlelves to. hui-
bandry. Their muiic had nothing remarkable in it,
either for harmony or variety, but feemed to Mr For¬
mer tube of a more lively turn than that at the friend¬
ly iflamls. In fome of their countenances he thought
he could trace a mifehitvous, ill-natured diipofition,
but he confeffes that he might mi Hake jealouiy for
hatred. It is in 160 28' S. Lat. and 167° 56' P.
Long.
MALLOW, a manor, and alfo a borough town in
the county of Cork, and province of Munfter, m Ire¬
land, above 118 miles from Dublin, pleafantly ntuated
on the north bank of the Blaikwater, over which there
is an excellent ffone bridge. Not far dittant is a fine
fpring of a moderately tepid water, which bur fts out
of the bottom of a fine limetlone rock, and approaches
the neareft in all its qualifies to the hot-well waters of
Brill ol of any that has been yet difeovered in this king¬
dom, which brings a refort of good company there fre¬
quently in the fummer months, and has cauled it lobe
called the Injb Bath.
Mallow. See Malva, Botany Index.
Marjh Mallow. See Althaea, Botany Index.
Indian-Hallow. See SlDA, Botasy Index.
M ALMSBUUY, a town of Wiltfhire in England,
g- miles from London. It Hands on a hill, with fix
bridges over the river Avon at the bottom^ with which
and "a brook that runs into it, it is in a manner en-
coinpaffed. It formerly had walls and a caitle, which
were pulled down to enlarge the abbey, which was the
larireft in Wiltfhire, and its abbots fat in parliament.
The Saxon king Alhelftan granted the. town large
immunities, and was buried under the. high altar o{
the church, and his monument 11 ill remains in the nave
of it. The memory of Aldheim, its firft abbot, who
was the king’s great favourite, and. whom he got to
be canonized after his death, is ftill kept up by a
meadow near this town, called Aldhelm s Mead. By
charter of King William- III. the corporation, confifts
of an alderman, who is chofen yearly, 12 capital bur-
geffew, and 4 affiftants. Here is an alms houfe for 4
men and 4 women, and near the bridge an hofpital for
lepers, where it is fuppofied there was formerly a
nunnety. This town contains about icco inhabitants,
and has a confiderable trade in the woollen manufactory;
has
Malo.
M A L
Malmfbarj-, lias a tnarket on Saturday, and three fairs.
, fent members to parliament ever fince the 26th of Ed¬
ward I.
William of Malmsburt. See William.
MALO, St, a fea-port town of France, in the
province of Britanny, fituated in the latitude of 48
degrees 38 minutes north, and 1 degree 57 minutes
to the weft. The town ftands upon a rock called the
ifland of St Aaron, furrounded by the fea at high
water, which is now joined to the continent, by means
of a fort of caufeway or dike, near a mile long, called
the Sillon, which has often been damaged by ftorms,
.and was almoft quite ruined in the year 1730. At the
end of this caufeway next the town is a caftle, flank¬
ed with large towers, a good ditch, and a large baftion.
The city nearly covers the whole furface of the ifland,
and is of an oblong form, furrounded with a ftrong
rampart, on which there is a number of cannon,—
There is always in it a good garrifon. The cathedral
church is dedicated to St Vincent, and ftands in the
fquare of the fame name, as do alfo the town-houfe
and the epifcopal palace. There are fome other fquares
in the place, but lefs remarkable j and as to the ftreets,
except two or three, they are all very narrow7. There
being no fprings of frefh water in St Malo, the in¬
habitants are at great pains to convey the rain which
falls on the roofs of their houfes into cifterns ; and of
this they have enough for all family ufes. There is
only one parifti church in the town, though it contain
between 9000 and io,goo inhabitants j but there are
leveral convents of monks and nuns, and a general
hofpital. The two entrances into the harbour are de¬
fended by feveral forts, fuch as that of the Conchal;
of the great and the little bay j the forts of Ifle Re-
bours, Sezembre, Roteneuf; the caftle of Latte, and
Tort-Royal. Thefe are feveral little ifles near the
harbour, the moft conftderable whereof is that of St
Sezembre, which is near a quarter of a league in cir¬
cumference, and ferve as fo many outworks to the for¬
tifications of the city, and are ufeful as bulwarks, by
breaking the violence of the waves, which otherwife
wrnuld beat with great force againft the walls of the
city. At the end of the caufeway next the continent
ftands the fuburb of St Servant, large and well built.
Here the merchants have their houfes and ftorehoufes.
Here is the dockyard j and a fecure harbour is form¬
ed by the river Ranee, where (hips of great burden
can ride at anchor very near the houfes. The harbour
is one of the beft in the kingdom, and moft; frequent¬
ed by merchant fhips ; but it is of very difficult and
dangerous accefs on account of the rocks which lie
round it. The town of St Malo is exceedingly well
fituated for trade ; and accordingly, in this refpeft, it
has fucceeded beyond moft towns in France. It main¬
tains a trade with England, Holland, and Spain.—
The commerce of Spain is of all the moft confider-
able, and moft profitable to the inhabitants of St
Malo, the ftiips of the Malouins being frequently em¬
ployed as regifter ffiips by the Spaniards, to carry
out the rich cargoes to Peru and Mexico, and bring
home treafure aqd plate from America. The inhabi¬
tants of St Malo carry on alfo a confiderable trade in
dry and falted cod to Newfoundland. They fend to
this fiffiery a good many veffels from 100 to 300 tons
ourden, with fait for the fiffi, and provifions for fub-
[ 43° 1 M A L
It has filling the crews. They carry their fifli to Italy, Spain,
and fome to Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and bring home
the returns in fruits, foap, oil, &c. which are dlfpofed
of to great advantage at Nantz. St Malo is the ca¬
pital of the biffiopric of that name, which is of con¬
fiderable extent j and the foil about it produces molt
kinds of grain and fruits in great abundance. The
moft: remarkable towns in the diftridl and diocefe of
St Malo, are St Servand, Cancalie, Chateauneuf, Li-
nan, Tintiniac, Combourg, Montfort, Break Guer
Ploermel, Joflelin, &c.
Malo, Maclou, or Mahout, Saint, the fon of
an Englilhman, and coufin to St Magloire, was edu¬
cated in a monaftery in Ireland, and afterwards choftn
bilhop of Gui-Caftel, a dignity which his humility pre¬
vented him from accepting. The people wifliing to
compel him, he went to Britanry, and put himfelf un¬
der the diredlion of a holy anchoret called Aaron, in
the neighbourhood of Aleth. Some time after, about
the year 541, he was chofen bilhop of that city, and
there cultivated piety and religion with great fuccefs.
He afterwards retired to a folitude near Xaintes, where
he died November 15. 565. From him the city of St
Malo derives its name ; his body having been carried
thither, after the reduction of Aleth to a fmall village
called Guidalet or Guichalet, and the transference of
the epifcopal fee to St Malo.
MALOUIN, Paul-Jaques, born at Caen in 1701,
was profefibr of medicine in the royal college of Paris,
phyfician in ordinary to the queen, and a member of
the Royal Society of London, and of the Academy
of Sciences of Pans. Ihefe ftations were a proper
reward for his very extenfive information in medicine
and chemiftry j and his amiable and fteady charafter
procured him many friends and prote&ors. He w7as
very unlike fome modern phyficians, who put little
truft in medicine j and was greatly difpleafed to hear
any ill fpoken of his profeffion. He obferved one day
to a young man who took this liberty, that all great
men had refpefted medicine : Ah l faid the young fel¬
low, you muf at leaf except from the lif one Molierc.
But then, inftantly replied the doftor, you fee he is
dead. He isHaid to have believed the certainty of his
art as firmly as a mathematician does that of geometry.
Having preferibed a great many medicines for a cele¬
brated man of letters, who followed his directions ex-
aftly, and was cured, Malouin eagerly embraced him,
faying,. You deferve to be fck. As he valued the rules
of medicine ftill more on his own account than on that
of others, he obferved, efpecially in the latter part of
his life, a very auftere regimen. He ftriftly pra&ifed
the prefervative part of medicine, which is much more
certain in its effedls than the reftorative. To this regi¬
men Malouin was indebted, for what many philofo-
phers have defired in vain, a healthy old age and an
eafy death. He was a ftranger to the infirmities of
age ; and died at Paris of an apoplexy, the 3d of Ja¬
nuary 1778, in the 77th year of his age. By his will
he left a legacy to the faculty of medicine, upon con¬
dition of their holding a public meeting every year
for the purpofe of giving the public an account of his
labours and difeoveries. Malouin was economical, but
at the fame time very difinterefted. After two years
of very lucrative praftice, he left Paris and went to
Verfailles, where he faw very few patients, obferving
that
Malo,
Maiouin.
M A L [ 431 ] UAL
.lolouin that he had retired to the court. His principal works
II are, 1. Traile de Chitnie, 1734, i2mo. 2. Chimie Me-
tlaipla- fccinale^ 2. vols. i2mo, 1755 J a book full of curious
_q^et' . obfervations, and written in a chafte and well adapted
ftyle. He had the chara&er of a laborious chemift ;
and he was a w-eil-informed and even a diftinguilhed
one for the age in which he lived : but his knowledge
of chemiftry, it mud be cor.feffed, was very imperfeft,
compared with the ftate of the fcience in the prefent
age, in which it has affumed a new face, that proba¬
bly will not be the laft. 3. Some of the articles
in the Collection publilhed by the Academy of Sci¬
ences on the arts and profeflions. A circumftance
which happened at a meeting of the academy does
as much honour to his heart, as any of his works do
to his underftanding. A new treatife on the art
of baking, wherein fome of Malouin’s ideas were
combated, was read by M. Parmentier before his fel¬
lows, among whom was the old do&or. The young
academician, who knewr how eaiily felf-love is hurt,
was afraid to meet his looks: but no fooner was the
reading finifhed, than Malouin went up to him, and
embracing him, “ Receive my refpe&s (faid he), you
have feen farther into the fubjeft than I did.” 4. He
was likewife the author of the chemical articles in the
Encyclopedic.
Of the fame family was Charles M.ALOUIN, who
graduated as a doftor of medicine in the univerlity of
Caen, and died in 1718 in the flower of his age. He
publiftied a Treatife on Solids and Fluids, Paris 17 *8,
l2mo.
MALPAS, a town of Chelhire, 166 miles from
London. It (lands on a high hill, not far from the
river Dee, on the borders of Shropftiire; has a gram¬
mar fchool, and an hofpital, and had formerly a caftle.
It is called in Latin Mala Platea, i. e. “ 111 Street,”
and was, for the fame reafon, by the Normans, called
Mai Pas ; but its three llreets, of which it chiefly con-
lifts, are now well paved ; and here is a benefice rich
enough to fupport two redtors, who officiate alternately
in its (lately church. The population of this place
in 1801 exceeded 900.
MALPIGHI, Marcellus, an eminent Italian phy-
fician and anatomift in the 17th century. He (ludied
under Maflari and Mariano. The duke of Tufcany
invited him to Pifa, to be profeffor of phyfic there. In
this city he contradled an intimate acquaintance with
Borelli, to whom he aferibed all the difeoveries he had
made. He went back to Bologna, the air of Pifa not
agreeing with him. Cardinal Antonio Pignatelli, who
had known him while he was legate at Bologna, be¬
ing chofen pope in 1691, under the name of Inno¬
cent XII. immediately fent for him to Rome, and ap¬
pointed him his phylician. But this did not hinder him
from purfuing his (ludies, and perfecting his works,
which have immortalized his memory. He died in
1694 ; and his works, with his life written by himfelf,
prefixed, w’ere firft colledted and printed at London, in
folio, in 1667.
MALPIGHI A, Barbadoes Cherry •, a genus of
plants belonging to the decandria clafs •, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 23d order, Trihilatx.
See Botaky Index.
MALPLAQUET, a village of the Netherlands, in
Haiuault, famous for a mod bloody battle fought here
3
on the nth of September 1709, between the French Maipla-
under old Marlhal Villars, and the allies commanded by
Prince Eugene and the duke of Marlborough. The - —
French army amounted to 120,000 men j and were
pofted behind the woods of La Marte and Teniers, in
the neighbourhood of Malplaquet. They had fortified
their fituation in fuch a manner with lines, hedges,
and trees laid acrofs, that they feemed to be quite inac-
ceflible. In this fituation they expedted certain vic¬
tory ; and even the common foldiers were fo eager to
engage, that they flung away the bread which had
been juft given them, though they had taken no fufte-
nance for a whole day before. The allied army began
the attack early in the morning, being favoured by a
thick fog. The chief fury of their impreffion was
made upon the left of the enemy $ and with fuch fuc-
cefs, that, notwithftanding their lines and barricadoes,
the French were in lefs than an hour driven from their
entrenchments. But on the enemy’s right the combat
was fuflained with much greater obflinacy. The
Dutch, who carried on the attack, drove them from
their firft line j but were repulfed from the fecond with
great (laughter. The prince of Orange, who headed
that attack, perfifted in his efforts with incredible per-
feverance and intrepidity, though two horfes had been
killed under him, and the greater part of his oflicers
(lain and difabled. At lad, however, the French were
obliged to yield up the field of battle ; but not till af¬
ter having fold a dear-bought vidlory, Villars being
dangeroufly wounded, they made an excellent retreat
under the condudl of Bouflers, and took pod near Guef-
noy and Valenciennes. The conquerors took poffeffion
of the field of battle, on which above 20,000 of their
bed troops lay dead. The lefs of the French, it is faid,
did not exceed 8000 ; and Marftral Villars confidently
afferted, that, if he had not been difabled, he wrould
have gained an undoubted vi&ory.
MALT, denotes barley cured, or prepared to fit it
for making a potable liquor, under the denomination
beer or ale. See Brewing.
MALT-Liquors have different names as well as dif¬
ferent virtues, properties, and ufes, both from the dif¬
ferent manners of preparing the malt, whence they are
ditlinguiftied into pale and broxvn ; and from the dif¬
ferent manners of preparing or brewing the liquors
themfelves ; whence they are divided into and tf/e,
Jlrong and fmall, new and old.
Malt drinks are either pale or brown, as the malt
is more or lefs dried on the kiln : that which is the
(lendereft dried tinging the liquor leail in brewing,
and therefore being called pale; whereas that higher
dried, and as it were roafted, makes it of a higher
colour. A mixture of both thefe makes an amber
colour j whence feveral of thefe liquors take their,
name.
Now, it is certain, the pale malt has mod of the na¬
tural grain in it, and is therefore the mod nouriftiing j
but, for the fome reafon, it requires a ftronger confti-
tution to digeft it. Thofe who drink much of it, are
ufually fat and (leek in the bloom, but are often cut
off by fudden fevers; or, if they avoid this, they fall
early into a diftempered old age.
The bt;own malt makes a drink much lefs vifeid,
and fitter to pafs the feveral (trainers of the body j but,
if very ftrong, it may lead on to the fame inconvenien¬
ces
M A L r 432 1 UAL
ops with the pale : though a fingle debauch wears off
much more eafily in the brown.
Dr Quincy obferves, that the beft pale malt-liquors
are thofe brewed with hard waters, as thufe of fprings
and wells, becaufe the mineral particles,, wherewith
thefe waters are impregnated, help to prevent the co¬
ll efions of thofe drawn from the grain, and enable them
to pafs the proper fecretions the better •, as the vifcid
particles of the grain do likewife defend thefe from
doing the mifebief they might otherwife occafion.
But fofter waters feem beft failed to draw out the iub-
ftance of high dried malts, which retain many fiery par¬
ticles in their contexture, and are therefore beft loft in
a fmooth vehicle,
For the differences in the preparation of malt li¬
quors, they chlefty confift in the ufe of hops, as in
beer; or in the more fparing ufe of them, as in ale.
The difference made by hops is beft difcovered from
the nature and quality of the hops theuftelves : thefe
are known to be a fubtle grateful bitter ; in their com-
pofition, therefore, with this liquor, they add fome-
what of an alkaline nature, i. e. ^particles that are fu-
blime, aftive, and rigid. By which means, the ropy
vifcid parts of the malt are more divided and fubtilized :
and are therefore not only rendered more eafy of digef-
tion and fecretion in the body, but alio, while in the
liq uor, they prevent it from running into fuch coheiions
as would make it ropy, vapid, and four.
For want of this, in unhopped drinks, that clammy
fweetnefs, which they retain after working, foon turns
them acid and unfit for ufe ; which happens looner or
later in proportion to the ftrength they receive from the
malt, and the comminution that it has undergone by
fermentation.
The different ftrengths of malt liquors alfo make
their effeffs different. The ftronger they are, the more
vifcid parts they carry into the blood ; and though the
fpirituous parts make thefe imperceptible at firft, yet
when thofe are evaporated, which will be in a few
hours, the other will be fenfibly felt by pains in the
head, mufeoufnefs at the ftotnach, and laftitude or lift-
leffnefs to motion. This thofe are the moft fenfible of
who have experienced the extremes of drinking thefe
liquors and wines ; for a debauch of wine they find
much fooner worn off, and they are much more lively
and br'fk afterwards, than after fuddling malt liquors,
whofe vifcid remains will be long before they be (haken
off.
Malt liquors, therefore, are, in general, the more
wholefome for being fmall ; i. e. of fuch a ftrength as
is liable to carry a fmall degree of warmth into the
ftomach, but not fo great as to prevent their being
proper dituters of the neceffai'y food. Indeed, in ro-
buft people, or thofe who labour hard, the vifcidities of
the drink may be broken into convenient nouriftiment;
but in perfons of another habit and way of living,
they ferve rather to promote obftruftions and ill hu¬
mours.
The age of malt liquors is the laft thing by which
they are rendered more or lefs wholefome. Age fee ms
to do nearly the lame thing as hops ; for thofe liquors
which are longeft kept are certainly, the lea ft vifcjd ;
age breaking the viiciri parts, and by degrees render¬
ing them fmaller, and fitter for fecretion.
But this is always determined according to their
ftrength ; in proportion to which, they will fooner or
later come to their full perfedtion as well as decay ;
for, when ale or beer is kept till its particles arc bro¬
ken and comminuted as far as they are capable, then
it is that they are beft ; and, beyond this, they will
be continually on the decay, till the finer fpirits are
entirely efcaped, and the remainder becomes vapid and
four.
MALt-Di/Ullery. This is an extenfive article of
trade ; and by which very large fortunes are made.
The art is to convert fermented malt liquors into a
clear inflammable fpirit, which may be either fold for
ufe.in the common date of a proof flrength, that is, the
fame ftrength with French brandy ; or is redtified into
that purer fpirit ufually fold under the name of fpirit of
Wine ; or made into compound cordial waters, by being
diftilled again from herbs and other ingredients. See
Brewing and Wash.
To brew with malt in the moft advantageous man¬
ner, it is neceffary, I. That the fubjedt be well prepa¬
red ; 2. rl hat the water be fuitable and duly applied ;
and, 3. That lome certain auditions be ufed, or altera¬
tions made, according to the feafon of the year, and the
intention of the operator : and by a proper regulation
in thefe ret pedis, all the fermentable parts of the fub-
jedl will thus be brought into the tindlure, and become
fit for fermentation.
The due preparation of the fubjedl confifts in its be¬
ing juftly malted and well ground. When the grain
is not fufficiently malted, it is apt to prove hard, fo
that the water can have but very little power to dif-
folve its fubftance ; and if it be too much malted, a
part of the fermentable matter is loft in that opera¬
tion. The harder and more flinty the malt is, the
finer it ought to be ground ; and in all cafes, when
intended for diftillation, it is advifable to reduce it to
a kind of finer or coarfer meal. When the malt is
thus ground, it is found by experience that great part
of the time, trouble, and ex pence of the brewing is
faved by it, and yet as large a quantity of fpirit will
be produced ; for thus the whole fubftance of the malt
may remain mixed among the tindlure, and be fer¬
mented and ditlilled among it. This is a particular
that very well deferves the attention of the maltdi-
ftiller as that trade is at prefent carried on ; for the
defpatch of the bufinefs, and the quantity of fpirit pro¬
cured, is more attended to than the purity or perfec¬
tion of it.
The fecret of this matter depends upon the thorough¬
ly mixing or brifkiy agitating and throwing the meal
about, firft in cold and then in hot water; and re¬
peating this agitation after the fermentation is over,
when the thick turbid wafh being immediately com¬
mitted to the Hill already, hot and dewy with work¬
ing, there is no danger of burning, unlefs by accident,
even without the farther trouble of ftirring, which
in this cafe is found needlefs, though the quantity be
ever fo large, provided that requifite care and clean-
linefs be ufed ; and thus the bufinefs of brewing and
fermenting may very comrm dioully be performed to¬
gether, and reduced to one fingle operation. What¬
ever water is made choice of, it muft ft and in a hot
ftate upon the prepared malt, efpecially if a clear
tindlure be defired ; but a known and very great incon¬
venience attends its being applied too hot, or too near
to
M A L
r ]
M A L
Malt, to a Rate of boiling, or even fcalding with regard to
the hand. To fave time in this cafe, and to prevent
the malt running into lumps and clods, the belt tray
is to put a certain meafured quantity of cold water to
the malt firft j the malt is then to be ftirred very
well with this, fo as to form a fort of thin uniform
pafte or pudding j after which the remaining quantity
of water required may be added in a Hate of boiling,
without the leaf! danger of making what, in the diftil-
ler’s language, is called a pudden.
In this manner the due and neceiTary degree of heat
in the water, for the extracting all the virtues of the
malt, may be hit upon very expeditioufly, and with a
great deal of exaCinefs, as the heat of boiling water is
a fixed ftandard which may be let down to any degree
by a proportionate mixture of cold water, due allow¬
ances being made for the feafon of the year, and for
the temperature of the air.
This little obvious improvement, added to the me¬
thod juft above hinted for the reducing brewing and
fermentation to one operation, will render it practica¬
ble to very confiderable advantage, and the fpirit im¬
proved in quality as well as quantity.
A much more profitable method than that ufually
praftifed for the fermenting malt for diftillation, in or¬
der to get its fpirit, is the following : Take ten pounds
of malt reduced to a fine meal, and three pounds of
common wheat meal: add to thefe two gallons of cold
water, and ftir them well together; then add five gal¬
lons of water, boiling hot, and ftir altogether again.
Let the whole ftand two hours, and then ftir it again ;
and when grown cold, add to it two ounces of folid
yeaft, and fet it by loofely covered in a warmifti place
to ferment.
This is the Dutch method of preparing what they
call the wajh for malt fpirit, whereby they fave much
trouble and procure a large quantity of fpirit: thus
commodioufly reducing the two bufineffes of brewing
and fermenting to one fingle operation. In England
the method is to draw and mafti for fpirit as they or¬
dinarily do for beer, only inftead of boiling the wort,
they pump it into large coolers, and afterwards run it
into their fermenting backs, to be there fermented
with yeaft. Thus they beftow twice as much labour
as is neceflary, and lofe a large quantity of their fpirit
by leaving the grofs bottoms out of the ftill for fear of
burning.
All fimple fpirits may be confidered in the three
different ftates of low wines, proof fpirit, and alcohol,
the intermediate degrees of ftrength being of lefs ge¬
neral ufe ; and they are to be judged of only accord¬
ing as they approach to or recede from thefe. Low
wines at a medium contain a fixth part of pure in¬
flammable fpirit, five times as much water as fpirit
neceffarily arifing in the operation with a boiling
heat. Proof goods contain about one half of the fame
totally inflammable fpirit j and alcohol entirely confifts
of it.
Malt low wines, prepared in the common way, are
exceeding naufeous $ they have, however, a natural
vinofity or pungent agreeable acidity, which would
render the fpirit agreeable to the palate, were it not
for the large quantity of the grofs oil of the malt
that abounds in it. When this oil is detained in feme
meafure from mixing itlelf among the low wines, by
Vol. XII. Part II.
the ftretching a coarfe flannel over the neck of the flill
or at the orifice of the wrorm, the fpirit becomes much
purer in all refpedls $ it is lefs fulfome to the tafte,
lefs offenfive to the fmell, and lefs milky to the
eye. When thefe low wines, in the reftification
into proof ipirits, are diftilled gently, they leave a
confiderable quantity of this grofs fetid oil behind
them in the ftill along with the phlegm j but if
the fire be made fierce, this oil is again railed
and brought over with the fpirit j and being now bro¬
ken fomewhat more fine, it impregnates it in a more
naufeous manner than at firft. This is the common
fault both of the malt diftiller and of the rectifier : the
latter, inftead of feparating the fpirit from this nafty
oil, which is the principal intent of his procefs, at¬
tends only to the leaving the phlegm in fuch quantity
behind, that the fpirit may be of a due ftrength as
proof or marketable goods, and brings over the oil in
a worfe ftate than before. To this inattention to the
proper bufinefs of the procefs, it is owing, that the fpi¬
rit, after its feveral reflifications, as they are mifcall-
ed, is often found more ftinking than when delivered
out of the hands of the malt diftiller. All this may
be prevented by the taking more time in the fubfequent
diftillations, and keeping the fire low and regular j the
fudden ftirring of the fire, and the hafty way of throw¬
ing on the frelh fuel, being the general occafion of
throwing up the oil by fpurts, where the fire in general,
during the procefs, has not been fo large as to do that
mifehief.
The ufe of a balneum marige, inftead of the common
ftill, would effectually prevent all this mifehief, and
give a purer fpirit in one rectification than can other-
wife be procured in ten, or indeed according to the
common methods at all.
Malt low wine, when brought to the ftandard of
proof fpirit, lofes its milky colour, and is perfectly
clear and bright, no more oil being contained in it
than is perfectly diffolved by the alcohol, and rendered
mifcible with that proportion of phlegm, which is
about one half the liquor : its tafte alfo is cleaner,
though not more pleafant j there being lefs of the thick
oil to hang on the tongue than its own form $ which is
not the cafe in the low wines, where the oil being un-
diffolved, adheres to the mouth in its own form, and
does not pais lightly over it.
When proof fpirit of malt is diftilled over again, ia
order to be rectified into alcohol, or, as we ufually
call it, fpirits of wine, if the fire be raifed at the time
when the faints begin to fall off, a very confiderable
quantity of 'oil will be raifed by it, and will run in
the vifible form of oil from the nofe of the worm.
This is not peculiar to malt fpirit j but the French
brandy ftiows the fame phenomenon, and that in fo
great a degree, that half an ounce of this oil may be
obtained from a fingle piece of brandy.
Malt fpirit, more than any other kind, requires to
be brought into the form of alcohol, before it can be
ufed internally, efpecially as it is now commonly made
up in the proof Hate, with as much of this naufeous
and vifeous oil as will give it a good crown of bubbles.
For this reafon it ought to be reduced to an alcohol,
or totally inflammable fpirit, before it is admitted into
any of the medicinal compofitions. If it be ufed with¬
out this previous caution, the tafte of the malt oil will
3 I ha
Malt.
M A L [ 434 ] UAL
be diftingulfhed among all the other flavours of the in¬
gredients.
A pure fpirit being this procured, fliould be kept
carefully in veffels of glafs or ftone, rvell flopped, to
prevent the evaporation of any of its volatile parts. If
preferved in calks, it is apt to impregnate itfelf very
flrongly with the wood. The quantity of pure alcohol
obtainable from a certain quantity of malt, differs ac¬
cording to the goodneCs of the fubjeft, the manner of
the operation, the feafon of the year, and the Ikilful-
nefs of the workmen ; according to which variations, a
quarter of malt wdll afford from eight or nine to 13 or
14 gallons of alcohol. This fhould encourage the malt
diftiller to be careful and diligent in his bufinefs, as fo
very large a part of his profit depends wholly on the
well conducing his procelfes.
After every operation in this bufinefs, there remains
a quantity of faints, which in their own coarfe ftate
ought never to be admitted into the pure fpirit 5 thefe
are to be laved together, and large quantities of them
at once wrought into alcohol, It is eafy to reduce
thefe to fuch a ftate that they will ferve for lamp-fpirits.
Their difagreeable flavour being corredled by the add¬
ing of aromatics during the diftillations, the reducing
them into a perfeft and pure alcohol is pradfticable, but
not without fuch difficulties as render it fcarcely w'orth
the trader’s while. One way of doing it is by diftilling
them from water into water, and that with a very flow-
fire. By this means a pure alcohol may be made out
of the fouleft faints.
The malt diftiller alw-ays gives his fpirit a Angle rec¬
tification perfe, in order to purify it a little, and make
it up proof; but in this ftate it is not to be reckoned
fit for internal ufes, but ferves to be diftilled into ge¬
neva and other ordinary compound ftrong waters for the
vulgar.
The Dutch who carry on a great trade with malt fpi-
rit, never give it any farther reftification than this ;
and it is on this account that the malt fpirit of Eng¬
land is in general fo much more in efteem. The Dutch
method is only to diftil the walh into low wines, and
then to full proof fpirit ; they then direftly make it
amo geneva, or elfe fend it as it is to Germany, Gui¬
nea, and the Eaft Indies, for the Dutch have little
notion of our reftification. Their fpirit is by this
means rendered very foul and coarfe, and is rendered
yet more naufeous by the immoderate ufe they make
of rye meal. Malt fpirit, in its unreftified ftate, is
ufually found to have the common bubble proof, as the
malt diftiller knows that it will not be marketable
without it.
The whole matter requifite to this is, that it have
a confiderable portion of the grofs oil of the malt
well broke and mixed along with it ; this gives the
reflifier a great deal of trouble if he will have the fpi¬
rit fine ; but in the general run of the bufinefs, the
reflifier does not take out this oil, but breaks it finer,
and mixes it fafter in by alkaline falls, and difguifes its
tafte by the addition of certain flavouring ingredients.
The fpirit lofes in thefe procefles the vinofity it had-
when it came out of the hands of the malt diftiller,
and is in all refpe£ts worfe, except in the difguife of a
mixed flavour.
The alkaline falls ufed by the reftifier deftroying
the natural vinofity of the fpirit, it is needfary to add
an extraneous acid in order to give it a new one. The
acid they generally ufe is the fpiritus nitri dulcis ; and
the common way of ufing it is the mixing it to the
tafte with the re&ified fpirit : this gives our malt
fpirit, w-hen w-ell re&ified, a flavour fomewhat like that
of French brandy, but this foon flies off; and the bet¬
ter method is to add a proper quantity of Glauber’s
ftrong fpirit of nitre to the fpirit in the ftill. The li¬
quor in this cafe comes over impregnated with it, and
the acid being mo’re intimately mixed, the flavour is
retained.
MALT-Bruifer, or Bruijing-mill. It has been found
by repeated experiments, that bruifing malt is a mere
advantageous method than the old one of grinding and
flouring. By bruifing, there is not only lefs wafte,
but the malt is alfo better fitted for giving out all its
virtues. It has therefore become a praftice to fqueeze
malt between rollers, by means of a proper apparatus,
of which various conftruftions have been invented.
One of the beft contrivances of this fort is faid to be
the bruifing-mill of Mr Winlaw, which confifts of a
frame, a large cylinder or roller, a fmall roller, a hop¬
per, a fhoe, a frame to fupport the hopper, a fly wheel,
and a windlafs. To ufe this engine, it is direded to
ferew the large roller up to the Imall one, and not to
feed too fail from the ftioe, which is regulated by pins
that have firings fixed to them. It is evident, that
when two fmooth furfaces are oppofed to each other at
a diftance which can be regulated at pleafure, neither
grain nor any other fimilar fubflance can pafs between
them without being bruifed. This being the principle
on which the bruifing-mill adfts, the meally fubftance,
which is the effential part of malt, is entirely removed
from the fkin or hulk which contains it, and all the
virtues of the malt are with eaie extracted by the wa¬
ter in a manner fuperior to what is effedled when the
grain is only cut by grinding. The operation is at
the fame time fo expeditioufly performed, that two
men can with eafe bruife a buftiel of malt in a minute.
By the fame engine may alfo be bruifed oats and
beans for horfes. A great part of the corn given thefe
animals, it is well known, is fwallowed whole, and of¬
ten paffes through them in the fame ftate ; in which
cafe, they cannot receive any nourilhment from the
grains that are unbroken ; but when bruifed in this
engine, it eafes maftication ; and every grain being
prepared for nutrition, a much lefs quantity will of
courfe be found to be fufficient. For bruifing beans,
the two regulating ferews muft be unferewed a little ;
and the fly-wheel requires to be then fet in motion
with the hand, on account that the rollers are then a
little fpace apart, and will not turn each other before
the beans come between them.
MALT-Tax, is the fum of 750,000k raifed every year
by parliament fince 1697, by a duty of 6d. on the bulhel
of malt, and a proportionable fum on certain liquors,
fuch as cyder and perry, which might otherwife pre¬
vent the confumption of malt. This is under the ma¬
nagement of the commiftioners of the excife ; and is in¬
deed itfelf no other than the annual excife. In 1760,
an additional perpetual excife of 3d. per bulhel was laid
upon malt; and in 1763, a proportional excife was laid
upon cyder and perry, but new'-modelled in 1766. See
Excise.
MALTA, a celebrated ifland of the Mediterranean,
fituated
Malta.
I
ncient
itory of
M A L [43
fituated between the 15th and 16th degrees of eaft
longitude, and between the 35th and 36th degrees of
north latitude. It is about 19 or 20 miles in length,
nine or ten in breadth, and 60 in circumference. An¬
ciently it was called Melita ; and is fuppofed by Clu-
verius, from its fituation and other particulars, to be
e ifland. Hyperia mentioned by Homer, whence the Phteaces
were afterwards driven by the Phenicians, and retired
into Scheria and the ifland of Corfu •, which is the more
probable, as the ancient poet places the mountain Me¬
lita in that ifland. He has likewife brought fome
probable arguments to prove, that Melita or Malta
is the ancient Ogygia; in'which the famed nymph
Ca/ypfo, daughter of the Ocean and Thetis, receiv¬
ed the fhipwrecked Ulyffes, and detained him feven
years.
The moft ancient poffeffors of Malta, of whom we
have any certain account, were the Carthaginians ; from
whom it was taken by the Romans: and yet during
the whole time that it continued under the power of
thefe polite nations it was almoft entirely barren. ’I he
foil was partly fandy and partly rocky, having fcareely
any depth of earth ; and withal fo itony, that it was
hardly capable of producing corn or any other grain
except cummin, and fome feeds of a fimilar nature. Its
chief products were figs, melons, honey, cotton, and
fome few other fruits and commodities, which the in¬
habitants exchanged for corn •, and in this barren Hate
it feems to have continued till it came into the poffef-
fion of the Maltefe knights. It laboured alfo under
great fearcity of water and fuel: upon all which ac¬
counts it was till that time but thinly inhabited, there
being only about 30 or 40 boroughs or other villages
fcattered about, and no city except the capital, called
alfo Malta, and the town and fort of St Angelo, which
defended the harbour : fo that the whole number of its
inhabitants did not exceed 12,000, including women
and children j the greateft part of whom were very in¬
digent.
According to an ancient tradition, Malta was firft:
pofleffed by an African prince named Battus, an enemy
to Queen Dido ; from whom it was taken by the Car¬
thaginians *, from the Carthaginians it pafied to the Ro¬
mans, who made themtelves matters of it when they
fubdued the ifland of Sicily. Thefe were driven out
by the Arabs in the year 828 ; who were driven out in
their turn by Roger the Norman, earl of Sicily, who
took poffeflion of it in 1190 : from which time it conti¬
nued under the dominion of the. Sicilian princes till the
time of Charles V. when it fell under his power, along
% with Naples and Sicily. To cover the ifland of Sicily
Jaltagi- from the Turks, Charles gave the ifland to the knights
entothe of Rhodes, fince that time called knights of Malta,
nights of whofe origin and hiftory is given under the article
Knights of Malta and Rhodes.
At the firft: landing of the Maltefe knights, they
found themfelves obliged to lodge in a very poor towm
at the foot of the hill on which Hands the caftle of St
Angelo, and where their only habitations were fifher-
men’s huts. The grand mafter, with the principal
knights, took pofleflion of the caftle, where the accom¬
modations were fomewhat better 5 though thefe too
were very mean, and out of repair. Three days after,
he took pofleflion of the city, which was formerly call¬
ed Malta, but lince that time hath taken the name of
Malta.
thodes.
5 1 M A L
the Notable City; and after that, of the whole ifland of
Malta, and the neighbouring one of Gofa.
The firft care of the knights, after having fettled
their authority through the two iilands, was to provide
fome better accommodation for the prefent, and to
choofe a proper place where to fix their habitation.
But as the ifland had no other defence than the old
caftle of St Angelo, and was fo much expofed on all
fides, that it would have required greater fums than
their exhaufted treafury could fpare to put it in a
proper ftate of defence •, the grand mafter wag obli¬
ged to content himfelf with furrounding the borough
above mentioned, wherein he had ordered new build¬
ings to be reared for the prefent habitation of his
knights, with a flout wall, to prevent its being fur-
prifed by the Turkilh and Barbary corfairs. His de-
lign, indeed, at this time, was not to have fixed the
abode of the knights in the bare and defencelefs ifland
of Malta, but to ftay in it only till he had got a fuffi- ^
cient force to attempt the conqueft of Modon, a town They at-
of the Morea, and which w as not only a populous and tempt the
opulent place, but lay very convenient' for making anco,lclueft °f
attempt on the ifland of Rhodes, their ancient habita-
tion, and to which they were naturally attached. This,fuccefs/
however, did not hinder his taking all proper meafures
for fecuring Malta as well as Gofa, and laying out a
proper plan for fecuring them from attacks, in cafe the
defign on Modon fliould fail.
In the mean time, as fuperftition was then univerfal-
ly prevalent, the grand mafter, among other precious
relics which they had brought from Rhodes, caufed the
arm of St Catharine to be carried in procefllon to the
cathedral. Whilft they were on their march, one of
the centinels gave them notice, that a large Turkilh
merchantman was wrecked on their coaft. The grand
mafter immediately defpatehed fome of his knights and
foldiers thither ; who finding Ilaac the patron of the
Ihip, a native of Modon, and one Maurithifala Nocher,
an excellent engineer, they were retained in the fcrvice
of the order, and the latter was immediately employed
in fortifying the ifland.
The knights were hardly fettled in Malta, when the
emperor, and other European potentates, endeavoured
to engage them in a war with the inhabitants of Bar¬
bary, as the city of Tripoli, then held by Charles, wras
in great danger of falling into the hands of the infidels.
The attempt on Modon, however, was firft made ; but
it proved unfuccefsful, through the bafe avarice of the
Maltefe forces : for they having been admitted into
the city, during the night began to murder and plun¬
der the inhabitants, without waiting for the arrival of
the galleys which were coming to their alhftance. The
confequence was, that the inhabitants armed, and a
defperate battle began j in which the Maltefe, notwith-
ftanding the utmoft efforts, w'ere obliged to retire, but
not till they had loaded themfelves with plunder, and
carried away 800 women captive. ^
The grand mafter, looking upon this difappointment Jom the
as a fign that Providence had ordained Malta to becmPeror
the refidence of the knights, did not renew his attempts <;‘1C
upon Modon •, but, in 1532, joined with the emperor
againft the Turks, and fent a great number of his gal¬
leys to joi,n the confederate fleet under the celebrated
Andrew Doria. In confequence of this aid, the un¬
dertaking proved fuccefsful; and in all probability the
3 I 2 conqueft
Malta.
M A L [ 436
conqueft of Modon would have been accomplifhed, had
not the foldiery, difcouraged by the bad fuccefs of the
laft attempt, openly refufed to proceed, and obliged
the emperor to proceed to Coron, another town be¬
longing to the Turks. Through the valour of the
Maltefe knights, this place was foon obliged to capi¬
tulate ; and in a lecond expedition in 1533, the knights
again diftinguilhed themfelves in a mott eminent man¬
ner. I hey were quickly recalled, however, by the
grand mailer to the defence of the ifland, which was
now threatened with an invafion by Barbaroffa the ce¬
lebrated Turkilh corfair, who fcoured thofe feas at the
head of above fourfcore galleys. This invafion, how¬
ever, did not take place ; and in 1534 the grand maf-
ter Villiers de I’llle Adam died, and was fucceeded
by Perino de Ponte, a native of the town of Alt in
Italy.
The new grand mailer, who received intelligence of
his election at St Euphemia in Calabria, very foon af¬
ter received another exprefs, giving an account of the
wars which at that time reigned in Tunis, and the dan¬
ger that Tripoli as well as Malta was in from Barba-
roffa, who was by this time become mailer both of Al¬
giers and Tunis j upon which he made all the halte he
could to his new government. His firlt care wras to
fend a Itrong reinforcement to Italy ; after which, he
defpatched an embafly to the emperor, intreating him
to equip a powerful fleet again ft Barbaroffa, without
which it would be impoffible for Tripoli to hold out
much longer.
By this embaffy from De Ponte, and another to the
fame purpofe from Muley Haffen, the depofed king
of T unis, Charles was eafily prevailed on to carry his
arms into Africa ; in which he was aflifted by a great
number of the braveft knights, together with 18 bri¬
gantines of different fizes, four of the bell Maltefe gal¬
leys, and their veffel called the great carrack, of itfelf
almoft equivalent to a fquadron. In this expedition the
knights diftinguifhed themfelves in a moll eminent
, manner. At the liege of Goletta, one of the knights,
htl teenamed Converfa, an excellent engineer, by means of a
barca longa, got almolt clofe to the great tower, which
he furioully battered with large cannon, while the
great carrack, which w-as behind all the reft of the vef-
fels, and by reafon of its height could fire over them,
did prodigious execution. A breach was foon made j
and hardly was it wide enough to be fcaled, when the
Maltefe knights jumped out of the galleys into their
long-boats: and thence into the fea, with their fwords
in their hands, and waded through the water above
their girdles, it being too lhallow for boats to approach
the fliore. The ftandard-bearer of the order w as the
firft that jumped into the water, and led the reft to
the attack j they claiming everywhere the poll of ho¬
nour. They marched with the greateft refolution
through the moll terrible firing and Ihowers of all
kinds of miflile weapons j and, having gained the fliore,
quickly afcended the breach, on the top of which they
planted their great llandard. A great number loft
their lives, and fcarcely one came off unwounded ; but
the emperor did them the juftice to own, that the ta¬
king the place w as chiefly owing to the valour of the
Maltefe knights.
The city of Tunis was foon taken after the fortrefs
]
M A L
Africa in¬
vaded by
Charles.
6
Defperate
valour of
e Ma
ights
of Goletta j on the furrender of which, the emperor,
I
defigning to return into Europe, took his laft dinner Malta,
on board the great carrack •, where he was magnificent- —“V1*-"'
ly entertained, and beftowed on the furviving knights
the greateft encomiums, and marks of his efteem and
gratitude to the owner. Thefe he accompanied with PriviLej
confiderable prefents and with two new grants. By conferred
the firft, they were allowed to import corn and other up011tllera
provifions from Sicily, without paying duty j and bybyt!’eem‘
the fecond, the emperor engaged, that none of the or-Per°r‘
der ftiould enjoy any of the eftates or revenues, due to
Maltefe knights, throughout all his dominions, unlefs
they were lawfully authorized by the grand mafter and
his council ; or till the originals had been examined
and regiftered by himfelf, or fuch minifters as he fhould
appoint for that purpole. The fleet then fet fail for
Malta 5 where, on their arrival, they received the news
of the grand mafter’s death, who was fucceeded by
Didier de Tolon de St Jalle, a native of Provence, and
then grand prior of Thouloufe, where he refided at the
time of his eleftion.
The prefent grand mafter was a man of great con-
du£t and bravery, which he had formerly ftiown at the
fiege of Rhodes j and the fituation of affairs at this 8
time required a perfon of experience. The Turkifti T*16 Turk!
corfairs, quite tired out with the dreadful havock made
among them by Botigella, grand prior of Pifa, who ful att^p
feldom quitted the fea, and never failed out without on Tripoli,
finking fome of them, or making confiderable prizes,
had agreed to enter into a ftrong confederacy, either
to furprife the city of Tripoli where his retreat was,
or, if that failed, to lay fiege to it by fea and land j in
either of which attempts, they were fure of all the af-
fiftance of Barbaroffa and Hayradin, then lord of Tan-
giers. This laft had undertaken the command and
conduct of the whole enterprife $ but the governor be¬
ing informed of the defign, prepared to give him
a warm reception. Hayradin came thither with his
whole force in the dead of the night, and began to
fcale the walls in thofe places where he reckened them
to be moft defencelefs. They no fooner appeared at
the foot of them, than the garrifon, which had been
kept up in arms, poured down fuch ftreams of wild¬
fire, boiling oil, melted lead, &c. and threw fuch vol¬
leys of ftones, while the great and fmall guns fo annoy¬
ed thofe that ftood fartheft off, that great numbers of
them wrere deftroyed. They perfifted in the attack,
however, with great fury and vigour, till Hayradin,
who w as foremoft in one of the fcalades, was knocked
dow n by a mulket-ftiot from the top of his ladder. He
fell into the ditch, and was taken up almoft dead $ up¬
on which his troops inftantly difperfed themfelves, and
abandoned the enterprife. The governor of Tripoli,
however, judging that this would not be the laft vifit
of the kind which in all probability he would receive,,
immediately defpatched an exprefs to Malta, with pro-
pofals for fortifying the city, and demoliftiing a ftrong
tower on that coaft named Alcaic!, which was held by
a Turkifti corfair. His advice being approved of, the
commander Botigella, nowr general of the galleys, was
immediately defpatched with a fufficient force j who,
having landed his men at Tripoli, immediately march¬
ed with them and a body of Arab mercenaries towards
Alcaid ; and without flaying to open the trenches,
or any other covering than his gabions, levelled his
artillery againft it. Hayradin being informed of this,
came
M A L
[ 437 1
M A L
tfalta. came with his Turks to its defence j but was intercept-
ed by a ftrong detachment of Maltefe knights at the
head of the hired Arabs, and repulfed with lofs $ fo
that all he could do was to convey about 50 or 60
Turks into the place, and to annoy the Chriftians with
fome flight (kirmiflies. Botigelia, perceiving that his
cannon did not make fuch quick defpatch as he wilhed,
fent fome of his galleys j under the flicker of which he
quickly fprung a mine, which brought down part of
the wall, and buried moft of the corfairs under it; up¬
on which the reft, feeing the Maltefe knights mount
the breach fword-in-hand, immediately threw down
their arms. The tower was then razed to the ground j
after which Botigella marched to a town called Ada-
bus, whence he drove Hayradin, who had intrenched
himfelf in it, and gave the plunder to the Arabs. In
his return he attacked and took a large ^urkifti galley,
the cargo of which was valued at 160,000 crowns, and
had on board 200 perfons j fo that he landed in tri¬
umph, and was received with the loud acclamations of
the whole order, who came to meet him on his arrival.
Soon after the grand matter fell lick and died, and was
fucceeded by John de Homedes.
Frefti complaints having in 1564 been made to Soli-
man, he propofed, in a grand council where moft of
his officers attended, to extirpate the knights altoge¬
ther. This deftgn was ftrenuoufly oppofed by Hall,
one of Dragut’s moft experienced captains, who of¬
fered the moft folid reafons againft it; but being over¬
ruled by the reft, an expedition againft Malta was re-
folved upon. One of the fultan’s firft cares was to
fend fome fpies, in the difguife of fiffiermen, to take a
full view of the ifland, \vho found means to bring him
an exaft plan of it, with all its fortifications, havens,
ftrength, the number of its inhabitants, &c. whilft
he was haftening his armaments againft it. By this
time, as the Maltefe had very little reafon to doubt
that the Turkiffi armaments were defigned againft their
ifland, the viceroy of Sicily, Don Garcia, was ordered
by his mafter to take it in his way to the caftle of Go-
letta, in order to confult with the grand mafter about
the neceflary means for oppofing fuch a formidable
power. The grand mafter acquainted him, that, in
cafe of an attack upon Malta, he ffiould want both
men and corn : upon which the viceroy engaged to
fupply him with both on his return to Sicily j in pledge
of which he left one of his fons with him, who was
afterwards admitted into the order. He was no fooner
departed, than the grand mafter fummoned all the
knights of the order, difperfed through feveral parts
of Europe, to repair to him. Thofe that were in Italy
railed a body of 2000 foot, to which the viceroy of
Sicily added two companies of Spaniffi forces. All the
galleys of the order were employed in tranfporting
thefe troops, together with all manner of provifions
and ammunition, into the ifland ; and the knights that
were in it, in diftributing, difciplining, and exercifing
their new levies, as well as the Maltefe militia, againft
the fiege. Thus the grand mafter law himfelf ftrength-
ened by the arrival of 600 knights, all of whom
brought with them retinues of flout good fervants, fit
to affift in the defence of the ifland ; whilft thofe, who
by reafon of age, ficknefs, or other impediments, could
not repair to him, fold their moft valuable effe&s in
order to affift him with their purfes. The pope, on his
Malta.
part, contented himfelf with fending a fupply of 10,000
crowns ; and the king of Spain ordered his viceroy
Don Garcia to raife an army of 20,000 men, to be
ready to fail thither as foon as called for. The grand
mafter employed the remainder of his time in vifiting
all the forts, magazines, arfenals, &c. and affigning to
each tongue their feveral polls, and making all necef-
fary preparations, till the Ottoman fleet appeared in 9
fight on the l8th of May 1565. It confifted of 159 The fiege
large galleys and galleons, carrying on board 30,000 ^men-
forces, janizaries and fpahis, belides the Haves at thece
oar, accompanied by a confiderable number of other
velTels, laden with artillery, ammunition, and other ne-
ceffaries for a fiege. The whole armament was com¬
manded by Muftapha Baffia, an old experienced offi¬
cer, aged about 85 years, and an old favourite and
confidant of the fultan j of a haughty cruel temper,
who made it a merit to violate his word, and to ufe all
manner of violence againft the Chriftians, efpecially
againft the Maltefe. This formidable army landed at
fome diftance from II Borgo, and foon afterwards
fpread themfelves over the country 5 fetting fire to the
villages, putting the peafants to the fword, and carry¬
ing off fuch of the cattle as, notwithftanding the orders
of the grand mafter, had not been fecured within the
forts and towns.
While the Turks were thus employed, La Valette
(the grand mafter) fent out De Copier, marffial of
the order, with 200 horfe and 600 foot, to watch their
motions. De Copier, an officer of great experience,
executed his commiffion with fo much prudence and
vigour, that, by falling unexpe£tedly on detached par¬
ties, he cut off 1500 Turks, with the lofs only of 80
men.
The Turkiffi general held a council of war as foon
as all his troops were landed, to affift him in refolving
where he ffiould begin his attack. Piali, the lurkiffi
admiral, agreeably to wffiat he underftood to have been
the fultan’s inftru&ion, was of opinion that they
ought not to enter upon action till Dragut ffiould ar¬
rive. But Muftapha having received information of
the king of Spain’s preparations, thought fomething
ought to be done inftantly for the fafety of the fleet j
which lay at prefent in a creek, where it was expofed
to the violence of the eaft wind, and might be attack¬
ed with great advantage by the Spaniards. On this
account he was of opinion, that they ffiould immedi¬
ately lay fiege to a fort called St Elmo, which flood on
a neck of land near II Borgo, having the principal har¬
bour on one fide of it, and on the other another har¬
bour large enough to contain the whole fleet in fafety.
This propofal was approved by a majority of the
council, and Muftapha proceeded without delay to
carry it into execution.
La Valette did not expeft that a place which wasDefp*°ate
neither ftrong nor large enough to admit a numerous defence 0f
garrifon, could be defended long againft fo great afort St El-
force as was employed to reduce it; but he thoughtm0•
it neceffary that the fiege of this fort flrould be pro¬
longed as much as poffible, in order to give the vice¬
roy of Sicily time to come to his relief. With this
view, he refolved to throw himfelf into St Elmo, with
a felefl body of troops \ and he was preparing to fet
out, when the whole body of knights remonftrated
with fuch earneft importunity againft his leaving the
town,
M A L r 433 ] M A L
tovm, that he at laft confented to fufFer the reinforce¬
ment, which he had prepared, to be conduced to the
fort by a knight called De Medran, upon whole con-
dud and intrepidity he could rely with the xnoft affur-
ed confidence.
Not long after De Medran’s arrival in the fort, the
garrifon made a vigorous fally, in which they drove
the enemy from their entrenchments, and put a num¬
ber of them to the fword. But the reft foon recover¬
ed from their furprife ; and having returned to the
charge, they compelled the Chriftians to retire. In
this rencounter, the vigorous efforts of the janizaries
were favoured by the wind, which blew the fmoke
of the guns upon the fort, and covered the befieged
with a thick cloud, through which it was impoffible
to difcern the operations of the enemy. This incident
the Turks had the prefence of mind to improve to
very great advantage. They feized, unperceived, up¬
on the counterfcarp ; made a lodgment there with
beams, woolfacks, and gabions j and railed a battery
upon it with incredible expedition. After the fmoke
was difperfed, the befieged beheld what had been done
with much aftonifhment : and they were the more dif-
quieted, as the fortification which the Turks had raifed
upon their counterfcarp overtopped a ravelin which
lay near it, in which the befieged could no longer ap¬
pear with fafety. They refolved, however, to defend
this ravelin as long as poflible, whatever it Ihould coft
them.
In the mean time Dragut, and another noted cor-
fair named Uluchiali, arrived with 20 galleys; having,
befides Haves and feamen, 2500 troops on board. This
reinforcement, and the prefence of Dragut, added
frelh vigour to the operations of the fiege. This gal¬
lant corfair expofed himfelf, on all occafions, with the
utmoft intrepidity ; fpent whole days in the trenches ;
and as, befides his other extraordinary talents, he was
particularly Ikilful in the management of artillery, he
caufed fome new batteries to be raifed in more advan¬
tageous fituations than had hitherto been made choice
of; and kept up a continual fire both on the ravelin
above mentioned, and a cavalier that covered the fort
and was one of its principal defences.
This cavalier foon became the only defence which
could prevent the befiegers from coming up to the
very foot of the wall. Some Turkifti engineers having
approached the ravelin at daybreak, to obferve the
*ffe61s of their artillery, they perceived a gun-port fo
low, that one of them, when mounted on the ftioulders
of another, looked into it, and faw the Chriftian fol-
diers lying on the ground afieep. Of this they gave
immediate information to the troops ; who, advancing
as quickly and filently as poffible, and clapping ladders
to the gun-hole, got up into the ravelin, and cut moft
of the Chriftians to pieces.
Between this ravelin and the cavalier lay the ditch,
over which the befieged had thrown a temporary bridge
of planks leading up to the cavalier. The Turks, per¬
ceiving this, leaped inftantly upon the bridge, and at¬
tempted to make themfelves mafters of the cavalier, as
they already were of the ravelin. But the garrifon
was now alarmed ; the braveft of the knights haftened
from different quarters to the poft of danger ; and
after an obftinate engagement, they compelled the
Turks t© retire into the ravelin. There, obferving
another way of reaching the cavalier by a path from
the bottom of the ditch, they threw themfelves down
without dread or hefitation ; and having afcended by
this path to the other fide, they renewed their attack
with greater fury than ever. The combat lafted from
funrife till noon, when the knights at latl proved vic¬
torious. About 20 knights and 100 foldiers were kill¬
ed ; and near 3000 of the enemy.
As the ravelin was open on the fide towards the
fort, the befieged pointed fome cannon againft it, and
made great havock among the infidels. But Muflapha,
fenfible of the value of the acquifition he had made,
poured in frelh foldiers without number, and the pio¬
neers coming forward with woolfacks, planks, and ga¬
bions, put the troops at length in fafety, and made a
lodgment in the ravelin, of which the garrifon were
never afterwards able to difpofftfs them.
The grand mailer’s concern on account of this dif-
after was greatly augmented, by confidering, that it
could not have happened fo foon without fome negli¬
gence on the part of the garrifon. He fent them,
however, an immediate reinforcement ; and both the
fiege and the defence were carried on with the fame
vigour as before.
But the fituation of the befieged was now become
much more dangerous than formerly. The Turks ap¬
plied with unremitting diligence to heighten the ra¬
velin till it overtopped the wall of the fort ; and after
this the garrifon could no longer appear upon the pa¬
rapet with fafety. Many were killed by the enemy’s
artillery, feveral breaches were made in the wall, and
the hearts of the braveft knights began to fail within
them.
Malt*.
They agreed therefore, though with much relu&ance,^]”^
to apply to the grand mailer for liberty to quit thedefire per-
fort ; and they made choice of the Chevalier de Me-miffionto
dran for their meffenger. He reprefented that the fort ^eave t*’e
was in reality no lenger tenable ; and that, 1° cor>tinue
in it, though only for a few days, would infallibly oc-ed.
cafion the deftruftion of the garrifon.
Moft of the knights in council thought that this
requeft of the garrifon ought to be immediately grant¬
ed. But La Valette was of a contrary opinion.—
This he reprefented to the Chevalier de Medran ; and
fent him back wdth inftrudlions to remind the knights
of the vowrs which they took at their entrance into
the order, of facrificing their lives for its defence. He
likewife bade him affure them, in his name, that he
would not fail to fend them fuch reinforcements as
they fhould Hand in need of; and was determined, as
foon as it Ihould be neceffary, to come himfelf to their
affiftance, with a fixed unalterable purpofe to lay down
his life fooner than deliver the fort into the hands of
the infidels.
This anfwer had the defired effect on feveral of the
knights, and particularly on thofe whofe principles
of honour and attachment to the order were confirmed
by years. But the greater part of them were much
diffatisfied. They thought the grand mafter’s treat¬
ment of them harfti and cruel ; and wrote him a letter,
fubfcribed by 53 ; in which they informed him, that, if
he did not, on the next night, fend boats to carry them
to the town, they were determined to fally out into the
Turkilh camp, where they might fall honourably by
the fword, inftead of fuffering fuch an ignominious
death
M A L [ 439 1 M A L
vh'ta. dealh as they had reafon to exped if the fort was taken
  J by ftorm.
To this letter La Valette replied, “ That they were
much miftaken if they expeded to fatisfy their honour
by throwing away their lives j fince it was no lefs
their duty to fubmit to his authority than to facrifice
their lives in defence of the order : that the preferva-
tion of the whole depended on their prefent obedience
to his commands : that no aid was to be expeded
from Spain if the fort were given up. And that if he
fhould yield to their requeft, and bring them to the
town, the town itfelf would then be immediately in-
vefted •, and they, as well as the reft, foon afterwards
reduced to a fituation more defperate than that from
which they were fo folicitous to efcape, by deferting
an important poll which they had undertaken to de¬
fend.” Befides this letter, he fent three commiflioners
. to examine the ftate of the fortifications ; intending by
this meafure either to gain time or to prevent the gar-
rifon from finking into defpair.
Thefe commiftioners differed very wddely in the
accounts which they delivered at their return. Two
of them thought it impoflible to defend the fort much
longer. But the third, named Conftantine Caftriot,
a Greek prince, defcended from the famous Albanian
hero Scanderbeg, whether from ignorance or a con-
fcioufnefs of greater refources in his native courage
than the other twm poffeffed, maintained that the gar-
rifon was far from being reduced to the laft extremity j
and to give a proof how firmly he was perfuaded of the
truth of what he faid, he offered to enter the fort him-
felf, and to undertake the defence of it with fuch troops
as ftiould be willing to accompany him.
The grand mafter, ftrongly impreffed with a fenfe
of the neceflity of protraSing the fiege, immediately
accepted this offer, and beftowed the higheft enco¬
miums on Caftriot’s zeal and refolution. Nor did
Caftriot find any difficulty in perfuading a fufficient
number to attend him, who were no lefs zealous and
refolute than himfelf. The foldiers crowded to his
ftandard, and were emulous to have their names en¬
rolled for that dangerous fervice in which he had en-
gaged.
When La Valette faw the fpirit by which thefe men
were animated, and had no longer any doubt of being
able by their means to prolong the fiege of the fort j
he fent a letter to the knights, acquainting them,
that he was now willing to give them their difcharge 5
and would immediately fend another garrifon, into
whofe hands he defired they fliould be ready to de¬
liver up the fort, and come themfelves to the town in
the boats in which their fuccefibrs were to be tranf-
ported.
The contents and ftyle of this letter affefted the
knights in the moft fenfible manner, and roufed with¬
in them that delicate fenfe of honour by which the
order had been fo long and fo eminently diftinguilhed.
—They refolved without hefitation to remain in the
fort till every man ftiould periffi, rather than either
deliver it to the new garrifon or abandon it to the
enemy. And they wrent in a body to the governor,
and intreated him to inform the grand mafter of their
repentance, and to join with them in praying that
they might be fuffered to wipe out the remembrance
of their fault by their future conduct.
3
The grand mafter fuffered himfelf at laft to be over- Malta,
come •, and henceforth the garrifon were intent on no- “
thing but how' to prolong the defence.
The grand mafter fent them every night freffi troops
to fupply the place of the killed and w'ounded $ and
kept them well furniffied with provifions, ammunition, I2
and fireworks. Of thefe laft he had invented a par- Invention
ticular kind, which confifted of hoops of wood, covered of burning
with wool, and fteeped in boiling oil and other inflam- hooPs*
mable liquors, mixed with nitre and gunpowder. To
thefe machines they fet fire, and threw them flaming
in the midft of the enemy when they were crowded to¬
gether at an affault. It happened often that twro or
three of the Turks were hooked together and fcorched
to death j and the utmoft confufion was produced
wherever they were thrown.
The befieged flood much in need of this, and every
other inftrument of mifchief that could be devifed, for
their defence. In fpite of the moft vigorous oppofi-
tion, the Turks had caft a bridge over the ditch, and
begun to fap and undermine the wall. From the 17th
of June to the 14th of July, not a Angle day paffed
without fome rencounter j and Muftapha had frequent¬
ly attempted to fcale the w'all of the fort, but had been
as often repulfed with the lofs of fome of the braveft of
his troops.
Afliamed at having been detained fo long before a
place of fuch inconfiderable ftrength, he refolved to
make one great decifive effort; and to bring to the
affault as many of his forces as the fituation of the
place would permit him to employ. He had already
made feveral breaches j but in order to fecure the fuc-
cefs of the affault which he now intended, he kept his
batteries playing all the 15th without intermiflion, till
the wall on that fide where he defigned his attack was
almoft level with the rock. On the 16th, the fleet
was drawn up before funrife, as near the fort as the
depth of the water would allow. Four thoufand muf-
keteers and archers were ftationed in the trenches •,
and the reft of the troops, upon a fignal given, ad¬
vanced to the breach. The garrifon was prepared to
receive them j the breach was lined with feveral ranks
of foldiers, having the knights interfperfed among
them at certain diftances. The Turks attempted often
to break through this determined band, and to over¬
power them with their numbers $ but their numbers
ferved only to augment the lofs which they fuftained.
Every (hot from the fort did execution. The artillery
made dreadful havock among them : and the burning
hoops were employed with aftoniihing luccefs. The
novelty of thefe machines, and the fhrieks of thofe
who were caught in them, added greatly to the terror
which they infpired ; and made it impoffible for the
Turkilh officers to keep their men firm and fteady
in purfuing the advantages, which, had they preferved
their ranks, their numbers muft have infallibly ac¬
quired.
At length Muftapha, after a fruitlefs affault of more
than fix hours, gave orders for founding a retreat. In
this attack the garrifon loft about 20 knights and 300
foldiers j but this lofs was immediately fupplied by a
reinforcement from the town ; and Muftapha was at
laft convinced, that, unlefs the communication between
the fort and the town were cut off, it would be impof¬
fible to bring the fiege of the former to a period, while
any
M A L
Malts.
any troops remained in the other parts of the ifiand.
■" By the advice of Dragut, he refolved to extend his
trenches and batteries on the fide next the town, till
they fhould reach to that part of the fea, or great har¬
bour, where thole fupplies were landed which the grand
matter daily fent to the garrifon. This undertaking he
knew muft be attended with the utmoit difficulty, be-
caufe ail the fpace between his intrenchments, and the
point to which it was neceflary to extend them, lay ex-
pofed to the artillery both of Fort St Elmo and St An¬
gelo. In viewing the ground, a Sangiac, in whom he
put confidence, was killed by his fide ; and, which was
ftill a more irreparable lofs, Dragut received a mortal
wound, of which he died in a few days. This did not,
however, difcourage Mutlapha from purfuirg his defign.
By employing his troops and pioneers at the work day
and night, without intermiflion, he at length carried it
into execution. Then having planted batteries along
the fhore, and filled his trenches with mulketeers, it was
impoflible for any boat to pafs from the town to the
fort without the molt imminent danger of either being
funk or intercepted.
After this precaution, he refumed with freffi vigour
his attempts to take the fort by ftorm. On the 21ft
he made four different affaults : all of which the garri¬
fon withflood ; and, in repulfing fo many thoufand
brave and well difciplined troops, difplayed a degree
of prowefs and fortitude which almoft exceeds belief,
and is beyond the power of defcription. But this
heroic garrifon was now exceedingly reduced in num¬
ber $ and there was the ftrongelt reafon to apprehend,
that, in one affault more, they muff inevitably be over¬
powered, unlefs a reinforcement were fent them from
the town. Of their defperate fituation they gave in¬
telligence to the grand matter by one who fwam acrofs
the harbour in the night. The boats were inftantly
filled with knights and other foldiers, who generoufly
refolved to devote themfelves to certain deftrudlion for
the general fafety, and the prefervation of the fort.
They fet off from the town with as much alacrity as if
they had entertained the moft fanguine hopes of vidfory j
but they found the Turks everywhere fo much upon
their guard, and the lines fe ftrongly defended, that,
after feveral fruitlefs attempts to land, they wereatlaft
obliged to return, depreffed with forrow for the fate of
their brave companions.
The garrifon now gave themfelves up for loft $ but
inftead of either capitulating or attempting to efcape,
they prepared for death, and paffed the night in prayer
and in receiving the facrament ; after which they em¬
braced one another tenderly, and then repaired to their
refpedlive polls j while fuch of the wrounded as had
been difabled from walking, were, at their own earneft
defire, carried to the fide of the breach, where they
waited, without difmay, for the approach of the Turkilh
army.
Early in the morning of the 23d of July, the Turks
advanced to the affault with loud Ihouts, as to certain
vi£lory, which they believed fo fmall a handful of men
as now remained in the fort would not dare to difpute
with them. In this expectation they were difappoint-
ed. I he garrifon being refolved on death, and de-
fpifing danger, were more than men j and exerted a
degree of prowefs and valour that filled their enemies
with amazement. The combat lafted upwards of four
[ 44° 1
M A L
hours, till not only every knight but every foldier had Malta,
fallen, except two or three who had laved themfelves
by fwimming. The Turkilh colours were then plant- , 13
ed on the ramparts 5 and the fleet entered the har- tlfar arJ
boar, which the fort commanded, in a kind of triumph, the ^ami;
\\ hen Multapha took a view of the fort, and examinedcut
its fize and fortifications, he could not refrain from
faying, “ What will not the father coll us (meaning
the town), when the fon, who is fo fmall, has coll lo
many thoufands of our braveft troops ?” But this re¬
flexion, far from exciting his admiration of that he¬
roic fortitude which he had found fo difficult to over¬
come, ferved only to infpire him with a brutal fury. 14
He ordered all liuh of the garrifon as were found Cnjelty 01
lying on the breach alive to be ripped open, and theirMuftaPhj
hearts torn out; and, as an iniult on the knights and
their religion, he caufed their dead bodies to be fearch-
ed for, and large gaflies to be made in them, in the
form of a crols ; after which he tied them on planks,
and threw them into the fea, to be carried by the
wind and tide to the town or Fort St Angelo.
The grand matter was at firft melted into tears at
this fhocking fptXacle j but his grief was foon con¬
verted into indignation and revenge : and thefe paf-
fions betrayed him into an adion unworthy of the ex- Is
alted charaXer which he bore. In order to teach theAndofthl
bafha, as he pretended, to make war with lefs barba-grand ma
rity, he caufed all the Turks whom he had taken pri-fter*
foners to be maffacred $ and then putting their heads
into his largeft cannon, he Ihot them into the Turkilh
camp.
In the fiege which has been related, the order loft
about 1500 men, including 130 of the bravett knights.
Muftapha vainly imagined, that, being intimidated
by the fate of their companions, they would be now
inclined to liften to terms of capitulation : and in this
hope, he fent an officer with a white flag to one of
the gates, attended by a Chriftian flare defigned to
ferve for his interpreter. The Turk was not allowed
to enter within the town $ but the Chriftian was ad¬
mitted, and was led through feveral ranks of foldiers
under arms, by an officer, who, after Ihowing him all
the fortifications of the place, defired him to take par¬
ticular notice of the depth and breadth of the ditch,
and faid to him, “ See there, the only fpot we can af¬
ford your general $ and there we hope foon to bury
him and all his janizaries.”
This infulting fpeech being reported by the Have,
excited in the fiery mind of the balha the higheft de¬
gree of wrath and indignation, and made him refolve
to exert himfelf to the utmoft in the profecution of
the liege. His troops, though greatly diminilhed,
were ftill fufficient to inveft at once both the town
and the fort of St Michael. He kept a conftant fire
on both j but he intended firft to apply to the reduc¬
tion of the latter, which he propofed to attack both
by land and water, at the extremity of the peninfula
on which it ftands. In order to accomplilh this de¬
fign, it was neceffary he Ihould have fome (hipping
introduced into the harbour for tranfporting his forces.
But the mouth of the harbour having been rendered
inacceffible by a great iron chain and the cannon of
St Angelo, his defign muft have been relinquilhed, if
Piali had not fuggefted an expedient againft which
the grand mailer had not provided. This was, to .
make
M A L
[ 44
vlalta. make the Chrifh'an Haves and the crews of the ftiips
draw a number of boats, by the Hrength of their
arms, over the neck of land on which Hood Fort St
Elmo. Of this propofal, which Muftapha immedi¬
ately adopted, information was carried to the grand
mafter by a Turkilh officer, j who, being by birth a
Greek, was touched fuddenly with remorfe, and de-
ferted to the Chriftians. In confequence of this intel¬
ligence, La Valette fet a great number of hands to
work in framing a ftacado along that part of the pro¬
montory where the Turks intended their attack 5 and
at another part, where the depth of the water or the
hardnefs of the bottom would not admit the ftacado,
he caufed ftrong intrenchments to be made upon the
beach. Muftapha, in the mean time, fired inceffantly
upon the fort, while the Haves and crews were em¬
ployed in tranfporting the boats over land into the
harbour. At length the bafha, judging that the
number of boats which he had tranfported would be
fufficient, and that the breaches which his artillery
had made were pradticable, refolved, wdthout further
delay, to make an attack both by fea and land. ' He
was the more confident of fuccefs, as, fince the taking
of St Elmo, he had received a confiderable reinforce¬
ment, by the arrival of Hafcem, fon of Barbarofla,
with 2500 feledl foldiers, commonly called the Bravoes
of Algiers. Hafcem, who poffeffed a confiderable
ffiare of his father’s fire, and was ambitious to diftin-
guiffi himfelf in the fultan’s fervice, begged of Mufta¬
pha to intruft him with the affault of Fort St Mi¬
chael 5 and vaunted, with his natural arrogance, that
he wmuld foon make himfelf mafter of it fw'ord-in-
hand. The bafha, whether from an opinion of his va¬
lour, or an intention to make him learn at his own ex¬
pence the folly of his prefumption, readily complied
with his requeft j and, having added 6000 men to his
Algerines, he promifed to fupport him with the reft of
his army.
Hafcem divided his forces with Candelifla, an old
corfair, his lieutenant j to whom he committed the at¬
tack by fea, whilft he referved that on the land-fide to
himfelf.
Candeliffa having put his troops on board the boats,'
fet out with drums beating, and hautboys and other
mufical inftruments playing, preceded by a boat filled
with Mahometan priefts, feme of whom were employ¬
ed in offering prayers to heaven for his fuccefs, or in
finging hymns \ while others had books in their hands,
out of which they read imprecations againft the Chrif¬
tians. Candeliffa attempted firft to break down the
ftacado which had been formed to obftruft his land¬
ing *, but finding it much ftronger than he expe-ft d,
and that, while he was employed in demolifhing it, his
troops muft fuffer greatly from the enemy’s fire, he
thought it would be eafier to make a defcent on that
part of the ffiore which the grand mafter had ftrength-
ened with intrenchments. At this important poft, the
i5 Chriftian troops were commanded by an ancient knight
the Turks of the name of Gnimeran. This experienced officer
referved his fire till the Turks had advanced within
Jau hter^ a diftanee of the Ihore, when, by a fingle dif-
charge, he killed about 400 men. This did not pre¬
vent the reft from approaching. Candelilfa puffied
forwards while the Chriftians were loading their can¬
non, and landed at the head of his Algerines. But
Vol. XII. Part II.
Malta.
i ] M A L
Guimeran having referved feme cannon charged with
grape ftiot, did dreadful execution among them after
they had landed, and many of them began to Hy to
their boats : which Candeliffa oblerving, he command¬
ed the boats to be put off to a little diftance from
the ffiore. His troops, perceiving-then that they muft
either die or conquer, took courage from defpair, and
advanced boldly to the intrenchment, with ladders for
fcaling it in one hand and their fabres in the other.
The combatants on both fides difplayed the moft in¬
trepid valour. Great numbers fell, and the ditch was
choaked with blood, and with the bodies of the dead
and wounded. The Turks at laft, after an. engage¬
ment of five hours, reached the top of the intrench¬
ment, and there planted their enfigns. The knights,
ftung with ffiame on account of their retreat, return¬
ed with redoubled ardour. But they would probably
have been overpowered by the fuperior number of the
enemy, had not the grand mafter fent them a feafon-
able reinforcement, under the admiral de Giou and the
Chevalier de Quiney 5 who fell upon the Algerines
and Turks with a degree of fury that ftruck terror in¬
to Candeliffa himfelf, who was noted for his intrepidi¬
ty. Having ordered the boats to be brought nearer
the ftiore, he was among the nrft who fled. His bra¬
voes fought defperately for feme time after he had left
them ; but they were at length thrown down from the
intrenchments, and compelled to fly to their boats with
the utmoft precipitation. The Chriftians purfued them,
and the batteries continued firing on them without in-
termiffion. Many of the boats were funk j the water
was covered with dead bodies, mangled limbs, fhields,
and helmets. Of the 4000 who had been fent on this
enterprife, fcarcely 500 remained, and many of thefe
were dangeroufly wounded.
Hafcem was not more fortunate in his affault by
land than Candeliffa was by fea. After having been
repulfed at one breach with great Haughter, he rallied
his troops, and led them on to another, where he fought
long and dtfperately, till, moft of the bravoes having
fallen by his fide, he was obliged, with much relu&ance
and forrow, to found a retreat.
Muftapha, not unmindful of his promife to fupport
him, no fooner perceived him beginning to retire, than
he ordered the janizaries, whom he kept under arms,
to advance. The garrifen had maintained an engage-Incredible
ment with Hafcem for five hours, in the middle of the™^^
day, and in the hotteft feafon of the year •, yet, as if
they had not been fubjedl: to the wants and weakneffes
of humanity, they advanced beyond the breach to
meet the janizaries, and fought apparently with as
much vigour and fortitude as before. By the power
of fupevior numbers, they were compelled to fall back
within the breach. But there they made the moft def-
perate refiftance ; and, being reinforced by De Giou
and De Quiney, with the troops which had triumph- '
ed over Candeliffa, they at laft repulled the janizaries
with dreadful flaughter \ after having loft more than
40 knights, and 2co of the brave ft of the common
men. v
Muftapha, enraged by this invincible obftinacy which
the Chriftians difplayed in their defence, and dreading
that the Spaniffi fuccours, which had been already de¬
layed much longer than he expeffed, might foon ar¬
rive, refolved now to employ his whole force at once$
3 K ' and
*7
M A L [ 442 ] M A L
Malta, and while he himfelf profecuted the fiege of Fort St
~ Michael with one half of his troops, to employ the
other, under Piali, againft the town. More batteries
were raifed ; the trenches were advanced fiill nearer
than before; bridges of fail-yards and mails were
thrown over the ditches •, mines, notwithflanding the
hard and rocky foil, were fprung 5 affaults were repeat¬
ed without number j and the two balhas, emulous of
one another, and each of them agitated with continual
anxiety left viftory Ihould declare firft for his com¬
petitor, exhibited the moft fnining proofs of perfonal
courage, and exhaufted all the art of war then known
in the world. Yet, through the determined bravery
of the knights, conduced by the grand matter with
18- confummate prudence and indefatigable vigilance, the
A great Turks were baffled in every attempt, and repulfed with
Turks ^aug^ter* Muftapha flattered himfelf once with the
ftroyed by fanguine hopes of fuccefs on his part, from a ma-
a contri- chine invented by his principal engineer, in the form
vance of of a huge calk bound ftrongly with iron hoops, and
their own. filled gunpowder, nails, chains, bullets, and fuch
other inftruments of death. After fetting fire to a
train which was faftened to this machine, it was thrown,
by the force of an engine, upon a ravelin that was the
principal defence of the fort. But the garrifon, undif-
raayed, found means, before it caught fire, to call it
out again into the midft of the aflailants. In a mo¬
ment afterwards it burft with dreadful fury, and filled
the Turks with confternation. The knights then Talli¬
ed out upon them fword in hand 5 and, taking advan¬
tage of their confufion, killed many of them, and put
the reft to flight.
Piali had, on fome occafions, ftill more reafon than
Muftapha to entertain the hopes of victory, although
the town was much ftrqnger than the fort, and La Va-
lette commanded there in perfon. By his batteries he
had demolilhed all the outworks of the place, and had
made an immenfe breach in the wall. While his troops
were engaged in a furious affault, that engroffed the
whole attention of the belieged from morning till night,
he employed a great number of pioneers in raifing a
cavalier or platform of earth and ftenes, clofe by the'
breach, and fo high as to overlook the parapet. Night,
in the mean time, came on, and prevented him from
carrying any further this great advantage y but he
doubted not that next day he fhould be able to make
himfelf matter of the place.
The grand As foon as he had draw n off his forces, a council of
mafter pre- the order was convened, and moft of the knights were
vents the of opinion that the town w as no longer tenable ; that
fronfaban t:^e ^ort^cat*ons which ftill remained (hould be blown
doning the" UP > anc^ t^lat t^ie garrif°n ar|d inhabitants ftiould retire
sawn. into the eaftle of St Angelo. But the grand mafter
received this propofal with horror and indignation.
“ This would be in effeft (faid he), to deliver the
whole ifland into the hands of the infidels. Fort St
Michael, which has been fo gallantly defended, and
which is preferved by its communication with the town,
would thus be foon reduced to the neceflity of furren¬
dering. There is no room in the caftle of St Angelo
for the inhabitants and troops; nor, if there were
room, is there water in that fort for fo great a num¬
ber.”' It was then propofed, that at leaft the relics of
the faints and the ornaments of the churches ftiould be
carried into the cattle; and the knights earneftly en¬
treated the grand mafter to retire into it himfelf, af- Malta.
Turing him that they would conduct the defence with
the utmoft vigour and vigilance. “ No, my brethren
(he replied), what you propofe as to the facred things
would ferve only to intimidate the foldiers. We mult
conceal our apprehenfions. It is here we muft either
die or conquer. And is it poffible that I, at the age
of 71, can end my life fo honourably as in fighting,
together with my friends and brethren, againft the
implacable enemies of our holy faith ?” He then told
them what he thought proper to be done, and proceed¬
ed inftantly to put it into execution. Having called
all the foldiers from Fort St Angelo, except a few who
were neceffary for managing the artillery, he employed
them and the inhabitants all night in throwing up in-
trenchments within the breach ; after which he fent
out fome of the braveft knights, with a feledl body of
troops, to make an attempt on the cavalier. Thefe
men ftole foftly along the foot of the wall till they
arrived at the place appointed ; when they fet up a
loud Ihout, and attacked the guards whom Piali had
left there with fo much fury, that the Turks, believing
the whole garrifon had fallen upon them, abandoned
their poft, and fled precipitately to their camp.
The cavalier was immediately fortified, a battery
of cannon planted on it, and a parapet raifed on
the fide towards the enemy. And thus the breach
was rendered impradlicable ; the town put in greater
fecurity than before; and a work, which had been
devifed for its deftrutftion, converted into a bulwark
for its defence.
The grand mafter had now greater confidence than
ever of being able to hold out till the Spaniards ftiould
come to his relief. In confequenee of the affuranees
given by Philip and the Sicilian viceroy, he had, long
before this time, entertained the hopes of their ar¬
rival ; and had often earneftly folicited the viceroy to
haften his departure from Meffina. The condu&of this
nobleman was long exceedingly myfterious. The pa¬
tience of the knights was worn out by his delays; and
they, and many others, fufpe&ed that the real motive
of his conduct was the dread of encountering with an
admiral of fo confiderable reputation as Piali. But it
afterwards appeared that the viceroy had acted agree¬
ably to his inftru&ions from the court of Spain. For
although Philip was, for the reafons above mentioned,
fincerely interefted in the prefervation of the knights,
and had amufed them with the moft flattering promifies
of affiftance ; yet he feems from the firft to have re-
folved not to expofe himfelf to danger on that account,
and to avoid, if poffible, a general engagement.
Philip was affedted by their danger only fo far as
it threatened the tranquillity of his own dominions*
He had refolved to interpofe in their behalf, rather
than to fuffer them to be overpowered; but he appears
to have been very little touched with their calamities,
and to have intended to leave them, to themfelves, as
long as there was any profpedf of their being able to
make refiftance ; by doing which he confidered, that
he would not only preferve his ownftrength entire, but
might afterwards engage with the Turks, when they
were exhaufted by the operations of the fiege.
Philip adhered inflexibly to this plan, notwithftanding
the grand matter’s repeated importunities, much longer
than was confiftent with his own felfiih views. For,
without
M A L
t 443 1
M A L
Malta.
without a degree of fortitude and prowefs on the part
of the garrifon, and a degree of wifdom, vigilance,
and magnanimity on that of the grand mailer, infi¬
nitely higher than there could be reafon to expeft, it
mull have been impoffible for fuch a handful of men to
have withilood, for fo long a time, fo great a force,
and fuch mighty efforts, as were employed to reduce
them. Even the death of the grand mailer alone,
whofe perfon was expofed to perpetual danger, would
have proved fatal to the knights, long before Philip
fent orders to his viceroy to give them any effeftual
fupport ; and in this cafe, as his own dominions or his
fleet would have been immediately attacked, he would
probably have had little reafon to be fatisfied with the
timid ungenerous counfels which he purfued.
Whatever judgment may be formed on this head,
the viceroy did not think himfelf at liberty to yield to
the repeated applications of the grand mailer, till the
operations of the fiege began to relax, and the Turkifh
forces were reduced from 45,000 to 15,000 or 16,000 5
of whom many were worn out with the fatigues which
they had undergone, and others rendered unfit for ac¬
tion by a bloody flux, which for feveral weeks had
raged amongft them.
In this fituation of affairs, when it was probable that
the knights would, without afliftance, have compelled
the Turks to raife the fiege, the viceroy let the grand
tnafter know, that he had now received fuch inftruc-
tions from the king, as put it in his power to {how his
attachment to the order: that he was not indeed per¬
mitted to attack the Turkifh fleet; but that he would
immediately bring him a flrong body of troops, whofe
commanders (as he himfelf mult return to Sicily) were
to be entirely fubjedl to the grand mailer’s authority
20 till the enemy fhould be expelled.
The knights The viceroy, although flill fufpefled of interpofing
receive a unneceffary delays, at length fulfilled his promife ; and
on the 7 th of September landed 6000 men, under Don
Alvaro de Sande and Afcanio della Corna, in that
part of the ifland which lay at the greateft diflance
from the Turks j after which, he immediately carried
back the fleet to Sicily.
In the mean time, intelligence being brought to
Muflapha that the Spaniards were landed, and march¬
ing towards him, he was thrown into the mofl dread¬
ful conflernation. Senfible that his foldiers were much
difheartened by their ill fuccefs, he imagined that he
was about to be attacked by a fuperior army, confift-
. ing of the braveil and befl difciplined troops in Spain.
The Turks Without waiting for information of their number, he
raife the forthwith raifed the fiege, drew his garrifon out of St
Elmo, and, leaving all his heavy cannon behind him,
embarked his troops with as much precipitation as if
the Spaniards with fuperior forces had been in fight.
He had fcarcely got ©n board when a defer ter ar¬
rived from the Spanifh camp, and informed him, that
with 15,000 or 16,000 men, he had fled before an ar¬
my that did not exceed 6000, having no general at
their head, and commanded by officers who were in¬
dependent of one another. The bafha was overwhelm¬
ed with ftiame and vexation by this intelligence, and
would have immediately difembarked •, but this, he
knew, he durft not attempt without confulting Piali,
Hafcem, and his other principal officers.
While he was deliberating upon it, the grand ma-
1 einferce*
ment
fsege in a
panic.
fter improved to the befl advantage the leifure that was Mak»- ,
afforded him. He employed all the inhabitants, men,
women, and children, as well as the foldiers, in filling
up the enemy’s trenches, and demolifhing their works j
and put a garrifon without delay into Fort St Elmo; in
which the Turks now beheld from their Ihips the ftand-
ard of St John eroded, where that of Mahomet had
lately flood.
This demonflrated to Muftapha how much new la¬
bour awaited him in cafe he fliould return to the fiege;
but being enraged againfl himfelf on account of th©
precipitancy of his retreat, and difijuieted at the
thoughts of the reception which he had reafon to ex-
pedl from Solyman, he wifhed to atone for his impru¬
dence, and to wipe off the reproach in which it had
involved him, by vidlory or death. Piali, who, from
his jealoufy of the baffia’s credit with the fultan, was
not forry for the failure of his enterprife, reprefented
in a council of war convened on this occafion, 1 hat as
the troops were much difpirited and worn out, it would
be expofing them to certain deftrudtion, either to lead
them againfl; the enemy, or to refume the operations of
the fiege. But the majority of the council were of a
different opinion; and it was refolved to land the forces
again without delay. _ # 23
The Turkiffi foldiers complained bitterly of this un- They re-
expedled refolution, and obeyed the orders to difem-tuin. but
bark with the greateft reluftance. Their officers were tle ea ’
obliged to employ threats with fome, and force with
others. At length the number intended was put on
fhore, and Muftapha fet out at their head in fearch of
the enemy.
The grand mailer had not neglefted to give early
notice of their march to the Spaniffi commanders,
who had intrenched their little army on a fteep hill,
which the Turks would have found almoft inacceffibte ;
and it was the opinion of fome of the principal offi¬
cers, that they fhould avail themfelves of the advan¬
tage of their fituation, and ftand on their defence.
But this propofal was rejected with difdain by the bold
adventurous De Sande, and the greateft part of the
Spaniffi officers ; and the troops were led out of their
encampment, to meet the enemy in the open field.
This conduct, more fortunate perhaps than prudent,
contributed to increafe the dejection of the Turkifh
foldiers, and to facilitate their defeat. Having been
dragged againft their inclination to the field of battle,
and being attacked by the Spaniards with great fury,
both in front and flank, they fcarcely fought, but,
being ftruck with a fudden panic, fled with the utmofl
precipitation.
Muftapha, confounded and enraged by this pufilla-
nimous behaviour of his troops, was hurried along by
the violent tide of the fugitives. He fell twice from
his horfe, and would have been taken prifoner if his
officers had not refcued him. The Spaniards purfued
brifkly till they came to the fea fhore. There Piali
had his boats ready to receive the Turks, and a number
©f ffiallops filled with mufketeers drawn up to favour
their efcape. Without this precaution, they mull all
have periffied ; and, even notwithftanding the protec¬
tion which it afforded them, the number of their killed
amounted to 2000 men, while the vi&ors loft only 13
or 14 at moft.
Such, after four months continuance, was the con-
3 K 2 clufxon
•M A > L
Malta.
23 .
Defcription
dufion of the fiege of Malta, which will be for ever
memorabie on account of that txlraofdinary difplay of
the moft generous and heroic valour, by which the
knights, fo few in number, were enabled to baffle the
moli vigorous efforts which could be made to fubdue
them by the molt powerful monarch in the world. The
news of their deliverance gave univerfal joy to the
Chriitian powers } and the name of the grand mailer
excited everywhere the higheft admiration and applaufe.
Congratulations were fent him from every quarter ; and
in many ftates public rejoicings were celebrated on ac¬
count of his fuccefs.
With this fiege is concluded every thing of import¬
ance in the hiftory of Malta. The power of the Turks
began about this time to be fo much cireumfcribed, that
they ceafed to be formidable to the Chriftian nations,
and the knights of Malta had no longer an opportunity
of exerting their valour as formerly. The belt defec¬
tion of Malta we have met with is that given by Mr
Brydone.
ofthe ill and “ The aPProach of.the ifland (fa7s ^e), is very fine,
$tc. "although the fhore is rather low and rocky. It is
everywhere made inacceflible to an enemy by an infi¬
nite number of fortifications. The rock, in many
places, has been doped into the form of a glacis, with
_ Itrong parapets and intrenchments running behind
it.—On getting afhore we found ourfelves in a new
world indeed—the ftreets (of Valetta) crowded with
well-drelfed people, who have all the appeatance of
health and affluence j and we were conducted by the
Englifh conful to an inn, which had more the appear¬
ance of a palace.
“ After dinner we went to vifit the principal villas
of the ifland 5 particularly thofe of the grand mafler
and the general of the galleys, which lie contiguous
to one another. Thefe are nothing great or magni¬
ficent ; but they are admirably contrived for a hot
climate, where, of all things, (hade is the moft de-
firable. The orange groves are indeed very fine, and
the fruit they bear fuperior to any thing of the kind in
Spain or Portugal.
“ The afpeft of the country is far from being pleaf-
ing : the whole ifland is a great rock of very white
freeftone ; and the foil that covers this rock is, in
moft places, not more than five or fix inches deep j yet,
what is Angular, we found their crop in general was
exceedingly abundant. They account for it from the
copious dews that fall during the fpring and fummer
months : and pretend likewife that there is a moifture
in the rock below the foil, that is of great advantage
to the corn and cotton, keeping its roots perpetually
moift and cool *, without which Angular quality, they
fay, they could have no crop at all, the heat of the
fun being fo exceedingly violent.—The whole ifland
produces corn only fufficient to fupply its inhabitants
for five months or little more ; but the crop they moft
depend upon is the cotton. They begin to fow it about
the middle of May, and continue till the middle of
June ; and the time of reaping is in the month of
Odlober and beginning of November.
“ f hey pretend that the cotton produced from this
plant, which is fown and reaped in four months, is of
a much fuperior quality to that of the cotton-tree.
I compared them ; but I cannot fay I found it fo :
this is indeed the fineft ; but that of the cotton-tree is
4
[ 444 1
M A L
by much the ftrongeft texture. The plant rifes to the
height of a toot and a half j and is covered with a
number of nuts or pods full of cotton : Thefe, when
ripe, they are at great pain? to cut oft every morning
before funrife •, for the heat of the fun immediately
turns the cotton yellow which indeed we law from
thole pods they lave tor feed.
“ They manufacture their cotton into a great va¬
riety of ftuffs. Their ftockings are exceedingly fine.
Some of them, they allured us, had been fold for Itii
fequins a pair. Their coverlets and blankets are
elteemed all over Europe. Of thefe the principal ma-
nufa&ures are eftablilhed in the little illand of Gozzo
where the people are faid to be more induftrious than
thofe of Malta, as they are more excluded from the
world, and have fewer inducements to idlenefe. Here
the fugar cane is ftill cultivated with fuccefs, though
not in any confiderable quantity.
“ The Maltefe oranges certainly deferve the cha-
rader they have of being the fineft in the world. The
feafon continues for upwards of feven months, from
November till the middle of June ; during which time
thofe beautiful trees are always covered with abun¬
dance of delicious fruit. Many of them are of the red
kind, much fuperior, in my opinion, to the others,
which are rather too lufeious. They are produced, I
am told, from the common orange bud, ingrafted on
the pomegranate ftock. The juice of this fruit is as
red as blood, and of a fine flavour. The greateft
part of their crop is fent in prefents to the different
courts of Europe, and to the relations of the che¬
valiers.
“ The induftry of the Maltefe in cultivating their
little ifland is inconceivable. There is not an inch
of ground loft in any part of it j and where there was
not foil enough, they have brought over {hips and
boats loaded with it from Sicily, where there is plen¬
ty, and to fpare. The whole ifland is full of enclofures
of freeftone, which give the country a very uncouth
and barren afpeft ; and in fummer refleft fuch a light
and heat, that it is exceedingly difagreeable and offen-
five to the eyes. The inclofures are very fmall and ir¬
regular, according to the inclination of the ground.
This, they fay, they are obliged to obferve, notwith-
ftanding the deformity it occafions ; otherwife the
floods, to which they are fubjedl, would foon carry oft
their foil.
“ The ifland is covered over with country houfes
and villages, befldes feven cities, for fo they term
them j but there are only two, the Valetta, and Citta
Vecchia, that by any means deferve that appellation.
Every little village has a noble church, elegantly finifli-
ed, and adorned with ftatues of marble, rich tapeftry,
and a large quantity of fllver plate.
“ The city of Valetta has certainly the happieft
fituation that can be imagined. It Hands upon a pe-
ninfula between two of the fineft ports in the world,
which are defended by almoft impregnable fortifica¬
tions. That on the fouth fide of the city is the
largeft. It runs about two miles into the heart of the
ifland ; and is fo very deep, and furrounded by fueff
high grounds and fortifications, that they affured us
the largeft (hips of war might ride here in the moft
ftormy weather, almoft without a cable.
“ This beautiful bafon is divided into five diftindl
harbours,
Malta.
M A L [ 445 ] M A L
harbours, all equally lafe, and each capable of con¬
taining an immenfe number of dripping. The mouth
of the harbour is fcarcely a quarter of a mile broad,
and is commanded on each iide by batteries that
would tear the ifrongeft drip to pieces before die could
enter. Beddes this, it is fronted by a quadruple bat¬
tery, one above the other, the larged of which is a
fisur d'eau, or on a level with the water. Thefe are
mounted with about 80 of their heavied artillery : fo
that this harbour, I think, may really be confidered as
impregnable; and indeed the Turks have ever found
it fo, and I believe ever will.
“ The harbour on the north fide of the city, al¬
though they only ufe it for fidring, and as a place of
quarantine, would, in any other part of the world,
be confidered as inedimable. It is likewife defended
by very drong works; and in the centPe of the bafon
is an illand on which they have a built a cadle and a
lazaret.
“ The fortifications of Malta are indeed a mod
ftupendous work. All the beaded catacombs of Rome
and Naples are a trifle to the immenfe excavations
that have been made in this little ifland. The ditches,
of a vad fize, are all cut out of the folid rock. Thefe
extend for a great many miles, and raife our adonilh-
ment to think that fo fmall a date has ever been able
to make them.
“ One fide of the ifland is fo completely fortified
by nature, that there was nothing left for art. The
rock is of a great height, and abfolutely perpendicu¬
lar from the fea for feveral miles. It is very Angu¬
lar, that on this fide there are dill the vediges of fe¬
veral ancient roads, with the tracks of carriages worn
deep in the rocks. Thefe roads are now terminated
by the precipice, with the fea beneath ; and {how, to
a demondration, that this ifland has formerly been of
a much larger fize than it is at prefent ; but the con-
vulfion that occafioned its diminution is probably much
beyond the reach of any hidory or tradition. It has
been often obferved, notwithflanding the very great
diflance of Mount jTttna, that this ifland has generally
been more or lefs affe&ed by its eruptions ; and they
think it probable, that on fome of thefe occafions a
great part of it may have been ftiaken into the fea.
“ One half of Mount ./Etna is clearly difeovered
from Malta. They reckon the didance near 200 Ita¬
lian miles. And the people of Malta affirm, that, in
great eruptions of the mountain, their whole ifland is
illuminated, and from the reflexion in the water there
appears a great track of fire all the way from Malta
to Sicily. The thundering of the mountain is like¬
wife diftinftly heard.
“ We made an expedition through the ifland in
coaches drawn by one mule each ; the only kind of ve¬
hicle the ifland affords. The catacombs, not far from
the ancient city of Melita, are a great work; they are
faid to extend for 15 miles under ground. Many peo¬
ple, they affure us, have been loft in them by advan¬
cing too far; the prodigious number of branches mak¬
ing it next to impoffible to find the way out again.
The great fource of water that fupplies the city of Va-
letta takes its rife near to this place ; and there is an
aqueduift, compofed of fome thoufand arches, that con¬
veys it from thence to the city. The whole of this
immenfe work was finiftied at the private expence of
one of the grand mafters,
“ Not iar from the old city there is a fmall church
dedicated to St Paul ; and juft by the church a mira¬
culous ftatue of the faint, with a viper on his hand ;
fuppofed to be placed on the very i'pot where the houfe
flood in which he was received after his fliipwreck on
the ifland, and where he {hook the viper off his hand
into the fire without being hurt by it: at which time
the Maltefe affure us, the faint curled all the venomous
animals of the ifland, and baniffred them for ever.
Whether this be the caufe of it or not, the faft is cer¬
tain that there are no venomous animals in Malta.
They affured us, that vipers had been brought from Si¬
cily, and died almoft immediately on their arrival.
“ Adjoining to the church is the celebrated grotto
in which the faint was imprifoned. It is looked upon
with the utmoft reverence and veneration ; and if the
ftories they tell of it be true, it is well entitled to it all.
It is exceedingly damp, and produces (I believe by a
kind of petrifaction from the water) a whitilh kind of
ftone, w hich, they affure us, when reduced to powder,
is a fovereign remedy in many difeafes, and faves the
lives of thoufands every year. There is not a houfe in
the ifland that is not provided with it : and they tell
us there are many boxes of it fent annually, not only
to Sicily and Italy, but likewife to the Levant, and to
the Eaft Indies; and (what is confidered as a daily
{landing miracle) notwithftanding this perpetual con-
fumption, it has never been exhaufted, nor even fenfi-
bly diminiflied ; the faint always taking care to fupply
them with a freflr quantity the day following. I tafted.
fome of it, and believe it is a very harmlefs thing. It
taftes like exceeding bad magnefia, and, I believe, has
pretty much the fame effedis. They give about a tea-
fpoonful of it to children in the fmallpox and in fe¬
vers. It produces a copious fweat about an hour after ;
and, they fay, never fails to be of fervice. It is like¬
wife efteemed a certain remedy againft the bite of all
venomous animals. There is a very fine ftatue of St
Paul, in the middle of this grotto, to w hich they aferibe
great powers.
“ The grand mafter of the knights of Malta is more
abfolute, and poffeffes more power, than moft fovereign
princes. His titles are, ferene highnefs and eminence ;
and his houfehold attendance and court are all very
princely. As he has the difpofal of all lucrative of¬
fices, he makes of his councils what he pleafes ; be-
fides, in all the councils that compofe the juriididlion
of this little nation, he himfelf prefides, and has two
votes. He has the difpofal of 21 commanderies, and
one priory, every five years ; and as there is always a
number of expedlants, he is very much courted. He
is chofen by a committee of 21 ; which committee is
nominated by the feven nations, three out of each na¬
tion. The eledlion muft be over within three days of
the death of the former grand mafter ; and, during
thefe three days, there is fcarce a foul that fleeps at
Malta: all is cabal and intrigue; and moft of the
knights are malked, to prevent their particular at¬
tachments and connexions from being known: the
moment the eleXion is over, every thing returns to its
former channel.
“ The land force of Malta is equal to the number
M A L [ 446 ] M A L
Malta. 0f men in the ifland fit to bear arms. They have about
regulars belonging to the (hips of war j and 150
compofe the guard of the prince. The two iflands of
Malta and Gozzo contain about 150,000 inhabitants.
The men are exceeding robuft and hardy. I have feen
them row for 10 or 12 hours without intermiflion, and
without even appearing to be fatigued. Their fea force
confifts of 4 galleys, 3 galliots, 4 fhips of 60 guns, and
a frigate of 36, befides a number of the quick-failing
little veffels called fcampavias (literally runaways').
Their (hips, galleys, and fortifications, are not only
well fupplied with excellent artillery, but they have
likewife invented a kind of ordnance of their own, un¬
known to all the world befides. For we found, to our
no fmall amazement, that the rocks were not only cut
into fortifications, but likewife into artillery, to defend
thefe fortifications, being hollowed out, in many places,
into the form of immenle mortars. The charge is faid
to be about a barrel of gunpowder, over which they
place a large piece of wood, made exadlly to fit the
mouth of the chamber. On this they heap a great
quantity of cannon-balls, (hells, or other deadly ma¬
terials 5 and when an enemy’s (hip approaches the
harbour, they fire the whole into the air: and they
pretend it produces a very great effett j making a
fhower for 200 or 300 yards round, that would link any
veffel.
“ Notwithfianding the fuppofed bigotry of the
Maltefe, the fpirit of toleration is fo ftrong, that a
mofque has been lately built for their fworn enemies
the Turks. Here the poor (laves are allowed to enjoy
their religion in peace. It happened lately that fome
idle boys difturbed them during their fervice $ they
were immediately fent to prifon, and feverely punilhed.
The police indeed i« much better regulated than in the
neighbouring countries, and affaflinations and rob¬
beries are very uncommon j the laft of which crimes
the grand mafter puniftres with the utmoft feverity.
He is faid to be much more relaxed with regard to the
firft.
“ Perhaps Malta is the only country in the world
where duelling is permitted by law. As their whole
eftablilhment is originally founded on the wild and ro¬
mantic principles of chivalry, they have ever found it
too inconfillent with thofe principles to abelilh duel¬
ling ; but they have laid it under fuch reftridtions as
greatly to leffen its danger. Thefe are curious enough.
The duellifts are obliged to decide their quarrel in one
particular (Ireet of the city $ and if they prefume to
fight anywhere elfe, they are liable to the rigour of
the law. But, what is not lefs lingular, but much
more in their favour, they are obliged, under the moft
fevere penalties, to put up their fwords, when ordered
to do fo by a woman, a priefl, or a knight. Under thefe
limitations, in the midft of a great city, one would
imagine it almoft impoflible that a duel could ever end
in blood however, this is not the cafe : a crofs is al¬
ways painted oppofite to the fpot where a knight has
been killed, in commemoration of his fall. We count¬
ed about 20 of thefe croffes.
“ About three months ago (Mr Brydone’s letter is
dated June 7. 1770), two knights had a difpute at a
billiard table. One of them, after giving a great deal
of ’bufive language, added a blow 5 but, to the afto
nifhment of all Malta (in whofe annals there is not a
2
fimilar inftance), after fo great a provocation he ab- Main,
folutely refufed to fight his antagonift. The challenge '’■■“V'*
was repeated, and he had time to refleft on the confe-
quences j but (till he refufed to enter the lifts. He was
condemned to make the amende honorable in the great
church of St John for 45 days fucceffively j then to be
confined in a dungeon, without light, for five years •,
after which, he is to remain a prifoner in the caltlefor
life. The unfortunate young man who received this
blow is likewife in difgrace, as he has not had an op¬
portunity of wiping it out in the blood of his adver-
fary.
“ The horfe-races of Malta are of a very uncommon
kind. They are performed without either faddle,
bridle, whip, or fpur ; and yet the horfes are faid to
run full fpeed, and to afford a great deal of diverfion.
They are accuftomed to the ground for fome weeks
before j and although it is entirely over rock and pave¬
ment, there are very feldom any accidents. They have
races of affes and mules performed in the fame manner
four times every year. The rider is only furniftied with
a machine like a (hoemaker’s awl, to prick on his courfer
if he is lazy.
“ As Malta is an epitome of all Europe, and an
affemblage of the younger brothers, who are common¬
ly the beft, of its firft families, it is probably one of
the beft academies for politenefs in this part of the
globe $ befides, where every one is entitled by law as
well as cuftom to demand “fatisfaftion for the lead
breach of it, people are under a neceflity of being very
exaft and circumfped, both with regard to their words
and aftions.”
Malta was taken by the French army under General
Bonaparte, deftined to invade Egypt, in the year
I799, but foon after retaken by the Britifti, and agreed
to be given up to the knights of St John of Jerufalem,
by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. The Britifti troops
did not evacuate the ifland even after this treaty, as
the government infifted on retaining it for 10 years,
which propofal was rejefted by France, and formed
one caufe of the recommencement of hoftilities in June
i8o3\ . '
Knights of MALTA, otherwife called Hofpitalers of
St John of Jerufalem, a religious military order, whofe
refidence is in the ifland of Malta, fituated in the
Mediterranean fea, upon the coaft of Africa. The
Knights of Malta, fo famous for defending Chriften-
dom, had their rife as follows :
Some time before the journey of Godfrey of Bouil¬
lon into the Holy Land, fome Neapolitan merchants,
who traded in the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph
of Egypt to build a houfe for thofe of their nation
who came thither on pilgrimage, upon paying an an¬
nual tribute. Afterwards they built two churches, and
received the pilgrims with great zeal and charity. This
example being followed by others, they founded a
church in honour of St John, and an hofpital for the
fick *, whence they took the name of Hofpitalers. A
little after Godfrey of Bouillon had taken Jerufalem,
in 1099, they began to be diftinguiftied by black ha¬
bits and a crofs with eight points j and, befides the or¬
dinary vows, they made another, which was to defend
the pilgrims againft the infults of the infidels. This
foundation was completed in 1104, in the reign of
Baldwin j and fo their order became military, into
which
M A L
[ 44-7 1
M A L
which many perfons of quality entered, and changed
1 the name of hofpitalers into that of knights.
When Jerusalem was taken, and the Chriftians loft
their power in the Eaft, the knights retired to Acre
or Ptolemais, which they defended valiantly in 1290.
Then they followed the king of Cyprus, who gave
them Limiffon in his dominions, where they ftaid till
1310. That fame year they took Rhodes, under the
grand matter Foulques de Villaret, a Frenchman j and
next year defended it againft an army of Saracens :
lince which the grand matters have ufed thefe four let¬
ters, F. E. R. T. i. e. Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit;
and the order was from thence called knights of
Rhodes.
In 1522, Solyman having taken Rhodes, the knights
retired into Candia, and thence into Sicily. In 1530,
Charles V. gave them the ifland of Malta, to cover his
kingdom of Sicily from the Turks. In 1566, Soly-
man befieged Malta j but it was gallantly defended by
the grand matter John de Valette Parifot, and the
Turks obliged to quit the ifland with great lofs.
The knights confifted of eight different languages
or nations, of which the Englilh were formerly the
fixth ; but at prefent they are but feven, the Engliflr
having withdrawn themfelves. The firft is that of Pro¬
vence, whofe chief is grand commendator of religion •,
the fecond of Auvergne, whofe chief is marefchal of
the order j the third of France, whofe chief is grand
hofpitaler ; the fourth of Italy, and their chief, admi¬
ral ; the fifth of Arragon, and their chief, grand con-
fervator j the fixth of Germany, and their chief, grand
bailiff of the order ■, the feventh of Caftile, and their
chief, grand chancellor. The chief of the Englifh
was grand commander of the cavalry.
None are admitted into this order but fuch as are of
noble birth both by father and mother’s fide for four
generations, excepting the natural fons of kings and
princes. The knights are of two forts : thofe who have
a right to be candidates for the dignity of grand maf-
ter, called grand crofles ; and thofe who are only knights
ajfijlants, who are taken from good families. They ne¬
ver marry j yet have continued from 1090 to the pre¬
fent time.
The order confifts of three eftates $ the knights,
chaplains, and fervants at arms. There are alfo priefts
who officiate in the churches *, friar-fervants, who affift
at the offices $ and donnes or demi-crojjes ; but thefe
are not reckoned as conftituent parts of the body. This
divifion was made in 1130, by the grand matter Rai-
mond du Puy.
The government of the order is mixed, being part¬
ly monarchical, and partly ariftocratical. The grand
matter is fovereign, coins money, pardons criminals,
and gives the places of grand priors, bailiffs, knights,
&c. The ordinary council is compofed of the grand
matter and the grand croffes. Every language has fe-
veral grand priories, and every priory a certain num¬
ber of commanderies.
The knights are received into this order, either by
undergoing the trials prefcribed by the ftatutes, or by
difpenfations. The difpenfations are obtained either by
the pope’s brief, or by a general chapter of the order,
and are granted in cafe of fome defeat as to the mobi¬
lity of their pedigree, efpecially on the mother’s fide.
The knights are .received, either as of age, under mi¬
nority, or pages to the grand matter. They mutt be
16 years old complete before they are received : they
enter into the noviciate at 17, and are profeffed at 18.
They fometimes admit infants of one year old j but
the expence is about 4000 livres. The grand matter
has 16 pages who ferve him, from 12 to 16 years of
age. The knights wear on the left fide of their cloak
or waiftcoat a crofs of white waxed cloth, with eight
points, which is their true badge $ that of gold being
only for ornament. When they go to war againft the
Turks, they wear a red caffock, with a great white crofs
before and behind, without points, which are the arms
of the religion. The ordinary habit of the grand matter
is a fort of caffock of tabby-cloth, tied about with a
girdle, at which hangs a great purfe, to denote the
charitable inftitution of the order. Over this he wears
a velvet gown 5 and on the left fide a white crofs with
eight points. His yearly revenue is 10,000 ducats.
He acknowledges the kings of Spain and both the Si¬
cilies, as his proteftors; and is obliged by his agree¬
ment with the emperor Charles V. to fupprefs pirates.
The knights of Malta were deprived of their privi¬
leges and had their eftates fequeftered by order of
Maximilian Jofeph, eleftor of Bavaria j but after Paul
emperor of Ruffia took them under his prote&ion, they
were all reftored. A treaty to this effeft was figned in
July 1799. Malta was taken by the Britifti in 1800,
and continues in their poffeffion.
MALTON, a town of the north riding of York-
ffiire in England, feated on the river Derwent, over
which there is a good ftone bridge. It is compofed of
two towns, the New and the Old, containing 3000 in¬
habitants •, it is well accommodated with good inns,
and fends two members to parliament. W. Long. o.
40. N. Lat. 54. 8.
MALVA, the Mallow, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the monodelphia clafs $ and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 37th order, Columntferce. See
Botany Index.
MALVERN, Great and Little, (with the
Chafe and the Hills) ; two towns of Worcefterlhire,
in which were formerly two abbeys, about three miles
afunder. Since the diffolution nothing remains of the
abbey of Great Malvern but the gateway of the abbey
and church, now parochial. Part of it was a reli¬
gious cell for hermits before the Conqueft 5 and the
greateft part, with the tower, built in the reign of
William the Conqueror. Its outward appearance is
very ftriking. It is 171 feet in length, 63 in breadth,
and 63 in height. In it are ten flails *, and it is fup-
pofed to have been rebuilt in the year 1171. The nave
only remains in part, the fide aifles being in ruins.
The windows have been beautifully enriched with
painted glafs, and in it are remains of fome very an¬
cient monuments. Little Malvern Hands in a cavity
of the hills, which are great lofty mountains, rifing
like flairs, one higher than another, for about feven
miles, and divide this county from Herefordftiire.
There is a ditch here very much admired. On the
hills are two medicinal fprings, called holy wells, one
good for the eyes, and the other for cancers. Hen¬
ry VII. his queen, and his two fons, Prince Arthur
and Prince Henry, were fo delighted with this place,
that they beautified the church and windows, part of
which remain, though mutilated. In the lofty fouth
windows
Malta
11
Malvern.
MAM
Malvern
II
Mambrun
windows of the church are the hlftorical paflages of
the Old Teftament; and in the north windows the
pidlures of the holy family, the nativity and circum-
cifion of our Saviour, the adoration of the fhepherds
and the kings, his prefentation in the temple, his bap-
tifm, falling, and temptation, his miracles, his lalt
fupper with his difciples, his prayer in the garden,
his paffion, death, and burial, his delcent into hell,
his refurredlion and afcenlion, and the coming of the
Holy Ghoil. The hiftory of our Saviour’s paffion is
painted differently in the ealt window of the choir, at
the expence of Henry VII. whofe figure is therefore
often reprefented, as is that of his queen. In the
weft window is a noble piece of the day of judgment,
not,inferior to the paintings of Michael Angelo. Mal¬
vern Chafe contains 7115 acres in Worcefterlhire (be-
fides 241 acres called the Prior’s Land), 619 in Here-
fordffiire, and 103 in Gloucefterffiire. Malvern Hills
run from north to fouth, the higheft point 1313 feet
above the furface of the Severn at Hanley, and ap¬
pear to be of limeftone and quartz. On the fummit
of thefe hills is a camp with a triple ditch, imagined
to be Roman, and is fituated on the Herefordffiire fide
of the hills.
MALUS. See Pyrus, Botany Index.
MAM ALUKES, the name of a dynafty that reign¬
ed in Egypt. See Egypt.
M 'iMBRUN, Peter, an ingenious and learned
French Jefujt, born in the ^jiocefe of Clermont, in
r 448 i
MAM
the year 1581. He was one of the moft perfefl imi¬
tators of Virgil in Latin poetry, and his poems are of
the fame fpecies : Thus he wrote Eclogues, Georgies, or
four books on the culture of the foul and the under-
ftanding j together with a heroic poem, entitled Con-
Jlantme, or Idolatry overthrown. He ffiowed alfo great
critical abilities in a Latin Peripatetical Differ tat ion on
Epic Poetry. He died in 1661.
MAMERTINI, a mercenary band of foldiers
which paffed from Campania into Sicily at the requeft
of Agathocles. When they were in the fervice of
Agathocles, they claimed the privilege of voting at
the eleftion of magiftrates at Syracufe, and had re-
courfe to arms to fupport their unlawful demands.
The fedition was appeafed by the authority of feme
leading men, and the Campanians were ordered to
leave Sicily. In their way to the coaft they were
received with great kindnefs by the people of Meffana,
and foon returned perfidy for hofpitality. They con-
fpired againft the inhabitants, murdered all the males
in the city, married their wives and daughters, and
rendered themfelves mafters of the place. After this
violence they affumed the name of Mamertini, and
called their city Mamertum, or Mamertium, from a
provincial word which in their language fignified mar¬
tial or warlike. The Mamertines were afterwards de¬
feated by Hiero, and totally difabled to repair their
ruined affairs.
MAMMiE, in Anatomy. See there, N° 227.
Mambru
M 11
Mamma
MAMMALIA
Definition. r j ’HE firft clafs of the animal kingdom in the fyftem
of Linnaeus, containing thofe animals which have
breajls or paps, (mammee) at which they fuckle their
young.. In this clafs are included, not only what are
called the viviparous quadrupeds, but the Bat tribe,
and feveral marine animals, as Seals and Whales.
In the prefent article, we are to give an account of all
but the whales, or Cetacea, which have been already
fully treated of under the article Cetology.
INTRODUCTION.
Utility of The relations that fubfift between man and many of
this part the animals arranged in this clafs, either from their uti-
of natural Ifty as domeftic fervants, or from the warfare'that they
hiftory. carry on againft him, his property or his dependants,
render the ftudy of this part of natural hiftory peculiar¬
ly important ; while the extraordinary actions and fa¬
culties of fome of thefe animals mult make the hiftory
of them highly interefting to every one who examines
^ nature with a curious or difeerning eye.
Our know- Quadrupeds have, accordingly, engaged the particu-
ledge of it lar attention of naturalifts in every country and in
imperfedl. every age, and as our acquaintance with them is lefs
difficult than with moft other claffes of animated nature,
it is not furprifing that their form, habits, and manners,
are moft familiar to us. Still, indeed, much remains
in doubt refpe£ling fome of the foreign and rarer quadru¬
peds, and of fome we know little more than the name.
Even with regard to thofe which have been longeft
known and deferibed, as the lion, the elephant, the
porcupine, &c. the obfervations of modern raturalifts
and travellers have corredled feveral erroneous notions
that had been generally received as certain. Long as
this part of natural hiftory has occupied the attention
of mankind, there yet probably remain many glean¬
ings to repay the induftry of future inquirers. It is
probable that the unexplored regions of Africa, Ame¬
rica, and New Holland, may con ain many quadrupeds
either entirely unknown to us at prefent, or known on¬
ly by the foffil remains that have been difeovered in
the boivels of the earth. There can, we think, be
little doubt that the unicorn exifls in Africa, not far
north of the Cape of Good Hope, and perhaps, at fome
diftant period it may be as well known as the elephant
or the hippopotamus is at prefent*. * See Pa
To attempt any thing like a critical examination ofrswV Tr
even the moft celebrated writers on the natural hiftory
of the mammalia would far exceed the limits which wejfficT
are obliged to preferibe to this article. We {hall, how- J
ever, briefly notice fome of the more important and
more interfiling works, to which our readers may refer
for information which the nature of this work precludes
us from affording them. ^
Among the ancients, the moft celebrated writers on Writers (
natural hiftory in general, and on quadrupeds in parti-malTim3f
cular, are Ariftotle and Pliny, and of thefe the former
has been much more circumftantial, and probably much
lefs credulous than the latter. Ariftotle wrote more
from obfervation, and the opportunities of obtaining a
knowledge
s
: riftotle
,d Pliny-
6
efner,
idrovan-
as, and
ihnfton.
7
ennant.
8
JufFon.
IB
Claflifica-
iion of
Linnaeus.
M A M M
knowledge of animals that were afforded him by the
liberality of his pupil give him a greater claim to our
attention and affent, than is perhaps due to Pliny, who
drew his accounts almoft entirely from preceding wri¬
ters. Pliny, however, is a more graceful, more ani¬
mated, and confequently a more pleafing writer, and
everywhere difplays great marks of tafte and erudi¬
tion.
Between the fubverfion of literature and the begin¬
ning of the 17th century, there is fcarcely a writer on
quadrupeds that deferves particular mention. Even
during the 17th century, the labourers in this depart¬
ment were few, and the names of Gefner, Aldruvan-
dus, and Johnfton, alone have been deemed worthy of
commemoration in Linnaeus’s introduction to the mam¬
malia, and of thefe it is by no means certain that the
writings on quadrupeds attributed to Aldrovandus are
genuine.
The 18th century produced a great many valuable
works, both fyftematic and defcriptive, on this part of
natural hiftory. As fyftematic writers, Ray and Pen¬
nant, and on the continent, Klein, Stort, Briffon,
Linne, Daubenton, and Cuvier, are the moft cele¬
brated, and we fhall prefently notice fume of thefe
more at large. As a defcriptive writer. Pennant is al-
fo confpicuous-, and the hiftories of quadrupeds contain¬
ed in his “ Britifti Zoology” and “ Ardfic Zoology,”
are at once accurate and interefting, amufing and in-
ftruftive. But of all thofe naturalifts who have pro-
feffed to give a detailed account of the hiftory of qua¬
drupeds, none have acquired fuch celebrity as the Count
de Buffon, whofe work is in every one’s hands, and has
been tranflated into moft of the modern languages.
For animated and lively defcriptions, and acute and
brilliant remarks, Buffon is perhaps unrivalled : me¬
thod he fee ms to have defpifed; and it is to be regret¬
ted that hi« judgment is not always equal to his tafte,
and that his accuracy is fometimes lefs confpicuous
than his genius and fancy. There are alfo a certain
freedom of expreflion, and luxurioufnefs of defcription,
in treating of certain fubjefts, which render Buffon’s
work lefs proper for young people than for thofe who
are more advanced both in years and in the ftudy of
nature. Dr Goldfmith’s “ Hiftory of the Earth and
Animated Nature” is chiefly an abridgement of Buf¬
fon.
449
C’aflifica-
tion.
A L I A.
Mr Bewick’s “ General Hiftory of Quadrupeds,”
with wooden cuts, deferves much praile. In his de-
feriptions, he has felefted with much Ikill and tafte, 9
and has added many original and judicious obferva- Bewick,
tions, efpecially refpefting the domeftic and indigenous
animals of this country. His figures are in general ex¬
cellent, and his vignettes both ufeful and entertain¬
ing. 10
Among the lateft fyftematic works written on this Shaw,
fubjeft is the elegant and fplendid “ General Zoology”
of Dr Shaw. As a mufeum for acquiring a knowledge
of the form and external ftrufture of animals, this
work has been lurpaffed by none, and equalled by very
few. Del'cription of the habits or manners of the ani¬
mals feems to have been a fecondary objeft with Dr
Shaw, as of this his work contains very little. It is
chiefly valuable as a fystematicarrangement and general
mufeum. y r
We have feen few works more entertaining than Bingley
Mr Bingley’s “ Animal Biography A It is proreffediy
a compilation, but the extradls are well chofen, and in
general highly interefting. We cannot fay, however,
that they are always happily arranged. As Mr Bing¬
ley uniformly quotes his authorities, and has given a lift
of many valuable works from which he has drawn
his information, his work is very ufeful, and forms an
admirable companion to Dr Shaw’s Zoology.
In the following account of the mammalia, we fhall
endeavour to combine amufement with utility *, but, as
our limits are exceedingly confined, we can give a de¬
tailed account of very few fpecies. We fhall there¬
fore felefft the moft interefting individuals, referring
here generally to Buffon, Pennant, Bewick, Shaw, and
Bingley for the reft.
With refpeft to the general divifions of quadrupeds
and the terms employed in deferibing them, we need
fay nothing here ) the former will be leen from the fe-
veral claflifications to be immediately mentioned, and
the latter explained under their proper heads in the
general alphabet of this diftionary. Refpefting the
general anatomical ftruffure of the mammalia, we
could add little to what has been already given under
Comparative Anatomy. When there occurs any link¬
ing peculiarity of conformation in particular indivi¬
duals, it will be noticed in its proper place.
PART I. CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAMMALIA.
QUADRUPEDS have been very differently clafli-
fied by different naturalifts. Our limits will permit us
only to give a brief fketch of fome of the more import¬
ant arrangements, and we fhall feledt thofe of Linnaeus,
Pennant, and Cuvier.
Linnaeus divides the mammalia into feven orders,
the diftinflive charafters of which are chiefly derived
from the number, fituation, and ftrudture of the teeth.
Order I. PRIMATES.
This order is intended to contain man and thofe ani-
•mals which are moft nearly allied to him in their ftruc-
Vol. XII. Part II.
ture. They have ufually four cutting teeth in the
fore part of each jaw, and in the upper jaw thefe are
parallel; and they have one canine tooth on each fide
of thefe in each jaw. They have alfo two breafts or
teats, from which this clafs derives its name. The two
fore feet in many of the individuals refemble the hands
ef the human fpecies, and are employed for the fame
purpofes, having fingers furnifhed for the moft part
with oval flattened nails. They chiefly live on vege¬
table food. Under this order Linnaeus ranks four ge¬
nera, viz. man, the ape tribe, the lemur tribe, and the
bats.
3L
Order
45°
Ciaffifica-
tion.
. 13.
Objections
to Lin¬
naeus’s ar-
langement.
M A M M ALIA.
Part)
Order II. ERUTA.
Thefe have no front teeth in either jaw ; their feet
are armed with ftrong blunt nails like hoofs j they are
generally of a clumfy form, and flow in their move¬
ments j they feed chiefly upon vegetables. This order
contains nine genera, of which the principal are the
rhinoceros, the elephant, the floths, and ant-eaters.
Order III. FERAL.
Thefe have commonly fix front teeth in the upper
and under jaw, which are fomewhat of a conical fhape,
and next to thefe ftrong and iharp canine teeth, with
grinders that terminate in conical pointed eminences ;
their feet are divided into toes which are armed with
ftiarp crooked claws. Almoft all the animals of this
order are beafts of prey, living chiefly on the flelh of
other animals. The order comprehends ten genera,
the moft remarkable of which are, the feal, dog, cat,
weazel, and bear tribes.
Order IV. GLIRES.
Thefe have two front teeth in each jaw, and thefe
are remarkably long and large, but they have no ca¬
nine teeth ; their feet are furniflied with claws, and ap¬
pear formed both for running and leaping. Their food
confifts of vegetables. This order alfo contains 10 ge¬
nera, the principal of which are the porcupines, bea¬
vers, rats, fquirrels, and hares.
Order V. PECORA.
Thefe have feveral front teeth that are blunt, and
have a wedge-like form, in the lower jaw, but no front
teeth in the upper •, their feet are armed with cloven
hoofs 5. they have four ftomachs, feed entirely on ve¬
getables, and ruminate or chew' the cud. There are
in this order eight genera, comprehending the camel,
the mulk animal, the giraffe, and the deer, antelope,
goat, fheep, and ox tribes.
Order VI. BELLUJE.
Thefe have front teeth in both jaws that are ob-
tufe ; their feet are armed with hoofs that are in feme
fpecies entire, and in others fubdivided. Moft of them
live entirely on vegetable food. There are four ge¬
nera, comprifing thofe of the horfe, hippopotamus, ta¬
pir, and hog.
Order VII. The laft order is that of the CetvE, or
Whales for which, fee Cetology.
Several obje£lions have been made to the above ar¬
rangement of Linnaeus, and forae of them appear to be
fufficiently valid. It has been objedled with great rea-
fon, that man, the lord of the creation, is degraded by be-
ing placed under the fame divifion with apes, monkeys,
macaucos and bats, the companions which Linnaeus has
thought proper to allot to him. However nearly the
apes may referable man in their general appearance,
and the macaucos in the ufe of their fore extremities,
they ftiould furely have been confidered apart from
3
man ; and nothing, it is faid, can be more abfurd than
to arrange the infignificant fly-bat with any of the for¬
mer animals, becaufe it agrees with them in the num¬
ber and fituation of its teeth. To the fecond order it
is objedled, that the moft intelligent of quadrupeds, the
half-reafoning elephant, is made to afibciate with the
moft difeordant and ftupid of the creation, with floths,
ant-eaters, and armadillos, or w ith creatures of a quite
different element, walruffes and morfes. In the third
order, again, which from its name ftiould comprehend
only the wild beafts or beafts of prey, it will be im-
poffible (fays Mr Pennant) to allow the mole, the
ftirew, and the harmlefs hedgehog, to be the compa¬
nions of lions, wolves, and bears. We may err in our
arrangement,
Claffificj,
tion.
Sed non ut placidis Leant irmnitia, non ut
Serpentes avibus geminentur^ Ugribus agni *. * Pen.
To the fixth order it has been objefled that the #0*^^
hoofed animals arranged under it are fo diflimilar in Pref.
their nature, that they ought not to be placed together
without feme intermediate gradations. j4
To many of the above objections it may be replied, Anfwerei
that all artificial arrangements have their difadvantages,
and that if we follow nature in placing together only
thofe animals that referable each other in their external
appearance, or in their habits of life, we (hall often
be obliged to arrange the individuals of what moft na-
turalifts confider as the fame genus under very differ¬
ent parts of our fyftem. The great objeCI of a fyfte-
matic arrangement is to facilitate the difeovery of ob-
je£ls that are unknown j and for this purpofe, in refpeCt
to quadrupeds, there is perhaps no method preferable
to that which is founded on the diverfity of their teeth
and feet. We ftiall in the following article, as we have
done in moft of the preceding departments of natural
hiftory, adopt the arrangements of Linnaeus, modifying
according to the lateft improvements of Gmelin and
Shaw. rs
Our celebrated Britifti naturalift, Mr Pennant, pub-Ck.ffifica-
liftied the firft edition of his Synopfis of Quadrupeds in don of Pei
8vo. in 1771 i and ten years after he publifhed a thirdiunt*
edition under the new title of Hiftory of Quadrupeds,
in 2 vols. 410. This work has gone through fome
other editions, and is juftty admired for the quantity of
information which the author has contrived to give in
a very condenfed form.
Mr Pennant diftributes quadrupeds into four general
divifions, containing fuch as are hoofed, digitated, pin¬
nated, and winged.
The firft divifion is fubdivided into two feClions: the
firft containing thofe animals whole hoofs are entire or
of one piece, of which there is only one genus, viz.
Horse. The fecond feClion thofe which are cloven-
hoofed •, of which there are 13 genera, comprifing the
Ox, Sheep, Goat, Giraffe, Antelope, Musk,
Camel, Hog, Rhinoceros, Hippopotame, Tapir,
and Elephant.
The fecond divifion confifts of digitated animals, or
thofe whofe feet are divided into toes. It is fubdivided
into five feftions j the firft of which confifts of thofe
animals that are anthropomorphous, or which, in fome
meafure, referable man in their external form. Of
thefe there are two genera, viz. Ape and Macauco.
The fecond fe&ion confifts of rapacious carnivorous ani-
ifi
f Cuvier.
,rtI. M A M M
affifica- mals, having fix or more cutting teeth in each jaw,
tion. an(i large canine teeth feparated from the cutting teeth.
Qf thefe there are eight genera, comprehending thofe
of the Dog, Hy^na, Cat, Bear, Badger, Opos¬
sum, Weazf.l, and Otter. The third fedtion con¬
tains animals that have no canine teeth, and only two
cutting teeth in each jaw, being generally herbivorous
or frugivorous. Of thefe there are II genera, viz.
Cavy, Hare, Beaver, Porcupine, Marmot,
Squirrel, Jerboa, Rat, Shrew, Mole, and Hedge¬
hog. The fourth feflion comprehends thofe animals
which are without cutting teeth, and which, like thofe
of the lad fe&ion, live on herbs and fruits. This fec-
tion contains only twfo genera, viz. thofe of the Sloth
and Armadillo. The fifth feftion contains animals
that are deftitute of teeth, and live on infefts. Of thefe
there are two genera, viz. Manis and Ant-Eater.
The third divifion confifts of thofe animals that are
pinnated or furnilhed with fins, and chiefly live in the
water, feeding partly on fifli and partly on herbage.
Of thefe there are three genera, viz. the Walrus,
Seal, and Manati.
The fourth divifion, or that of the winged quadru¬
peds, contains the {ingle genus of the Bat, which be¬
ing placed lafl in the order of quadrupeds, is thus made
to form the conne&ing link between them and the clafs
of birds.
According to Cuvier’s arrangement, the mammalia
are divided into three general orders: I. Thofe having
claws or nails; 2. Thofe having hoofs •, and, 3. Thofe
having feet like fins: a divifion very fimilar to that of
Mr Pennant. The firft of thefe orders is fubdivided
into thofe mammalia that have three forts of teeth,
and thofe that want at leaft one kind of teeth.
The firft fubdivifion of the firft order contains three
families, viz.
I. Bimanum, having thumbs feparate on the atlan-
See&rr- tal * extremities, comprehending Man alone.
ay o* II. QuadrumaNA, having the thumbs or great toes
feparate on each of the fore feet. This family contains
°™ncla' two genera, viz. Simia or Apes, comprehending the
fubgenera pithecus or oran-otans, callitrix or fapajeus,
cercopithecus or guenons, cynocephalus or macaques,
papio or baboons, cebus or alouates; and Lemur or
Makis, comprehending the fubgenera of lemur, indri,
lori, galago, and tardipus.
III. Sarcophaga j having no feparate thumbs or
great toes on the atlantal extremity. This family is
iubdivided into four feclions, viz. Cheiroptera, or
thofe that have elongated hands and membranes, ex¬
tending between the feet from the neck to the anus *,
Pl ANTI GRAD A, or thofe that have no feparate thumbs
or great toes, and who, in w alking, apply the whole
foie of the foot to the ground •, Carnivora, or fuch
as have no feparate thumbs or great toes, and whofe
feet, in walking, reft only on the toes; and Pedima-
Na, or fuch as have feparate great toes on the facral
extremities or hind feet. The Cheiroptera comprife
two genera, viz. Vespertilio or Bats, comprehend¬
ing the fubgenera of pteropus or roujfets, vefpertilio or
common bats, rinolaphus, phylloftoma, and no&ilio ;
and Galeopithecus, or Flying Lemurs. The PlaN-
TIGRada contain four genera, viz. Erinaceus or
Hedgehogs, comprehending the fubgenera of erinaceus
or hedgehogs, and fetiger or tenrecs; SoREX or Shrews,
ALIA. 451
comprehending the fubgenera of forex or Jljrew mice, Claffifica-
mygali or mujk JJjrexv; Chryso-Chloris, Sca/ops; tl°n' ,
talpa or moles ; and Ursus or Bears, comprehending
the fubgenera of urfus or bears, taxus or badgers, na-
fua or coatis, procyon or racoons; potos or hincajous,
ichneumon or mangdufles. The Carnivora comprife
four genera, viz. Mustela, or IVeaxels, comprehend¬
ing the fubgenera of muftela, or wea%els and martins,
lutra or otters, mephites or mouffetes, viverra or ci¬
vets; Felis, or Cat tribe; and Cants, or the Dog
tribe, comprehending the fubgenera of canis and hyaena.
The Pedimana contains only one genus, viz. Didel-
phis or Opojjiim, comprehending the fubgenera of di-
delphis or fariques, dafyurus, phalangifta or phalan-
gers. +
IV. Rodentia, or fuch quadrupeds as want only
the canine teeth. This family comprifes eight genera,
viz. Kangurus, Kangaroos ; Hystrix or Porcupines;
Lepus, or Hares and Rabbits, comprehending the fub¬
genera of lepus and lagomys; Cavia, comprehending
the fubgenera qf cavia and hydrochasrus; Castor er
Beavers; Sciurus or Squirrels, comprehending the
fubgenera of feiurus, and pteromys or flying fquirrels ;
Cheiromys, or Aye-aye; and Mus, or Rats and Mice,
comprehending the fubgenera of ar&omys or tnarmots,
lemmus or field mice, fiber or ondatra, mus or rats,
cricetus or hamflers, fphalax or mole rat, dipus or jer¬
boas, myoxus or dormice.
V. Edentata, or thofe mammalia which have nei¬
ther cutting nor canine teeth. This family comprifes
three genera, viz. MyrmecopHaga, or Ant-Eaters,
comprehending the fubgenera of myrmecophaga, echid¬
na or porcupine ant-eaters, and manis or flealy lizards ;
Orycteropus, or Cape Ant-Eaters; and Dasypus, or
Armadillos.
VI. Tardigrada, or fuch as are deficient only in
cutting teeth. Of this family there is only one genus,
viz. Bradypus, or Sloths; under which Cuvier arranges
as a fubgenus, the unknown animal which he calls me¬
gatherium.
The fecond order, or thofe quadrupeds that are fur-
niftied with hoofs, comprifes three families, with the
following diftinctions and fubdivifions.
VII. Pachydermata, or thofe animals that have
more than two toes and more than two hoofs. In this
family there are fix genera, viz. ElephaS or Elephants ;
Tapir or Tapirs; Sus or Swine; Hippopotamus or
River horfe ; Hyrax or Daman; and Rhinoceros.
VIII. Ruminantia, having two toes and two hoofs.
Of this there are eight genera, viz. Camelus or Ca¬
mels, divided into the fubgenera of camelus and lama •,
Moschus or Mujks; Cervus or Deer ; CAMELOPAR¬
DALIS or Girafle ; Antelope or Antelopes ; Capra or
Goats; Ovis or Sheep ; and Bos or Oxen.
IX. Solipeda, having one toe and one hoof, and
comprifing only one genus, viz. Equus or Horfe.
The third order, or the mammalia with fin-1 ike feet,
contains tw-o families, viz. Amphibia and Cetacea.
X. Amphibia, having four feet, and comprifing
two genera, viz. Phoca or Seals ; and Trichecus or
Morfes.
XI. Cetacea, containing five genera, viz. Mana-
TUS or Lamantins ; Delphinus or Dolphins ; Physe- * Cecons
ter or Cachalots; Bal^ena or Common Whales; andd Anjt0~
Monodon or Narwhal». Z IST
3 L 2 GENERIC
MAMMALIA.
45 2
Claffifica-
tion.
Generic
characters.
18
Primates.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
Ordo I. PRIMATES.
Part I.
Clafiifica.
tion.
Ho?4C. Situs cre&us. Hymen et menflrua femlna-
rum.
J. Simia. Dentes laniarii, hinc remoti.
2. Lemur. Dentes primores fuperiores 4 ; inferi¬
or es 6.
3. Galeopithecus. Dentes primores fuperiores
nulli ; inferiores 6.
* 4. Vespertilio. Manus palmato-volatilis (a).
Man. Pofture ereft. Female furniftied with a hy.
men, and menflruating.
S. Tuflcs diftant from each other.
L. Fore teeth upper 4 j lower 6 in number.
G. Front teeth in the upper jaw wanting*, in th&
lower 6.
V. Fore feet palmate, formed for flying.
19
Brut a.
Ordo II. BRUTA.
5. Bradypus. Dentes molares prime longiore, abf-
que laniariis primoribufve. Corpus pilofum.
6. Myrmecophaga. Dentes nulli. Corpus pilo¬
fum.
7. Manis. Dentes nulli. Corpus fquamatum.
8. Dasypus. Molares abfque laniariis primoribuf¬
ve. Corpus cataphraftum.
9. Rhinoceros. Cornu in fronte pofitum.
10. Elephas. Dentes laniarii et molares. Nafus
probofeide elongatus.
11. Sukotyro. Cornu ad utrumque latus prope
oculos.
12. Platypus. Os anatinum. Pedes palmati.
13. Trichecus. Dentes laniarii fuperiores, molares
ex olle rugofo. Pedes compedes.
B. Grinders longer in front, without tulks. Body
hairy.
M. No teeth. Body hairy.
N. No teeth. Body fealy.
D. Grinders, without tulks or cutting teeth. Body
cruftaceous.
R. Horn feated in front.
E. Tulks and grinders. Nofe elongated into a pro-
bofeis.
S. A horn on each fide near the eyes.
P. Mouth like a duck’s bill. Feet webbed.
T. Upper tulles. Grinders rough and bony. Hin¬
der feet uniting into a fin.
JO
Fene.
Ordo III. FERiE.
*14. Phoca. Dentes primores fuperiores 6 j inferi¬
ores 4.
*15. Canis. Dentes primores 6, 6 ; fuperiores inter-
medii lobati.
* 16. Felis. Dentes primores 6, 6 j inferiores sequa-
les. Lingua aeuleata.
*17. Viverra. Dentes primores 6, 6 j inferiores in-
termedii breviores.
* 18. Lutra. Dentes ut in Viverra. Pedes pal¬
mati.
* 19. Ursus. Dentes primores 6, 6 j fuperiores exca-
vati. Penis offe flexuofo.
20. Didelphis. Dentes primores fuperiores 10 ;
inferiores 8.
21. Dasyurus. Dentes primores fuperiores 8 j in¬
feriores 6
22. Macropus. Dentes primores fuperiores 6 j in¬
feriores 2. Aiolares utrinque 5, remoti.
* 23. Talpa. Dentes primores fuperiores 6 j inferi¬
ores 8.
* P. Six upper cutting teeth ; 4 lower.
* C. Front teeth, fix in each jaw j the intermediate
upper ones lobated.
* F. Cutting teeth fix in each jaw j the lower equal.
Tongue aculeate.
* V. Cutting teeth 6 in each jaw $ the intermediate
lower ones Ihorter.
* L. Teeth as in the lalt genus. Feet webbed.
* U. Cutting teeth 6 in each jaw ; the upper hollow¬
ed. Penis furnilhed with a flexible bone.
D. Cutting teeth 10 in the upper jaw ; 8 in the
lower.
D. Cutting teeth 8 in the upper jaw j 6 in tht
lower.
M. Cutting teeth 6 in the upper jaw $ 2 in the low¬
er. Grinders 5 on each fide, remote.
* T. Cutting teeth in the upper jaw 6 j in the low¬
er 8.
*
i
(a) The genera marked * have one or more of the fpecies indigenous to Britain.
1
24.
rt I. MAMMALIA. 453
fntica- * 24. Sorex. Dentes prtraores fuperiores 2 ; inferi- * S. Cutting teeth in the upper jaw two; in the low- ^
i°n' ores 4. . er • 1 • 1 •
1 * 25. EriNACEUs. Dentes primores fuperiores 2 j in- * E. Cutting teeth two in each jaw.
feripres 2.
Ordo IV. GLIRES.
26. Hystrix. Corpus fpinis teftum.
27. Cavia. Dentes primores cuneati. Molares 4
ad utrumque latus. Claviculae nullae.
28. Castor. Dentes primores fuperiores cuneati.
Molares ad utrumque latus. Claviculae perfedlae.
* 29. Mus. Dentes primores fuperiores cuneati. Mo¬
lares 3 ad utrumque latus. Clavmuhe perfe&ae.
30. H.YDR.OMYS. Pedes pofteriores palmatae. Cau¬
da cylindrica.
31. Arttomys. Dentes primores cuneati. Mola¬
res fuperiores 5, inferiores 4, ad utrumque latus. Cla-
viculee perfeftae.
* 32. Sciurus. Dentes primores fuperiores cuneati j
inferiores acuti. Molares fuperiores 5, inferiores 4, ad
utrumque latus. Claviculae perfeftae. Cauda difticha.
Myftaces longse.
* 33. Myoxus. Myftaces longae. Cauda rotunda,
apice craflior.
34. Dipus. Pedes anteriores perbreves j pofterio¬
res praelongi.
* 35. Lepus. Dentes primores fuperiores duplicati.
36. Hyrax. Dentes primores fuperiores lati. Cau¬
da nulla.
H. Body covered with fpines.
C. Cutting teeth wedge-ftiaped. Grinders 4 on each
fide. Clavicles wanting.
C. Upper cutting teeth wedge-ftiaped. Grinders 4
on each fide. Clavicles complete.
* M. Upper cutting teeth wedge-ftiaped. Grinders 3
on each fide. Clavicles complete.
H. Hind feet webbed. Tail round.
A. Cutting teeth wedge-fliaped. Grinders 5 in the
upper j’aw, 4 in the lower, on each fide. Clavicles
complete.
* S. Upper cutting teeth wedge-ftiaped ; lower acute.
Grinders 5 in the upper jaw, 5 in the lower, on each
fide. Clavicles complete. Tail fpreading towards each
fide. Whilkers long.
* M. Whifkers long. Tail round, thicker at the
tip.
D. Four fore feet ftiort j hind feet very long.
* L. Upper cutting teeth double.
H. Upper cutting teeth broad. Tail wanting.
21 Ordo V. PECORA.
cora.
37. Camelus. Ecornis. Dentes laniarii plures..
38. Moschus. Ecornis. Dentes laniarii folitarii j
fuperioribus exfertis.
* 39. Cervus. Cornua folida, ramofa, decidua. Den¬
tes laniarii nulli.
40. Camelopardalis. Cornua breviflima. Pedes
anteriores pofterioribus multo longiores.
41. Antilope. Cornua folida, fimplicia, perfiften-
tia. Dentes laniarii nulli.
* 42. Capra. Cornua tubulofa, erefta. Dentes lani¬
arii nulli.
* 43. Ovis. Cornua tubulofa reclinata. Dentes lani¬
arii nulli.
* 44. Bos. Cornua tubulofa porre&a. Dentes lani¬
arii nulli.
* 45. Equus. Dentes primores fuperiores 6 j inferio¬
res 6.
46. Hippopotamus. Dentes primores fuperiores 4;
inferiores 4.
47. Tapir. Dentes primores fuperiores 10 infe¬
riores 10.
* 48. Sus. Dentes primores fuperiores 4 $ inferio¬
res 6.
C. Without horns. Tulks many.
M. Without horns. Tulks fingle j upper projeft-
ing.
* C. Horns folid, branching, deciduous. Tuflcs want-
ing.
C. Horns very ftiort. Fore feet much longer than
the hind.
A. Horns folid, unbranched, perfiftent. Tulks want-
ing.
* C. Horns hollow, ereft. Tufks wanting.
* O. Horns hollow, reclined. Tufks wanting.
* B. Horns hollow, turned outwards. Tufks want¬
ing.
BELLUiE.
* E. Cutting teeth 6 in each jaw.
H. Cutting teeth 4 in each jaw.
T. Cutting teeth 10 in each jaw.
* S. Cutting teeth in the upper jaw 4 j in the low¬
er 6.
Ordo VII. CETE.—See Cetology.
PART
454
Hiftory of
the Species.
MAMMALIA.
PART II. ARRANGEMENT AND HISTORY OF THE SPECIES.
Part I]
Primates.
Chap. I. PRIMATES.
OF this order we fhall here give an account only of
the four genera, Simia, Lemur, Galeopithecus, and
Vespertilio, referving Man for a feparate article.
Genus L Simia. Apes.
Front teeth four in each jaw, near together 5 canine fo-
litary, longer than the others, and at a diftance from
the grinders. Grinders obtufe*
The animals of this* genus, which are beft known
by the familiar name of apes or monkeys, form a very
interefting part of the animal creation ; not fo much for
their importance and utility in relation to man, as on
account of the near refemblance that they bear to the
human fpecies. They are a very lively tribe of animals,
full of frolic, chatter, and grimace. From the ftruc-
ture of their limbs, they are capable of performing ma¬
ny aftions in common with man ; and we (hall prefent-
ly relate fome diverting inftances of their imitative
powers. Moft of them are fierce and untameable,
though fome are of a more gentle nature, and even
feem capable ©f an attachment to man. In general,
however, they are prone to mifchief, and are filthy,
obfcene, lafcivious, and thievith. When offended, they
ufe threatening geflures j and when pleafed, they ap¬
pear to laugh. Many of them have cheek pouches, in
which they keep for a while fuch food as they have not
immediate ufe for. They are commonly gregarious,
going together in vaft companies, the different fpecies
never mixing with each other, but keeping apart, and
in different quarters. "1 hey inhabit woods, and live on
trees, leaping with vaft aftivity from one tree to an¬
other, even though loaded with their young, which
cling to them. They are not carnivorous, but chiefly
feed on fruits and leaves, fometimes on infefts, though,
for mifchief’s fake, they will often rob the nefts of birds
of their eggs and young. They are themfelves the prey
of ferpents, which purfue them to the trees and fwallow
them entire. They are alfo devoured by leopards and
fimilar beafts of prey. Some fpecies are eaten by the
natives of the countries where they are found.
Thefe animals are almoft confined to the torrid zone $
and, in particular, the woods of Africa, from Senegal
to the Cape, and from thence to Ethiopia, are crowded
with them. They are found in all parts of India, and
its iflands, in the fouth of China, in Cochin-China and
Japan •, and they fwarm in the forefts of South Ame¬
rica, from the ifthmus of Darien to Paraguay.
In fome parts of India monkeys are objefis of worflup
by the natives, and magnificent temples are erefted in
honour of them (b). In thefe countries they frequent¬
ly come in vaft numbers into the cities, and enter the
houfes without moleftation. In Amadabad, the capi¬
tal of Guzarud, there are three holpitals fur animals,
where lame and fick monkeys, and fuch as, though
well, choofe to dwell there, are fed and cherifhed.
Twice a-week the monkeys of the neighbourhood af-
femble fpontaneoufly in the ftreets of this city, mount
on the houfes which are flat-roofed, and lie here during
the great heats. On thefe days the inhabitants take
care to leave for them rice, millet, or fruit 5 and if by
any accident they omit to do this, the difappointed ani¬
mals become furious, break the tiles, and do other mif¬
chief.
From the great number of fpecies, it has been found
convenient to diftribute them into three fubdivifions,
viz. thofe of apes, baboons, and monkeys. We (hall
enumerate the fpecies under each of thefe fubdivifions,
with their fpecific charadlers, and fhall then give a
brief account of fome of the moft remarkable indivi¬
duals.
A. Apes, deftitute of tails. In this fubdivifion are \pes.S
reckoned 4 fpecies, viz.
I. S. Satyrus, Oran Otan, or Wild Man of the
Wood. Taillefs, either chefnut colour or black, with¬
out callofities behind, and with the hair on the lower
parts of the arms reverfed.—2. S. Lar, Great Gibbon
or long-armed A. Taillefs, ufually black, without cal¬
lofities behind, and with arms as long as the body. 
3. S. Inuus, Magot or Barbary A. Taillefs ; pale
brown, with callofities behind and an oblong head. 
4. S. Sylvanus, Pigmy. Taillefs 5 pale brown, with
callofities behind, and a roundifh head. ^
B. Baboons. Tails commonly fliort; bodies muf- Baboors.
cular. In this there are 16 fpecies, viz.
S- S. Sphinx, Common B. Short tailed; brown,
with callofities behind, with dull fleftr-coloured face and
pointed pails.—6. S. Mormon, Mantegar, or Great B.
Short-tailed ; tap ney brown, with callofities behind ;
naked, tumid, violet blue cheeks, obliquely furrowed,
and the middle of the nofe blood-red.—7. S. Moimon,
Mandril or Ribbed-nofe B. Short-tailed ; olive brown,
with callofities behind ; naked, violet-blue, furrowed
cheeks, and the middle of the nofe flelh coloured. 
8. S. Porcoria, or Hog-faced B. Short-tailed ; brown,
covered behind, with black naked hog-like face and
pointed nails.—9. S. Sylvicola, Wood B. Short-tailed;
flefliy brown, with callofities behind, and with black
naked face, hands, and feet.—10. S. Sublutea, Yel¬
low
(b) When the Portuguefe got poffeflion of the illand of Ceylon, they found in one of the temples dedicated
to thefe animals, a golden calket containing the tooth of an ape ; a relick which the natives held in fuch vene¬
ration, that they offered to redeem it at no lefs a price than 700,000 ducats. The viceroy, however, ordered it
to be burned; but, fome years afterwards, a fellow, who w-as in the Portuguefe ambaffador’s train, having pro¬
cured a fimilar tooth, pretended that it w'as the old one, and offered it to the priefts, who were fo much rejoiced
at the recovery of their loft treafure, that they purchafed it of the fellow for above io,oool. of our money.
■
lap. I. M A M M A L I A. 455
imates. low B. Short-tailed 5 yellow, freckled with black,
-v~—“ with naked black face and hands, hairy on the upper
furfaoe.—11. ■S'. Cinet'ea, Cinereous B. Short-tailed j
cinereous, with the crown fpotted with yellow j brown
face and pale beard.—12. S. Dentata, Broad-toothed
B. Short-tailed, a(h brown, with bluifh face, and
very large fore teeth.—13. S, Fufca. Brown B. Short-
i(h tailed j brown, with callolities behind, a whitilh
face, and a very broad nofe.—14. S. Nemejirina. Pig¬
tailed B. Olive brown, with (hort naked tail.—15. S.
Criftata. Crefted B. Short tailed j black, with very
long hair on the crown and cheeks 5 whitifh breaft, and
bare face and hands.—16. S. Apedia, Little B. Short¬
tailed ; yellowilh, without callofities behind, with
thumbs handing clofe to the fingers, and furnifhed with
rounded nails; the fingers with narrow ones.—17. &
Hamadnjas, Dog-faced B. Tail gray, with callofities
behind •, (harpifh claws, and the hairs on each fide of
the head very long.—18. S. Ferox, Lion-tailed B.
Tailed j black, with very large whitifh fpreading
beard.—19. S. Cynofuros. Pale brown, beardlefs, with
callofities behind, and with longith flefh-coloured face $
a whitifh band acrofs the forehead, and a longifh (harp-
pointed tail.—20. 5. Rugata, Wrinkled B. Short¬
tailed, yellowith brown •, whitifh beneath, with flefh-
coloured face, and large blood-red wrinkled callofities
^ behind.
mkeys. C. Monkeys. Tails generally long. This fubdi-
vifion contains 42 fpecies, viz.
21. S. Leonina, Leonine Monkey. Black, with cal¬
lofities behind, very large whitifh beard, and very long
tufted tail.—22. S. Cynomulgus, Hare-lipped M. Long¬
tailed, beardlefs, with callofities behind, rifing bifid
noftrils, and arched tail.—23. S. Veter, Purple-faced
M. Long-tailed $ white, with black beard.—24. S.
Roloway, Roloway or Raloure M. Short-tailed, black-
ifh ; white beneath, with triangular face, furrounded
by a white divided beard.—25. S. Diana, Diana or
Spotted M. Long-tailed, blackifh, freckled with
white *, the hair of the forehead and beard growing in
a pointed form, with a lunated band acrofs the fore¬
head.— 26. S. Nafuta, Long-nofed M. Long-tailed,
blackifh-rufty j pale afh-coloured beneath, with long
naked flefh-coloured face.—27. ■S’. Flavefcens, Yellow-
ifh M. Long-tailed, bearded, cinereous ; yellow, with
black face and ears—28. S. Sabea, Green M. Long-
tailed, yellowifh gray, wdth black face and callofities
behind.— 29. 5’. i/Etkiopt, Mangabey or White-eyelid
M. Long-tailed, beardlefs, with black face $ white
eyelids, white frontal band, and the hair on the fore¬
head upright.—30. S. Cephas, Muflache M. Long¬
tailed, blackifh rufty, whitifh beneath, with bearded
cheeks and yellowifh crown j red eyelids and whitifh
muzzle.—31. 5. Niflitans, White-nofed M. Long¬
tailed, beardlefs, black, freckled with white j the
thumb of the hands very fhort, and no callofities be¬
hind.—32. 5. Talapoin. Long-tailed, olive-coloured 5
bearded cheeks, and black ears, nofe, and foies.—33.
S. Maura, Negro M. Long-tailed, blackifh, with
fwarthy flefh-coloured face and breafl, and blackifh
beard.—34. S. Aygula, Egret M. Long-tailed, beard¬
lefs ; gray, with a rifing longitudinal tuft on the crown.
—35. S. Rubra, Red M. Long-tailed, red pale afh-
coloured beneath, with bearded cheeks, and a black or
white band acrofs the forehead.—36. S. Sinicai Chi-
nefe M. Beardlefs, pale brown, with the hair of the Hiftory ot
crown fpreading round horizontally.—37. S. Fetaurif- ^ sPecies-
ta, Vaulting M. Olive black j white beneath, with a v
triangular white fpot on the nofe.—38. S. Pileata, Bon¬
neted M. Rufty brown, whitifh j yellow beneath, with
black limbs, and the hair at the head rifing circularly
upwards.—39. S. Mona, Varied M. Olive rufty ;
white beneath, with the cheeks bearded, and a lunated
whitifh band acrofs the forehead.—-40. S. Nafalis, Pro-
bofcis M. Long-tailed, bearded, chefnut colour, with
pale limbs and tail, and a very long nofe.—41. S. Ne-
meeus. Cochin China M. Long-tailed, with bearded
cheeks and white tail.—42. ■S’. Fulva, Tawney M. Sub-
ferruginous, with the lower part of the back orange,
white beneath, with flefh-coloured face and ears.—43.
S. Hircina, Goat M. Long-tailed, brown, with blue
furrowed nofe, and long-pointed beard.—44. ■S’. Como-
fa. Full-bottom M. Long-tailed, black, with very
long fpreading whitifh hair on the head, and white tail.
—43. S. Ferruginea, Bay M. Long-tailed, rufty, with
black limbs and tail.—46. S, Annulata, Annulated M.
Rufty brown, whitifh beneath, with annulated tail,
fhorter than the body.—47. *S. Pithecia, Fox-tailed M.
Blackifh brown, with the tips of the hair whitifh, and
very bufhy tail.—48. S. lacchus, Striated M. Long¬
tailed, with fpreading hairy ears j crooked hairy tail
and fharp claws, thofe on the thumb being rounded.—
49. S. Oedipus, Red-tailed M. Long, red-tailed, beard¬
lefs, with the hair of the head fpreading downwards,
and fharp nails.—50. S. Rofalia, Silky M. Long-tail¬
ed, filky hair, wfith long hair on the head y yellow bo¬
dy, reddifh round the face, and pointed claws.—51.
S. Nudus, Great-eared M. Long-tailed, black, with
large naked fquare ears, orange-coloured feet, and point¬
ed nails.—52. <S. Argentata, Fair M. Long-tailed,
beardlefs, white, with red face and brown tail.—53*
S. Bee/zebu/, Preacher M. Bearded, black, the feet
and tip of the tail brown j tail prehenfile.—54. S. Se-
niculus, Royal M. Long-tailed, bearded red j tail
prehenfile.—55. S. Panifcus, Four-fingered M. Long¬
tailed, bearded, black, with four-fingered feet ; tail
prehenfile.—56. S. Fatuellus, Horned M. Long-tail¬
ed, beardlefs, w’ith two horns like tufts on the head j
tail prehenfile.—57. S. Trepida, Fearful M. Long¬
tailed, beardlefs, with upright hair on the head, and
bluifh feet; tail prehenfile.—58. *S. Apella, Weeper
M. Long-tailed, beardlefs j brown body, black feet,
and without callofities j tail prehenfile.—59. ■S’. Capu-
cina. Capuchin M. Long-tailed, beardlels, without
callofities, with black crown and limbs, and hirfute pre¬
henfile tail.—60. S. Sciurea, Squirrel M. Long-tail¬
ed, yellowifh gray, beardlefs, with orange-coloured
hands and feet ; four of the claws, and the hind feet
pointed.—61. S. Antiguenfes, Antigua M. Blackifh
brown, white beneath, with black limbs and face,
bearded cheeks, and brown prehenfile tail.—62. S.
Morta, Naked-tailed M. Long-tailed, beardlefs,
brown, with dufky muzzle, and naked fcaly tail. aa
Species I. S. Satyrus. Oran Otan, Wild Man oiSatyrus,
the Woods. Chimpanzee, Jocko, Taillefs Ape.—It ranOtaiv
is generally believed by naturalifts, that the animals
which have been deferibed under the names given above,
are only varieties of the fame fpecies, differing from
each other in fize, colour, fex, and fome other trifling
fhades of diferimination. Four remarkable Ipecimens
have
45‘S
Hiitory of })ave been defcribed by authors of repute ; one by our
■ Le ~‘iC( lcs' countryman Tyfon j another by Profeffor Allan.and j a
third by Vofmaer j and a fourth by Edwards.
The oran otan is faid fometimes to have attained
the height of fix feet: the fpecimens brought into
Europe have feldom exceeded the half of that ftature.
His itrength, however, is very great 5 and, in his na¬
tive forelts, it is faid that the moll mufeular man is by
no means a match for him. His colour is ufually a
dufky brown j almoil the whole body, except the feet
and palms of the hands, is covered w ith hair: but in
fome varieties the face is laid to be nearly as bare as the
human. Indeed there is no animal which bears fo
flrong a refemblance to man as this fpecies. His hands,
feet, and ears are almoft exadtly human; and, to a fuper-
ficial obferver, many others of its features fo nearly re¬
ferable thofe of a man, that he has been confidered, by
fome writers, as man in his rudeft and moft uncultivat¬
ed ftate. On a clofer examination, however, it has
been found, that there are marks of diftinftion fuffi-
ciently ftrong to overturn an opinion fo humiliating to
the lords of the creation, and to demonftrate, that even
in anatomical ftrudlure this animal differs as much
from the moft favage of the human fpeeies, as the lat¬
ter does in point of fagacity and reafoning powers from
the moft cultivated European. The nofe of the oran-
otan is flatter, and his mouth wider, than that of the
Negro ; his forehead is more oblique $ his chin has no
elevation at the bafe, his eyes are much nearer each
other, and the diftance betwixt the nofe and the mouth
is much greater than in man. He has alio no calves
to his legs, and, though he fometimes walks on two,
it is pretty certain that this attitude is not natural to
him. Buffon has afferted that thefe animals always
walk upright, and has made this circumftance one of
the diftinguifhing charafters of his divifion of apes. It
is now, however, generally underftood, that this alfer-
tion is too hafty j and it is the opinion of thofe moft
capable of judging, that the oran otan, like all
other animals except man, was intended by nature to
walk on all fours- See Man.
On the whole it appears that there are two princi¬
pal varieties of this fpeeies; one of which has been di-
ftinguifhed by the name of pongo, or great oran otan,
and the other has been called jocko. The following
account is given of the pongo by Battel. “ This pon¬
go is all proportioned like a man, but that he is more
like a giant in ftature than a man $ for he is very tall,
and hath a man’s face, hollow-eyed, with long hair
upon his brows. His face and ears are without hair,
and his hands alfo. He differeth not from man but in
his legs, for they have no oalf. He goes always upon
his legs, and carrieth his hands clafped on the nape of
his neck when he goeth upon the ground. They fleep
in the trees and build ftielters from the rain. They
feed upon fruit that they find in the woods and upon
nuts, for they eat no kind of flefti. They cannot fpeak,
and have no underftanding more than a beaft. The
people of the country when they travel in the woods,
make fires where they fleep in the night 5 and in the
morning when they are gone, the pongo will come and
lit about the fire till it goeth out $ for they have no
underftanding to lay the wood together. They go
many together, and kill many negroes that travel in
tfee woods. Many times they fall upon the elephants.
Part I
which come to feed where they be, and fo beat them Private
with their clubbed fifts, and pieces of wood, that they '—“Y'-
wdll run roaring away from them. Thofe pongees are
never taken alive, becaufe they are fo ftrong that ten
men cannot hold one of them, but yet they take many
of their young ones with poifoned arrows. The young
pongo hangeth on his mother’s belly, with his hands
clafped about her, fo that when any of the country
people kill any of the females, they take the young one,
W’hieh hangeth faft upon his mother*.”
'1 his is almoft the only account which we have offy &«//;[
the oran otan in its native ftate. The other relationsvo1, vi‘‘>
of its habits and manners are deferiptive of it in a ftate
of captivity, and of tbefe we fhall prefent our readers
with fome of the moft remarkable.
Mr Buffon gives us the following account of a
jocko, which he faw in France. “ The oran otan
which I faw walked always on two feet, even when
carrying things of confidtrable weight. His air was
melancholy, his gait grave, his movements meafured,
his difpofition gentle, and very different from thofe of
other apes. He had neither the impatience of the Bar¬
bary ape, the malicioufnefs of the baboon, nor the extra¬
vagance of the monkeys. It may be alleged (fays our
author) that he had the benefit of inftrudtion j but the
other apes, which I fhall compare with him, were edu¬
cated in the fame manner. Signs and words were
alone fufficient to make our oran otan aft j but the
baboon required a cudgel, and the other apes a whip j
for none of them would obey without blows. I have
feen this animal prefent his hand to conduft the people
who came to vifit him, and walk as gravely along with
them as if he had formed a part of the company. I
have feen him fit down at table, unfold his towel, wipe
his lips, ufe a fpoon or a fork to carry the viftuals to his
mouth, pour his liquor into a glafs, and make it touch
that of the perfon who drank along with him. When
invited to tea, he brought out a cup and faucer, placed
them on the table, poured out the tea, and allowed it
to cool before he drank it. All thefe aftions he per¬
formed without any other inftigation than the figns or
verbal orders of his mafter, and often of his own accord.
He did no injury to any perfon j he even approached
company with circumfpeftion, and prefented himfelf as
if he wanted to be careffed. He wras very fond of dain¬
ties, which every body gave him : and as his bread was
difeafed, and he was affefted with a teazing cough, this
quantity of fweet meats undoubtedly contributed to
fhorten his life. He lived one fummer in Paris, and
died in London the following winter. He ate almoft
every thing, but preferred ripe and dried fruits to all
other kinds of food. He drank a little wine, but fpon-
taneoufly left it for milk, tea, or other mild liquors f.” | Bujfon,
Doftor Tyfon deferibes the oran otan which wasubi luprij
exhibited in London about the end of the feventeenth
century as the moft gentle and loving creature that
could be. Thofe that he knew on board the fhip in
which he was brought to England, he would come
and embrace with the greateft tendernefs, and though
there were other monkeys on board, it was obferved
that he would never affociate with any of them, but
always avoided their company as of nothing akin to
them. He was fometimes dreft in clothes, of which he
at length became very fond, would put on part of them
without help, and carry the reft in his hands to ibme of
M A M M A L I A.
Ihap
nmates.
I. ' M A M M
the company for their afliftance. He would lie in bed,
— lay his head on the pillow, and pull up the bed clothes
Anatomy to keep himfelf warm *.
a Pigmy. Pere Carbaflon brought up an oran otan, which
became fo fond of him, that wherever he went it w'as
always delirous of accompanying him: whenever, there¬
fore, he had to perform the fervice of his church, he
was obliged to (hut it up in a room. Once, however,
the animal efcaped and followed the father to the
church, where, mounting on the founding board above
the pulpit, he lay perfeftly ftill till the fermon com¬
menced. He then crept to the edge of the board, and
overlooking the preacher, imitated all his gefiures in fo
grotefque a manner, that the congregation was unavoid¬
ably caufed to laugh. The father furpriied and con¬
founded at this ill-timed levity, reproved his audience
for their inattention. The reproof failed in its effect j
the congregation Hill laughed, and the preacher in the
warmth of his zeal redoubled his vociferations and his
actions; thefe the ape fo exadlly imitated, that the con¬
gregation could no longer rellrain themfelves, but burft
into a loud and continued laughter. A friend of the
preacher at length ftepped up to him, and pointed out
the caufe of this improper conduct $ and fuch was the
arch demeanour of the animal, that it was with the ut-
moft difficulty he could command his countenance and
keep himfelf apparently ferious, while he ordered the
fervant of the church to take the ape away.
Perhaps one of the inoft interefling accounts of the
oran otan is that given by Voftnaer, and with this
we (hall clofe our hillory of this fpecies.
iteCGCI. “ This animal (fays M. Vofmaer) was a female 5 its
fig. x. height was about two Rheniffi feet and a half. It {hew¬
ed no fymptoms of fiercenefs or malignity, and was
even of a fomewhat melancholy appearance. It was
fond of being in company, and ffiowed a preference of
thofe who took daily care of it, of which it feemed to
be fenfible. Often when they retired, it would throw
itfelf on the ground, uttering lamentable cries, and
tearing in pieces the linen within its reach. Its keeper
having fometimes been accuftomed to lit near it on
the ground, it took the hay of its bed, and laid it by
its fide, and feemed by every demonftration to invite
him to be feated near. Its ufual manner of walking
was on all, fours, like other apes, but it could alfo
walk on its two hind feet only. One morning it got
unchained, and we beheld it with wonderful agility af-
cend the beams and rafters of the building*, it was not
without fome pains that it was retaken, and we then
remarked an extraordinary mufcular power in the ani¬
mal, the affiftance of four men being neceffary to hold
it in fuch a manner as to be properly fecured. During
its ftate of liberty it had among other things taken a cork
from a bottle of Malaga wine, which it drank to the
laft drop, and had fet the bottle in its place again. It
ate almoft every thing which was given to it •, but its
chief food was bread, roots, and efpecially carrots, all
forts of fruits, efpecially ftrawberries ■, and it appeared
extremely fond of aromatic plants, and of the leaves
and roots of parfley. It alfo ate meat, both boiled and
roafted, as well as fifii. It was not obferved to hunt
for infects like other monkeys; was fond of eggs, which
it broke with its teeth, and fucked completely ; but fiffi
and roafted meat feemed its favourite food. It had
been taught to eat with a fpoon and a fork. When
Vol. XII. Part II.
ALIA. 457
prefented with ftrawberries on a plate, it was extreme- Hiftcry of
ly pleafant to fee the animal take them up one by one ttie ‘J(iC!er
with a fork, and put them into its mouth, holding at
the fame time the plate in the other hand. Its com¬
mon drink was water, but it alfo very willingly drank
all forts of wine, and particularly Malaga. After
drinking, it wiped its lips; ami after eating, if prefent¬
ed with a toothpick, would ufe it in a proper manner.
I was aflured (continues our writer), that on ftiipboard
it ran freely about the veffel, played with the failors,
and would go like them into the kitchen for its mefs.
At the approach of night, it lay down to deep, and
prepared its bed by {baking well the hay on which it
ftept, and putting it in proper order, and laftly cover¬
ing itfelf with the coverlet. One day feeing the pad¬
lock of its chain opened with a key, and {hut again, it
feized a little bit of {tick, and put it into the key-hole,
turning it about in all ftireftions, endeavouring to fee
whether the padlock would open or not. This animal
lived {'even months in Holland. On its firft arrival it
had but very little hair except on its back and arms ;
but on the approach of winter it became extremely well
covered ; the hair on the back being three inches in
length. The whole animal then appeared of a chefnut
colour ; the {kin of the face, &c. was of a moufe colour,
but about the eyes and round the mouth, of a dull flelh
colour.” It came from the ifland of Borneo, and was
after its death depofited in the mufeum of the prince of
Orange.
3. S. Inuus. Magot, Barbary Ape.—This fpecies is hmus,
corffidered by fome naturalifts as forming the conned!- Carbary
ing link between the ape, properly lo called, and the p.oe'
baboons. Like the latter it has pofteriojr callofities, and
though it properly has no tail, it is furnilhed with an
appendage of {kin in the place where the tail is fituated
in other fpecits. The hair on the greateft part of its
body is of a grteniffi brown, the belly being paler than
the reft ; the face is of a fwarthy flelh-colour, and the
fingers and toes are furnilhcd with nails refembling
thofe of the human fpecies.
It is found moft commonly in Barbary and fome
other parts of Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope,
and it is aifo occafionally met with in Tartary, in Ara¬
bia, and in fome parts of the Indian peninfula.
It is probable that Tavernier alludes to this fpecies, in
the account he gives of a cuftom amongft fome of the
inhabitantsof India of amulingthemfelvcsat the expence
of the ape. Thefe people place five or fix baikets of
rice, forty or fifty yards afunder, in an open ground near
their retreat, and by every balket put a number of ftout
cudgels, each about two feet long ; they then retire to
fome hiding place not far ditlani, to wait the event.
When the apes obferve no perfon near the baikets,
they foon defcend in great numbers from the trees, and
run towards them : they grin at each other for fome
time before they dare approach ; fometimes they ad¬
vance, then retreat Teeming much difinclined to en¬
counter. At length the females, which are more
courageous than the males, efpecially thofe that have
young ones (which they carry in their arms as women
do their children), venture to approach the baikets,
and as they are about to thruft their heads in to eat,
the males on the one fide advance to hinder them.
Immediately the other party comes forward ; and the feud
being kindled on both fides, the combatants feize the
3 M - cudgels,
458 MAM M
Hiftory of cudgels, and commence a moft fevere fight, which al
the Species wayS encjs with the weakeft being driven into the
woods, with broken heads and limbs. The viftors, he
tells us, then fall to in peace, and devour the reward of
their labour.
Of all the apes this agrees beft with the temperature
of an European climate,- and may eafily be kept in a
Hate of domeftication. Buffon had one which he kept
for feveral years. In fummer he delighted to be in the
open air, and in winter he appeared fufficiently com¬
fortable in a room without a fire, which fhowed he was
by no means delicate. He w-as always of a grave de¬
portment, and fometimes dirty in his manner. His
movements were brifk, and bis countenance rather ugly
than ridiculous. When agitated with paffion, he exhi¬
bited and grinded his teeth. He filled the pouehes of
his cheeks with the food which was given him, and ge¬
nerally ate every thing except raw flefh, cheefe, and
whatever had undergone a kind of fermentation. When
about to deep, he loved to perch upon an iron or wood¬
en bar. He wras always chained, becaufe though he
had been long in a domeftic Hate he w as not civilized,
and had no attachment to his mailers. He feems to
have been ill educated, for Buffbn had feen others of
the fame fpecies more intelligent, more obedient, more
gay, and fo docile as to learn to dance and make gelti-
culations in cadence, and to allow themfelves peaceably
to be clothed.
The flelh of this fpecies is ufed as food by the wild
Arabs.
Sylvius, 4- Sylvanus. Pitheque. Pigmy.—This fpecies
Pigmy. ’ greatly relembles the laft, except that its head is round-
Eig- 3- cr, and that it is much inferior in fize, being feldom
larger than a cat. It is thought by Mr Pennant to be
the pigmy of the ancients •, or one of that nation which
was by them fuppofed to carry on periodical wars with
the cranes. It is a native of Africa, and is alfo found
in the Eafl Indies and in Ceylon. They affociate in
troops, and live chiefly on vegetable food. They are
often found walking ereft. They are faid to be very
malicious and fpiteful.
We are told by Marmol that they go in troops into
the gardens or fields ; but before they leave the thickets,
one of them afeends an eminence from which he views
the country •, and when he fees no perfon, he gives the
fignal by a cry for the reft to proceed, and removes not
from his ftation as long as they continue abroad : but
whenever he perceives any perfon approaching, he
fereams with a loud voice, and by leaping from tree to
tree they all fly to the mountains. Their flight is
worthy of admiration ; for the females, though they
carry four or five young ones on their backs, make
great fprings from branch to branch, '['hough extreme¬
ly cunning, vaft numbers of them are taken by dif¬
ferent arts. When wild they bite defperately, but by
careflfes they are eafi’y tamed. ’Ihey do much mif-
chief to the fruits and corn •, for they gather it together
in heaps, cut it, and throw it on the ground whether it
be ripe or not, and deftroy more than they eat or carry
off. Thofe who are tamed perform things incredible,
and imitate every human aftion.
They chiefly refide in caverns, which gives the na¬
tives an eafy opportunity of taking them alive. For
this purpofe the natives place veffels containing intoxi¬
cating liquors in the caverns frequented by the apes,
ALIA. Part II,
and thefe animals affemble together to drink thefe li- Primates,
quors. After having become intoxicated, they fall —j
alleep, and are eafily taken by the hunters. 3I
5. S. Sphinx. "Great baboon. Papion. Mottled Sphinx,
baboon.—This is a very large fpecies, meafuring w hen Great ba-
litting on its polteriors, three or four feet high. It isp°on'
very ftrong and mufcular, efpecially towards the fore §
parts of the body j but its waift, as is common to all
the baboons, is flender. All the nails are not pointed,
thofe on the thumbs and great toes being rounded.
The tail is fliort and thick, and rounded j the politnors
are perleftly bare and callous, and of a red colour.
The baboon is a native of Borneo, and of the hotteft
parts of the African continent. It lives chiefly on ve¬
getables, but is laid to be very fond of eggs. The fe¬
male brings forth one young at a time, and carries it
in her arms.
From the great fize and ftrength of thefe animals
they are not a little formidable ; and as their natural
difpofition is very ferocious, it is dangerous to encoun¬
ter any number of them in their native wilds.
The baboons are pafiionately lond of raifins, apples,
and in general of all fruits which grow in gardens.
Their teeth and paws render them formidable to dogs,
who overcome them with difficulty, unlefs when eating
has made them heavy and inactive. Buffon has remark¬
ed that they neither eat fiffi nor fleffi, except when boiled
or roafted, and then they devour both with avidity. In
their expeditions to rob orchards, gardens, or vineyards,
they generally go in troops. Some of them enter the
incloture, while others remain on the walls as lentinels
to give notice of any approaching danger. 'I he reft of
the troop are ftationed without the garden, at conveni¬
ent diftances from each other, and thus form a line,
which extends from the place of pillage to that of their
rendezvous. Matters being difpofed in this manner,
the baboons begin the operation, and throw to thofe on
the wall melons, gourds, apples, pears, &c. Ihoie on
the walls throw thefe fruits to their neighbours below j
and thus the fpoils are handed along the whole line,
which generally terminates on fome mountain. They
are fo dexterous and quick-fighted, that they feldom al¬
low the fruit to fall in throwing it from one to another.
All this is performed with profound filence and great
defpateb. When the fentinels perceive any perfon, thpy
cry, and at this fignal the whole troop fly off with afto-
niffiing rapidity.
In confinement the great baboon lofes nothing of his
native ferocity'. He is indeed one of the moft un¬
manageable of his tribe, grinding his teeth, putting on
a threatening afpe6I, and {baking the bars of his cage
fo as often to make the fpeftators tremble. Mr Smellie
fpeaks of one that he faw at Edinburgh in 1779’ ^ia*‘
was remarkable for its fize, ftrength, ard beautiful co¬
lours. He was nearly five feet high, and Vas exceffive-
ly fierce, prefenting uniformly to the Ipeftators a melt
threatening afpeft, and attempting to feize every perfon
that came within the length of his chain. On luch oc-
cafions he made a deep grunting noile, and was perpe¬
tually toffing up his head. This fetms to have been
the fame animal that is deferibed by Mr Pennant as
having been feen by him at Chefter about two months
after the time mentioned by Mr Smellie. He was par¬
ticularly fond of eheefe j his voice was a kind of roar
not unlike that of a lion, but low and fomewhat inward..
hap. I.
MAMMALIA.
459
3* .
eme/ln-
\ P'g'
iled Ba-
33
edzcbul,
reacher
lonkey.
S'
•imates. It went on all-fours, and never flood on its hind legs
-v-—— unlefs forced to do fo by its keeper. He would fre-
Uellie's quently fit on his rump in a crouching poflure, and drop
fin, his hands before his belly *.
vlil‘ It is not a little extraordinary that an animal of this
difpofition ftiould be kept in private houfes as a pet,
efpecially when we coniider the mifchiefs that they
often commit. Dr Goidfmith fays that he has feen one
of them demolilh a whole fervice of china, without ap¬
pearing in the leaft confcious of having done amifs,
though the mifchief was evidently intentional.
14. S.NemeJlrina. Pig-tailed baboon.—Olive brown,
with fliort naked tail.
This is but a fmall fpecies, feldom exceeding the fize
of a cat. The tail exaftly refembles that of a pig. It
is a native of Sumatra, and is very lively and aftive.
He is fometimes feen in an exhibition in this country,
but feldom lives long in a climate fo much colder than
his own.
Mr Edwards had a rpale of this fpecies: it lived with
him for a year, and was about the fize of a common
houfe cat. Another of the fame fpecies being at that
time exhibited at Bartholomew fair in London, Mr
Edwards carried his to compare with it; and he remarks
that they feemed highly pleafed with each others com¬
pany, though this was the firft time of their meeting.
53. S. Beelxebul. Preacher monkey.—This fpecies
is found in great numbers in the woods of South Ame¬
rica, efpecially in Guiana and Brafil. It is the largeft
of the American monkeys, being about the fize of a
fox, and of a glofiy black colour. There is in the
throat of this animal a hollow bony fubftance, which is
fuppofed to produce that peculiar dreadful howl for
which this animal and the next fpecies are fo remark¬
able. They are exceedingly mifchievous and fpiteful,
and if attacked they bite cruelly. They ufually keep
together in parties of from 20 to 30, rambling over the
tops of the trees, and leaping with great agility from
one tree to another. If they fee any one approach
alone, they always teaze and threaten him.
Marcgrave informs us that they affemble every
morning and evening in the woods of Brafil, and make
a moft dreadful howling. Sometimes one of them
mounts on a higher branch, and the reft feat themfelves
beneath : the firft begins, as it were to harangue, and
fets up a howd fo loud and (harp as to be heard to a
great diftance : after a while, he gives a fignal with his
hand, when the whole affembly joins in chorus j but on
another fignal they are again filent, and the orator
finifties his addrefs. Their clamour is the moft dif-
agreeable and tremendous that can be conceived.
They are extremely fagacious ; and when hunted,
not only diftinguiih particularly thofe who are a£tive
again ft them, but defend themfelves vigoroufly when
attacked. When the hunters approach, the monkeys
aiTemble together, uttering loud and fearful cries, and
throwing at their affailants dried branches which they
wrench from the trees. It is faid that they never
abandon each other, and that in pafling from tree to
tree they fling themfelves headlong from one branch to
another without ever falling to the ground, always
catching hold either with their hands cr tail. If they
are not at once (hot dead it is fcarcely pofllble to take
them, as, though mortally wounded, they cling fo
firmly to the trees as to maintain their hold even after Hjftory of
. / the Species,
death. . -A 
Macaucos.
34
Lemur.
Gen. 2. Lemur.
Four front teeth in the upper jaw, the intermediate be-J
ing remote ; fix in the lower jaw, longer, ftretched
forwards, compreffed, parallel and approximated.
Canine teeth iolitary and approximated. Grinders
fublobated, the foremoft of them being rather longer
and (harper than the reft.
The animals of this genus referable the monkey tribe
in the ufe of their hands, but they are much lefs mif-
chievous and ferocious than that tribe. None of them,
except the indri, bears any refemblance to man j but in
this fpecies the arms, hands, body, and feet, are very
fimilar to the human. A few of them are taillefs, but
moft of them have long tails.
They are harmlefs inoffet>five creatures, live chiefly
in woods, and feed on fruits, vegetables, or infects.
At leaft one fpecies, viz. the 12th, ferves for food to
the natives of the countries where it is found.
There are 13 fpecies which are diftinguilhed by the
following names and characters :
I. Lemur Tardigradus. Slow Lemur. Taillefs; of a
rufty afti colour, with a brown dorfal line ; very fmall
ears.—2. L. Loris. Loris. Taillefs ; of a rufly afti
colour, with extremely flender limbs, and large ears.
—3. L. Indri. Indri. Taillefs ; black grayith beneath,
with the face and fpace round the anus whitifh.—
4. Z,. Potto. Potto. Tailed ; fubferruginous.—5. Z.
Mongo%. Mongoz or Woolly L. Long-tailed ; gray
brown.—6. Z. Macaco. Ruffed L. Tailed ; black,
with the neck bearded like a ruff.—7. Z. Laniger,
Flocky L. Tailed ; pale tawney, white beneath, with
rufty tail.—8. Z. Catta. Ring tailed L. Tail long,
and annulated with black and white.—9. Z. Bicolor.
Heart-marked L. Long-tailed ; blackifli white be¬
neath, with a white heart-thaped fpot on the forehead.
—10. Z. Tarjier. Tarfier. Long-tailed ; afh-colour-
ed ; with flender alnfcitt naked tufted tail ; and very
long hinder feet.—11. Z. Murinus. Tail long, and
rufty; body aih coloured.—12. Z. Calago. WhitiftiL.
Tail long and rufty ; body whitifh, gray beneath.—
13. Z. PJilodaPlylus. Long-fingered L. Afti-ferrugi-
nous, with extremely villofe tail, and the middle finger
of the hands very long and naked. ^5
I. Z. Tardigradus. Slow Lemur.—This animal isTardtgia-
about the fize of a fmall cat, with the body of an ele- dus, 3low
gant pale brown or moufe-colour ; a flattifli face, ex- Lymur-
tremely prominent eyes, that are furrounded with a
circle of dark brown, and a fharpifh nofe. Of its man¬
ners in its native ftate we know almoft nothing, but
in a ftate of domeftication it has been accurately ob-
ferved.
The late Sir William Jones had one of thefe animals
in his poffeflion for fome time, and has given a very
interefting account of its form and manners. This was
publifhed in the Afiatic Refearches, from which we
fhall extra£l the moft interefting particulars.
“ In his manners he was for the moft part gentle, ex¬
cept in the cold feafon, when his temper feemed wholly
changed i and his Creator who made him fo fenfible to
cold, to which he muft often have been expoitd even
in his native forefts, gave him probably for that reafon,
3 M 2 his
460
Ktito-y of^ his thick fur, which we rarely fee in animals in thefe
^c ~ tropical climates : to me, who not only conllantly fed
him, but bathed him twice a-week in water accommo¬
dated to the lealons, and whom he clearly dillinguithed
from others, he was at all times grateful ; but when I
dlllurbed him in winter, he was ufually indignant, and
feemed to reproach me with the uneafinefs which he
felt, though no poflible precaution had been omitted
to keep him in a proper degree of warmth. At all times
he was pleafed with being ftroaked on the head and
throat, and frequently fuffered me to touch his extreme¬
ly (harp teeth j but his temper was always quick, and
when he was unfeafonably diilurbed, he expreffed a lit¬
tle refentment, by an obfcure murmur, like that of a
fquirrel, or a greater degree of difpleafure by a peevilh
cry, efpecially in winter, when he was often as fierce,
on being much importuned, as any bead of the woods.
“ From half an hour after funrife to half an hour be¬
fore funfet, he flept without intermilfion, rolled up like
a hedgehog •, and, as foon as he awoke, he began to
prepare himfelf for the labours of his approaching day,
licking and drt fling himfelf like a cat 5 an operation
which the flexibility of his neck and limbs enabled him
to perform very completely : he was then ready for a
flight breakfaft, after which he commonly took a (hort
nap ; but when the fun was quite fet he recovered all
his vivacity.
“ His ordinary food was the fw'eet fruit of this coun¬
try ; plantains always, and mangoes during the feafon j
but he refuled peaches, and was not fond of mulberries,
or even of guiavas : milk he lapped eagerly, but was
content with plain water. In general he was not vora¬
cious, but never appeared fatisfied with grafshoppers ;
and pafied the whole night, while the hot feafon lafted,
in prowling for them : when a grafshopper, or any in-
left, alighted within his reach, his eyes, which he fixed
on his prey, glowed with uncommon fire j and having
drawn himfelf back to fpring on it with greater force,
he feized the prey with both his fore paws, but held it
in one of them while he devoured it. For other pur-
pofes, and fometimes even for that of holding his food,
he ufed all his paws indifferently as hands, and fre¬
quently graiped with one of them the higher parts of
his ample cage, while his three others were feverally
engaged at the bottom of it j but the pofiure of which
he feemed fondeft was to cling with all four of them
to the upper wires, his body being inverted j and in the
evening he ufually flood ereft for many minutes, play¬
ing on the wires with his fingers, and rapidly moving
his body from fide to fide, as if he had found the uti¬
lity of exercife in his unnatural ftate of confinement.
“ A little before daybreak, when my early hours
gave me frequent opportunities of obferving him, he
feemed to folieit my attention ; and if I presented my
finger to him, he licked or nibbled it uhth great gentle-
nefs, but eagerly took fruit when 1 offered it, though
he feldom ate much at his morning repaft ; when the
day brought back his night, his eyes loft their luftre
and ftrength, and he compofed himfelf for a {lumber of
ten or eleven hours.
“ My^little friend was, on the whole, very en¬
gaging : and when he was found lifelefs in the fame
poflnre in which he would naturally have flept, I con-
foied myfelf with believing that he died without much
MAMMALIA. part jj
pain, and lived with as much pleafure as lie could have Piimam
enjoyed in a ftate of captivity.”
Its pace is exceedingly flow, fcarcely moving above
fix or eight yards in a minute ; whence its name.
It is of confiderable importance in a phyfiological
point of view, to inveftigate the (frufture of thefe flow-
moving animals, fuch as the fpecies juft deferibed, and
the floth to be afterwards mentioned. An anatomical
examination of the blood-velfels in the limbs of this
fpecies by Mr Carlifle has thrown conftderable light on
the conneftion of flow motion with a particular diftri-
bution of the arteries in the flow-moving limbs j this dif-
tribution is thus deferibed by Mr Carlifle. “ Imme¬
diately after the fubclavian has penetrated the axilla it
is divided into 23 equal-fized cylinders, which furround
the principal trunk of the artery, now diminifhed in fize
to an inconfiderable veffel. Thefe cylindrical arteries
accompany each other, and divide V'ith the ulnar and
radial branches, being diftributed in their route upon
the mufcles, each of which has one of thefe cylinders.
The other branches, for example the radial and ulnar,
proceed like the arteriesin general,difperfing themfelves
upon the fkin, the membranes, joints, bones, &e. in an
arborefeent form. The iliac artery divides upon the
margin of the pelvis into upwards of twenty equal-fized
cylinders, furrounding the main trunk as deferibed in the
axillary artery. Thefe veffels are alfb finally diftri¬
buted, as in the upper extremity ; the cylinders wholly
upon the mufcles and the arborefeent branches on all the
other parts. The carotid arteries do not divide the
equal-fized cylinders, but are diftributed as in the gene¬
rality of animals
Gen 3. GallopiTHEcus. Calugo.
Front teeth in the upper jaw wanting j in the lower fix,
fhort, broad and peftinated. Canine teeth very fliort,
triangular, broad, ftiarp and ferrated. Grinders four,
truncated, and muricated with conical protuberances.
Flying fkin furrounding the body, limbs, and tail.
There is only one fpecies, viz.
G. Vo!ans. Flying Calugo, or Flying Lemur.—This yQl^s
is one of thofe extraordinary quadrupeds whom nature Flying’Le-
has raifed above their ufual element, and enabled them mur.
to tranfport themfelves through the air in a maimer which, 8*
though it cannot ftriftly be denominated flying, is at
leaft very fimilar to it. The body of the flying lemur
is about three feet long ; but, except when the mem¬
brane is expanded, it is very {lender. It has a {lender
tail, about a fpan long. The membrane, which ex¬
tends from the neck to the fore legs, hind legs, and
tail, is covered with fur, but appears membranaceous
on the inner fide. The upper fide of the animal is of
a deep afti colour, inclining to black when young, and
the back is crofted tranfverfely with blackifh lines. Its
head is long, its mouth fmall, and its teeth differ from
thofe of every other quadruped hitherto examined. The
cutting teeth in the lower jaw' are deeply eut like a
comb ; the canine teeth, as Pallas calls them, (though
Geuffroy thinks they are more properly cutting teeth),
are triangular, very broad at the bale, and very ftiort.
The caecum or large inteftine is very voluminous.
It is a native of the Molucca and Philippine iflands,
frequents woody places, and feeds on fruits, and pro¬
bably
* Shaw's
Zoology,
vol. i.
Galeopithe-
CHS.
ap. I. M A M M
rutes bably on infe£b. It almnft conitantly refides on trees;
in defcending from which it fpreads its membranes, and
balances itl'elf in a gentle manner towards the place at
which it aims, but in afcending it ufes a leaping pace.
It brings forth two young, which are faid to adhere to
the brealls of the parent by their teeth and claws,
Geoffrey and Cuvier make two varieties or fpecies
of this genus, viz. G. Rufus, Red Calugo j and G. Va~
rie^atus. Varied Calugo:—but thefe are probably no
more than fexual differences.
ienilio. Genus 4. VespERTILIO. BATS.
Teeth ereft, ftiarp pointed, and approximated j hands
palmated; with a membrane furrounding the body,
and enabling the animal to fly.
The animals of this genus have their atlantal extre¬
mities exceedingly long, efpecialiy what may be termed
the fingers •, and the delicate membrane that is ftretch-
ed over them is fo contrived, as to form a wing when the
animals wilh to fly, and to fold up into a fmall fpace
when they are at reft. All the fpecies have two breads,
more or lefs confpicuous, to which the young adhere.
They have no caecum.
The Bats are natives of very different regions •, three
of them are found in Britain, and feveral in the warmer
regions of Afia and Africa*, one in the Weft Indies,
and a few in America. Thofe of warm climates are
ufually very large. Thofe which inhabit the colder re¬
gions lie all winter in a torpid date, without lading
nourilhment. The fmaller fpecies live chiefly on in¬
fers which they feize in their flight; but the larger
attack birds, or even the leffer quadrupeds.
From fome experiments made by the abbe Spallan¬
zani, on three fpecies of this genus, it appears that thefe
animals poffefs fome additional fenie, by which they are
enabled, when deprived of fight, to avoid obflacles as
readily as when they, retained the power of vifion.
When the eyes of thefe bats were covered, or even en¬
tirely deftroyed, they would fly about in a darkened
room, without ftriking againft the walls, and would
eonftantly fufpend their flight, when they came near a
place where they could conveniently perch. In the
middle of a dark fewer that turned at right angles,
they would, though at a confiderable diftance from the
walls, regularly alter the diredlion of their flight wdth
the greateft nicety, when they came to the angles.
When branches of trees were fufpended in the room in
which they were flying, they always avoided them, and
even flew betwixt threads hung perpendicularly from
the ceiling, though thefe were fo near each other that
they were obliged to contrail their wings in order to
pafs through them.
Thefe experiments were repeated by Vaffali at T urin,
by Rofli at Pifa, Spadon at Bologna, and Jurin at
Geneva. M. Jurin conceives that no other of the five
fenfes could, in thefe inftances, fupply the place of fight ■,
and as, from fome anatomical obfervations that he made
on thefe animals, he found a prodigious number of
nerves expanded on the upper jaws, the muzzle, and
the organ of hearing, he conceived that thole nervous
produilions wmuld account for the extraordinary faculty
above deferibed. From fome obfervations made by
Mr Carlifle on this iubjeit, it appears prohabb that the
fenie of hearing, w'hich in the bat is uncommonly de-
5
ALIA. 415»
licate, enables thefe animals when blinded, to avoid Hiftory «f
thofe objeils which would impede their flight. Thistiie 'l-l<:cies^
gentleman collected feveral fpecimens of the vefpertilio
auritus or large-eared bat, and obferved, that when the
external ears of the blinded ones were clofed, they hit
againft the fides of the room, without being at all
aware of their fituation. They refufed every fpecies of
food tour days, as did a larger number which were af¬
terwards caught and preferved in a dark box for above
a week. During the day time they were extremely
defirous of retirement and darknefs ; and, while con¬
fined to the box, never moved or endeavoured to get out
during the whole day } and, when fpread on the carpet,
they commonly refted fome minutes, and then begin¬
ning to look about, crawled tlowly to a dark corner or
crevice. At funfet the feene was quite changed ; every
one then endeavoured to ferateb its way out of the box j
a continued chirping was kept up *, and no fooner w'as
the lid of their prifon opened, than each was active to
efcape, either flying away immediately, or running
nimbly to a convenient place for taking wing. When
the bats w’ere firft collected, feveral of the females had
young ones clinging to their breafts, in the aft of fuck¬
ing. One of them flew with perfeft eafe, though two
little ones were thus attached to her, which weighed
nearly as much as their parent. All the young were
devoid of dowrn, and of a black colour*. * Shaiv't
Many of the larger fpecies of bats attack men and
other animals when afleep, make a flight wound with
their iharp teeth fo dexteroufly as not to awaken their
viftim, and then fuck the blood. This property is at¬
tributed chiefly to one fpecies, which we ftiall par¬
ticularly notice prefently *, but it is probably poffeffed
by moft of the larger bats that inhabit the warm cli¬
mates.
Some of the fpecies may be employed as food.
There are deferibed about 24 ipecies of Bats j and
as they are fo numerous, they may be diftributed into
two feftions, as the tailed, and the taillefs.
A. Tailed Bats, of which there are 18 ; viz.
1. * Vefpertilio murinus. Common B. Nofe inappendi-
culated j ears fhorter than the head.— 2. * V. f/uritus.
Long-eared B. Nofe inappendiculated ; ears larger
than the head, and double.—3. V. Nofiula, Noftule B.
Nofe and mouth Ample ; oval ears and very itnall valves.
—4. V. Ferrum equinum, Horfe Ihot B. Noie horfe-
fhoe fliape 5 ears, valve leffer *, tail half as long as the
body.—5. V. Serotinus, S< rotine B. Yellowiih, with
ftiortemarginateears.—6.PpiJlreUus, Pipiitrelic. Black-
iih brown, with convex front, and ovate emarginated
ears, fcarcely longer than the head.— 7. V. Barbaftel-
lus, Barbaftelle. Cheeks elevated, hairy 5 ears large,
angulated below.—8. Lajiopterus, Laliopter B. Mem¬
brane connecting the feet extremely broad, covered
above with hair.—9. F! Zo/foraj-, Rough-tailed B. Lips
tumid ^ tail broad and hairy.—10. V. Crpha/otes, Mo¬
lucca B Yellowiih gray, with large head ; fpiral nof-
triJs, fmall valvelefs ears.—11. V. Piclus, Striped B.
Noie limole *, ears funnel ihaped, appendicuiated.—
12. Noveboj'acenfts, New-York B. Tail long, rufty ^
nofe fliort and Iharp ; ears ftiort and round, with a white
ipot at the bale of each wing—13. Hifpidus, Bearded
B Hairy, with channelled noftrils, and long narrow
ears.—14. V. Auripendutus} Slouch-eared B. Nofe
blunt j
462 M A' M M
Hiltory of blunt; ears large and pendent, with pointed tips.—
t c ^pcaeb j ^ Leptums, Slender-tailtd B. Noltrils tubular j
tail (lender, with a purle-lhaped cavity on the infide of
each wing—16. V. Nigrita, Senegal B. Yellowilh
brown, with the forepart of the head, feet and tail
black.—17. V Mo/ofus, Bull-dog B. Upper lip pendu¬
lous; tail llretching beyond the connecting membrane.
18. K Leporinus, Peruvian B. Upper lip bifid.
B. 1 ailless Bats ; of which there are 6 ; viz.
19. V. Spafma, Cor dated B. A double heart-lhaped
leaf-like membrane on the nofe.—20. V. Soricrnus, Leaf
B. Snout lengthened, furnilhed with a heart-lhaped
leaf-like membrane.—21. V. Hqftatus, Javelin B. Nofe
furnilhed with a trefoil-lhaped upright membrane.—
22. U. Nafutus, Great Serotine B. Rufty, with long
Hoping nofe, and long upright rounded ears.—23. V.
Spectrum, SpeCtfe B. Nofe furnilhed with a funnel-
Ihaped pointed membrane.— 24. Vampyrus, Vampyre
B. Nole without appendage ; Hying membrane divid¬
ed between the thighs.
After having faid fo much on the general HruCture
and habits of this genus, we lhall briefly notice only
39 turn of the fpecies.
Auritus, Species 2. V. Auritus, Long-eared B.—This is
Long-eared one 0p ^ moft comnion fpecies of Britain, and may
Fig. be feen flying through the air in the evenings of fum-
mer and autumn, in fearch of infeCts. It is about two
inches long, and feven from the tip of one wing to
that of the other. Its ears are half as long as its body,
very thin, and almoft tranfparent, and within each
there is a membrane which probably ferves as a valve
to defend the organ of hearing during the inadive Hate
of the animal. Thefe bats are fometimes taken by
throwing up at them the heads of burdock whitened
with flour. The animals either miltaking thefe for
prey, or accidentally Itriking againft them, are entang¬
led by the hooked prickles, and brought to the ground.
T his is one of the fpecies that remains in a torpid Hate
during winter. At the end of fummer they retire to
their hiding places in old buildings, walls, or caverns,
where they remain, generally in great numbers, fuf-
pended by the hind legs, and enveloped in their wings,
till the genial warmth of fummer again calls them
forth. 1 hefe animals are faid to drink on the wing
like fwallow's, and they love to frequent waters, partly
lor the fake of drinking, and partly to prey on the in¬
fers which hover over them. As Mr White was go-
ing pretty late on a warm fummer’s evening, in a boat
on the Thames, from Richmond to Sunbury, he faw
prodigious multitudes of bats between the two places;
and he fays, that the air fwarmed with them all round
the Thames, fo that hundreds were in fight at a time.
Bats are fuppofed to produce two young at a birth, and
thefe they fuckle for a confiderable time. The young,
when recently born, adhere moll tenacioufly'to the nip¬
ple of the parent, fo as not to be removed without oreat
difficulty.
I his animal is capable of being to a certain degree
domeflicated ; and we are told by Mr White, that
he was once much amufed with the fight of a tame
bat. “ It would, lays he, take flies out of a perfon’s
hand. If you gave it any thing to eat, it brought
its wings round before the mouth ; hovering and hi¬
ding its head in the manner of birds of prey when
ALIA,
Part I]
they feed. The adroitnefs it Ihewed in (hearing off i'limates,
the wings ©f flies (which were always reje&ed) was
worthy of obfervation, and pleafed me much. Infefts
feemed to be moll acceptable, though it did not re-
fufe raw flelh when offered ; fo that the notion that
bats go down chimneys, and gnaw people’s bacon, feems-
no improbable ftory. While 1 amufed myfelf with this
wonderful quadruped, I faw it leveral times confute the
vulgar opinion, that bats, when down on a flat furface,
cannot get on the wing again, by rifing with great eafe
from the floor. It ran, I obferved, with more difpatch * 7 - . ,
than I was aware of, but in a moll ridiculous and gro-Seli^te's\
tefque manner ™e’
Species 24. V. Vampyrus. Vampyre Bat.—This isVampyml
one of the largell fpecies, being about a foot long,
and nearly four feet in the extent of its wings; it ispf1-
fometimes found even larger, and of the extent of fix S I0*
feet between the wings. Its colour is generally a
deep reddiffi brown ; its head is Ihaped like that of a
fox, the nofe being (harp and black, and the tongue
pointed, and terminated by lharp prickles. The ears
are naked, flattilh, and pointed ; and in colour re-
fembling thofe of the common bat. Thefe animals
are faid not to be carnivorous, but live principally upon
fruit; and are fo fond of the juice cf the palm tree,
that they will fuck it till they are intoxicated, and fall
motionlefs to the ground. They often hang together
in vail clutters in hollow trees, or from the boughs of
trees, and make a horrid noife. They are found in
the Friendly ifiands, New-Holland, in South America,
and in the Eaft Indies.
Linnaeus has given to this fpecies the name Vampy¬
rus, from the idea that this is the principal fpecies that
fucks the blood of people when alleep. It is not cer¬
tain whether the bat by which Captain Stedman was
attacked, while in Surinam, be this fpecies; but his ac¬
count of the accident is fo diverting, that we ffiall give
it in his own words. “ I cannot here (fays he) forbear
relating a Angular circumftance refpedting myfelf, viz.
that on waking about four o’clock one morning in my
hammock, I was extremely alarmed at finding my¬
felf weltering in congealed blood, and without feeling
any pain whatever. Having darted up, and rung for
the furgeon, with a fire-brand in one hand, and all
over befmeared with gore ; to which, if added, my pale
face, ffiort hair, and tattered apparel, he might well alk
the queflion,
‘ Be thou a fpirit of health, or goblin damn’d,
Bring with thee airs from heaven, or blafls from hell ?’
“ The myftery, however, W'as, that I had been bitten
by the vampire or fpeftre of Guiana, which is called
the jlymg-dog of New Spain, and by the Spaniards,
perro-volador: this is no other than a bat of a mon-
drous fize, that fucks the blood from men and cattle
while they are fad alleep, even fometimes till they
die ; and as the manner in which they proceed is truly
wonderful, I thall endeavour to give a didinft account
°f it*—Knowing by inflindl, that the perfon they in¬
tend to attack is in a found Humber, they generally
alight near the feet, where, while the creature conti¬
nues fanning with his enormous wings, which keeps
one cool, he bites a piece out of the tip of the great
toe, fo very fmall indeed, that the head of a pin could
fcarcely
(ap. II. M A M M
I ruta. fcarcely be received into the wound, which is confe-
t V“’~ quently not painful; yet through this orifice he conti¬
nues to fuck the blood, until he is obliged to difgorge.
He then begins again, and thus continues fucking and
difgorging till he is fcarcely able to fly, and the fuffer-
er has often been known to deep from time into eter¬
nity. Cattle they generally bite in the ear, but always
on places where the blood flows fpontaneoufiy. Having
applied tobacco allies as the belt remedy, and wafhtd
the gore from myfelf and hammock, I obferved ieveral
heaps of congealed blood all round the place where I
had lain, upon the ground ; on examining which, the
Ifurgeon judged that I had loft at leaft 12 or 14 ounces
feim of blood during the night
t’sNar- The flefti of this fpecies is confidered by the Indians
ivt. as excellent food, and it is faid that the French refidents
!fometimes boil them in their bouillon to give it a re-
iijh. .
From the general appearance and ufual time of flight
!of bats, they have always been looked on with a fort
of fuperftitious terror, and are commonly introduced as
principal objedls in thofe awful fcenes of haunted caftles,
and myfterious caverns, that have exercifed the fancy
of poets and romantic writers. The bat has been re-
prefented by the ancient epic poets as one of the inha¬
bitants of that dreary vault that forms the entrance to
the infernal regions; and it has from time immemorial
lent its wings to decorate the (boulders of thole terrific
figures under which the ingenious fancy of painters-has
reprefented imps and daemons. Probably the fabulous
harpies of the ancient poets may be traced to a fimilar
origin, as fome of the larger bats may with a little
poetical exaggeration, eafily be converted into thofe ra¬
pacious and filthy beings.
This firft order contains four genera, and about 100
fpecies.
Chap. II. BRUTA.
Genus 5. Bradypus. Sloths.
Cutting teeth wanting in both jaws j canine teeth
fingle, obtufe, longer than the grinders, and placed
oppofite j grinders five on each fide, obtufe j fore
legs by much the longer 5 claws very long.
The animals of this genus are called Jloths, as their
movements, more efpecially thofe of one fpecies, are
very flow and fluggifh. Fherev are but three fpecies,
two of which are natives of South America, and the
third of India. They all live chiefly on vegetable
food, and are mild harmlefs creatures. I hey are thus
diftinguiflied.
I. B. TridaBylus, Three-toed S. Feet three-toed ;
tail fhort.—2. B. DidaRylu , Two-toed S. iaillelsj
fore feet two-toed.—B. Urfinus, Urfine S. Black,
with very long (baggy hair j long fnout, and five-toed
feet.
We (hall here give an account only of the firft fpecies,
or the Three-toed S.
'ridatty- Bradypus TridaBylus. This animal is remarkable
w, Three- for its flow movements, affording almoft a Angular ex-
3ed Sloth, ample of languid motion and habitual inactivity. I he
following account of it is given us by Kircher. “ Its
figure is (he fays) extraordinary : it is about the fize
©f a cat, has a very ugly countenance, and claws ex-
A L I A.
463
tended like fingers. It fweeps the ground with its bel- Hiftory ot
]y, and moves fo (lowly that it would fcarcely go thet K pesnes.
length of a bow-(hot in 15 days, though conftantly in
motion ; hence it obtained the name of (loth. It lives
generally on the tops of trees, and employs two days
in crawling up, and as many in getting down again.
Nature ha-, doubly guarded it againft its enemies, firft,
by giving it fuch ftrength in its feet, that whatever it
feizts, it holds lo fall, that it can never be freed, but
muft there die of hunger. 2dly, In having given it
fuch an affecting countenance, that when it looks at
any one who might be tempted to injure it, it is almoft
impoflible not to be moved with compaflion ; it alfo
(beds tears, and upon the whole perfuades one that a
creature to deiencelefs and fo abieCi ought not to be
tormented.
“ To try an experiment with this animal, the pro¬
vincial had one of them brought to the Jefuit’s college
at Carthagena. He put a long pole under its feet,
which it leized very firmly, and Would not let go
again. The animal, therefore, thus voluntarily fuf-
pended, was placed between two beams, where it re¬
mained without food for 40 days, the eyes being al¬
ways fixed on thole who looked at it, who were lo af-
fecled that they could not forbear pitying its dejefted
ftate. At length, being taken down, a dog was let
loofe on it : this, after a while the (loth leiztd in its
claws, and held till he died of hunger.”
The flownels of its motions is, in the above account
greatly exaggerated, as we are informed by later wri¬
ters that it will move fifty or fixty paces in a day, and
one that was on board (hip climbed to the mall head in
about an hour.
Inafcendingatree.this animal firft carelefsly ftretches
out one of its fore paws, and fixes its claws in the bark
of the tree, as high as it can reach, then heavily raifes
its body, and gradually fixes its other paw, thus af-
cending with the greateft flownefs and apparent difficul¬
ty. When got up into the tree, he continues there
till he has defpoiled it of every thing that can ferve
him tor food, and then to fave himfelf the trouble of a
tedious and difficult defeent, it is laid he luffers himfelf
to drop from the tree upon the ground, being fafe
from any injury in the fall by his very tough and hairy
(krn. Here he remains till the calls of hunger again
incite him to the arduous talk of climbing another
tree, when he proceeds in the fame manner.
The female produces only one young, which (he fre¬
quently carries on her back. This animal is a native
of the hotter parts of South America.
In Dr Shaw’s deicription of this fpecies, it is remark¬
ed, that “ the fore legs are Jhort, the hinder ones far
longer.” As this contradids the generic charafter,
and is different from the other defer!ptions that we,
have read of the three toed (loth, we fuppol'e it to be
an inadvertency, though Mr Bingley has copied the
paffage without remarking its incongruity.
The third fpecies, or uj'Jine Jloth, is the fame animal
that is figured in Mr Bewick’s Hiftory of Quadrupeds,
p. 266, (2d edit.) and which was by him confidered as
a fpecits of bear. ^
Megatherium. Some years ago, there was dif-Megaths-
covered below the furface of the earth in South Ameri- rium.
ca, an entire foflil Ikeleton of an animal at prefent un¬
known j .but which M. Cuvier found to referable the
prefent
A-64 , M A M M
milorv of prefent genus more than any other. From its vaft lire,
. _ PeC!es: Cuvier gave it the name of megatherium, {piycc 6rgtoV,
great wild beajl'), and he has given the following de-
feription of it in the “ Annates de Mujeum National,'11
■accompanied with a figure.
1 his fkeleton is twelve feet (French) long, by fix
feet in height. Ihe fpine is compofed of leven cervi¬
cal, 16 dorfal, and four lumbar vertebrae j it has con-
fequently fixteen ribs. The facrum is diort ; the offa
ilia very broad, and their plane being almoft perpendi¬
cular to the fpine, they form a very open pelvis. There
is no pubis or ifehium, at leaft they are wanting in this
fkeleton, and there is no mark of their having exiited
when the animal was alive.
“ The thigh bones are exceffively thick, and the
leg bones ftill more fo in proportion ; the entire foie
of the foot bore on the ground in walking ; the fhoul-
der blade is much broader than long ; the clavicles are
perfect, and the two bones of the fore arm are diflincl;
and moveable upon each other 5 the fore limbs are
longer than the hind. To judge by the form of the
laft phalanges, there muft have been very large pointed
claws, enclofed at their origin in a long {h<=ath. There
appears to have been only three of thefe claws on the
fore feet, and a fingle one on the hind ; the other toes
feem to have been deprived of them, and, perhaps, en¬
tirely concealed beneath the fkin.
“ head is the greatefl Angularity of this fkele¬
ton ; the occiput is elongated and flattened, but is
pretty convex above the eyes ; the two jaws form a
confiderable proje&ion, but without teeth, there being
only four on each fide above and below, all grinders,
with a Hat crown, and grooved acrofs ; the breadth of
the branches of the lower jaw, and the great apophyfis
placed on the bafe of the zygomatic arch, deferve par¬
ticular notice.
1 his quadruped, in its chara&ers, taken together,
differs from all known animals, and each of its bones,
confidered apart, alio differs from the correfponding
bones of all known animals. This refults from a de¬
tailed comparifon of the fkeleton with that of other
animals,, and will readily appear to thofe who are con-
verfant in fuch refearches; for none of the animals
* Vid. An- which approach it in bulk have either pointed claws,
naes ' or fimilarly formed head, fhoulder blades, clavicles,
nates de
Mufeum , .
Nation. Pelvis> or llrabs *.”
^4
Myrmeco-
phaga.
Genus 6. Myrmecophaga. Ant-EATEBS.
Teeth wanting j tongue cylindrical and extenfile; mouth
lengthened out fo as to be fomewhat of a tubular
form ; body covered with hair.
Wie ant-eaters, as their name imports, live chiefly
on ants and fimilar infefls, and for this purpofe they
are furnifhed with a very remarkable tongue, it being
of great length and of a roundifh or worm like form,
and covered with a very glutinous faliva. This tongue
the animals thrufl into the nefts of the ants, &c. and
when a fuflicient number of the infefts has adhered to
it, they withdraw the tongue and fwallow the prey.
I hough the want of teeth makes part of the generic
charadler, it appears from the obfervations of M. Brouf-
fonet, that in moft of the fpecies there are certain bones
or proceffes not unlike teeth, fituated at the entrance
of the gullet, or rather, according to Camper, at the
A L* I A. Part I
lower end of the jaws. The ant-eaters are confined to Brut,,
warm climates, and moft of them have hitherto been
found only in South America.
i here are feven fpecies deferibed by Shaw, though
Gmel in admits only five.
i. M. Jubata. Great A. Gray brown; with four
toes on the fore feet, five on the hind ; long fnout, and
very long bufhy tail.—2. M. Tetradattyla, Middle A.
Four toes on the fore, and five on the hind feet, and
half naked, prehenfile tail.—3. M. Trida&yla, Three¬
toed A. Three toes on the fore, and four on the hind
feet, and villofe tail.—4. M. DidaByla, Little A.
Two toes on the fore, and four on the hind feet, and
prehenfile tail.—5. M. Capenfis. Cape A. Four toes
on the fore feet; long fnout ; large pendant ears; tail
fliorter than the body, and attenuated towards the tip.
—6. M. Acaleata, Spiny A. Tail very ihort.—7. M.
Striata, Striped A. Yellowifh, with tranfverfe dufky
bands, and the upper jaw longer than the lower.
Of the above feven fpecies, it is probable that the
third is only a variety of the fecond ; and M. M. Cu¬
vier and GeoiTroy have placed the fifth in a new genus,
orychteropus, (fee p. 451.) as it differs fo confiderably
from the reft. Moft naturalifts agree that the fpines on
the body of the fixth entitle it, equally with the genus
Manis, to a feparate place in fyltematic arrangement.
On the whole, from an extenfive confideration of this
tribe, M. La Cepede is of opinion that only three fpe¬
cies fhould be admitted into it, viz. the firft, fecond,
and fourth. Of thefe the firft and fourth are beft
known ; the fecond, or what Cepede calls tamandua-i,
or little tamandua, has been well deferibed by this na-
turalift in a memoir on the genus Myrmecophaga,
printed in the fixth volume of “ Mtmoires de Plnfli-
tutN
Genus 7. Manis.
Teeth wanting ; tongue cylindrical and extenfile :
mouth lengthened into a narrow fnout ; body cover¬
ed with feales.
45
Manis.
This genus is nearly allied to the laft, differing in
little more than in the nature of the covering of the
body, which in this is compofed of large feales that are
of a horny confidence, and extremely ftrong, conftitut-
ing a fuit of armour that is capable of defending the
animals, when rolled up, againft the attacks of the
moft ferocious enemies. The animals have the power
of railing thefe feales; thus prefenting to the affailants
a moft formidable front. From fome diftant refem-
blance to the lizard tribe (fee Erpetology), the ani¬
mals of this genus have been called/?v7/y Hoards, but
they are more commonly known by the name of pango¬
lins. They are harmlefs creatures, and feed on fimi¬
lar food with the ant-eaters, taking it in the fame man¬
ner. They are found in India and the Indian
iflands.
There are only two, or at moft three fpecies, viz.
I. M. Tetrada&yla, Long-tailed M, or Phatagin. Feet
four-toed, and tail very long.——2. il/. Pentada&yla,
Short-tailed M, or Pangolin. Feet five-toed, and tail
about as long as the body.—3. M. Platurus, Broad-
tailed M. Tail extremely broad.
It is doubtful whether the laft be a diftincl fpecies,
or only a variety, the effeft perhaps of advanced age.
So
(lap. n.
•uta. So little is known of the habits and manners of
i -y-*-' thefe animals that we (hall not dwell longer on
them.
Genus 8. Dasypus. Armadillos.
3 4pus ©r Cutting and canine teeth wanting ; grinders feveral j
\adillo. body covered with a (helly armour, divided into
zones or bands.
The animals of this tribe are called armadillos, from
the very Angular armour, by which the upper part of
their bodies is defended. This is compofed partly of
large irregular pieces covering the (houlders and rump,
and partly of regular bands lying between thefe, and
folding one over another, like the parts of a lobfter’s
tail, fo as to accommodate themfelves to all the motions
of the animal. The number of thefe bands varies in
the feveral fpeciesand though this circumftance makes
part of the fpecific chara&ers, it is doubtful whether it
is fufficiently conftant or exa&, as various authors have
numbered them very differently. The armadillos re¬
ferable each other fo much in their habits and way
of life, that a general account of them may fuf-
fice.
They are very harmlefs animals, and live retired in
fubterraneous retreats, which they burrow for themfelves
by means of the large ftrong claws with which their
feet are furniftied. They wander about chiefly by night,
in fearch of roots, grain, worms, infefts, and other
fmall animals; when attacked, they coil themfelves up
in a ball like the pangolins, and are then invulnerable.
They are faid to drink much, and often grow very fat.
They are very prolific, breeding three or four times in
a year, and producing feveral young at a birth. They
are all natives of South America, and are confidered as
excellent food. The Indians hunt them with fmall
dogs trained for that purpofe. When furprifed, they
run to their holes, or attempt to make a new one,
which they do with great expedition, having ftrong
claws on their fore feet, with which they adhere fo
firmly to the ground, that if they (hould be caught by
the tail whilft making their way into the earth, their
refiftance is fo great, that they will fometimes leave
their tails in the hand of their purfuers : to avoid this,
the hunter has recourfe to artifice; and, by tickling
the animal with a ftick, it gives up its hold, and fuffers
itfelf to be taken alive. If no other means of efcape
be left, it rolls itfelf up within its covering, by drawing
in its head and legs, and bringing its tail round them,
as a band to conneft them more forcibly together : in
this fituation it fometimes efcapes by rolling itfelf over
the edge of a precipice, and generally falls to the bot¬
tom unhurt.
The mod fuccefsful method of catching armadillos
is by fnares laid for them by the fides of rivers or other
places which they frequent.
There are fix fpecies of armadillos, that are, as we
have faid, chiefly diftinguiftied by the number of (helly
bands that envelope the middle part of their body.
I. Dafypus TricinBus, Three-banded A. Armour
Vol. XII. Part II.
465
divided into three bands, and five-toed feet.—2. Z). Hiftory of
SexcinBus, Six-banded A. Six bands, and five-toed tl',e S'*ecies',
feet.—3. D. SeptemcinBus, Seven banded A. Seven
bands, and fore feet four-toed, hind feet five-toed.—
4. D. NovemcinBus, Nine-banded A. Nine bands;
fore feet four-toed, hind feet five-toed.—5. D. xi-ciyc-
tus, 12-banded A. Twelve bands.—6. D. xQ-cmBus,
Eighteen-banded A. Eighteen bands.
Genus 9. Rhinoceros. Rhinoceros,
Horn folid, perennial, conical, feated on the nofe.
There are at lead two fpecies, viz. R. Unicornis,
Single-horned R. with a Angle horn, and, 2. R. Bicor-
nis. Two-horned R. with two horns.
As both fpecies are remarkable, both for their form
and habits, we (hall defcribe both pretty much at
large. 48
1. R. Unicornis, Single-horned rhinoceros. This Unicornis.
animal, if we except the elephant, is the larged of all
terreftrial animals, and in ftrength and power it is ex- Rhinoceros,
ceeded by none. It is generally about 12 feet long,
and nearly as many in the circumference of its body.
Its whole form is very awkward and clumfy; its head is
large and long ; its back finks in confiderably, and its
(kin is puckered up into feveral folds, giving the ani¬
mal the appearance as if it were invefted with a coat of
mail. The upper lip hangs over the lower in the form
of a lengthened tip, which feems to anfwer the purpofe
of a fmall probofcis, and, being extremely pliable, is
ufeful to the animal in taking hold of the (hoots of vege¬
tables, and delivering them into the mouth. The horn
is fituated on the nofe, and is (lightly curved, (harp
pointed, and very ftrong, and is fometimes three feet
long, and 18 inches round at the bafe. This horn the
rhinoceros ufes both as an offenfive and defenfive wea¬
pon, by which it is completely armed againft the at¬
tacks of the mod ferocious animals, who cannot face it
without danger of having their bowels torn out. The,
Roman epigrammatlft, Martial,long ago remarked, that
with this hprn the rhinoceros could lift up a bull as
eafily as a foot-ball. The ears are pretty large, up¬
right and pointed; the eyes fmall. The (kin is naked,
very rough, and marked with numerous large callous
granulations; it is deftitute of hair, except a few
ftraggling coarfe bridles on fome parts of the head.
The folds of the (kin are very remarkable, and are dif-
pofed in various parts of the body in a lingular manner.
There is one large plait about the neck, another paf-
fing through the (houlders to the fore legs, and a third
from the hind part of the back to the thighs. The
belly is pendulous like that of a hog; the legs are very
(hort, ftrong and thick ; and the feet marked with
three large hoofs all (landing forwards. The tail is
(lender, flattened at the end, and covered on the fides
with very ftiff, thick, black hairs (c).
This animal is a native both of the continent of
Alia, and of feveral of the iflands in the Indian ocean,
efpecially Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra ; and is fome¬
times found in Ethiopia. It ufually refides in cool fe-
3 N queftered
MAMMALIA.
(c) For an accurate ofteological account of this fpecies, with a figure of his (keleton by Cuvier, fee Annules de
Mufeum National, N° 13, or Philofophical Magazine, vol. xix.
466
Hiftory of queftered fpots near waters and in ftiady woods, and de-
theSpeaes. to r()11 jn t]ie mud> jt feerrls to 2jve en_
tirely on vegetables.
The fight of this animal is but indifferent 5 but he is
faid to poffefs an acute and molt attentive ear, and to
liften with a deep, long-continued attention to any kind
of noife. It is generally of a quiet inoffenfive difpofi-
tion, but when provoked or attacked, he becomes fu¬
rious and implacable. He is even laid to be fubjett
to paroxyfms of rage which nothing can allay. One
that was fent as a prefent to the pope by Emmanuel
king of Portugal in 1513, deftroyed theveflel in which
they were tranfporting it. He runs with great fwift-
nefs, and from his prodigious ftrength rufhes with re-
fiftlefs violence through woods, and over every ob-
Itacle, bending the fmall trees as he pafles like fo many
twigs.
The female produces but one young at a birth, but
its time of geftation is not certainly known.
The flefh of this animal is eaten by the natives, who
often engage in hunting parties againft it. It is a dif¬
ficult matter to kill the rhinoceros, its fkin being fo
hard that an ordinary leaden bullet will not pierce it,
and they are obliged to ufe iron bullets for that pur-
pofe. The horn is employed for many ufeful purpofes,
efpecially for making drinking cups, which are ufed by
the Indian princes, under an idea that if any poifonous
liquor is poured into them, it will ferment and boil
over the top. Profelfor Thunberg tried feveral of
thefe horns, both of old and young animals, wrought
into goblets and unwrought, with feveral poifonous li¬
quors, both weak and ftrong, without obferving any
effervefcence j but on pouring a folution of corrofive
lublimate into one of them, there arofe a few bubbles,
which he fuppofes to have been inclofed in the pores
of the horn, and difengaged from them by the liquor.
The fkin is alfo employed by the Javanefe for making
fhields, and in fome parts of India almoft every part of
the animal is ufed medicinally.
Several of thefe animals have been brought into Eu¬
rope. Buffon gives an account of one, and Dr Par-
fons has given a particular defcription of one that was
brought to England from Bengal. This animal was
only two years old, and yet confirmed fo much food,
that his voyage coft 1000I. He had every day at
three meals feven pounds of rice mixed with three
pounds of fugar, befides hay and green plants, and he
• drank large quantities of water. He was in general,
very quiet and peaceable, readily fuffering people to
touch every part of his body; but when hungry, or
when ftruck, he became very mifchievous, and nothing
would appeafe him but food. At this time he w'as about
the fize of a young cow.
In the year 1748, there was exhibited at Paris a
rhinoceros brought from the kingdom of Ava. It
was very tame, gentle, and even carefling; w as fed
principally on hay and corn j and was much delighted
with fharp or prickly plants, and the thorny branches
of trees. The attendants frequently gave him branches
that had very fharp and ftrong thorns on them ; but he
bent and broke them in his mouth without feeming in
the leaf! incommoded. It is true they fometimes drew
blood from the mouth and tongue, but that, fays Father
Le Comte, who gives us the defcription, might even
sender them more palatable, and thofe little wounds
a
. _ . Part II,
might ierve only to caufe a fen fa lion fimilar to that ex- Bruta.
cited by fait, pepper, or muftard on ours.  
The rhinoceros is even fometimes domefticated, and
brought into the field of battle by the Afiatics, in or¬
der to terrify their enemies j but he is fo unmanageable
that his ufe feems to be attended with more difadvanl
tage than benefit, and when wounded, they are as like¬
ly to turn on their mafters as on the enemy.
. BicorntSy Two-horned rhinoceros. In fize, and Ricoinih.
in many of its general habits, this fpecies greatly re- ^wo’horn. j
fembles the former, but differs much in its external ap.edRhkoct :
pearance, as the fkin, inftead of the regularly marked ^
folds in that, has only a flight wrinkle acrofs the fhoul.
ders, and on the hind parts, lo as, in comparifon with
toe other fpecies, to appear almoft fmooth, though its
fur face is rough and tuberculated, efpecially in the
larger fpecimens. It is chiefly diftinguifhed, however,
by the two horns, one fmalkr than the other, and litu-
ated higher up on the front. Thefe horns are faid to
be loofe when the animal is quiet, but to become fixed
and immoveable when he is in an enraged ftate. Dr
Sparrman has obferved that thefe horns are fixed to
the nofe by a ftrong apparatus of mufcles or tendons,
fo as to enable the animal to fix or relax them at plea-
fure, and on infpe&ing the horns and fkin on which
they are feated, it does not appear that the horns are
firmly attached to the fkull bone, or clofely conne&ed
with it.
This fpecies is found in various parts of Africa, and
appears to have been that which was introduced by the
Romans into their public fhows.
Mr Bruce has given us an account of this animal,
which is highly interefting. He fays, that befides the
trees capable of moft refiftance, there are in the vaft
forefts within the rains, trees of a fofter confiftence, and
of a very fiicculent quality, which feem to be deftined
for his principal food. For the purpofe of gaining the
higbeft branches of thefe, his upper lip is capable of
being lengthened out fo as to increafe his power of lay¬
ing hold with it, in the fame manner as the elephant
does with his trunk. With this lip, and the afliftance
of his tongue, he pulls down the upper branches, which
have moft leaves, and thefe he devours firft j having
ftripped the tree of its branches, he does not therefore
abandon it, but placing his fnout as low in the trunk
as he finds his horns will enter, he rips up the body of
the tree, and reduces it to thin pieces like fo many
laths j and w-hen he has thus prepared it, he embraces
as much of it as he can in his monftrous jaws, and
twifts it round with as much eafe as an ox would do
a root of celery, or any fuch pot herb or garden
fluff. 6
When purfued, and in fear, he pofleffes an aftoniftiing
degree of fwiftnefs, confidering his fize, the apparent
unwieldinefs of his body, his great weight before, and
the fhortnefs of his legs. He is long, and has a kind
of trot, which after a few minutes increafes in a great
proportion, and takes in a great diftance j but this is
to be underftood with a degree of moderation. It is
not true, that in a plain he beats the horfe in fwiftnefs.
Mr Bruce has pafled him with eafe, and feen many worfe
mounted do the fame j and though it is certainly true
that a horfe can feldom come up with him, this is owing
to his cunning, and not to his fwiftnefs. He makes
conftantly from wood to wood, and forces hixnfelf into
the
M A M M A L I A.
up. II. M A M M
[ruta. the thlckeft parts of tliera. The trees that are dead or
•y—dry, are broken down, as with a cannon (hot, and fall
bahind him and on his fide in all directions. Others
that are more pliable, greener, or fuller of fap, are
bent back by his weight and the velocity of his mo¬
tions : and after he has paffed, refioring themfelves like
a green branch to their natural pofition, they often
fweep the incautious purfuer and his horfe from the
ground, and dalh them in pieces againft the furrounding
trees.
The eyes of the rhinoceros are very fmall; he feldom
turns his head, and therefore fees nothing but what is
before him. To this he owes his death, and never ef-
capes if there be fo much plain as to enable the horfe
to get before him. His pride and fury then make him
lay afide all thoughts of efcaping but by viClory over
his enemy. He hands for a moment at bay j then at a
{fart runs forward at the horfe like a wild boar, which
in his manner of aClion he very much refembles.
The horfe eafily avoids him by turning to one fide, and
this is the fatal inftant j the naked man with the fword
drops from behind the principal horfeman, and unfeen
by the rhinoceros, who is feeking his enemy the horfe,
he gives him a ftroke acrofs the tendon of the heel,
which renders him incapable of further flight or refin¬
ance. r
In fpeaking of the great quantity of food neceffary
to fupport this enormous mafs, we muft likewife con-
fider the vaft quantity of water which he needs. No
country but that of the Shangalla, which he pofleffes, de¬
luged with fix months rain, and full of large deep ba-
fons made in the living rock, and fhaded by dark woods
from evaporation, or watered by large and deep rivers,
which never fall low or to a ftate of drynefs, can fup-
ply the vaft draughts of this monftrous creature : but it
is not for drinking alone, that he frequents wet and
marfhy places; large, fierce, and ftrong as he is, he
muft fubmit to prepare himfelf againft the weakeft of
all his adverfaries. The great confumption he makes
of food and water neceflfarily confine him to certain li¬
mited fpaces; for it is not every place that can main¬
tain him •, he cannot emigrate or feek his defence
among the fands of Atbara.
This adverfary is a fly (probably of the genus Oes¬
trus) w’hich is bred in the black earth of the marfhes:
it perfecutes him fo unremittingly, that it would in a
Ihort time entirely fubdue him, but for a ftratagem
which he pra<flifes for his prefervation. In the night
when the fly is at reft, the rhinoceros choofes a conve¬
nient place, and there rolling in the mud, clothes
himfelf with a kind of cafe, which defends him againft
his enemy for the following day. The wrinkles and
folds of his fldn ferve to keep this muddy plaifter firm
upon him, except about his hips, legs, and fhoulders,
where by motion it cracks and falls off, leaving him
expofed to the attacks of the fly. The itching and
pain which follow, occafion him to rub himfelf in
thofe parts againft the rougheft trees, and this is fup-
pofed to be one caufe of the numerous puftules or tu¬
bercles which we fee upon him.
He feems to enjoy the rubbing of himfelf very
much, and groans and grunts fo loud during this ac¬
tion that he is heard at a confiderable diftance. The
pleafure he receives from this enjoyment, added to
the darknefs of the night, deprives him of his ufual vi-
ALIA. 467
gilance and attention. The hunters guided by his noife, Hiftory of
fteal fecretly on him ; and while lying on the ground, ^ie Speci<‘8-
wound him with their javelins, moftly in the belly,
where the wound is mortal.
It is by no means true that the fkin of this rhinoce¬
ros, as it has been often reprefented, is hard and im¬
penetrable like a board. In his w ild ftate he is eafily
killed by javelins thrown from different hands, fome of
which enter many feet into his body. A mulket (hot
will go through him, if it meet not with the interven¬
tion of a bone j and the Shangalla, an Abyftinian tribe,
kill him by the worft and moft inartificial arrows that
ever were ufed by any people pradlifing that weapon,
and cut him to pieces afterwards with the very w'orft
of knives.
To ftiew the amazing ftrength of the rhinoceros,
even after being feverely wounded, we ftiall quote Mr
Bruce’s account of the hunting of this animal in Abyl-
finia. “ We w'ere on horfeback (fays this gentleman)
by the dawn of day in fearch of the rhinoceros, many
of which we had heard making a very deep groan and
cry as the morning approached. Several of the aga-
geers (hunters) then joined us, and after we had fearch-
ed about an hour in the very thickeft part of the wood,
one of them ruflied out with great violence, crofting the
plain towards a wood of canes that was about tw o miles
diftance. But though he ran, or rather trotted, with
furprifing fpeed confidering his bulk, he W’as in a very
little time transfixed with 30 or 40 javelins, which fo
confounded him that he left his purpofe of going to the
wood, and ran into a deep hole or ravine, a cul de fac,
without outlet, breaking above a dozen javelins as he
entered. Here we thought he w as caught as in a trap,
for he had fcarce room to turn, when a fervant who
had a gun Handing direftly over him, fired at his head,
and the animal fell immediately to all appearance dead.
All thofe on foot now jumped in with their knives to
cut him up ; and they had fcarce begun, when the
animal recovered fo far as to rife upon his knees: hap¬
py then was the man that efcaped firft j and had not
one of the agageers who was himfelf engaged in the ra¬
vine, cut the finews of the hind leg as he was retreat¬
ing, there would have been a very forrowful account of
the foot hunters that day.
“ After having difpatched him, I was curious to fee
what wound the ftiot had given which had operated
fo violently upon fo huge an animal, and I doubted
not it was in the brain j but it had ftruck him no where
but upon one of the horns, of which it had carried oft
above an inch, and this occafioned a concuflion, that
had ftunned him for a minute till the bleeding had re¬
covered him.”
It has been often afferted that the tongue of the
rhinoceros is fo hard and rough as to take away the
Ikin and flefti wherever it licks any perfon that has un¬
fortunately fallen a viftim to its fury. Dr Sparrman
fays, however, that he thrufl his hand into the mouth
of one that had juft been fhot, and found the tongue
perfeflly fmooth and foft.
Foflil bones have been found below the earth in Si¬
beria that feem to belong to a third fpecies of rhino¬
ceros, differing from the two above mentioned in hav¬
ing a longer head, and in the partition between the
noftrils being otherwife fhaped. It feems alfo to have
had two horns. In 1772 a fpecimen was dug up
3 N 2 almoft
468
Hi (lory of almoft entire, with the flefli and fkin not yet quite
the Species corrupt^
Genus ic. Elephas.
MAMMALIA. PartI]
Mr Corfe has given us the heft account of the elephant’s Bruta.
5°
Elephas. •
No cutting teeth in either jaw, very long tufks in the
upper jaw j nofe ending in a very long prehenlile
probofcis j body nearly naked.
51 1
Maximus. We know of only one fpeeies, which has been call-
Elephant. ed elephas maximus. Of all the animals that have en-
I'‘ gaged the attention of mankind from the earlieft times,
none has been fo much, or perhaps fo defervedly cele¬
brated as the elephant. Pofleffed of magnitude and
llrength fuperior to all other quadrupeds, he is more
gentle and tra&able than almoft any of them, and in
fagacity and obedience to the commands of man, he is
not excelled by any, except perhaps the dog.
The ufual height of the elephant is nine or ten feet,
though he is faid to be fometimes found at leaft twelve
feet high (d). His body is of a very clumfy and awk¬
ward form } his head very large } his back very much
arched, and his legs very fhort, and extremely thick.
His eyes are very fmall j but his ears large, pendulous,
and irregularly waved about the edges. His trunk
may be coniidered as one of the molt wonderful inilru-
ments with which nature has gifted her moft favoured
animals, being little inferior in flexibility and utility,
even to the hand of man. This organ appears to be
compofed of a great number of flexible rings, forming
a double tube, ending in a circular tip that is fome-
■what flattened, and furnilhed with a projedting point,
or flefliy moveable hook, of exquifite fenflbility, and
fo pliable, that by means of it the animal can pick up
from the ground almoft the fmalleft objeft. Its lower
furface is fomevvhat flattened, and it is circularly form¬
ed on the upper. The trunk is the principal organ of
breathing to the elephant, being terminated by two
orifices that are the noftrils. By means of this tube he
fupplies himfelf with food, taking hold of it with the
trunk, and conveying it into his mouth. He drinks
by fucking up the water into his trunk, and then pour¬
ing it into his mouth. The Ikull of the elephant is ex¬
tremely thick, but not folid, there being a number of
cavernous cells between the outer and inner laminae.
Ihe feet of this animal are edged with five rounded
hoofs ^ the tail is of a moderate length, and is termi¬
nated by a few fcattered hairs, very thick, and of a
black colour. The general colour of the Ikin is a dulky
or blackilh brown, but in fome parts of India they are
found of a white colour, though this is a rare occur¬
rence.
The teeth of the elephant deferve particular notice,
as, till lately, our information refpedting them was
very imperfedt. It has long been known that the fe¬
males either feldom have tuflcs, or that in them thefe
are very ftiort. The tulks of the male are fometimes
of an immenfe length, thofe brought from the Mofam-
bique and Cochin China having been feen 10 feet long.
teeth ; and we ftiall extradl fome of the mofl: interefling '
particulars from his paper, which appeared in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadfions for 1799.
The tulks in fome female elephants are fo fmall as
not to appear beyond the lip, whilft in others they are
almoft as large and long as in one variety of the male
called mooknah. The grinders are fo much alike in
both fexes, that one defcription may ferve for both.
The largeit tulks, and from which the belt ivory is fupl
plied, are taken from that kind of male elephant
called dauntelah from this circumltance, in oppofition
to the mooknah, whofe tulks are not larger than thofe
of fome females. In one variety of the elephant the
tulks point downwards, projeding only a little way be¬
yond the trunk. The tulks in elephants are fixed very
deep in the upper jaw j and the root or upper part
which is hollow, and filled with a core, goes as high as
the infertion of the trunk, round the margin of the nafal
opening to the throat 5 which opening is juft below the
protuberance of the forehead. Through this opening
the elephant breathes, and by its means he fucks up
water into his trunk : between it and the roots of the
tulks there is only a thin bony plate. The firft or milk-
tulks of an elephant never grow to any confiderable
fize, but are Ihed between the firft and fecond year,
when not two inches in length. The time at which
the tulks cut the gum varies confiderably : fometimes a
young elephant has his tulks at five months old, and
fometimes not till feven. Even in a foetus which has
arrived at its full time, thefe deciduous tulks are formed.
A young elephant Ihed one of his milk-tulks on the
6th of November, 1790, when about 13 months old,
and the other on the 7th of December, when above
fourteen months old. Two months afterwards the per¬
manent ones cut the gums, and on the 19th of April,
1791, they were an inch long. Another young ele!
phant did not Ihed his milk-tulks till he was 16 months
old, which proves that the time of this procefs varies
confiderably. The permanent tufks of the female are
very fmall compared with thofe of the male, and do not
take their rife fo deep in the jaw. The largeft elephant
tulks Mr Scot ever faw' in Bengal did not exceed the
weight of 72 pounds avoirdupois j and atTiperah they
feldom exceed 50 pounds each. Both thefe weights
are very inferior to that of the tulks brought from other
parts to the India houfe, where fome have weighed 150
pounds each. Thefe, Mr Scot ftifpefts, were fyom
Pegu. The African elephant is faid to be fmaller than
the Afiatic ; yet the ivory dealers in London affirm
that the largeft tulks come from Africa, and are of a
better texture, and lefs liable to turn yellow', than the
Indian ones. The increafe of the tulks arifes from cir¬
cular layers of ivory, applied internally, from the core
on which they are formed, fimilar to what happens in
the horns of fome animals.
ihe grinders of elephants may be confidered as
compofed of feveral diftinft laminae or teeth, each co¬
vered
(d) There is little doubt that the accounts generally given of the great height of the elephant have been much
exaggerated. To John Cor e Scot, Efq. F. R. S. naturalifts are greatly indebted for clearing up many circum-
nances relating to this animal. That gentleman declares that he never faw an elephant above ten feet high, and-
that the higheft of which he could procure any authentic account did not exceed ten feet fix inches.
bp. II. M A M M
Bmta. vered with its proper enamel j and thefe teeth are
-V”””'merely joined to each other by an intermediate fofter
fubftance, atting as a cement. This ftru&ure, even at
the fir it glance, muft appear very curious, being com-
pofed of a number of perpendicular laminae, which
may be conlidered as fo many teeth, each covered with
a ftrong enamel, and joined to one another by the com¬
mon offeous matter : this, being much fofter than the
enamel, wears away falter by the maftication of the
food-, and in a few months after thefe teeth cut the
gum, the enamel rifes confiderably higher, fo that the
furface of each grinder foon acquires a ribbed appear¬
ance, as if originally formed of ridges. The number
of thefe teeth or portions, of which an elephant’s grin¬
der is compofed, varies from four to 23, according as
the animal advances in age 5 fo that a grinder or cafe
of teeth in a full grown elephant is more than fufficient
to fill one fide of the mouth. The lhape of the grinders
of the lower jaw differs from thofe of the upper, which
are very convex on the back part ; whereas the lower
has a bent or curved dire&ion, adapting itfelf to the
lhape of the jaw, and is concave on the furface. The
grinders, like the tulks, are already formed, even in
the very young animal. The firft fet of grinders, or
milk-teeth, begin to cut the gum eight or ten days af¬
ter birth ; they are not Ihed or calf, as the milk-tulks
are, but are gradually worn away during the time the
fecond fet are coming forward. Mr Scot could not
afcertain the exa£l time at which the fecond fet of
grinders make their appearance j but when the elephant
is two years old, the fecond fet are then completely in
ufe. At about this period the third fet begins to cut
the gum ; and from the end of the fecond to the begin¬
ning of the lixth year, the third fet comes gradually
forward as the jaw lengthens, not only to fill up this
additional fpace, but alfo to fupply the place of the fe¬
cond fet, which are during the fame period gradually
worn away, and their fangs or roots abforbed. From
the beginning of the fixth to the end of the ninth year,
the fourth fet of grinders comes forward, to fupply the
gradual wafte of the third fet. After this period other
fets are produced, but in what time, and in what pro¬
portion, is not yet afcertained j but it is reafonable to
conclude, that every fucceeding grinder takes a year
longer than its predeceffor to be completed j and con-
fequently, that the fifth, fixth, feventh, and eighth fet
of grinders will take from five to eight years (and pro¬
bably much longer) each fet, before the pofterior lami¬
na has cut the gum.
The time of geftation of the female elephant has
been much difputed. Ariftotle ftated it at two years,
and Buffon was at one time led to fix the fame period.
Afterwards, however, this naturalift was induced to
confider nine months as the moft likely time, and in
this he was followed by Mr Pennant. We are indebt¬
ed to Mr Scot for fetting us right in this particular al¬
fo -, that gentleman having afcertained by aflual expe¬
riment, that the female goes with young nearly twenty-
one months.
It is now fully proved that the elephant will readily
breed in captivity, and that neither male nor female
{hew thofe figns of modefty and Ihynefs which have
been attributed to them. Mr Scot has repeatedly wit-
nefled the ceremony.
M. Buffon was led to conceive that elephants could
ALIA. 4^9
not copulate in the fituation that is cuftomary to other Hiftory of
quadrupeds, but this Mr Scot has alfo found to be an a
error. The young when firft born is about three feet
high, and continues gro'wing for 16 or 18 years. The
female has two teats a little behind the fore legs. It
was fuppofed by Buffon, that the young elephant fuck¬
ed by means of its trunk, but later obfervations have
{hewn, that they fuck in the ufual way with their mouth,
ufing the trunk for grafping the dug of the mother to
prefs out the milk.
Mr Scot corre&s another miftake, refpe&ing the
fondnefs of the female for her young. It was fuppofed
that this was moft exemplary, and that the would de¬
fend her young with her life ; but Mr Scot relates an
inftance where females fuffered their young to be gored
to death by a male elephant, without attempting to pro-
teft or refcue them.
It has not yet been afcertained how long an elephant
ufually lives in its native forefts. In captivity they are
faid to live above 100 years.
The elephant is found on the continent of Alia, in
feveral of the Afiatic iflands, efpecially Ceylon, and in
the fouthern part of Africa. The Ceylonefe elephants
are, in general, larger than thole of Africa. Captain
Beaver informs us, that the little ifland of Bulama (on
the weftern coaft of Africa) abounds with them. He
fays 11 the number of thefe animals on this little ifland
almoft exceeds belief it was nearly impoflible for us to
proceed fifty yards inland without meeting recent and
palpable veftiges of them, and the Ikeletons of old ones
that had died in the woods are frequently found.” They
often pafs over the arm of the fea from the continent to
this ifland 5 but, what is very extraordinary, they have
never been obferved to return to the continent *. * Beaver's
The ordinary food of the elephant confifts of herbs, African
roots, leaves, and the tender branches of trees, which Memorati-
he breaks oft' with his trunk. As he is not a rumina- da' p* 353'
ting animal, he has only one ftomach j but the extent
of his bowels is very confiderable, the colon alone be¬
ing 15 or 20 feet long, and two or three in diameter.
When an elephant di{covers a plentiful pafture, he calls
his neighbours together, to partake with him of the
feaft. They feed together in confiderable herds, and
as they require a large quantity of fodder, frequently
Ihift their fituation. They ufually march in troops, the
oldeft keeping foremoft, and the middle aged bringing
up the rear. The females are placed in the centre,
carrying their young firmly held in their trunks. This
order they obferve when they forage near the haunts
of men; but when at liberty to range in extenfive de-
fert plains, they are lefs guarded. They often make
great havock in the cultivated fields, deftroying even
more with the weight of their enormous feet than they
confume as food. They are fond of cool fequeftered
places, where they may be ftieltered from the mid-day
fun, and love to baths themfelves with water, which
they do by pouring it over their bodies with their
trunks. They are faid frequently to roll themfelves in
mud, probably like the rhinoceros, for the purpofe of
Iheathing their {kin from the attacks of infedfs. The
elephant ufes many other artifices to rid himfelfof thefe
winged enemies j he ftrikes them with his tail, his ears,
or his trunk j he contradfs his fkin, and cruflies them
between its wrinkles 5 he gathers boughs from the trees
with his trunk; and bruflies them away j and when all
theft
* M A M M
H.ftory of tlrefe arts are unfuccefsful, he colleas duft with his
J._JJeCie5: trunk, and ftrews it over the moft fenfible parts of his
body. He has been feen to duft himfelf in this man¬
ner feveral times a-day, efpecially after bathing. He
fwims with great eafe, and in this way whole troops of
them fometimes pafs over rivers and narrow ftraights.
I he largeft tufk elephants lead the way, and pafs firft.
When they arrive at the oppofite ftiore, they try whe¬
ther the landing place is good, and if fo, they make a
fignal with their trunk, and fome more of the old ele¬
phants fwim over, the young following with their
trunks locked together, and the reft of the old ones
bring up the rear.
1 his is nearly all we know of the manners of the
elephant in the wild ftate. Still more interefting obfer-
vations remain to be noticed refpefting this animal
when domefticated. We (hall firft give an account of
the manner in which elephants are taken ; and this dif¬
fers according as the objeft is to capture fingle ele¬
phants, or a whole troop. Of the mode of taking ele¬
phants in Ceylon, Captain Percival has given us an in¬
terefting defcription in his account of Ceylon, to which
we refer the reader.
The following is the method ufually employed at
Tiperah in the Eaft Indies, for fecuring a fingle male
elephant. As the hunters know the places whither the
elephants come to feed, they advance towards them in
the evening, bringing with them four koomkees, or fe¬
male elephants trained for the purpofe. In the dark
nights it is eafy to difcover the male elephants by the
noife they make in cleaning their food, by whilking it
againft their fore legs, and by moon light they may be
diftinftly feen at fome diftance. Having determined
on the animal they wifh to fecure, they filently and
(lowly conduft three of the koomkees at a little diftance
from each other, near the place where the male is feed¬
ing. The females advance very cautioufly, feeding as
they approach, and appear like wild elephants that have
ftrayed from the foreft. When the male perceives
them, he fometimes takes the alarm, and if vicioufty in¬
clined, he makes a noife, and beats the ground with his
trunk, (hewing evident marks of difpleafure, and of his
unwillingnefs for them to come near him. If they per-
(ift, he will immediately attack and gore them with his
tuiks j they therefore take care to retreat in time. He
generally, however, allows them to approach, and fome¬
times even advances to meet them.
When the driver- find him thus gentle, they con-
dud two of the females clofe to him, one on each fide,
and make them prefs gently againft his neck and (boul¬
ders *, the third then comes up, and is placed diredly
acrofs his tail. In this fituation he is fo far from fuf-
peding any defign againft his liberty, that he begins to
toy with the females, and carefles them with his trunk.
The fourth female is now brought near, and proper
afliftants furnilhed with ropes get under his belly at the
tail, and fallen a (light cord round his hind legs. If
he takes no notice of this, they proceed to tie his legs
with a ftronger cord, paffed alternately from one leg to
the other, fo as to form a figure of 8. Six or eight
fuch cords are ufually employed, one above another,
and faftened at their interfedions, by another cord
made to pafs perpendicularly up and down. A ftrong
cable about 6o cubits long, with a running noofe, is
ALIA.
Part IT
next put round each hind leg, above the other cords, Bruta.
and over thefe fix or eight more cords are crofted as be--'""■’V"'-
fore from one leg to the other, all which takes up a-
bout 20 minutes, a ftrid filence being obferved all the
time.
When thus properly fecured, he is left to himfelf,
the koomkees retiring to a little diftance; in attempt¬
ing to follow them, he finds his legs tied, and becom¬
ing fenfible of the danger of his fituation, immediately
retreats towards the jungle. The drivers on the tame
elephants, accompanied by a number of people who
till this time had been kept out of fight, follow him at
a little diftance, and as foon a^ he paffes near a tree
fufficiently (lout to hold him, they make a few turns of
the long cables which trailed behind him round ils
trunk. His progrefs being thus (lopped, he becomes
furious, and exerts his utmoft efforts to difengage him¬
felf. I he koomkees dare not now come near him, and in
his fury he falls down on the earth and tears it up with
his tu(ks. In thefe exertions he fometimes breaks the
cables, and efcapes into the thick jungle : here the dri¬
vers dare not advance for fear of the other wild ele¬
phants, and are therefore-’obliged to leave him to his
fate ; and in this hampered fituation, it is faid, he is
even ungeneroufly attacked by his former companions.
But as the cables are ftrong, and very feldom give way,
when he has exhaufted himfelf by his exertions, the
koomkees are again brought near him, and take their
former pofitions, one on each fide, and the other be¬
hind. After getting him nearer the tree, the people
carry the ends of the long cables two or three times
round it, fo as to prevent even the poflibility of his
efcape. His fore legs are now tied exaftly in the fame
manner as his hind legs were, and the cables are made
fad, one on each fide, to trees or (lakes driven deep in¬
to the earth.
When he has become more fettled, and will eat a
little food, with which he is fupplied as foon as he is
taken, the koomkees are again brought near, and a
ftrong rope is put twice round his body, clofe to his
fore legs, like a girth, and tied behind his (houlder
then the long end is carried back clofe to his rump, and
there faftened, after a couple of turns more have been
made round his body. Another cord is next faftened
to this, and from thence carried under his tail like a
crupper, and brought forward and faftened to each of
the girths. A ftrong rope is now put round his but¬
tocks, and made fail to each fide of the crupper, fo as
to confine the motion of his thighs, and prevent his
taking a full ftep. A couple of large cables, with
running noofes, are put about his neck, there fecured,
and then tied to the ropes on each fide. Thus com¬
pletely hampered, the cables round his neck are made
fad to two koomkees, one on each fide.
Every thing being now ready, all the ropes are taken
from his legs, except the ftrong one round his buttocks
to confine the motion of his hind legs, which is dill
left. The koomkees pull him forward, fometimes,
however, not without much ftruggling and violence
on his part. When brought to his proper ftation,
and made fall, he is treated with a mixture of feve-
rity and gentlenefs, and generally in a few months be¬
comes tradlable, and appears perfedlly reconciled to his
fate.
It
lap. II«
3ruta. It h«i3 happened that an elephant 'which efcaped
-V"—u from captivity, flittered itfeli to be taken again by the
hunters. This is not the only fa£t, as we (hall fee
hereafter, that contradicts the obfervation of Horace,
that no beaft once efeaped from llavery, fuffers himfelf
again to be entrapped (e).
The elephant when tamed, is gentle, obedient, and
tradable, patient of labour, and fubmits to the molt
toilful drudgery. He is fo attentive to the com¬
mands of his governor, that a word or look is fufficient
to ftimulate him to the greateft exertions. His attach¬
ment to his keeper is remarkable : he carefles him with
his trunk, and frequently will obey no other mailer.
He knows his voice, and can diftinguilh between the
tones of command, of approbation, and of anger. He
receives his orders with attention, and executes them
with eagernefs, but without precipitation. All his mo¬
tions are grave, majeitic, regular and cautious, and
feem to correfpond with the dignity of his appearance.
He kneels down for the accommodation of thofe who
would mount upon his back, and even helps them to
afcend with his trunk. He fuffers himfelf to be har-
neffed, and feems proud of the finery of his trappings j
he will eafily perform the work of feveral horfes, being
able to carry from 3000 to 4000 weight. His conduc¬
tor or cornac is ufually mounted on the neck of the
elephant, and ufes a rod of iron lharp at the end and
hooked, with which he urges the animal forward,
by pricking his head, ears, or muzzle, though this is
feldom neceffary, a word being ufually fufficient.
In India, Mr Scott tells us, elephants are divided
into two calls, viz. the koomareah and the merghee.
The firll confills of the large or full-bodied kind j the
fecond of the more llender, with longer legs and thin¬
ner trunk in proportion j it is alfo a taller animal, but
not fo Itrong as the former. A large trunk is always
confidered as a great beauty in an elephant, fo that the
koomareah is preferred not only on this account, but
for his fuperior ftrength in carrying burthens, &c.
Many indiftin£l varieties are again produced from the
intermixture of thefe two breeds. The torrid zone
feems to be the natural clime of the elephant, and the
moll favourable for the production of the large!! and
hardielt race 3 and when this animal migrates beyond
the tropics, the fpecies degenerates.
The following marks are laid down by Mr Scot as
defcriptive of a perfeft elephant. His ears Ihould be
large and rounded, not ragged or indented at the mar¬
gin : his eyes of a dark hazel colour, free from fpecks:
the roof of his mouth and his tongue without dark or
blackilh fpots of any confiderable fize : his trunk large:
his tail long, with a tuft of hair reaching nearly to the
ground. There mult be five nails on each of his fore
feet, and four on each of his hind ones j his head well
let on, and carried rather high j the arch or curve of
his back riling gradually from the ffioulder to the mid¬
dle, and thence defcending to the infertion of the tail j
and all his joints firm and Itrong.
The value of an elephant varies much, according to
472
his call, and as he has more or lefs of the above marks. Hiftory of
The ufual price at Ceylon is 50 guineas, but they fome- the Species.
times fetch conliderably mox-e. * ‘
Elephants are kept by the princes and grandees of
India, chiefly for Ihew and magnificence. In their
travels the Indian princes are attended by hundreds of
thefe animals. Some are employed to carry the ladies
which compofe the feraglio, who are placed in latticed
cages covered with branches of trees j while others tranf-
port the immenfe quantities of baggage which the fove-
reigns of the ealt ufually carry with them in their jour¬
neys. Great care is taken in the management and de¬
coration of thefe elephants. They are daily fed,
bathed, oiled, and rubbed, and frequently painted
about the ears and head with various colours, and their
tulks furrounded with rings of gold and filver. When
employed in proceffions, they are covered with the moll
gaudy and fumptuous trappings.
Elephants are now feldom employed in war, as in
the prefent Hate of warfare they can be of little ad¬
vantage. The ancients, as is well known, ufed num¬
bers of them in their armies, and we are told that Porus
oppofed the paffage of Alexander over the Hydafpes
with 85 elephants. The accounts related of thofe
brought by Pyrrhus againlt the Romans, are familiar
to molt of our readers, and Buffon fuppofes that fome of
thefe were among the number that Alexander took and
fent into Greece. In the later periods of the Roman
republic, elephants were frequently exhibited to the
people, for the cruel purpofe of being put to death in
conflifts with armed men. It is faid that Pompey, in
the fpace of five days, deltroyed 18 elephants in this
way, with a view of entertaining the populace, among
whom the cries of the elephants are faid to have excit¬
ed much commiferation.
In the ealt, elephants are fometimes employed as the
executioners of public jultice, and they will trample a
criminal to death, break his limbs with their trunk, or
impale him on their enormous tulks, according to the
orders given them. In fome parts of India they were
formerly employed in launching ffiips, which they ef-
fe£t by pulhing the veffel with their heads. We are
told that one of them being direfted to force a large
veffel into the water, and this proving too much for his
ftrength, the mailer in an angry tone cried out, Take
away that lazy bealt, and bring another in his place.
The poor animal repeated his efforts, fradtured his Ikull,
and died upon the fpot.
A great many inltances have been recorded of the
fagacity, and almolt reafoning power of this w'onderful
animal. We lhall mention a few of thefe. “ I was,
fays M. Philippe, an eye witnefs to the following fadts:
—At Goa, there are always fome elephants employed
in the building of Ihips. I one day went to the fide
of the river, near which a great ffiip was building,
where there is a large area filled with beams for that
purpcfe. Some men tie the ends of the heavielt beams
with a rope, which is handed to an elephant, who car¬
ries it to his mouth, and after twilling it round his-
trunk,
MAMMALIA.
(e)    Quae bellua ruptis,
Cum femel effugit, reddit fe prava catenis
472 .. M A M M
Hiftory of trunk, draws It, •without any conductor, to the place
the Species. where is building, though it may have been
*l"""v ' only once pointed out to him. One of thefe fometimes
drew beams fo large, that more than 20 men would
have been unable to move them. But what furprifed
me itill more, when other beams obltrufted the road,
he elevated the ends of his own beams that they might
run eafily over thofe which lay in his way. Could the
moll enlightened man do more ?”
He well knows when he is mocked, or otherwife ill
treated. The ftory of the tailors of Delhi, who were
drenched with puddle water by an elephant for having
pricked his trunk with a needle, is well known. The
following inftance of retaliation is not lefs worthy of
notice. An elephant driver at Macafa having a cocoa
nut given him, he out of wantonnefs (truck it twice
againft his elephant’s head, to break it. The next day
when the animal was palling through the ftreet, he faw
fome cocoa nuts expofed to fale, and taking up one of
them with his trunk, he beat it about the driver’s head
till he completely killed the man. This comes, fays the
relater, of jelling with an elephant.
When much provoked, he has been known to take
the molt dreadful vengeance. He is extremely fond of
wine and fpirits, and by Ihewing him a veffel of arack,
he is induced to ufe the greatelt efforts, and take the
utmofl pains in hopes of gaining it as the reward of his
labour. An elephant difappointed of his reward in this
way, out of revenge killed his cornac or governor.-
The poor man’s wife, who beheld the dreadful fcene,
took her two infants, and threw them at the feet of the
enraged animal, faying, u lince you have (lain my huf-
band, take my life alfo, as well as that of my children.”
The elephant inftantly flopped, relented, and as if
flung with remorfe, took the eldell boy in his trunk,
placed him on his neck, adopted him for his cornac, and
W'ould never allow any other perfon to mount it.
The elephant is fometimes feized with periodical fits
of frage, and during thefe he will dellroy the firlt
perfon he meets with ; but what is very remarkable,
when he has facrificed one viflim, he becomes in¬
ftantly appeafed, and may be then led and governed as
ufual.
The following inftance of mutual affedlion between
a male and female elephant, who had before been
much together, and were brought to Paris in feparate
conveyances, is very interefting.
The place for their reception had been long prepa¬
red. It was a fpacious hall in the mufeum of natural
hiftory, well aired and lighted. A ftove was placed
in it to warm it during the winter $ and it was divided
into two apartments, which had a communication with
each other by means of a large door refembling a port¬
cullis. The inclofure round thefe apartments, confift-
ed of rails made of ftrong thick beams, and a fecond in¬
clofure, breaft-high, ran round them, to keep the fpec-
tators at fome diftance, and preferve them from accidents.
The morning after their arrival, thefe animals were
put in poffefiion of their new habitation. The firft con¬
duced to it was the male, who iflued from his cage
with precaution, and feemed to enter his apartment
with a degree of fufpicion. His firft care was to recon¬
noitre the place. He examined each bar with his
trunk, and tried their folidity by (baking them. Care
had been taken to place on the outfide the large fcrews
A L I A. v Part
by which they were held together. Thefe he fought bruts,
out, and, having found them, tried to turn them, but ''““V--'
was not able. When he arrived at the portcullis which
feparates the two apartments, he obferved that it was
fixed only by an non bar, which rofe in a perpendicu¬
lar direction. He raifed it with his trunk, puftied up
the door, and entered into the fecond apartment, where
he received his breakfaft. He ate it quietly, and ap¬
peared to be perfeflly eafy.
During this time people were endeavouring to make
the female enter. We (till recolle6l the mutual at¬
tachment of thefe two animals, and with what difficulty
they were parted and induced to travel1 leparately.
From the time of their dr parture they had not feen
each other, not even at Cambray, where they palled
the winter. They had only been fenfible that they
were near neighbours. The male never lay down, but
always Hood upright or leaned againft the bars of his
cage, and kept watch for his female, who lay down
and (lept every night. On the lead noife, or the
fmallelt alarm, he fent forth a cry to give notice to his
companion.
The joy which they expreflt d on feeing each other,
after fo long a reparation, may be readily imagined.
When the female entered, (he fent forth a cry expref-
five only of the pleafure which (he felt at finding her-
felf at liberty. She did not at firft obferve the male,
who was bufy feeding in the fecond apartment. The
latter did not immediately difeover that his companion
was fo near him ; but the keeper having called him, he
turned round, and immediately the two animals ruffied
towards each other, and fent forth cries of joy, fo ani¬
mated and loud, that they (hook the whole hall. They
breathed alfo through their trunks with fuch violence,
that the blaft refembled an impetuous guft of wind.
The joy of the female was the mod lively : She ex-
preffed it by quickly flapping her ears, which (he made
to move with aftoniffiing velocity, and drew her trunk
over the body of the male with the utmoft tendernefs.
She in particular applied it to his ear, where (he kept
it a long time ; and after having drawn it over the
whole body of the male, would often move it affeftion-
ately towards her own mouth. The male did the fame
thing over the body of the female j but his joy was
more concentrated : He feeraed to exprefs it by his
tears, which fell from his eyes in abundance.
Befides the ufe made of the elephant, when living,
he is fometimes hunted for the fake of his tulks and
fleffi. Mr Bruce has given us an interefting account of
the mode of hunting elephants in Abyffinia, and with
this we (hall conclude our hiftoiy of this animal.
The men who make the hunting of elephants their
bufinefs, dwell conftantly in the woods, and live entirely
upon the fleffi of the animals they kill, which is chiefly
that of the elephant or rhinoceros. They are exceed¬
ingly thin, light, and agile, both on hwrfeback and on
foot. They are called agageer, a name derived from
the word agart which fignifies to hamftring with a (harp
weapon. More properly it means, indeed, the cutting
of the tendon of the heel, and is a charafteriftic of the
manner in which they kill the elephant, which is thus:
—Two meh, quite naked, to prevent their being laid
hold of by the trees or buffies in making their elcape
from this very watchful enemy, get on horfeback.
One of thefe riders fits on the back of the horle, fome-
timee
i
MAMMALIA.
Lap. II.
ruta. times with a faddle, and fometimes without one, with
v -y——'’only a ftiort flick in one hand, carefully managing the
bridle wdth the other: behind him fits his companion,
armed only with a broadfword. His left hand is em¬
ployed in grafping the fword by the handle ; about 14
inches of the blade of which are covered with whip
cord. This part he takes in his right hand, without
any danger of being hurt by it: and though the edges
of the lower part of the fword are as lharp as a razor,
he carries it without a fcabbard.
“ As foon as an elephant is found feeding,-the horfe-
man rides before him, as near his face as pofiible ; or
if he flies, crofles him in all direftions, calling out, ‘ I
am fuch a man and fuch a man, this is my horfe, that
has fuch a name ; I killed your father in fuch a place,
and I am now come to kill you *, you are but an afs in
comparifon with them.’ This nonfenfe he believes the
elephant perfeftly underftands, wTho, chafed and angry
at hearing the noife immediately before him, attempts
to feize him with his trunk; and, intent upon this, fol¬
lows the horfe everywhere, turning round and round
with him, negleftful of making his efcape by running
flraight forward, in which confilts his only fafety. Af¬
ter having made him turn a few times in purfuit of the
horfe, the horfeman rides up alongfide of him, and
drops his companion juft behind on the off-fide ; and
while he engages the elephant’s attention upon the
horfe, the footman behind gives him a drawn ftroke
juft above the heel, into what in man is called the ten¬
don of Achilles. This is the critical moment j the
horfeman immediately wheels round, again takes his
companion up behind him, and rides off after the reft
of the herd, if they have ftarted more than one ; and
fometimes an expert agageer will kill three out of one
herd. If the fword is good, and the man not afraid,
the tendon is commonly entirely feparated $ and if it is
not cut through, is generally fo far divided, that the
animal, with the ftrefs he puts upon it, breaks the re¬
maining part afunder. In either cafe, he remains in¬
capable of advancing a ftep, till the horfeman return¬
ing, or his companions coming up, pierce him through
with javelins and lances j he then falls to the ground,
and expires from lofs of blood.
“ The elephant once (lain, they cut the whole flelh
off his bones into thongs, like the reins of a bridle, and
hang thefe, like feftoons, upon the branches of trees,
till they become perfeftly dry, without fait, and they
then lay them by for their provifion in the feafon of the
luce's rains*.”
iw/r. Bofman and Labat give us terrible ideas of the cou¬
rage of the elephant, and his fury when wounded ; but
I either their accounts are much exaggerated, or the mo¬
dern elephant is a much more timid animal than that
of their time. Captain Beaver affures us, that when an
elephant is attacked, it w ill endeavour to efcape by any
opening it can perceive ; that whenever they fired at it
on fhore, it never turned on its enemies, but made for
the openings that led into the woods. The Bijugasand
Biaforas ufe a very long gun, loaded with a piece of an
iron rod nearly equal to its caliber, for attacking the
elephant, and always aim at the flank, or behind the
ear. thefe being the moft dangerous parts in which the
■raver s (.an be wounded. The elephant is fcarcely ever
Ztran. kill^d by a flngle fllot+*
p. 3j0. For many years part a number of large bones and
Vol. XII. Part II.
extraordinary teeth, have been difcovered in the north- Hidory of
ern parts both of Afia and America, which at firft werethe
generally attributed to the elephant, though in Siberia c2
they were confidered as belonging to a monftrous ani-Mammoth,
mal called mammoth, whofe fabulous exiftence they
fuppofed to be under ground. In North America thefe
large bones and carnivorous grinders have been found
in great abundance on the Ohio and its tributary
ftreams, waflied from their banks, or difcovered by
digging in fait moraffes in the neighbourhood of Cinci-
nati, where they are found intermixed with the bones
of buffaloes and deer, which a tradition of the Indians
ftates to have been deftroyed by a herd of thefe animals
which came upon them from the north. This event
happened, the Indians believe, as a punifhment for
their fins j but they fay that the good fpirit at length
interpofed to fave them, and feating himlelf on a neigh¬
bouring rock, where they drew you the print of his
feat and of one foot, hurled his thunderbolts againft
them. All were killed except one male, who, prefent-
ing his forehead to the (hafts, (hook them off, until at
length wounded, he fprang over the Wabafti, the Illi¬
nois, and the Great Lake, where he ftill lives.
Thefe bones were forwarded with eagernefs to all
parts of Europe, and depofited in mufeums, where they
attradled the curiofity of all naturalifts, whole conjec¬
tures and theories on them were very various, until Dr-
Hunter, by a more accurate comparifon between them
and the bones of other animals, determined that they
muft have belonged to a large non-defcript animal of
the carnivorous kind, fomewhat refembling the hippo¬
potamus and the elephant, yet effentially different from
both.
The fubjeift is now completely elucidated. Not long
fince fome farmers in the ftate of New’ York, in Ame¬
rica, digging marl from their moraffes in the neigh¬
bourhood of New Windfor, accidentally difcovered fe-
veral of thefe bones, which were preferved by phyfi-
cians in the neighbourhood. In the autumn of 1801,
Mr Charles Peale, and his fon Mr Rembrandt Peale,
having obtained poffeflion of thofe bones, perfevered
for near three months, with much labour and expence,
in fearching for the remainder of this animal, and were
at length fo fortunate as to obtain two (keletons found
in two diftinfl fituations, and unmixed with the bones
of any other individual. One of thefe is preferved in
the mufeum at Philadelphia, and the other was exhibi¬
ted a few years ago in London, previoufly to its being
taken to Paris.
The length of this (keleton, from the chin to the
rump, was 15 feet, and its height over the (boulders
11 feet; and from the point of the tu(ks to the end of
the tail, in a ftraight line, it was 17 feet long. The
whole Ikeleton weighed about looolb.
The following differences between the (kull of the
mammoth, and that of the elephant, are given by Mr
R. Peale.
On examining the head of the elephant, it will ap¬
pear, that the fockets for the tulks are fituated, with
refpefl to the condyle of the neck, nearly in an angle
of 450, fo that the tulks, which have but little curve,
are dire&ed downwards and forwards, and may be
with eafe employed offenfively and defenfively. On the’
other hand it will be obferved, that, in the mammoth,
the focket is nearly in a horizontal line with the con-
3 0 <tyle 5
474
Hiito.'y of dyle j and therefore the which are femicircular,
t e po^ieb could never have been elevated in the air, pointing
backwards, but muft have had their points thrown out
by the fpiral twift on each lide.
In the elephant, the orbit of the eye is fituated where,
in the mammoth, there is a large mafs of bone. The
cheek of the elephant is formed of two bones j but in
the mammoth, befides other variations, there is but one
bone. The whole figure of the under jaw differs con-
fiderably, in the length of the condyles or arms, which
in the mammoth is fliort and angular, but in the ele-
*Philofoph. phant forms a femicircular line*.
Mag. xiv. Mr R. Peale feems to have no doubt that the mam¬
moth was a carnivorous animal, feeding chiefly on fhell
filh ; but if the animal, whofe ftomach was lately found
in digging a well near a fait lake in Wythe county,
Virginia, were really a mammoth, it is clear that this
animal was at leaf! capable of living on herbage. The
contents of this flomacb, which were in a Hate of per-
t Nichol feft prefervation, confifted of half mafticated reeds,
Joum. 8vo. twigs, and grafs or leaves f.
vol. xiii.
P-35s- Genus ii. Sukotyro.
55
Sukotyms. Of this genus there is only one fpecies, of which we
Fig* i8. know little or nothing, and are not even certain that it
exifls : the little information that has been given of it
being confined to a fingle traveller, Nieuhoff. He
defcribes it as a quadruped of a very Angular fhape,
about the fize of a large ox, with a fnout like that of a
hog, long and rough ears, and a thick and bufhy tail.
He fays that the eyes are placed upright in the head,
and that on each fide of the head, next to the eyes,
ftand two horns or rather tufks, not quite fo large as
thofe of the elephant, that it feeds on herbage, and is a
native of Java.
Genus i2. Platypus.
54
Platypus. Mouth fhaped like the bill of a duck, with two grind-
Fig. ip. ers on each fide in each jaw ; feet webbed.
There is only one fpecies, which has been called P.
Anatinus, or Duck-billed Platypus. It was brought
from New Holland, and prefented to Sir Jofeph Banks.
An account of it was firft publilhed by Dr Shaw in the
Naturalifts Mifcellany, and afterwards in the General
Zoology of the fame author, from which the following
account is taken.
“ Of all the mammalia yet known, this feems the
moft extraordinary in its conformation, exhibiting the
perfect refemblance of the beak of a duck engrafted on
the head of a quadruped. So accurate is the fimilitude,
that, at firft view, it naturally excites the idea of fome
deceptive preparation by artificial means ; the very epi¬
dermis, proportion, ferratures, manner of opening, and
other particulars of the beak of a fhoveler, or other
broad-billed fpecies of duck, prefen ting themfelves to
the view ; nor is it without the moft minute and rigid
examination that we can perfuade ourfelves of its being
the real beak or fnout of a quadruped.
“ The body is depreffed, and has fome refemblance
to that of an otter in miniature. It is covered with a
very thick, foft, and beaver-like fur, and is of a mode¬
rately dark drown above, and of a fubferruginous white
beneath. The head is flattifh, and rather fmall than
large. The mouth or fnout, as before obferved, fo ex-
Part II,
a£tly refembles that of fome broad-billed fpecies of Buna,
duck, that it might be miftaken for fuch. Round the '“"■'v-—
bale is a flat circular membrane, fomewhat deeper or
wider below than above, viz. below, near the fifth of an
inch, and above, about an eighth. The tail is flat,
furry like the body, rather fhort, and obtufe, with an
almoft bifid termination j it is broader at the bafe, and
gradually leffens to the tip, and is about three inches'in
length j its colour is fimilar to that of the body. The
length of the whole animal, from the tip of the beak to
that of t’jje tail, is 13 inches ; of the beak an inch and
a half. The legs are very fhort, terminating in a
broad web, which on the fore feet extends to a confi-
derable diftance beyond the claws j but on the hind
feet reaches no farther than the roots of the claws. On
the fore feet are five claws, ftraight, ftrong, and fliarp-
pointedj the two exterior ones fomewhat fhorter than
the three middle ones. On the hind feet are fix claws,
longer and more inclining to a curved form than thofe
on the fore feet; the exterior toe and claw are confi-
derably fhorter than the four middle ones: the interior,
or fixth, is feated much higher up than the reft, and
refembles a ftrong fharp fpur. All the legs are hairy
above : the fore feet are naked, both above and below.
The internal edges of the under mandible (which is nar¬
rower than the upper) are ferrated or channelled with
numerous ftrise, as in a duck’s bill. The noftrils are
fmall and round, and are fituated about a quarter of an
inch from the tip of the bill, and are about one-eighth
of an inch diftant from each other. There is no ap¬
pearance of teeth : the palate is removed j but it feems
to have refembled that of a duck : the tongue alfo is
wanting in the fpecimen here defcribed. The ears or
auditory orifices, are placed about an inch beyond the
eyes ; they appear like a pair of oval holes of the eighth
of an inch in diameter, there being no external ear.
On the upper part of the head, on each fide, a little
beyond the beak, are fituated two fmallifh oval white
fpots, in the lower part of each of which are imbedded
the eyes, or at leaft the parts allotted to the animal for
fome kind of vifion j for, from the thicknefs of the fur,
and the fmallnefs of the organs, they feem to have been
butobfcurely calculated for diftinfi vifion, and are pro¬
bably like thofe of moles, and fome other animals of
that tribe $ or perhaps even fubcutaneous, the whole
apparent diameter of the cavity in which they are pla¬
ced not exceeding the tenth of an inch.
“ When weconfider the general form of this animal,
and particularly its bill and webbed feet, we fhall rea¬
dily perceive, that it muft be a refident in watery fitua-
tions j that it has the. habits of digging or burrowing
in the banks of rivers, or under ground, and that its
food confifts of aquatic plants and animals. This is all
that can at prefent be reafonably gueffed at; future ob-
fervations, made in its native regions, will, it is hoped,
afford us ample information, and will make us fully ac¬
quainted with the natural hiftory of an animal which
differs fo widely from all other quadrupeds, and which
verifies in a moft ftriking manner the obfervation of
Buffon, viz. that whatever was poflible for nature to
produce, has a&ually been produced * gf,aw>s
This animal was firft called Ornithorynchus Para- Zoology,
doxus, and it has been defcribed under this name by™*1*1
Blumenbach of Gottingen, and by Mr Home of Lon¬
don. See Phil. Tranf. for 1800.
MAMMALIA.
Mr
lap.
Sruta.
SS
:hecuf.
56
fmarus.
lihcVVal
>* 10*
[I. M A M M
Mr Home found on diffe£Uon, that the beak of the
platypus differs materially from the bill of a bird j that
it was independent of the cavity of the mouth, which
was fimilar to that of other quadrupeds, having two
grinders on each fide in both jaws, but without fangs.
Genus 13. Trichecus. Walrusses.
No fore teeth in the full-grown animal in either jaw%
Tuiks in the upper jaw folitary j grinders with
wrinkled furfaces. Lips double. Hind feet uniting
at the extremity of the body into a fin.
This genus conftitutes one of the links that conneft
the quadrupeds with the fifties j the walruffes and manati
being marine animals, who, though they fometimes
come on fhore, pafs moft of their time in the water.
They feed on fea weeds and Ihell fifh, and do not ap¬
pear to be carnivorous. There are about feven fpecies,
which are diftinguifhed by the following names and
characters.
1. T. Rofmarus, Morfe or ArCtic Walrus. Tufks dif-
tant and exferted.—2. T. Dugon, Dugon or Indian
W. Tufks exferted and approximate.—3. T. Borea¬
lis, Whale-tailed W. Hairlefs, with a horizontal tail
in place of hind feet.—4. T. Aujiralis, Round-tailed
W. Hairy, with a horizontal tail in place of feet.—
5. T. Manatis, Guiana W. Slightly hairy, without
tufks, and with a horizontal tail in place of hind feet.
The following are named, but not charafterized, by Dr
Shaw, viz. 6. T. Amaxonius, and, 7. T. Hydropithecus.
I. T. Rofmarus, ArCtic Walrus.—This is a very
large animal, growing fometimes to the length of 18
feet, and fo tlikk as to meafure 12 feet about the mid¬
dle of the body. Its form is clumfy and inelegant, hav¬
ing a fmall head, fhort neck, thick body, and fhort
legs. The lips are very thick, and the upper lip is
indented or cleft into two large rounded lobes : over
the whole furface of this part are fcattered numerous fe-
mitranfparent bridles, of a yellowifh tinge, and of fuch
a thicknefs as almoft to equal a draw in diameter j
they are about three inches long, and are flightly point¬
ed at their extremities. The eyes are fmall. Inftead of
external ears, there are only two fmall round orifices.
The fkin, on the whole, is thick, and more or lefs
wrinkled, and is fcattered over with fhort brownifli
hair. On each foot are five toes, all conhefted by webs,
and on each toe is a fmall nail; the hind feet are confi-
derably broader than the fore feet. The tail is extreme¬
ly fhort. In the upper jaw are two large and long
tufks bending downwards.
The arftic walrus inhabits the northern feas, and is
chiefly found within the arctic circle. Great numbers
are often met with in the Magdalen ifles in the gulf of
St Lawrence. They are gregarious, and are fometimes
feen in vaft multitudes on the maffes of floating ice that
are found in thofe high latitudes. Ihey are harmlefs,
unlefs when attacked or provoked, in which cafe they
become furious, and extremely vindiftive. When fur-
prifed on the ice, the females firft provide for the fafe-
ty of their young, by flinging them into the fea, and
themfelves after them. Having carried thefe to a fe-
cure diftance, they will return to the place again with
great rage to revenge any injury they have received.
They will fometimes attempt to faften their teeth on
the boats, in order to fink them, or rife in great num-
ALIA. 475
bers under them with the intention of overfetting them, Hiftory of
at the fame time fhewing all the marks of rage, by the >peues.
roaring in a dreadful manner, and gnafhing their teeth
with great violence. They are ftrongly attached to
each other, and will make every effort in their power,
even to death, to fet at liberty their harpooned compa¬
nions. A wounded walrus has been known to fink to
the bottom, rife fuddenly again, and bring up with it
multitudes of others, who have united in an attack on
the boat from which the infult came.
The following pifture of a herd of walruffes on a
mafs of floating ice, is given by Captain Cook. “ They
lie in herds of many hundreds upon the ice, huddling
over one another like fwine, and roar or bray very
loud, fo that in the night, or in foggy weather, they
gave us notice of the vicinity of the ice, before we
could fee it. We never found the whole herd afleep,
fome being always upon the watch. Thefe, on the ap¬
proach of the boat, would wake thofe next to them ;
and the alarm being thus gradually communicated, the
whole herd would be awake prefently. But they were
feldom in a hurry to get away, till after they had been
once fired at. They then would tumble over one an¬
other into the fea in the ufmoft confufion. And if we
did not, at the firft difeharge, kill thofe we fired at,
we generally loft them, though mortally wounded.
They did not appear to us to be that dangerous animal
which fome authors have deferibed, not even when at¬
tacked. They are rather more fo in appearance than
in reality. Vaft numbers of them would follow and
come dole up to the boats. But the fl?.fh of a mulket
in the pan, or even the bare pointing of one at them,
would fend them down in an inftant. The female w ill
defend the young to the very laft, and at the exptnee
of her own life, whether in the water or upon the ice.
Nor will the young one quit the dam, though (he be
dead j fo that if one is killed, the other is certain prey.
The dam, when in the water, holds the young one be¬
tween her fore fins.”
The tuiks of this animal are ufed as ivory •, but au¬
thors feem to differ with refped to its quality, feme
taking it as fuperior, and others far inferior to that of
the elephant. The walrus is taken chiefly for the fake
of its oil and its Ikin, from which latter is prepared a
very ftrong and elaftic leather.
This order contains nine genera, and about 30 fpecies.
Chap. III. FERAL
57
Genus 14- Phoca. SEALS* Phoca.
Six fore teeth in the upper jaw, pointed, parallel, out¬
er the larger-, four in the lower jaw, bluntilh, paral¬
lel, equal and diftind. One canine tooth on each
fide in both jaws, large and pointed -, the upper di-
ftinft from the cutting teeth the lower from the
grinders. Five grinders on each fide in the upper,
and fix in the lower jaw ; obtufely tricufpidated.
Hind feet growing together.
This conftitutes another tribe of marine animals j but
thefe are much better fitted for living on land than the
walruffes, and indeed they pafs much of their time ei¬
ther on the fea (hores, on infulated rocks, or on the
ice in the frozen feas, affembling in thefe places in vaft
numbers, efpecially at the time when the females bring
3 O 2 forth
476
Hiflory of forth their young, flere they lie balking in the fun or
t ‘e penes. fportjng with each other, and here they take their re-
P°fe. They are found in all feas, and fome of them
are laid to inhabit large inland lakes. They feed chiefly
on fiih and lea weeds.
I he fpeeies are numerous, at leaft 19 being defcrib-
ed by naturalifts, v z.
1.* P. Vitu/inn, Common Seal. Earlefs, brown, with
fmooth head and neck.—2. Bicolor, Pied S. Earlefs,
black, variegated-with white, with elongated note and
lunated hind feet.—3. P. Monachus, Mediterranean S.
.Earlefs, with four cutting teeth in each jaw, undivided
fore feet, and the hinder pinniform and without claws.
—4. P. Longicollis, Long-necked S. Earlefs, long¬
necked, with the fore feet pinniform.—5. P. Falklan-
dica, Falkland-ille S. Cinereous, with fmall-pointed
ears, and furrowed cutting teeth.—6. P. Tejiudmea,
i ortoife-headed S. Tortoife-ftiaped head and flender
neck.—7. P. Fafeiala, Ribbon S. Blackith, with a
fqu..rifli dorfal yellow band.— 8. P. Leporma, Lepo¬
rine S. with white, foft, fubereft fur.—9. * P. Barba-
ta, Great S. Earlefs, blackilh, with imooth head.—
10. ; . tljpida, Rough S, Pale brown, fubauricula-
ted, with Imooth head, and the body covered with
rifing briltly hair.—11. P. Porcino, Porcine S. Ear¬
ed, with hog-tike fnout and five toed feet.—12. P. F/a-
ve/cenr. Yellow S. Yellowilh, with pointed ears.—
13 P- Crjfata, Hooded S. Gray, with a folding
fkinny crelt on the forehead.—14. P. Groenlandica,
Harp S. Earlefs, gray, with a black dorfal- crcfcent ;
trie horns pointing downwards along the fides.—13.
P. Pujilia, Little S. Subaurieulated, dulky, with
fmooth head. —16. P. Urjtno, Urfine S. Eared, black¬
ilh, with flattilh nofe, and fin-like fore feet.—17. P. Leo-
nina, JSottle-nofed S Brown, male having a projedt-
ing creft or inflated membrane on the fnout.—18. P Ju-
bata, Leonine S. Reddifli brown, male furnilhed with
a large mane round the neck.—19. P. Lvpiora, U-
rigne S. Earlefs, with dog like head, and fin-like fore
58 feet- ;
Vitulina. I* P- Vitulina, Common Seal, or Sea Calf.—The
Cornu,on ufual length of this fpecies is from five to fix feet. It
Seal. Jias a large r0und head, a fmall fliort neck, and feveral
Ifi* 2i' ftrong bridles on each fide of its mouth large eyes,
no external ears, and a forked tongue. The body ta¬
pers from the ftroulders to the tail. The legs are very
fliort, and the feet all webbed. The hind legs are
placed fo far back as to be of but little ufe, except in
fwimming. The tail is very fliort. They vary in co¬
lour, being fometimes gray , lometimes brown or black-
ifti, and now and then fpotted with white and yellow.
They inhabit all the European leas, and are found
round all the coafts of the northern hemifphere. They
are alfo feen in vaft quantities about the fouthern polar
regions ; and Mr Pennant informs us, that they even
inhabit fome frefti-water lakes, efptcially that of Baikal.
Their dens or habitations are formed in hollow rocks
or caverns out of the reach of the tide.
They are excellent fwimmers and ready divers, and
are very bold when in the fea. In the fummer they
will come out of the water, to balk or fleep in the fun,
on the top of large ftonfis, or Ihivers of rocks •, and that
is the opportunity our countrymen take of {hooting
them.: if they chance to efcape, they haften towards
Part II,
their proper element, flinging ftones and dirt behind Ferje.
them as they fcramble along j at the fame time expref- W"Y*—J
fing their fears by piteous moans ; but if they happen
to be overtaken, they will make a vigorous defence
with their feet and teeth, till they are killed. They
are taken for the fake of their Ikins, and for the oil
their fat yields j the fortner fell foi 4s. or 4s. 6d. a
piece, and, when drefled, are very ufeful in covering
trunks, making waiftcoats, {hot pouches, and feveral
other conveniences. The flefli of thefe animals, and
even of porpoifes, formerly found a place at the tables
of the great, as appears from the bill of fare of that
vaft feaft that Archbilhop Nevill gave in the reign of
Edward IV. in which is feen, that leveral feals were
provided on the occafion. They couple about April, on
large rocks, or (mall iflands, not remote from the Ihore j
and bring forth in thofe vaft caverns that are frequent on
our coafts. They commonly bring forth two at a time,,
which, in their infant ftate, are covered with a whitiftr
down, or woolly iubltance.
1 hey fuckh their young for about a fortnight, in the
place where they were born, and then take them out
to tea, and initruff them iniwimming, and leeking for
their prey, which confilts chiefly of lea weed. When
the young are fatigued, the parents are faid to carry
them on their backs. The growth of the young iea-ls
is faid to be fo rapid, that, in about nine tides after
their birth, they become as aftive as their parents.
Seals are very fwifit in their proper depth of water,
dive like a {hot, and in a trice rile at 50yards diftance j
to that weaker fifties cannot avoid their tyranny, except
in (hallow water4 a perton of the parifti of Stnnon, law,
not long fince, a feal in purfuit of a mullet (that fitrong
and fwift fifti) : the feal turned it to and fro in deep
water, as a greyhound does a hare. The mullet at
laft found it had no way to efcape, but by running into
fhoal water : the feal purfued, and the mullet, to get
more feeurely out of danger, threw itfelf on its fide, by-
which means it darted into ftroaler water than it could'
have fwam in with the depth of its haunch and fins,
and fo elcaptd.
They deep on rocks furrounded by the fea, or on the
lefs acceflible parts of our clifts, left dry by the ebb of
the tide ; and if ditturbed by any thing, take care to
tumble over the rocks into the fea. I hey are extreme¬
ly watchful, and never ffoep long without moving j fel-
dom longer than a minute, then raife their heads, and'
if they hear or fee nothing more than ordinary, lie
dowm again, and fo on, raifing their heads a little, and
reclining them alternately, in about a minute’s time.
Nature leems to have given them this precaution, as
being unprovided with auricles, or external ears 5 and
comequently not hearing very quick, nor from any
great diftance.
When taken young, thefe animals may be domefti-
cated, will follow their mafter like a dog, and come to
him when called by name. Some years ago a young
feal was thus domefticated that had been taken at a
little diftance from the foa. It was ufually kept in a
veflel full of fait water, but was allowed to craw] about
the houfe, and would fometimes come near the fire ; its^
natural food was regularly brought to it, and it was-
every day taken to the fea, and thrown in from a boat,
but would fwim after the boat, and always allowed it¬
felf
MAMMALIA.
2
(tap-
erse-
smeftic
'§•
IIL M A M M
felf to be taken back. It lived in this way for fevt ral
weeks, and appears to have died in confequence of ill
ufage.
Gen. 15. Canis. Dogs.
Six cutting teeth in each jaw *, the lateral of the upper
jaw longer and diftant, the intermediate lobated *,
the lateral of the lower jaw lobated. Canine teeth
folitary and curved. Grinders fix or feven, or more
than in the other genera of this order.
The individuals of this genus, like thofe of the next,
have fo little in common with refpedf to their habits and
manners, and are otherwife fo important in them'elves,
as to call for a feparate account. Without making any
general remarks here, we {hall merely give the fpecifie
differences, and then proceed to iuch of the fpecies as
are mod worthy of notice.
There are about 23 ipecies-, viz.
I. * Canis Famiharis, Common Dog. Recurved
tail, turned towards the left.—2. C. Lupus, Wolf.
Tail incurvated.—3. C. Mexicanus, Mexican wolf.
Tail deflected 5 body afh-eoloured, and variegated with
dufky bands and fulvous fpots.— 4. C. Lycaon, Black
wolf. Tail ftraight.—5. C. Hyaena, H>eena. Pale
brown, ftriped with black, with upright mane, naked
ears, ifraight tail, and four-toed feet.—6. C. Crocata,
Spotted hyaena. Reddifh brown, fpotted with black j
with ftraight tail, and four-toed feet.—7. C. Aureus.
Jackall. Pale fulvous, with ftraight tail.—8. C. Mefo-
melof, Cape jackall. Ferruginous, with ftraioht tail,
and black dorial band.—9. C. Barbaras, Barbary jack-
all. Pale brown with ftraight tail •, a black defend¬
ing forked band behind each ear, and three dulky
bands on the tail.—10. C. Ceilmicus, Ceylonefe dog.
Yellowifh gray, vvith lengthened fnout, long fharp
pointed tail, and crooked claws.— 11. *C. Vu/pes, Fox.
Tail ftraight, tipped with white.— 1 2. C. Alopex, Brant
fox. Tail ftraight, tipped with black.—13. C. Co’fac,
Corfac fox. Tail ftraight, fulvou-, vvith the bafe and
tip white 14. C. Karagan, Karagan fox. Tail
ftraight j body gray, and ears black.—15. C Cinereo-
argenteus. Fulvous-necked fox. Aih gray, with
ftraight tail j and the fides of the neck fulvous.—
16. C. Virgineanus, Virginian fox. Whililh gray, with
ftraight tail. —17. C, krgentatus. Silvery fox. Deep
brown, with longer hairs of a filvery white.—18. C. La-
gopus, Anftic fox. Tail ftraight, feet covered with
thick fur.—19. C. Tkous, Surinam dog.' Grayifti,
white beneath, with dtflefted tail. — 20. C. Bengalenjis,
B ngal fox. Li‘tht brown, with a longitudinal black
ftripe down the face, w hite orbits, fulvous legs, and tail
tipped with black.—21. C. Fuliginofus, Sooty fox. Of
a footy colour, with ftraight tail. — 22. C. AntarEUcus,
Antarftic fox. Cinereous brown, villous’, tail tipt with
white.—23. C. Zerda, Fennec. Whitifh, with ftraight
tail, and very large upright ears, that are internally of
a rofe colour.
1. C. Familiaris. Domeftic dog.—The varieties of
the common dog are fo numerous, that it is fcarcely
poflible to give any general defeription of the fpecies
that would apply to all. We {hall here, therefore, only
give Linnaeus’s charaflerift c picture, as modified by Mr
Daniel, and then enumerate the feveral varieties with
ALIA. 477
Linnaeus’s characters, marking with a ftar thofe that^1^01^
are generally found in this country.
'the dog eats flefti and farinaceous vegetables, but
not greens {this is a mijiake, for they will eat greens
when boiled') ; its ftomach digefts bones ; it ufes the
t ps of grafs as a vomit j is fond of rolling in carrion j
voids its excrements on a ftone •, its dung (the album
graecurn) is one of the greateft encouragers of putrefac¬
tion -r it laps up its drink with its tongue 5 makes water
Tideways, by lifting up one of its hind legs •, is moft
diuretic in the company of a {{range dog, and very apt
to repeat it where another dog has done the fame :
Odorat anum alterms ; mcnjlruans catuht cum varus;
mordtt ilia illos ; cohceret copula juntlus. Its feent is
moft exquifite when its nofe is moift •, it treads lightly
on its toes, fcarcely ever fweats, but when hot lolls
out its tongue ’, generally walks frequently round the
place it intends to lie down on ; its fenfe of hearing is
very quick ; when afterp, it dreams. It goes with
young 63 days, and commonly brings from four to ten j
the male puppies refemble the dog, the female the
bitch {an afjertion by no means accurate, any more than
the tail always bending to the left is a co v mon charac¬
ter of the fpecies). It is the moft faithful of animals,
is very docile, fawns at its mafterV approach } runs be¬
fore him on a journey j often pafles over the iame
ground j on coming to ends w ays tiops, and looks back j
drives cattle home from the field ; keeps herds and
flocks within bounds, protedls them from wild beafts 5
points out to the fportfman the game, brings the birds
that are {hot to its mailer ; w ill turn a fpit at Bruffels,
and in Holland, draws little carts to the herb market j
in more northern regions, draws fledges with provifions,
travellers, &c. •, will find out what is dropt, watchful
by night, and when the charge of a houfe or garden is
at fuch times committed to him,, his boldnefs increafes,
and he fometimes becomes perfeffly ferocious ; when he
has been guilty of a theft, {links away with his tail be¬
tween his legs; eats voracioufly with oblique eyes ; ene¬
my to beggars; attacks ftrangers without provocation ;
hates {{range dogs; howls,at certain notes in mufic,
and often urines on hearing them ; will fnap at a ftone
thrown at it ; is fick at the approach of bad weather
{a remark vague and uncertain); is affhdfed with
worms; fpreads its madntfs; grows blind with age;
feepe gonorrhoea infeflus ; driven as unclean from the
houfes of the Mahometans ; yet the fame people efta-
blifli hofpitals for, and allow them daily food. ^
x. * Shepherd"1 s dog; ears ereff, tail woolly under-Varieties,
neath.
2. Wolf-do^ ; hair on the head long, ears ere6f, tail
very much curved on the rump.
3. Siberian dog ; ears erefl, hair all long.
4. Iceland dog ; ears ere£{, tips pendulous, hair long,
except on the fnout.
5. Water-dog ; hair long, curled like a ftieep.
6. * Little water-dog ; lefs ; hair long, curled, round ;
the ears long, and hanging down.
7. K’ng Charles's dog; head lefs, rounded ; fnout
fhort, tail curved back.
8. * Spaniel; ears long, woolly, pendulous.
9. Maltt fe dog; hair foft, filky, very long.
10. Lion-dog; very fmall; hair on the belly and tail
ftiorter,
IX. Danifb
478
Hiftory of ii. Danijh dog; ears fmall, fubpendulous j fnout
the Species. acute j legs {lender.
12. B ijiardpug-dog ; ears fmall, fubpendulousj nofe
thick, flattifh.
I3* * Pu§~d°g i nofe crooked upwards j ears pendu¬
lous $ body fquare.
14. * Bull-dog; fides of the lips pendulous; body
robult ; fize of a wolf.
15. * Majhff; very large ; fides of the lips pendu¬
lous ; body robuft.
16. German hound; ears pendulous; a fpurious claw
on the hind feet.
17- * Hound; ears pendulous; a fpurious claw on
the hind feet; whitilh.
18. * Bloodhound; very fagacious.
19 * Pointer; tail truncate ; fpotted.
20. Barbel; tail truncate ; hair long, coarfe.
21. * Greyhound; head long ; fnout robuft ; ears
fmall, fubpendulous ; legs long, flout ; body long ;
{lender.
22. Irijh greyhound; body curved; fnout narrow¬
ing ; lize of 15.
23. Turkifh greyhound; body curved ; fnout taper¬
ing ; hair a little curled; fize of 25.
24. Common greyhound; body curved ; fnout taper,
ing ; fize of a wolf.
25. Rough greyhound; body curved; fnout taper¬
ing ; hair longer, curled ; fize of a wolf.
26. Italian greyhound; lefs; body curved ; fnout ta¬
pering.
27. Naked dog; body naked.
28. Oriental dog; tall, {lender; ears pendulous; hair
on the tail very long, hanging down.
29. * Lurcher; body narrow ; legs flout; tail ftrong,
ftraight; hair ftiort, thick fet,
30. Rough lurcher; body narrow; legs flout; tail
thick, ftraight ; hair long, rough.
31. Boar lurcher; head and inout thick ; body nar¬
row behind ; feet long ; hair long, rough.
32. * Turnfpit; legs ftiort; body long, often fpot¬
ted.
33. Aleo; head fmall; ears pendulous; back cur¬
ved ; tail fhort ; fize of 9.
34. New Holland dog; tail bulhy, pendulous; ears
fhort, ereft ; fnout pointed.
Of thefe, the fhepherd's dog, the Siberian dog, the
bull dog, the majiiff, the hound, the bloodhound, the grey¬
hound, the Irijh greyhound, and the terrier, are the
moft deferving of our attention. We {ball make a
very few remarks on each, and {hall take occafion to
interfperfe a few anecdotes charafteriftic of the faga-
city, cunning, ftrength, or courage, of this moft va-
luable fpecies.
Shepherd’s The Shepherd's dog is fuppofed by many to be the
Dog. original flock, whence moft of the other varieties are
lg- 22- derived. This is one of the moft ufeful of the fpecies,
and is ever faithful to his charge. This fagacious ani¬
mal is of the greateft importance in thofe large trails
of land which in many parts of our ifland are appro¬
priated to the feeding of Iheep and cattle, and where
vaft flocks may be feen ranging without controul, their
only guides being the ftiepherd and his dog. This ani¬
mal is ftri(511y attentive to the commands of his matter,
and always prompt in the execution of them. He is
the watchful guardian of the flock, keeps them toge-
, • , . Pan I]
ther, and often drives them by himfelf from one pafture Per*
to another. We have heard of one of thefe dogs who v»«
was employed by a farmer in the fouth of Scotland to
fteal other people’s Iheep. His matter had only to point
out to him beforehand the flieep which he wiftied to
appropriate to himfelf, and to lend the dog at a conve¬
nient time to fetch them home. This charge he was
fure to execute with the utmoft punftuality and addrefs.
The proprietors of the ttolen ftieep were furprifed at
their lofs, when they could not difeover the perlon who
had robbed them. The matter of the dog was at length
detected and hanged.
Mr Bewick {peaks of a remarkable Angularity in the
feet of the ihepherds dogs in the northern parts of this
ifland, viz. their having one or two toes more than
other dogs, which appear to be deftitute of mufcles, and
hang dangling behind like an unnatural excrefcence.
This, however, is not peculiar to the Ihepherd’s dog,
but is found in the fpaniel, pointer, and hound. ^
The Siberian or Greenland dog is a moil ufeful Siberian
animal to the inhabitants of the dreary regions ofD°g*
North America, and the north-eaft of Alia, eipecially
Greenland and Kamtfchatka. It bears a confiderable
refemblance t© the ihepherd’s dog, but is much larger,
and has more Ihaggy hair, and a more bulhy tail. It is
ferocious and favage, and rather howls than barks. It
is principally employed in drawing fledges acrofs the
frozen fnow ; feveral of thefe animals being fattened to
the fledge, which they draw with fo much fpeed, that
they have been known to perform a journey of 270
miles in lefs than four days.
The fledges are ufually drawn by five dogs, four of
them yoked two and two abreaft : the foremoft afting
as a leader to the reft. The reins are faftened to a col¬
lar round the leading dog’s neck, but are of little ufe
in direfting the pack, the driver depending chiefly up¬
on their obedience to his voice, with which he ani¬
mates them to proceed. Great care and attention are
confequently ufed in training up thofe intended for
leaders, which are more valuable according to their
fteadinefs and docility ; the fum of 40 rubles or 10I.
being no unufual price for one of them. The rider has
a crooked flick, anfwering the purpofe both of whip
and reins, with which, by ftriking on the fnow, he re¬
gulates the fpeed of the dogs, or flops them at his plea-
fure. When they are inattentive to their duty, he of¬
ten chaftifes them by throwing it at them. He difco-
vers great dexterity in regaining his flick, which is the
greateft difficulty attending his fituation ; for if he
ftiould happen to lofe it, the dogs immediately difeover
the circumftance, and feldom fail to fet off at full
fpeed, and continue to run till their ftrength is ex-
hauiied, or till the carriage is overturned and dalhed
to pieces, or hurried down a precipice. <54
The Bull-dog is the fierceft of the fpecies, and in Bull-Dog. '
courage is fcarcely excelled by any creature in the
world. It is of a low ftature, but very ftrong and nmf-
cular; has a fhort nofe, and its under jaw projefts for¬
ward, fo as to render its afpe£l fierce and unpleafing.
The cruel purpofe for which thefe animals were former¬
ly much employed, viz. bull-baiting, is now, much to
the credit of the prefent times, going faft out of faftiion,
and we {hould hope, in the courfe of another century,
will be entirely aboliftied. The uncommon ardour,
and obftinacy difplayed by thefe dogs in attacking the
MAMMALIA.
(ap. in. M A M M
i. ;rse. bull, even under the greateft pain, are well illuftrated
! t v—^ by the h-llowing faft, related by Mr Bewick. Some
years ago at a bull-baiting in the north of Eng¬
land, a young man, confident of the courage of his dog,
laid Vome trifling wager, that he would, at feparate
times, cut off all the four feet of his dog, and that it
would’, after each amputation, ftill attack the bull.
The inhuman experiment was tried j and the dog con-
g, tinned to feize the bull as eagerly as at firft.
. 5 iff. The Mq/lifis one of the largeft and ftrongeft dogs,
I 13. and one of thofe for which this country is particularly
famous. His principal office is that of guarding and
fecuring houfes, gardens, and other property, and for
this he is admirably calculated, both from his ftrength
and courage. The power of this dog was put to a fevere
trial in the reign of James I. when three of them were
made to attack a lion. The refult of the engagement
is thus related by Stow. “ One of the dogs being put
into the den, was foon difabled by the lion, which
took it by the head and neck, and dragged it about;
another dog was then let loofe, and ferved in the fame
manner j but the third being put in, immediately feized
the lion by the lip, and held him for a eonfiderable
time, till being feverely torn by his claws, the dog was
obliged to quit his hold, and the lion, greatly exhaufted -
in the conflict, refufed to renew the engagement ^ but
taking a fudden leap over the dogs, fled into the inte¬
rior part of his den. I wo of the dogs foon died of their
wounds; the laft furvived, and was taken great care.of
by the king’s fon, who faid, he that had fought with
the king of beafts, (hould never after fight with any in¬
ferior creature.”
M. D’Obfonville relates an inftance of memory in a
maftiff, which exceeds any thing of which even the hu¬
man race feems capable. This dog, which had been
brought up by him in India from a puppy, accompanied
himfelf and a friend from Pondicherry to Benglour, a
diftance of above 300 leagues. The journey occupied
nearly three weeks, and they had to traverfe plains and
mountains, to ford rivers, and go through feveral bye-
paths. The dog, which had certainly never before
been in that country, loft his mafter at Benglour, and
immediately returned to Pondicherry. He went di-
reftly to the houfe of a friend of M. D’Obfonville’s,
with whom that gentleman had generally refided.
Now the difficulty is, not fo much to know how the
dog fubfifted on the road (for he was very ftrong, and
able to procure himfelf food), but how he {hould fo
well have found his way, after an interval of more than
a month. \
An anecdote related by Mr Bewick (hews that the
maftiff poffeffes forbearance equal to his courage, and
that he difdains to attack an inferior foe, while he
knows how to chaftife his impertinence. . A large dog
of this kind belonging to the late M. Ridley, Efq. of
Heatton, near Newcaftle, being frequently molefted
by a mongrel, and teazed by its continual barking, at
laft took it up inhis mouth by the back, and with great
compofure dropped it over the quay into the river,
without doing any farther injury to an enemy fo much
^ his inferior.
x-hound. There are feveral varieties of hounds, as the fox-
*4’ hound, the beagle, and the harrier. Of thefe the fox¬
hound moft merits our attention.
The Fox-hounds of Britain are confidered as fuperior
ALIA. 479
in fwiftnefs, ftrength, and activity, to thofe of every
other country in Europe. As fox-hunting forms one of’ ^ ^CKS,'
the moft favourite diverfions among our country gentle¬
men, the greateft attention is paid to the breeding, edu¬
cation, and maintenance of the fox hounds; and this
climate feems fo congenial to their nature, that they
will thrive nowhere elfe. It is afferted that when our
fox-hounds are carried over to the continent, they al¬
ways degenerate.
The proper ftiape of a fox hound is of confiderable
confequence, for if he is not of a perfect fymmetry he
will neither run faft nor bear hard work, and in a fox-
chafe, both great fpeed and ftrength are required. Ac¬
cording to Mr Daniel, his legs {hould be as ftraight as
arrows, his feet round and not too large ; his Ihoulders
{hould lie back ; his breaft {hould be rather wide than
narrow ; his cheft deep, his back broad, his neck thin,
his head moderately fmall, his tail thick and bufliy.
Fox-hounds are fometimes employed to hunt the flag,
and there is on record a remarkable inftance of the
ftoutnefs difplayed by thefe dogs in fuch a chafe.
Many years fince a flag was hunted from Whinfield
park, in the county of Weftmoreland, until by fatigue
or accident the whole pack was thrown out, except two
fox-hounds, bred by Lord Thanet, who continued the
chafe the greateft part of the day. The flag returned
to the park from whence he had been driven, and as
his laft effort leapt the wall, and died as foon as he had
accomplifhed it. One of the hounds ran to the wall,
but being unable to get over it, lay down, and almofl:
immediately expired : the other hound was found dead
about half a mile from the park. The length of this
chafe is uncertain, but as they were feen at Red-kirks,
near Annan, in Scotland, diftant by the poft-road about
46 miles, it is conjeftured that the circuitous courfe they
took, could not make the diftance run, lefs than 120
miles.
The following anecdote is an admirable proof of the
fagacity of the fox-hound. Two gentlemen had their
hounds at Whinneck, Northamptonlhire, and ufed
fometimes to go to Lutterworth in Leicefterftiire for a
fortnight’s hunting. A favourite hound was left in
Northamptonfhire, on account of not being quite found.
The firft day’s hunting from Lutterworth produced an
extraordinary chafe, in which the hounds and horfes
were fo tired, that it was deemed neceffary to flop that
night at Leicefter. Upon their arrival next day at
Lutterworth, they were told that a hound (which an-
fwered the defcription of that left in Northamptonlhire),
came there foon after their going out the preceding
morning, and waited quietly until towards the evening;
he had then ftiown figns of uneafinefs, and in the morn¬
ing had difappeared. It was concluded that, difap-
pointed of finding his companions where he expefted,
the hound, wffiofe name was Dancer, had returned to
Whinneck ; but to the furprife and concern of his
mafters, upon their returning home, they were inform¬
ed that the hound had come back from Leicefterftiire,
{laid one day at the kennel, and then left it. Every
poffible inquiry was made, at length it w'as difcovered
that Dancer, upon not finding the pack either at Lut¬
terworth or Whinneck, had proceeded into Warwick-
{hire, to a Mr Newfome’s, where the hounds had been *^a^elS
for a week fome months before*. Sports,
The Blood hound was held in great efteem by our vol. i.’
anceftors;,
48°
Hi (lory of
the Species
67
Blood¬
hound.
68
Grey¬
hound.
Fig. 26.
69
Irifli Grey¬
hound.
Fig. 27.
70
Terrier.
F‘g- 25-
anceflors, and was fe remarkable for the finenels of its
__ fcent, that they employed it for recovering game that
had efcaped wounded from the hunters. It would alfo
follow with conliderable certainty the footlleps of a man
to a great diftance. In barbarous and uncivilized
times, when a thief or murderer had fled, the blood¬
hound would trace him through the thickeft and mod
fecret coverts, and ceafed not the purfuit till it had
feized the felon. This is finely defcribed by Som-
merville in his poem of The Chafe.
Mr Boyle relates a ftory that (hews the extreme
acutenefs of this dog’s fmell, as well as his furprifing
fagacity. A perfon of quality, to make a trial whether
a young blood-hound was well inftrudted, caufed one
of his fervants to walk to a town four miles off, and
then to a market town three miles from thence. The
dog, without feeing the man he was to purfne, followed
him by the fcent to the above-mentioned places, not-
withllanding the multitude of market-people that w-ent
along the fame way, and of travellers that had occa-
fion to crofs it 5 and wTen the blood hound came to
the chief market-town, he paffed through the ftreets
without taking notice of any of the people there, and
left it not till he had gone to the houfe where the man
he fought refted himfelf, and he found him in an upper
room, to the wonder of thofe that followed him.
Blood-hounds are ftill employed in the fouthern part
of the kingdom, either for recovering wmunded deer, or
for purfuing deer-ftealers, whom they infallibly trace
by the blood that iffues from the wmunds of their vic¬
tims.
The Greyhound is the fleeteft of all dogs, and can
out-run every animal of the chafe; but as it has not
the fine fcent of other hounds, it can purfue only by
the eye, and mufl be indebted for fuccefs to its aftonilh-
ing fpeed. The fwiftnefs of this dog is fo great that
a fwift horfe can do little more than keep up w ith him,
and his ardour in purfuit of game is fuch as not unfre-
quently to occafion his death.
Greyhounds were formerly held in fuch repute as to
be confidered a moft valuable prefent even from or to
princes.
The Irifh greyhound is fuppofed to be the largeft of
the (pecies, as well as the moft beautiful and majeftic.
One defcribed by Mr Lambert, in the third volume
of the Linnaean Tranfaftions, meafured above five feet
from the nofe to the tip of the tail, and they are faid
formerly to have been of a much larger fize. They are
found only in Ireland, and even in that country are
now become extremely rare. The earl of Altamont
is faid to be the only perfon who pnfftfles them, and
his lord lb ip has not more than eight. They were
formerly employed in clearing the country of wolves,
and are hence fometimes called Irijh wolf dog.
The Terrier is of two kinds, one with fmooth glofly
hair, commonly of a black colour, or black marked
with reddiftr fpots ; and the other rough and lhaggy,
ufually of a reddifh brown mixed with gray. This
dog is generally an attendant on every pack of fox¬
hounds, being employed to force the fox from his ken¬
nel, in w'hieh he is very expert. He is alfo the deter¬
mined enemy of rats, weazels, and other vermin, and
no dog is better calculated for the ufelefs and cruel
fport of hunting the badger. He is alfo a good water-
dog.
M A M MALI A. partl;
Mr Hope has related an anecdote refpe&ing the ter- Pens,
rier, which ftiews that this animal is both capable of "-'Y'-
refentment when injured, and of great contrivance in
order to accomplifh his revenge j it indeed thews that
he is pofitflt d of a certain power of combining ideas
and communicating his thoughts to other dogs.
A gentleman of Whitmore in Staflfordftiire, ufed to
come twice a-year to town, and being fond of exercife,
generally performed the journey on horfeback, accom¬
panied moft part of the way by a faithful little terrier
dog, which, left he might lofe it in town, he always
left to the care of Mrs Langford, the landlady at St
Alban’s ; and on his return he was fure to find his
little companion well taken care of. The gentleman
calling one time, as ufual, for his dog, Mrs Langford
appeared before him with a woeful countenance:—Alas!
fir, your terrier is loft ! Our great houfe-dog and he
had a quarrel, and the poor terrier was fo worried and
bit before we could part them, that I thought he could
never have got the better of it. He, however, crawled
out of the yard, and no one faw him for almoft a week:
he then returned, and brought with him another dog,
bigger by far than ours, and they both together fell en
our great dog, and bit him fo unmercifully, that he has
fcareely finee been able to go about the yard, or to eat
his meat. Your dog and his companion then difap-
peared, and have never fince been feen at St Alban’s.
The gentleman heard the ftory with patience, and en¬
deavoured to reconcile himfelf to his lofs. On his ar¬
rival at Whitmore, he found his little terrier ; and on
inquiring into circumftances, was informed that he had
been at Whitmore, and had coaxed away the great
dog, who it feems had, in confequence, followed him
to St Alban’s, and completely avenged his injury.
The above anecdote, with others which we have be- - V-
fore given, are abundantly fufficient to (hew the great dog! m<
fagacity of the dog ; but of all the qualifications that b
have been attributed to him, that of learning to fpeak
muft appear the moft extraordinary. The French aca¬
demicians, however, have given us an account of a dog
in Germany which would call for tea, coffee, chocolate,
&c. The account was communicated to the Royal
Academy by the celebrated Leibnitz, and in fubftance
is as follows : “ This dog was of a middling fize, and
was the property of a peafant in Saxony. A little boy,
the peafant’s fon, imagined that he perceived in the
dog’s voice an indiftindft refemblance to certain words,
and therefore took it into his head to teach him to
fpeak. For this purpofe he fpared neither time nor
pains with his pupil, who was about three years old
when this his learned education commenced ; and at
length he made fuch a progrefs in language as to be
able to articulate fo many as thirty words. It appears,
however, that he was fomewhat of a truant, and did
not very willingly exert his talents, being rather preffed
into the fervice of literature, and it was neceffary that
the words fhould be firft pronounced to him each time,
which he, as it were, echoed from his preceptor. Leib¬
nitz, however, attefts that he himfelf heard him fpeak ;
and the French academicians add, that unlefs they had
received the teftimony of fo great a man as L' ibnitz,
they fhould fcarcely have dared to report the circum-
ftance. This wonderful dog was born at Zeitz in * shavis
Mifnia, in Saxony Zoology,
The flefh of the dog is eaten by fome favage nations,v '•
andPirt2,
bap. HI.
Fr?e.
7*
)lf.
r 1$.
M A M M
and we iiave heard of fome epicures in this country who
'fatten young puppies for their table. The flcin of this
animal is made into leather for gloves, &c.
For the conftruftion and management of dog ken¬
nels, fee Farriery, Part iv. chap. i. fed. 3. For the
beft method of feeding hounds, fee chap. ii. of the fame
part j and for the difeafes of dogs and their treatment,
efpecially the diftemner and canine madnefs, fee Far¬
riery, Part vi.
2. C. Lupus. The Wolf.—The wolf is much larger,
ftronger, and more mufcular than the dog $ the upper
part of his face is broader, and his whole form longer j
the tail too has an inward diredlion, and is rather long
and bulky j the opening of his mouth appears a little
fhorter in proportion than that of the dog, but his jaws
are much ftronger, his teeth larger, and his eyes placed
more obliquely. His general colour is a pale gray with
a call of yellow ; but it varies much in fhade in dif¬
ferent parts of the world.
He is found in almoft all the temperate and cold
regions of the globe, even as high as the arftic circle.
He was formerly very common in Britain and Ireland,
infomuch that King Edgar commuted the punilhment
of certain crimes into the acceptance of a number of
wolves tongues, and in Wales converted the tax of
gold and lilver into an annual tribute of 300 wolves
heads. Notwithftanding thefe endeavours to extirpate
the race of wolves, we find that in the reign of Ed¬
ward I. thefe animals had fo much increafed in number,
as to require a mandate from that monarch to Peter
Corbet to adift in their deftrudlion. In the county of
Derby certain perfons held their lands by the fuit of
hunting and deftroying the wolves that infefted the
country ; whence they were called wo/ve-hunt. They
infefted Ireland many centuries after their extin&ion
in England ; for we are told that they were found there
fo lately as the year i^ro. In Scotland the laft wolf
was killed in the latter end of the 17th century, by
Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel. In the parts of Ame¬
rica poffefled by the United States, wolves aref nearly
extirpated 5 but very lately a reward of 20 or 30
{hillings was offered for killing a wolf.
Wolves prey on all kinds of animals ; but in cafe
©f neceflity will feed upon carrion j in hard weather
affemble in vaft troops, and join in dreadful bowlings.
Horfes generally defend themfelves againft their attacks,
but all weaker animals fall a prey to them. Throughout
France the peafants are obliged nightly to houfe their
flocks. The wolf is naturally a fufpicious animal, and
though fo ravenous as to devour his own fpecies when
preffed by hunger, yet he is fo miftruftful as to imagine
every thing he fees to be a fnare laid to entrap him.
If he finds a rein-deer tied to a poll for the purpofe of
being milked, he dares not approach it for fear it
fliould be placed there only to betray him 5 but when
once the deer is let loofe, he will purfue and feize him.
He is, however, fo cowardly, that if the animal Hands
on the defenfive, he will fcarcely venture to attack it.
They fally forth with great caution in queft of their
prey •, have a fine fcent ; hunt by nofe j they are ca¬
pable of bearing long abftinence ; to allay their hunger
will fill their bellies with mud ; a mutual enmity fub-
fifts between the dogs and them ; the female is in heat
in winter, followed by feveral males, which occafions
Vol. XII. Part II.
* Pen¬
nant's
ALIA. 48'
great combats j goes with young ten weeks ; near her Hiftory of
time prepares a foft bed of mofs, in fome retired place
brings from five to nine at a birth •, the young born “v"’—
blind. Their bite is terrible, as their ftrength is great;
the hunters therefore clothe their dogs, and guard their
necks with fpiked collars. Wolves are profcnbed ani¬
mals ; deftroyed by pitfalls, traps, or poifon j a peafant
in France who kills a wolf, carries its head through the
villages, and colle&s fome fmall reward from the in¬
habitants. The Khaiffocks take the wolves by the help
of a large fort of hawk called belkat, which is trained
for the diverfion, and will faften on them and tear out
their eyes *.
Thefe animals abound in the immenfe forefts of Ger-7&ua,irl^
many, where the following methods are taken to de-pe^s.
ftroy them. In fome very fequeftered part of the fo-
reft they hang up a large piece of carrion to the branch
of a tree, having previoufly made a train of fome miles
long, leaving fmall pieces of putrid flelh here and there
to allure the wolves to the fpot j they then wait till it
is dark, and approach the place with great circuni-
fpedtion. Here they fometimes find two or three
wolves affembled, leaping up, and {training themfelves
to catch the bait, which is placed juft within their
reach ; while the animals are bufily employed in this
way, the hunters being provided with fire-arms, feldom
fail to difpatch them. Again in a convenient place,
at the foot of a declivity, they make a fmall enclofure
of ftrong poles, fo high, that the wmlf having once en¬
tered, cannot return again. An opening is left at the
top of the bank j and a fheep that has been long dead,
is the bait $ to which he is allured by long trains, made
from different places where he is known to haunt. As
foon as he arrives at the fpot, he examines every part
of the inclofure, and finding no other way to come at
the booty, he precipitates himfelf to the bottom ; and
having made a plentiful meal, endeavours in vain to
re-afeend. His difappointment at not being able to get
back, is produtiive of the moft direful bowlings, which
alarm his enemies, and they either take him alive, or
difpatch him with bludgeons. It is remarkable that
when this animal finds there is no poflibility of efcap-
ing, his courage entirely forefakes him j and he is for
fome time fo ftupified with fear, that he may be killed
without offering to refift, or taken alive without much
danger.
Notwithftanding the favage ferocity of the wolf,
more than one inftance has occurred of his being tam¬
ed, Buffon brought up one which remained very quiet
and docile till he was 18 or 19 months old, when he
broke his fetters, and ran off, after deftroying a num¬
ber of fowls, and killing a dog with whom he had liv¬
ed in the greateft familiarity. It is faid that Sir Alh-
ton Lever had a tame wolf, which by proper educa¬
tion, was entirely divefted of the ferocious character of
its fpecies.
The wolf is valuable for nothing but his Ikin, which
makes a warm and durable fur.
It is now fully afeertained that the wolf and dog
will breed together, and that the breed may be conti¬
nued between the mules themfelves, or between them
and other dogs.
It has hence been conjectured that the wolf is the
original flock whence the dog is derived, but the dif-
3 P ferences
43 2
Hiftory of ferences between the two animals are fo ftriking, that
the Species, fUpp0fition muft be abandoned in favour of fome
' * ' other animal.
7 ^ •
Hyaena. 5- Hyana. Hyaena.—This animal is about the
Fig. 25. fize of a large dog, though it is fometimes found nearly
fix feet long from the root to the bafe of the tail. It
is chiefly diflinguifiied by its great ftrength of limbs,
and a remarkable fullnefs of the fnout, which is black j
the ears are long, (harp pointed, and nearly naked, and
from the neck there runs a ftrong briftly mane along
the upper part of the back. The tail is rather Ihort,
but extremely thick and briftly with hair. All the
feet have four toes. Its ufual colour is a pale grayifti
brown, with atawney caft, and the whole body is mark¬
ed with feveral blaekifti tranfverfe bands, running from
the back downwards, thofe on the legs being moft nu¬
merous, and of the deepeft colour.
The hyama is found in Afiatic Turkey, Syria, Per-
fia, and in fome parts of Africa, efpecially Barbary and
Abyflinia.
It is one of the moft ferocious animals of which wre
have any account •, will prey on cattle, and frequently
commits great devaftation among the flocks, and prowls
about in the night to feed on the remains of dead ani¬
mals, or on whatever living prey it can feize. Troops
of hyaenas fometimes aflemble, and follow the move¬
ments of an army, in order to feaft on the bodies of
the {lain. They will even violate the repofitories of the
dead, and greedily devour the putrid contents of the
grave. The courage of this animal is equal to its ra¬
pacity, and on occafion he will obftinately defend him-
felf againft much larger animals. He will fometimes
attack the ounce and the panther, and Kaempfer fpeaks
of one that he faw put two lions to flight. This cha-
rafter, however, feems not to apply to the hyaenas of
Barbary ; for w'e are told by Mr Bruce, that he has
feen the Moors in the day time take this animal by the
ears, and drag him along without his offering any other
refiftance than drawing back. The Abyffinian hysenas
on the contrary, are extremely bold, and infeft the
towns fo much in the night, that it is dangerous to ftir
out after dark. Mr Bruce tells us, that they were a
plague in Abyflinia in every fituation, both in the city
and in the field, and he thinks furpaffed even the fheep
in number. “ Gondar was full of them, from the time
it became dark till the dawn of day, feeking the dif¬
ferent pieces of flaughtered carcafes, which this cruel
and unclean people expofe in the ftreets without burial,
and who firmly believe that thefe animals are Falaftia
from the neighbouring mountains, transformed by ma¬
gic, and come down to eat human flefti in the dark in
fafety. Many a time in the night, when the king had
kept me late in the palace, and it was not my duty to
lie there, in going acrofs the fquare from the king’s
boufe, not many hundred yards diftant, I have been
apprehenfive left they fuould bite me in the leg. They
grunted in great numbers about me, although I was
1'urround. d with feveral armed men, who feldom paffed
a night without wounding or llaughtering fome of
them.
“ One night in Maitfha, being very intent on an ob-
fervation, I heard fomething pafs behind me towards the
bed ; but upon looking round, could perceive nothing.
Having fin'fhed what I was then about, I rvent out of
my tent, refolving dire£lly to return, which I immedi-
Part II
ately did, when I perceived two large blue eyes gla- Fenr,
ring at me in the dark. I called upon my fervant with W”*'Y—■»
a light, and there was the hyajna ftanding near the
head of the bed, with two or three large bunches of
candles in his mouth. To have fired at him, I was in
danger of breaking my quadrant or other furniture y
and he feemed, by keeping the candles fteadily in his
mouth, to wifti for no other prey at that time. As
his mouth was full, and he had no claws to tear with,
I was not afraid of him, but with a pike ftruck him as
near the heart as I could judge. It was not till then
that he ftiewed any fign of fiercenefs ; but upon feeling
his wound, he let drop the candles, and endeavoured
to run up the ftiaft of the fpear to arrive at me $ fo
that, in felf defence, I was obliged to draw my piftol
from my girdle and (hoot him ; and nearly at the fame
time my fervant cleft his fkull with a battle-axe. In a
\rord, the hyaena was the plague of our lives, the ter¬
ror of our night walks, and the deftruftion of our
mules and afles j which above all others, is his favour¬
ite food.”
The voice of this animal is Angular, beginning fome-
what like the moaning of a human voice, and ending
like a perfon making a violent effort to vomit.
Hyaenas generally inhabit caverns and rocky places,
where they keep themfelves retired during the day.
There is faid to be a remarkable particularity in this
animal, viz. that when it is firft diflodged from cover,
and obliged to run, it always appears lame for a con-
fiderable fpace, fometimes to fuch a degree as would
lead people to fuppofe one of his hind legs to be broken,
though after running for fome time this affe&ion goes
entirely off.
There is fomething peculiarly favage and gloomy in
the afpe£t of the hyaena, which feems to indicate an
extreme malignity of difpofition, and his manners while
in captivity feem to correfpond with this appearance,
being in general fierce and untraftable. The opinion
fo decidedly maintained by moft keepers of wild beafts,
that the hyaena cannot be tamed, appears, however, to
be erroneous, as there are at leaft two inftances of the
contrary on record, one by Mr Pennant, who declares
that he faw' a hyaena that had been rendered as tame as
a dog, and the other by Buffon, who affures us, that
in an exhibition of animals at Paris, in the year 1773,
there w'as a hyaena which had been tamed very early,
and w'as apparently divefted of all its natural malevo¬
lence of difpofition.
7. C. Aureus. Jackal.—In external figure the jack-
al refembles the wolf more than the fox. It is alfoFig. 30.
larger, and ftands higher on its legs than the fox. The
head is of a fox-red above, mixed with afti gray hairs,
which have each a blackifh ring and tip 5 the upper
lip is white on each fide of the nofe, and the throat is
of the fame colour j the w hifkers, the long hairs on the
chin, and thofe above the eyes, which are five in num¬
ber, are black •, the ears are fox-red externally, and
white internally •, the neck and back are all over gray
yellow, and both, but efpecially the latter, are daftied
with a fhade of dulky, owing to the tips of the long
hairs on thofe parts 5 the under parts of the body and
the legs are of a light reddifti yellow, but the flioulders
and thighs are externally of a fox-red ; the claws are
black j the thumb claw ftands higher than in the dog,
and is crooked y the tail is ftraight, foxnewhat longer,.
. ’ , and
M A M M ALIA.
dap-HI. MAMM
Vj erx. and more hairy than in the wolf, and is of a grayilh
i -V—J yellow, more inclining to fox-red towards the end ; the
long hairs have black tips, and confequently the tip of
the tail appears black •, the hair of the jackal is Wrong¬
er and coarfer than that of the wolf, and is longeft on
the (boulders and tail, where it meafures four inches
on the neck and back it is (hotter by an inch j between
the hairs is fituated a woolly fur of a gray colour. The
four middle front teeth are of a truncated form, or if
cut off, flat, not perceptibly notched or indented} the
two exterior larger ones in the upper jaw are fomewhat
carinated, in the low'er rounded *, the fide or canine
teeth in the upper jaw are fomewhat larger than in the
under-, the grinders are fix on each fide, the firff being
the fmalleft, and of a conical (liape ; the next grinders,
to the number of two in the upper and three in the
lower, are gradually larger, and divided into three
points: the fourth of the upper jaw and the fifth of the
under are the larged, and have two points : the remain¬
ing ones fland deeper in the jaw, or more inwards,
and are fmaller than the preceding j the tongue has
on each fide a border or row of (mall verrucae or
warts.
The female breeds only once a year, goes with young
about four weeks, and brings forth from fix to eight at
a time.
Jackals go in packs of 40, 50, or even 200 at a time,
and hunt like hounds in full cry, from evening to morn¬
ing. They are lefs deftru&ive to poultry than the wolf j
they ravage the flreets and villages, and gardens, and
will even deflroy children, if they are left unprotefted.
They will enter dables and out-houfes, and eat any ma¬
terials made of leather; they will familiarly come into
a tent, and carry off whatever they can take from the
deeping traveller. For want of living prey, they will
devour putrid carcafes, eat the mod infefled carrion,
and even difinter the dead, for which reafon the graves
in many countries are made of a great depth. Like
the hyaena they will follow armies, in hopes of feading
on the dain. When they cannot get animal food, they
will even feed on fruits and roots. Ihey burrow in
the earth, and lie there all the day, coming out at night
to hunt. They hunt by the nofe, and are very quick
in fcent, filling the air with the mod horrid bowlings
when they begin the chafe. Ihe lion, panther, and
other beads of prey, take advantage of the general
condernation, and follow the jackals in filence till they
have hunted down their prey, when they come up and
devour the fruits of the jackal’s labours, leaving them
only the remains of the fpoil. Hence the jackal has
been vulgarly termed the /ton's provider.
There is great reafon to believe that the jackal forms
the primeval dock from which the domedic dog has
originated. The external form, internal dru£ture, and
manners of both are very fimilar. According to Mr
Guldendadt, the jackal has a natural propenfity to fol¬
low mankind, indead of dying from him like the wolf
or the fox j the whelp of the jackal is readily tamed,
and when grown up, affumes all tho habits of the do-
medic dog 5 fawns on his mader, expreffes his joy by
wagging his tail, throws himfelf on his back, murmurs
gently, didinguifhes his name, jumps on the table, &c.
The jackal and dog alfo readily breed together, as ap¬
pears from various teftimonies.
ALIA. 4-83
11. C. Vulpes. Fox. The fox is found in all t^ie
temperate regions of the globe; throughout Europe, andt e Pccie ,
great part of Afia ; he abounds in North America, but ^
is fcarcely met with in Africa, except in Barbary. It Fox.
is very common in this idand. There are feveral va¬
rieties of the common fox ; and three of thefe, viz. the
greyhound, the majliff, and the cur fox, are met with
in Britain. Of thefe the greyhound is the larged, and
is chiefly found in the mountainous parts of this
ifland ; the cur is the fmalled, but the mod com¬
mon.
Foxes differ very much in point of colour, according
to the climate which they inhabit. In Britain they are
ufually of a yellowidi brown colour, with white or a(h-
coloured marks on the forehead, (boulders, hind part
of the neck, and outfide of the hind legs ; the lips,
throat, and cheeks are white, and there is ufually a
white dripe running along the under fide of the legs ;
the bread and belly whitidi gray, mixed with a(h colour;,
the tips of the ears and feet are black, and the tail is
of a reddifh yellow, with the tip white. In general
form the fox much refembles the dog, except that his
head is larger in proportion to his body, his fnout more
pointed, liis ears (horter, and his tail more long and
bufhy. His eyes are prominent and piercing, of a
lively hazel colour, and very expreflive of the feveral
paflions by which the animal is agitated.
The fmell of this animal is proverbially drong and
offonfive, and is faid to refemble fo exa£lly that of the
root of crown imperial, (ft ttiilana imperiahs, Lin.)
as fcarcely to be didinguithed from it. It has how¬
ever been remarked, .that from a fpot at the bafe of the
tail, there proceeds an odour which has been compared
to that of violets. He poffeffes the faculty of fmeliing
in a degree equal to the dog, and can fcent his food or
his foe at the didance of fome hundred yards. He has
a yelping kind of bark, confiding of a quick (uccedion
of fimilar tones, concluding in an elevation of the
voice, fomething like the cry cf a peacock. He yelps
much when in heat, and during winter, efpecially in
frod and fnovv ; but in fummer he is almod entirely
filent. In fummer he cads his hair.
The fox choofes his habitation in brakes, woods, or
coppices ; and here he prepares his bed below hard
ground, the roots of trees, or fimilar fituations, where
he can make proper outlets to efcape danger. The
fox’s' bed, in the language of hunters, is called his
kennel; when he retires to it, he is faid to^o to earth,
and when forced from it by his purfuers, he is faid to
be unkenneled. Foxes have been known to form their
beds in hollow trees, that they may the better fecure
their young. This animal does not always take the
trouble to condrutt a hole for himfelf, but often pro¬
cures one by difpuffeding the badger, which he does,
as is faid, by depofiting his urine in the badger’s hole,
and thus obliging that cleanly animal to abandon his
contaminated dwelling. He ufually fixes his habitation
not far from the dwellings of man, efpecially in the
neighbourhood of farm yards. He generally keeps re¬
tired during the day, though fometimcs he may be feen
in clear Warm weather balking in the funlhine in fome
dry place, and fomctimes amufing himfelf with running
round after his tail. He is fo much attached to his
ufual abode, that it is not eafy to induce him to leave
3 P 2 it
Rural
Spsrtr,
vo!. i.
p. 22p.
4®4- MAM M
rtiftory of It for another, and the fame fox has been caught in the
the Species fame pjace four fUcceflive times, having repeatedly af-
* Daniel's ter efcaPe made for his old cover*.
The food of the fox eoniifts chiefly of birds, efpe-
cially game and poultry, and of the leffer quadrupeds,
as of young hares, rabbits, and even field mice, rats,
lizards, toads, and ferpents. The greyhound fox is
faid to attack fheep, and carry off young lambs. When
preffed by hunger he will eat carrion, roots, and in¬
fers, and near the lea coaft will feed on crabs, fhrimps,
or fhell fiffi. He is very fond of grapes, and in France
and Italy often does great mifchief among the vines.
He is faid alfo to be fond of honey, for which he will
attack the bee-hives, and though obliged repeatedly
to make off by the fury of the enraged bees, after
ridding himfelf of his enemies by rolling on the ground
and killing them, he fucceflively returns to the charge,
and feldom fails to make himfelf mafter of the
booty.
In his attack upon the neighbouring poultry, he
choofes his time with judgment j and concealing his
road, glides forward with camtion. If he can leap the
fence, or get in below it, he ravages the yard, puts all
the poultry to death, and then takes meafures for fe-
curing what he has killed. He retires foftly with his
prey, which he either hides in holes that he digs for
that purpofe, carefully covering it with earth, or car¬
ries it to his kennel if this be near; in a few7 minutes
he returns for more, which he conceals in a fimilar
manner, but in a different place, and he will thus car¬
ry off a whole flock of poultry, one by one, to his hid¬
ing places, thrufting them in with his nofe, and leaving
them till hunger calls for a fupply. In this way he
proceeds till the rifing of the fun, or feme noife
about the farm houfe, gives him notice that it is time
to retire.
In procuring young rabbits from their burrow's, he
exhibits a great degree of cunning. He does not enter
the hole, for as this is very narrow, he would be ob¬
liged to dig feveral feet along the ground below the
furface ; but he follows the fcent of the rabbits above,
till he comes to the end where they lie, and then
fcratching up the earth, defcends upon them and de¬
vours them.
When foxes are in heat they are faid by fportfmen to
go to c/icket; this takes place in winter : the females
produce but once a year, and have from three to fix
young ones at a birth. While breeding, the bitch
feldom lies far from the earth, and after littering, if
ihe perceives her retreat to be difcovered, fhe removes
her cubs one by one to fome more fecure fituation.
The cubs are ufually firft found in the latter end of
March ; when brought forth, they are blind like pup¬
pies, and of a very dark brown colour j they grow7 for
18 months, and live about 13 or 14 years. The fox
is exceedingly careful of her young, and a remarkable
inftance of her parental affedtion is recorded by Gold-
Imith. A flie fox that had, as it ftiould feem, but one
cub, was unkenneled by a gentleman’s hounds, and
hotly purfued. The poor animal braving every dan¬
ger, rather than leave her cub behind to be worried by
the dogs, took it up in her mouth, and ran with it in
this manner for fome miles ; at laft, palling through a
farmer’s yard, Ihe was affaulted by a maftiff, and ob¬
liged to deep her cub, which was taken up by the far-
la I A. Part II,
mer. It is pleafing to add that the affe&ionate crea- Fers, *
ture got off in fafety.
The fox and the dog readily breed together, and the
produce is a very uftfol animal as a deg.
Foxes are fometimes domefticated, but are fcarcely
ever fully tamed.
The hunting of this animal is one of the greateft di-
verfions of our country gentlemen. For an account of
fox-hunting, fee Hunting. The Ikins are valuable
for muffs, tippets, &c.
The arcffic fox, C. iagopus, is well deferibed by Stel-
ler, for whofe entertaining account of their manners,
we muff refer to Mr Bingley’s Animal Biography,
vol. i.
23. C. Xerda. Fennec.—This beautiful little ani- Zenk
mal is about 10 inches long, and of a yellowilh white Fennec.
colour } its eyes are large and of a bright black j itsFlg- 31-
ears of an uncommon fize, internally of a bright rofe
colour, and edged with a broad margin of white hair,
with an orifice fo fmall as to be fcarcely vifible j its
legs and feet are lhaped like thofe of a dog j its tail
long, tapering, and tipped with black.
It inhabits the vail deferts of Saara, that extend be¬
yond Mount Atlas, and is faid to be called by the
Moors, xerda, though Mr Bruce, who faw it often,,
and kept two or three fpecimens of it, fays that its
proper name is fennec. It feeds on infefts, efpecially
locufts, fits on its rump, barks like a dog, only with a
fhriller voice $ is very vigilant, and fo fwift that it is
very rarely taken alive.
The following intereffing account of its manners and
appearance is given by Mr Bruce.
“ Though his favourite food feemed to be dates, of
any fvveet fruit, yet I obferved he was very fond of
eggs j and fmall birds eggs were firit brought him,
which he devoured with great avidity ; but he did not
feem to know7 how to manage that of a hen j but w hen
broke for him, he ate it with the fame avidity as the
others. When he was hungry he would eat bread,
efpecially with honey or fugar. It was very obfervable
that a bird, whether confined in a cage near him, or
flying acrofs the room, engroffed his whole attention.
He followed it with his eyes wherever it went, nor
was he, at this time, to be diverted by placing bifeuit
before him j and it was obvious, by the great intereft
he feemed to take in its motions, that he was accuf-
tomed to watch for viftories over it, either for his
pleafure or his food. He feemed very much alarmed
at the approach of a cat, and endeavoured to hide him¬
felf, but fhewed no fymptom of preparing for a defence.
I never heard he had any voice •, he fuffered himfelf,
not withoyt fome difficulty, to be handled in the day,
when he feemed rather inclined to fleep, but was ex¬
ceedingly unquiet and reftlefs fo foon as night came,
and always endeavouring his efcape, and though he did
not attempt the wire, yet with his lharp teeth he very
foon maftered the wood of any common bird cage.
From the fnout to the anus he was about 10 inches
long, his tail five and a quarter, near an inch on the
tip of it was black. From the point of his fore
fhoulder to the point of his fore toe, was two inches
and feven-eighths. He was two inches and a half from
his occiput to the point of his nofe j the length of his
ears three inches and three-eighths. Thefe were dou¬
bled or had a plait on the bottom on the outfide j the
borders
c
u
r
|ap. III. MAMM
•rx. borders of his ears on the infide were thick covered
r—' with foft white hair, but the middle part was bare, and
of a pink or rofe colour. They were about an inch
and a half broad, and the cavities within were very
large. It was very difficult to meafure thefe j for he
was very impatient, at having his ears touched, and
always kept them ereft, unlefs when terrified by a cat.
The pupil of the eye was large and black, furrounded
by a deep blue iris. He had ftrong, thick muftachoes ;
the tip of his nofe very (harp, black, and polilhed. His
upper jaw reached beyond the lower, and had four
grinders on each fide of the mouth. It had fix fore
teeth in each jaw ; thofe in the under jaw are fmaller
than the upper ; the canine teeth are long, large, and
exceedingly pointed ; his legs are fmall and his feet
very broad } he has four toes armed with crooked,
black, ffiarp claws-, thofe on his fore feet more crook¬
ed and ffiarp than behind. All his body is nearly of a
dirty white, bordering on cream colour 5 the hair of
his belly rather whiter, fofter, and longer than the
reft ; and on it a number of paps, but he was fo impa¬
tient it was impoffible to count them. He very feldom
extended or ftiffened his tail, the hair of which was
harder. He had a very fly and wily appearance. But
as he is a folitary animal, and not gregarious, as he
has no particular mark of feelings about him, no drift
or particular cunning which might occafion Solomon
to qualify him as wife, as he builds his neft upon trees,
and not on the rock, he cannot be the Saphan {or coney)
of the fcripture, as fome, both Jews and Arabians, not
fufficiently attentive to the qualities attributed to that
animal, have neverthelefs erroneoufly imagined.”
77
Genus 16. Felis.
Six front teeth, of which the intermediate are equal j
three grinders on each fide ; tongue befet with re-
verfed prickles j claws retraflile.
In this as in the laft genus, the individuals would re¬
quire a particular examination, though they agree
more together in their form and habits than thofe of
the dog tribe. We ffiall here, as in the laft genus,
firft difcriminate the fpecies, and then give an account
of fome of the mod remarkable individuals.
Dr Shaw diftinguiffies 25 fpecies by the following
names and charadlers.
Species 1. Fe/ts Leo, Lion. Colour pale tawney, or
dun ; tail long, and flocky at the tip.—2. F. Tigris,
Tiger. Tail elongated -, body marked with long tranf-
verfe ftreaks.—3. F. Pardus, Panther. Tail elonga¬
ted y body yellow-, marked w-ith orbicular fpots above,
and lengthened ones below.—4. F. Leopardus, Leo¬
pard. Body yellow, marked with black fpots, nearly
contiguous, difpofed in circles.—5. F. Jubeta, Hunting
Leopard. Colour pale fulvous, with round black fpots j
tail of moderate length ; neck (lightly maned.—6.
—F. Uncia, Ounce. Tail long ; body whitiffi, with
irregular black marks.—7. F. Onca, Jaguar. Tail of
inoderate length } body yellowiffi, with black ocella-
ted roundifti cornered fpots, wdth yellow^ central fpaces.
—8. F. Pardalis, Ocelot. Tail longiffi, long ftripe-
fhaped fpots on the upper parts, and round ones on
the lower.— 9. Cincrea, Cinereous Cat. —10. F. Puma,
Puma. Tail long ; body reddiffi-brown, whitiffi be¬
neath.—11. F. Difcolor, Black Tiger. Tail long j
l
ALIA. 485
body black above, whitiffi below'.—12. F. Tigrina, Mar- Hi dory of
gay. Tail long j body, fulvous, ftriped and (potted t*ie Species.
with black, whitiffi beneath.—13. F. Capenjis, Cape '•
Cat. Fulvous, with longfth tail annulated with black j
body marked with black ftripes above, with rounded
and lunated black fpots on the other parts, and a lu-
nated white bar on the ears.—14. F. Bengalenjis.—
15. F. Manul, Manul. Tail elongated, and annula¬
ted with black ; head marked with fpots, and two
lateral bands of black.—16. F. Catus, Common Cat.
Yellowiffi gray, with dufky bands, three on the back
longitudinal ; thofe on the fides ipiral j tail barred with
dufky rings.—17. F. Japanenjis, Japan Cat.—18. F.
Gmgna, Guigna Cat.—19. F. Corolo/o, Corololo.—
20. F. Serval, Serval. Tail fhortifh; body tawney
brown, whitiffi beneath, marked with roundiffi dufky
fpots ; orbits of the eyes white.—21. F. Montana,
Mountain Lynx.— 22. F. Chaus, Chaus. Tail mode¬
rately ffiort, annulated towards the tip, with the tip
black ; body brownifh yellow; ears brown, bearded
w-ith black at the tips.—23. F. Rufa, Bay Lynx. Tail
ffiort j body bay, obfcurely fpotted with black j tail
white beneath and at the tip ; ears bearded at the tip.
—24. F. Caracal, Caracal. Tail ffiortifhj body reddiffi-
brown ; ears black externally, and tipt with long black
hairs.— 25. F. Lynx, Common Lynx. Tail ffiort j r
body rufous gray, (lightly fpotted wuth black, white
beneath ; tail black at the tip 5 cars terminated by
long black hairs.
I. F. Leo, The Lion.—The lion has ufually been Lion,
confidered as the moft dignified and majeftic inhabitant
of the foreft. His vaft fize and prodigious ftrength
well entitle him to the rank of lord over moft; other
beafts j though from the obfervations of modern tra¬
vellers and naturalifts, w-e are obliged to confider him
in a light lefs formidable and lefs amiable than that in
which he is difplayed by earlier writers.
This animal feldom exceeds eight feet in length
from nofe to tail, and the tail itfelf ufually meafures
about four feet *, his head is very large j his ears
rounded j his face covered with ffiort or clofe hair,
while the upper part of the head, the neck and
(boulders are coated with long and (baggy hair, hang¬
ing down below the bread; and fore part of the'belly,
like a mane j the hair on the body is ffiort and fmooth;
and the tail is terminated by a blackifli tuft. The ufual
colour of the lion is a pale tawney, inclining to white
on the lower part of the body.
The lionefs is fmaller than the lion, of a whiter co¬
lour beneath, and ddlitute of mane.
The lion is principally found in Africa, and is alfo
met with, though by far lefs plentifully, in the hotter
parts of Afia; but it is in the interior of Africa that
he exerts his greateft ravages, and reigns luperior among
the w-eaker quadrupeds. His habitation is in the thick-
eft parts of the foreft, and he is feldom feen by day ; but,
when night approaches, he quits his retreat, and prowls
about for prey. The roaring of this- animal when in
queft of prey, is generally faid to referable the found
of thunder ; and being re-echoed by the rocks and
mountains, it appals the whole race of animals. Fre¬
quently, however, he varies his voice into a fort of a
(cream or yell. His ftrength is fo great, that it is af-
firmed a fingle ftmke of his paw is fufficient to break
the back of a horf&j and he has been feen to carry off
with
4$ 6 M A M M
Hi (lory of witli apparent eafe a middle-fized ox, or even a buffalo.
the Species. are Kolben, that he ufually knocks down
v 1" his prey with his paw, and feldom bites it till he has
given the mortal blow. His teeth are fo ftrong that
he breaks the largeit bones with eafe, and fwallows them
with the flefli j and the prickles on his tongue are fo
large and ftrong, as to be capable of lacerating the
Ikin. He ufually conceals himfelf in a thicket, from
which he darts upon his prey : and, it is faid, that if
he chances to mifs his aim, he will not follow his prey
any farther •, but, as though afliamed, he turns back to
the place from which he fprung on it, flowly, and
ftep by ftep, as it were, meafuring the diftance betw een
the two points, as if to find out how much too ihort,
or how much beyond the mark, he had taken his
leap.
Dr Sparrman fays, that from all the moft credible
accounts he could coll eft concerning lions, as well as
from what he himfelf faw, he thinks he may fafely
conclude, that this wild beaft is frequently a great cow¬
ard, or, at leaft, deficient in point of courage compa¬
ratively to his ftrength *, on the other hand, however,
he fometimes {hews an unufual degree of intrepidity, of
which he rpentions the following inftance as it was re¬
lated to him.
A lion had broken into a walled inclofure for cattle
through the latticed gate, and done confiderable da¬
mage. The people belonging to the farm were af-
fured of his coming again by the fame way: in conle-
quence of which they ftretched a rope direftly acrofs
the entrance, to which feveral loaded guns were faftened
in fuch a manner, that they muft neceffarily difcharge
themfelves into the lion’s body, as foon as ever he
ftiould pufti againft the cord, as it was expefted he
would, with his breaft. But the lion, who came be¬
fore it was dark, having probably fome fufpicions re-
fpefting the cord, ftruck it aw ay with his foot, and with¬
out betraying the leaft fear, in confequence of the re¬
port made by the loaded pieces, went on fteadily, and
earelefs of every thing, and devoured the prey he had
left untouched before.
The lion is faid to prefer the fleftr of a Hottentot to
that of any other animal ; and in order to procure it,
will fometimes depart from his ufual method of quitting
his prey when he miffes his aim. It is furprifing wdth
what obftinacy he will follow one of thefe unfortunate
favages. We are informed by Mr Barrow, that one of
the Namaaqua Hottentots, endeavouring to drive his
mailer’s cattle into a pool of w-ater, inclofed between
two ridges of rocks, efpied a huge lion couching in the
midft of the pool. Terrified at the unexpefted fight
of fuch a beaft, that feemed to have its eyes fixed upon
him, he inftantly took to his heels. In doing this he
had prefence of mind enough to run through the herd,
concluding, that, if the lion {hould purfue, he would
take up with the firft beaft that prefented itfelf. In
this, however, he was miitaken. The lion broke
through the herd, making direftly after the Hottentot,
who, on turning round, and perceiving that the monfter
had fingled him out, breathlefs and half dead with fear,
fcrambled up one of the tree-aloes, in the trunk of
which a few fteps had luckily been cut out, to come at
fome birds nefts that the branches contained. At the
fame moment the lion made a fpring at him, but mif¬
fing his aim, fell upon the ground. In furly filence he
3
ALIA. , Part II,
walked round the tree, calling at times a dreadful look Fersc.
towards the poor Hottentot, who had crept behind the
nefts. We Ihould here remark, that thefe nefts belong
to a fmall bird of the genus Loxia, that lives in a Hate
of fociety with the reft of its fpecies, conftrufting a
whole republic of nefts in one clump, and under one
cover. One of thefe clumps of nefts will fometimes ex¬
tend a fpace of io feet in diameter, and contain a popu¬
lation of feveral hundred individuals. It was under the
cover of one of thefe edifices that the Hottentot fcreen-
ed himfelf from the fight of the lion. Having remain¬
ed filent and motionlefs for a length of time, he ven¬
tured to peep over the fide of the neft, hoping that the
lion had taken his departure ; when to his great terror
and aftonilhment, his eyes met thofe of the animal,
which, as the poor fellow afterwards expreffed himfelf,
flalhed fire at him. In Ihort, the lion laid himfelf down
at the foot of the tree, and did not remove from the
place for 24 hours. At the end of this time becoming
parched with thirft, he went to a fpring at fome diftance
in order to drink. The Hottentot now, with trepida¬
tion, ventured to defcend, and fcampered off home,
which was not more than a mile diftant, as fall as his
feet could carry him, where he arrived in fafety. The
perfeverance of the lion was fuch, that it afterwards
appeared, he returned to the tree, and finding the man
had defcended, hunted him by the fcent to within 300
paces of the houfe *, * Barmit
An elderly Hottentot obferved a lion following
him at a great diftance for two hours together. He^'f'7’ >
thence naturally concluded, that the lion only waited
the approach of darknefs, in order to make him his
prey •, and in the meantime expefted nothing elfe than
to ferve for this fierce animal’s fupper, as he had no other
weapon of defence than a ftaff. But as he was well
acquainted with the nature of the lion, and the manner
of its feizing upon its prey, and at the fame time had
leifure at intervals to ponder on the ways and means in
which it was moft probable that his exiftence would be
put an end to, he at length bethought of a method of
faving his life. For this end, in place of making his w ay
home, he looked out for a k/ipkrans, or a rocky place
level at top, and having a perpendicular precipice on
one fide of it } and fitting down on the edge of one
of thefe precipices, he found to his great fatisfaftion,
that the lion alfo made a halt, and kept the fame di¬
ftance as before. As foon as it grew dark, the Hotten¬
tot Hiding a little forwards, let himfelf down below the
upper edge of the precipice upon a projefting part of
the rock, where he could barely keep himfelf from fall¬
ing. But in order to deceive the lion Hill more, he fet
his hat and cloak on the flick, making with it at the
fame time a gentle motion juft over his head, and a lit¬
tle way from the edge of the mountain. Ihis crafty
expedient had the defired effeft. He did not remain
long in thatfituation, before the lion came creeping foftly -
towards him like a cat, and miftaking the Ikin cloak
for the Hottentot himfelf, took his leap with fuch ex-
aftnefs and precifion, as to fall headlong down the
precipice, direftly clofe to the fnare which had been
placed for him ; when the Hottentot is faid, in great
joy, exultingly to have called out, t'katji; an inter-
ieftion which is of very extenfive import and fignifi-
cation f. _ 1
Next to Hottentot’s flelh he is faid to prefer that of^
horfes ;
MAMMALIA.
( ap. HI.
erse. horfes and buffaloes, but on the (beep he feldom deigns
i 110 fix his paw, perhaps from his woolly covering, which
he is too indolent to be at the labour of uncaling. It
is commonly faid, that a lion will devour as much at
once as will ferve him for two or three days, and when
fatiated with food, he returns to his den, where he re¬
mains in a ft ate of ina&ivity till hunger again compels
him to feek. for food.
Though this animal has generally been reprefented
as extremely brave as well as ferocious, it has not unfre-
quently happened, that he has been frightened or dri¬
ven away by the oppofition of a much inferior enemy.
It is faid, that a traveller once had an opportunity
of feeing a female buffalo with her calf, defended by
a river at her back, keep at bay for a long time five
lions which had partly furrounded her, but did not,
as long as the traveller looked on, dare to attack
her $ and we are informed, that Mr Brew, command-
der of the Senegal company on the African coaft,
had once near him a large full-grown tame lion, about
four years old, when a flock of goats paffed. All
the goats except one, ran off with terror at the fight
of the lion j but this one looking ftedfaftly at the
lion, ftaraped with his foot on the ground in a mena¬
cing manner, then retreated three fteps, and inftantly
returning, ftruck the lion’s forehead lo violently with
his horns, that the animal was ftunned by the blow,
and having repeated this feveral times before the lion
could recover himfelf, the monftrous animal was thrown
into fueh confufion, that he went behind his mafter
for prote&ion.
The lion does not always deftroy the objeft that he
attacks, but feems fometimes to fpring on an animal
through wantonnefs. Dr Sparrman was told of feve¬
ral who had efcaped from the paw of lions. At St
Catharine Cru’s church, Leadenhall-ftreet, London,
provifion is made, under the will of Sir John Gager,
who was lord mayor in the year 1646, for a fermon
to be annually preached, with a charitable donation, on
the 16th of November, in commemoration of his happy
deliverance from a lion, which he met in a defert as
he was travelling in theTurkilh dominions, and which
fuffered him to pafs unmolefted.
There feems no doubt, that in thofe places where
mankind have made the greateft advances towards civi¬
lization, the lion has loft much of his native boldnefs
and ferocity. Experience feems to have taught him,
that in cunning and refimrces he is inferior to man, and
he therefore feldom attacks the human race, except
forced to it by the imperious calls of hunger.
The lionnefs is faid to breed only once a-year, and
to produce four or five at a birth, which Are nurfes
with great afliduity, and attends in their firft excur-
fions for plunder. Thefe animals readily breed in cap¬
tivity.
Buffon, reafoning from the fize and conftitution of
the lion, and the time required for his arrival at full
growth, concluded, that he ought to live about 25
years; but if w’e may depend upon the accounts that
have been given of fome lions kept in the lower of
London, the period of his life may be confiderably
extended. One of thefe, called Pompey, is faid to have
lived at leaft 70 years, and another 63.
The lion has been often brought from his native
forefts into Europe j and, when taken young, is capa¬
ble of being made very gentle and tra&able. Many Hiftory of
of our readers will have feen the keepers of wildt ^
beafts play tricks with this monftrous animal, which
he appears to bear without (hewing any marks of an¬
ger. He feems to bear all with the greateft compofure,
and we feldom hear of his revenging thefe unprovoked
(allies of impertinent curiofity. It is, however, not
always fafe to play with, and (till lefs fo to mingle
blows with careffes, as is done by fome injudicious
keepers.
Numerous inftances are on record of the lion’s gen-
tlenefs, fagacity, and gratitude, while in a (late of do-
meftication. He has been known to fpare the lives of
animals that were thrown to be devoured by him $ to
live peaceably with them j to afford them part of his
food, and even to want food himfelf, rather than de¬
prive them of that life which his generofity had once
fpared. A dog was put into the cage of a lion in the
menagery at the Tower, fome years ago, for food $ the
(lately animal, however, fpared his life, and they lived
together for a confiderable time in the lame den, in the
moft perfect harmony, and appeared to have a great af¬
fection for each other. The dog had fometimes the
impudence to growl at the lion, and even difpute with
him the food which was thrown to them •, fo true is the '
old proverb, familiarity breeds contempt: but the no¬
ble animal was never known tochaftife the impertinent
conduCt of his little companion, but ulually fuffered him
to eat quietly till he was fatisfied, before he began his
own repaft.
Mr Hope relates an anecdote of a lion in the pof-
feflion of the duchefs of Hamilton fome years ago,
which affords a ftriking inftance both of the retentive
memory of this animal, and of his attachment to thofe
who have been kind to him. “ One day (fays Mr
Hope) I had the honour of dining with the duchefs of
Hamilton : after dinner the company attended her
grace to fee a lion, that (he had in the court, fed. While
we were admiring his fiercenefs, and teazing him with
(licks to make him abandon his prey and fly at us, the
porter came and informed the duchefs, that a ferjeant
with fome recruits at the gate, begged permiflion to fee
the lion. Her grace, with great condefcenfion and
good nature, alked permiffion of the company for the
travellers to come in, as they would then have the la-
tisfaClion of feeing the animal fed. They were accord¬
ingly admitted at the moment the lion was growling
over his prey. The ferjeant, advancing to the cage,
called out, “ Nero, Nero, poor Nero, don’t you know
me ?” The animal inftantly turned his head to look at
him, then rofe up, left his prey, and came wagging his
tail, to the fide of the cage. The man then put his
hands upon him, and patted him : telling us, at the
fame time, that it was three years fince they had feen
each other, but that the care of the lion on his paffage
from Gibraltar, had been committed to him, and he
was happy to fee the poor bead (how fo much gratitude
for his attention. The lion indeed feemed perfectly
pkafed j he went to and fro, rubbing himfelf againft
the place where his benefaCtor ftood, and licked the
ferjeant’s hand as he held it out to him. The man
wanted to go into the cage to him, but was prevented
by the company, who were not altogether convinced of
the fafety of the aCt*.” * Thoughts
The lion is frequently hunted at the Cape of Good Vl ^r°fer
Hope, ani* Ve,'fe‘
488 M A M M
Hift°ry °f Hope, for tire fake of his fkin and flefh, which latter is
s,i,i ' efteemed by fome an excellent food, and is often eaten
by the negroes. I he colonifts of the Cape hunt him
with dogs, and it is faid that 12 or 16 are fuffieient to
overcome one lion. 1 he lion runs for iome time after
being rouled, then flops and ihakes his mane, as if in
defiance of the dogs, who, as foon as they have an op¬
portunity, rufh all at once upon him, and loon over¬
power him, Ihree or four of the dogs, however, are
commonly killed in the conflidl, being ftruck dead by
the firft llrokes of his paw.
Tiger. 2. F. Tigris, the Tiger.—This moll beautiful, but
33- mofl deftruftive of quadrupeds, is nearly equal in fize
to the lion, and has even been feen larger, viz. feet
long from the nofe to the tip of the tail. The pre¬
vailing colour of the body is a deep tawney, or orange
yellow j the face, throat, and lower part of the belly
being nearly white, and the whole is traverfed by nu¬
merous long black llripes, forming a bold and ftriking
contrail with the ground colour. Thefe ftripes are pro¬
portionally fmaller on the face and breaft, than on the
other parts of the body. The tail is fhorter than the
body, and is furrounded with black rings. Dr Shaw
obferves, that when feen in perfection, and before its
health has been impaired by confinement, it is fcarcely
poflible to conceive a more elegantly variegated animal
than the tiger: the bright and intenfe orange yellow
which conftitutes the ground colour ; the deep and well-
defined ftripes of black, in fome parts double, in others
lingle 5 the pure white of the cheeks and low'er parts
of the fides, over wdiich a part of the black ftriping is
continued, form, altogether, an appearance far fuperior
in beauty to the fkin of the zebra, or that of any other
regularly-marked quadruped, not excepting even the
panther itfelf.
This animal is confined to the warmer parts of Afia,
and is principally found in the peninfula of India, and
the Indian iflands. The fpecies extends, however, as
far as China and Chinefe Tartary, to the lake Ural and
the Altaic mountains.
The tiger is of a difpofition fo fierce and fanguinary,
as to furpafs in rapacity every other wild beaft j indeed
there is no animal that he will not venture to' attack.
Dreadful combats fometimes take place between him
and the lion, and they are carried on w-ith fuch fury
and obftinacy, that both parties are often found dead
together. He commits horrid ravages among the flocks
and herds, and neither the fight nor oppofition ■ f man
have power to make him defift. It is faid that when
undifturbed, he plunges his head into the body of the
animal he has flaughtered, and greedily fucks its blood.
His ftrength is aftonifhing. We are told that a pea-
lant in the Eaft Indies, had a buffalo fallen into a quag¬
mire, and while he went to call for afliftance, an im-
menfe tiger came, that immediately drew out the ani¬
mal, on wh;ch the united efforts of feveral men had no
effeft. When the people returned, the firft objefl they
beheld was the tiger, with the buffalo thrown over his
fhoulder, as a goofe is by a fox : he w'as carrying him
away with his feet upward, towards his den. As loon,
however, as he faw the men, he let fall his prey, and
inftantly fled to the woods; but he had previoufly kill¬
ed the buffalo, and fucked its blood. If^we 1 onfifier
that a buffalo is often twice the lize of our ordinary
cattle, we may form fome idea of the immenfe ftr*)gth
A Li I A.\_ jj
of an animal that could thus rurt off with a carcafe as Fers
large again as himfelf. —-y-
1 he tiger’s method of feizing his prey is fimilar to
that of the lion, ruftiing on it at once from his conceal-
ment, vith a horrid roar. His voice when fpringing on
his victim, is faid to be hideous beyond conception.
Like the lion, if he miffos his aim, he makes off with¬
out repeating the attack for that time.
The tiger feems to prefer the fleili of man to that of
any other prey, as he takes all opportunities of feizing
a man where he thinks there is any chance of fueeefs.
Many of our readers will perhaps remember to have
read an account of the melancholy fate of Mr Munro,
who was killed by a tiger in the Eaft Indies in the
year 1792' <4 went (fays the narrator) on fhore
on Sangar ifland, to fhoot deer, of which we faw innu¬
merable tracks, as well as of tigers j notvi ithftanding
which, we continued our diverfton till near three
o’clock, when, fitting down by the fide of a jungle to
refrefti ourfelves, a roar like thunder was heard, and an
immenfe tiger feized on our unfortunate friend, and
rufhed again into the jungle, dragging him through
the thickeft bufhes and trees, every thing giving way
to his monftrous ftrengtn ; a tigrefs accompanied his
progrefs. The united agonies of horror, regret, and
fear, rufhed at once upon us. I fired on the tiger ; he
feemed agitated j my companion fired alfo; and in a
few moments after this, our unfortunate friend came
up to us batheu in blood. Every medical afliftance was
vain, and he expired in 24 hours, having received fuch
deep wounds from the teeth and claws of the animal,
as rendered his recovery hopelefs. A large fire, con¬
fining of 10 or 12 whole trees, was blazing by us at
the time this accident took place, and ten or more of
the natives were with us. The human mind can
fcarcely form an idea of this fcene of horror. We had
hardly pufhed our boat from that accurfed fhore, when
the tigrefs made her appearance, almcft raging mad,
and remained on the fand all the while we continued in
fight.”
In the beginning of the laft century, as Mr Pennant
was informed, fome gentlemen and ladies being on a
party of pleafure, under a fhade of trees, on the banks
of a river in Bengal, obferved a tiger preparing for its
fatal fpring. One of the ladies, with amazing pre¬
fence of mind, laid hold of an umbrella, and furled it
full in the animal’s face, which inftantly retired, and
gave the company opportunity of removing from fo ter¬
rible a neighbour.
The tigrefs, like the lionnefs, produces four or five
young at a litter, and though at all times furious, her
rage rifes to the greateft extremity in defence of her
young. If robbed of them, fhe purfues her plunderers
with the greateft fury and obftinacy, and they are often
obliged to drop fome of the young tigers, to prevent
her from attacking them.
We are told by keepers of wi/d beajis, that the tiger
■when full grown, is incapable of bfcing tamed j but it
appears that when young, they are gentle, and as play¬
ful a» a kitten.
The fkin of this animal is much efteemed through¬
out the eaft, efpecially in China, where the feats
of juftice, on which the mandarins fit, are covered Ss
with it. Panthe:
3. and 4. F. Pardus and F, Leopardus, the Panther
andrar ‘
III.
M A M M
•ingley's
imal
'graphy,
. i.
*8i.
and the Leopard.—Thefe fpecies have frequently been
confounded, and we mention them together for the fake
of marking their diftinguilhing characters. They are
ufually diftinguilhed by the form of the fpotsj thofe on
the panther having commonly a central fpot in each
circle, while in thofe of the leopard this is ufually
wanting. This diftinCtion, however, by no means
holds univerfally, and the animals are better diftinguifh-
ed by their general (hade of colour, and by their fize.
The panther is of a darker colour, and larger than the
leopard. After all, the diftinCtion is by no means fo
ftrongly marked that we can always difcriminate be¬
tween them, and perhaps they (liould rather be conii-
dered as varieties of the fame fpecies. In manners and
difpofition they nearly referable the tiger, yet the leo¬
pard is generally confidered as lefs fierce than the pan¬
ther. Both are found in Africa, efpecially about the
river Senegal. It was fuppofed that they were to be
met with in America, but this appears to be a mif-
take.
16. F. Catus, Common Cat.—This animal is found
wild in feveral parts of the north of Europe, and is fo
formidable, that it may be called the European tiger.
It is three or four times as large as the houfe cat j the
head larger, and the face flatter. The teeth and claws
tremendous ; its mufcles very ftrong, as being formed
for rapine 5 the tail is of a moderate length, but very
thick and flat, marked with alternate bars of black and
white, the end always black \ the hips and hind part
of the lower joints of the leg, are always black; the
fur is very foft and fine. The general colour of thefe
animals is of a yellowilh white, mixed with a deep gray.
Thefe colours, though they appear at firit fight con-
fufedly blended together, yet on a clofe infpeflion will
be found to be difpofed like the ftreaks on the Ikin of
the tiger, pointing from the back downwards, rifing
from a black lilt that runs from the head along the
middle of the back to the tail.
It is the fierceft and moft deftruftive beaft wre have,
making dreadful havock among our poultry, lambs, and
kids. It inhabits the mofl; mountainous and woody
parts of thefe iflands, living moftly in trees, and feed¬
ing only by night. It multiplies as fall as our common
cats; and often the females of the latter will quit
their domeftic mates, and return home pregnant by the
former.
Mr Bingley informs us, that at Barnborough, a vil¬
lage between Doncafter anci Barnfby, in Yorkfhire,
there is a tradition extant of a ferious conteft that once
took place between a man and a wild cat. The inha¬
bitants fay that the fight commenced in an adjacent
wood, and that it was continued from thence into the
porch of the church. We do not recoiled! in what
manner it is reported to have begun ; they, however,
tell us, that it ended fatally to both combatants, for
each died of the wounds he received. A rude paint¬
ing in the church commemorates the event; and, as in
many fimilar traditions, the accidentally natural red
tinge of fome of the ftones has been conftrued into
bloody ftains, which all the properties of foap and wa¬
ter have not been able to efface *.
They are taken either in traps, or by {hooting: in
the latter cafe it is very dangerous, only to weund
them ; for they attack the perfon who injured them,
and have ftrength enough to be no defpicable enemy.
Vol. XII. Part II.
ALIA. 489
Wild cats were formerly reckoned among the beaffs of Hiftory ot
chafe, as appears by a charter of Richard II. to the ab-t^e ^Peciev
botof Peterborough, giving him leave tohunt the hare,
fox, and wild cat; and in much earlier times it w as al-
fo the objedl of the fportfman’s diverfion.
The domeftic cat is fo w ell known as to render a de-
fcription of it unneceffary. It is an ufeful but general¬
ly a deceitful domeftic ; adtive, neat, fedate, intent on
its prey. When pleafed, purs and moves its tail. When
angry, fpits, hiffes, and ftrikes with its foot. When
walking, it draws in its claw's ; it drinks little ; is fond
of fifti ; its urine is corrofive ; it buries its dung ; it
wafties its face with its fore foot (Linnaeus fays at the
approach of a ftorm) ; the female is remarkably fala-
cious ; a piteous, {quailing, jarring lover. Its eyes
ftiine in the night ; its hair when rubbed in the dark
emits ele£tric fparks; it is even proverbially tenacious of
life ; always lights on its feet; is fond of perfumes, as '
mar uni) cat-mint) valerian, &c.
The cat ufually lives from 6 to 10 years. A friend
of ours had a cat that lived 18 years.
The female brings forth twice, and fometimes
thrice, a-year. The period of her geftation is fifty-
five or fifty-fix days, and flxe generally produces 5 or 6
at one litter. She conceals her kittens from the male,
left he fliould devour them, as he is fometimes inclined ;
and, if apprehenfive of being difturbed, will take them
up in her mouth, and remove them one by one to a
more fecure retreat. Even the female herfelf, contra¬
ry to the eftabliftied law of nature, which binds the pa¬
rent to its offspring by an almoft indiffoluble tie, is fome¬
times known to eat her own young the moment {he has
produeed them.
Inftances of fuch conduft in the female cat are, how¬
ever, very rare, and few mothers exhibit more tender-
nefs or greater attachment to their young. The afli-
duity with which {he attends them, and the pleafure
{he feems to take in witneffmg their playful tricks, are
extremely amufing. She has alfo been known, not
only to fuckle kittens belonging to other cats, but even
the young of fuch animals as are generally objedls of
prey to her kind. A very extraordinary example of
this is recorded by Mr White, in his Natural Hiftory
of Selborne, in a cat belonging to a friend of his.
“ My friend (fays Mr White) had a little helplels
leveret brought to him, which the fervants fed with
milk from a fpoon, and about the fame time his cat
kittened, and the young were difpatched and buried.
The hare was foon loft, and was fuppofed, as with moft
foundlings, to have been killed by fome dog or cat.
However, in about a fortnight, as the mafter was fit¬
ting in his garden, in the dulk of the evening, he ob-
ferved his cat, with tail ereft, trotting towards him,
and calling with little ftiort inward notes of complacen¬
cy, fuch as they ufe towards their kittens, and fome-
thing gamboling after, which proved to be the leveret,
that the cat had fupported w ith her milk, and continued
to fupport-with great affeftion.—Thus was a grani-
vorous animal nurtured by a carnivorous and predacious
one !
“ This ftrange affeftion was probably oecafioned by
that defiderium, thofe tender maternal feelings which
the lofs of her kittens had awakened in her breaft ; and
by the complacency and eafe {he derived to herfelf from
the procuring of her teats to be drawn; w hich were
* 3 Q t0°
/
49° M A M M
Hiiiory of t©o much diftended with milk j from habit, die be-
the bpecics. camt- as much delighted with this foundling as if it had
been her offspring.
“ A boy (lays the fame gentleman) had taken three
young fquirrels in their nett. Thefe fmall creatures he
put under a cat who had lately loft her kittens, and
tinds that the nurfes and fuckles them with the fame
afliduity and affection, as if they were her own off-
fpring.
“ bo many people went to fee the little fquirrels
fuekled by a cat, that the fofter-mother became jealous
of her charge, and in pain for their fafety, and there¬
fore hid them over the ceiling, where one died. This
circumftanee fhewed her affedfion for thefe found¬
ling', and that fhe fuppofed the fquirrels to be her own
young.”
The cat is ufually ftigmatized as an ungrateful ani¬
mal, incapable of attachment to her mafter. There
are, however, not wanting inftances that (hew this cha¬
racter to be unmerited. Mr Pennant, in his hiftory of
London, tells us that Henry Wriothfley earl of South¬
ampton, the friend and companion of the earl of Elfex
in his fatal infurreftion, having been fome time con¬
fined in the Tower, was one day furprifed by a vifit from
his favourite cat, which, fays tradition, reached its
mafter by defcending the chimney of his apartment.
The following anecdote affords a ftriking example,
both of the fagacity of this animal, and of its grateful
remembrance of thofe with whom it had been ac-
cuftomed to live. A phyfician of Lyons was, in July
1800, requefted to inquire into a murder that had been
committed on a woman of that city. In confequence
of this requeft he went to the habitation of the deceaf-
ed, where he found her extended lifelefs on the floor
and weltering in her blood. A large white cat was
mounted on the cornice of a cupboard, at the far end
of the apartment, where he feemed to have taken re¬
fuge. He fat motionlefs, with his eyes fixed on the
corpfe, and his attitude and looks exprefling horror and
affright. The following morning he was found in the
fame ftation and attitude j and when the room was fill¬
ed with officers of jutlice, neither the clattering of the
foldiers arms, nor the loud converfation of the compa¬
ny, could in the lead; degree divert his attention. As
foon, however, as the fufpecled perfons were brought
in, his eyes glared with increafed fury, his hair briftltd,
he darted into the middle of the apartment, where he
gazed for a moment at them, and then retreated pre¬
cipitately under the bed. The countenances of the af-
faflins were difconcerted, and they were now, for the
firft time during the whole courfe of the horrid bufinefs,
abandoned by their atrocious audacity.
Our anceftor> feem to have had a High fenfe of the
utility of this animal. That excellent prince Howel
the Good, did not think it beneath him to include that
of the cat, and to defcribe the qualities it ought to
have. The price of a kitten before it could fee, was
to be a penny •, till it caught a moufe, 2d. ; when it
commenced moufer, 4d. It was required befides, that
it flrould be perfeft in its fenfes of hearing and feeing,
be a good moufer, have the claws whole, and be a good
nude 5 but if it failed in any of thefe qualities, the
feller was to forfeit to the buyer the third part of its
value. If any one ftole or killed the cat that guarded
the prince’s granary, he was to forfeit a milch ewe, its
4
ALIA. Part II,
fleece and lamb, or as much wheat as, when poured on tei*.
the cat fufpended by its tail, would form a heap high
enough to cover the tip of the former. This is an evi¬
dence of the fimplicity of ancient manners j and it al-
mofl proves to a demonftration that cats are not abori¬
gines of thefe iflands, or known to the eariitfl inhabi¬
tants. The large price fet on them, and the great care
taken of the improvtimnt and breed of an animal that
multiplies fo faft, are almoft certain proofs of their be¬
ing little known at that period.
A beautiful variety of the cat, the Cat of Angara, is
defcribed in an interefling manner by M. Sonnrni in
his Travels in Egypt, vol, i.
82
Genus 17. Viverra. Weasels. viv«ra.
Six fharp cutting teeth ; canine teeth longer than the
former. Tongue fmooth in fome ipecres j in others
furniflred with revelled prickles. Body of a length¬
ened form.
The laft circumftance mentioned in the generic cha¬
racter is one of the principal charaCteriflics of this tribe,
molt of the fpecies being remarkable for the length and
flendernefs of their form. The vifage is uiually lharp,
the feet flrort, and the tail in molt ipecies long. Ma¬
ny of the fpecies are notorious for a molt abominable
odour, with which they are capable of annoying their
enemies, when attacked or ditlurbed. If the accounts
given of this odious vapour are not aggravated by the
abhorrent recolleCfion of thofe who have experienced
its effefts, every other ill fmell which nature can pro¬
duce, is furpaffed by the overpowering feetor of thefe ex¬
traordinary quadrupeds. In confequence of this dread¬
ful emanation, the dogs are laid to relinquiffi the pur-
fuit, and the men to fly with precipitation from the
tainted fpot; but if unfortunately the leaft particle of
the fluid, which the animal commonly difehavges at this
junCfure, fliould happen to light on the clothes of the
hunter, he becomes a general nuifance wherever he ap¬
pears, and is obliged to diveft himfelf of his drefs, and
praCtife all the arts of ablution, in order to be reftored
to the fociety of mankind. They are generally harm-
lefs animals, live on rabbits, birds, and vermin, and
many of them are extremely ufeful in deftroying rats
and mice, and catching rabbits. The fkins of many
of the fpecies form a valuable article of the fur trade.
There are about 43 fpecies that have been diltin-
guilhed by fpecific charaCfers.
1. V. Ichneumon, Ichneumon. Gray, with diftant
thumbs, and tail tapering gradually from a thick
bafe, and tufted at the end.—2. V. Cafra, Caffra-
rian W. Yellowilh brown, with tail gradually ta¬
pering from a thick bafe, and black at the tip.—
3. V. Zenik, Zenik. Gray, four-toed, with 10 tranf-
verfe black bands, and deep chefnut-coloured tail, black
at the tip.—4. V. Surika-tta, Surikate. Gray brown,
with long moveable fnout, four-toed feet, and rufty
black-tipped tail.—5. V. Nafua, Coatimondi. Reddifli,
tail marked with white rings, and a lengthened move-
able fnout.-—6. V. Vulpecula, Coeffe. Dark chef-
nut, with lengthened inout.—7. V. Striata, Striated W.
Blackilh, with five parallel white ftripes on the back.
—8. V. Conepati, Conepati. Blackifh, with two white
lines on the back extending to the tail.—9. V. Mephu
ticay Mephitic W. or Chinche. Brown, with white
back,
hap. HI-
Terre, back, marked with a longitudinal black ftripe.— I a.
  if' Ckingc, Chinge. Biack, with a changeable caft
of blue, and a row of white fpots from head to tail.
  j x. V. Zon/la, Zorilla. Variegated black and
 12. V. Mapunto, Mapurito. Black, with
white band from the forehead to the middle of the
back, and no external ears.—13. V. Viltata, Grifon.
Blackhh, with a broad white band from the forehead
to each (boulder. 14. V. ^uq/ke, Quafge. Cheihut,
yellowifh beneath, with lengthened moveable fnout,
and ring-marked tail.—15. V. Zeylanica, Ceylonefe W.
Alh, mixed with gray, whitifh beneath.—16. V. Ca-
penjis, Cape W. Black, with gray back, edged with
white. 17. V. Mel/ivora, Honey W. Back alh, with
a black lateral band *, belly black ; claws long.—18.
V. Civetta, Civet. A(h-coloured, fpotted with black,
with chefnut-coloured mane, and dulky fpotted tail.
 19. V. Zibetha, Zibet. A(h gray, waved with
black and ring-marked tail.—20. V. Hcrmaphrodita,
Three-ftriped W. Dark gray, with long black-tipped
tail, and three black (tripes on the back.—21. V. Ge-
nettn, Genet. Fulvous gray j body fpotted with
black, and ring marked tail.—22. V. Fqfa, Fqffane.
A(li-coloured, fpotted with black, and ring-marked tail.
—23. V. Caudivolula, Prehen file W. Yellow, (haded
with dulky, and prehenfile tail.—24. V. Fa/ciata, Faf-
ciated W. Gray, with fix longitudinal black bands.—
25. V. Ma/aceenjis, Malacca W. Gray, with longi¬
tudinal black (tripes on the neck and rump, and round
black fpots on the fides. 26. V. Tigrina, Tigerine W.
Yellowifh gray, with brown variegations, ring-marked
black-tipped tail, and a black (tripe along the back.
 27. * V. Fofna, Marten. Blackilh fulvous, with
white throat.— 28 * FI Mflr/e.r, Pine Marten. Black-
ifh fulvous, with yellow throat.—.29. F. Zibelhnay
Sable. Blackidi fulvous, with gray throat.—30.
V. Pifcator, Fiftier W. Back, belly, feet, and tail
black •, fides brown, and face fubcinereous, with black
nofe.—3 x. * V. Piitorius, Pole-cat. BlackHh taw-
ney, with whitith muzzle and ears.—32. V. Furo, Fer¬
ret, Yellow, with red eyes.—33. * V. Vulgaris,
Common W. Pale-reddiflr brown, white beneath.—
34. * V. Ermima, Stoat. i ip of the tail black.
—33. V. Ga.'era, Galera. Entirely brown.—36. V.
Barbara, Guiana W. Black, with a white trilobate
fpot below the throat.—37. F. ^uadricolor, White¬
cheeked W. Yellow, cinereous, wi:h black head,
legs, and tail, bright-yelhfw throat, and white checks
and chin.-—38. V. Canadenjis, Pezan. Elackifli ful¬
vous, with white peftoral fpot.—39. V, Sarmatia, Sar-
matian W. Variegated above with brown and yel¬
low,—40. V. Sibirica, Siberian W. Fulvous, with
extremely hairy feet.—41. V. Touan, douan. Fer¬
ruginous, white beneath, with the tail naked towards
the tip.—42. Quiqui, Quiqui. Brown, with wedge-
thaped fnout.—43. V. Cuja, Cuja. Black, with turn-
ed-up fnout.—The following are enumerated by Dr
Shaw, without chara&er, viz. 44. Gray-headed W.
—43. South American W.—46. Woody W.•—47*
5^ Muiky W. and, 48. Slender-toed W.
uhneumcn. F. Ichneumon, the Ichneumon.—Of this fpecies
there are two diifinft varieties found in different coun¬
tries, varying chiefly as to fize, the larger being com¬
monly about 40 inches from the nofe to the tip of the tad,
while the leffer fcarcely exceeds two-thirds of that length.
491
The greater variety has alfo the tail (lightly tufted at ^'^or
the end. In other refpefts they bear a near retcm *•
blance to each other. They are commonly of a pale
reddifli gray colour, each hair being mottled with
brown, fo as to make the wdiole body appear fpcckled.
The eyes are of a bright red or flame colour 3 the ears
rounded and almoft naked •, the nofe long and (lender,
and the body rather thicker than in moft other fpecie*
of this genus. The tail is very thick at the bafe, and
the hair on the whole animal is hard and coarfe.
The larger ichneumon is found chiefly in Egypt,
and in fome other parts of Africa •, the fmaller feems
confined to the Eaft Indies. In their wild (late thefe
animals frequent the banks of rivers, and, during
floods, approach the higheft grounds and inhabited
places in quell of prey. 1 hey are faid to fwim and
dive occafionally, and are able to continue under water
for a eonfiderable time. T he voice of the ichneumon
is very foft, refembling a murmur •, but it is faid never
to exert it unlefs (Iruck or irritated. When going to
deep, it rolls itfelf up like a ball, and is not eafily
awakened.
Both varieties, but efpecially the Egyptian, are great
enemies to ferpents, rats, and other noxious animals 5
and the Indian variety attacks with great eagernefs that
dreadful fnake, the cobra-dt-capelio. Hence they are
held in great efteem both by the Egyptians and the
natives of India, and are kept like our dogs and cats as
domeftic animals. It is eafily tamed, is very a£bve,
and fprings with great agility on its prey. It will glide
along the ground like a ferpent, and feem as if without
feet. It fits up like a (quirrel, and eats with its fore
feet •, catches any thing that is flung to it. It is a great
enemy to poultry, and will feign itfelf dead till they
come within its reach. It is faid to be extremely Ikil-
ful in feizing the ferpents by the throat, in fuch a man¬
ner as to avoid receiving any injury. Lucan has beau¬
tifully defcrihed the fame addrefs of this animal in con¬
quering the Egyptian afp.
M. d’Obfonville had an ichneumon very young,
which he brought up •, he fed it at firft with milk, and
afterwards with baked meat mixed with rice. It foon
became tamer even than a cat j for it came when call¬
ed, and followed him, though at liberty, into the
country. One day he brought to the animal a fmall
water ferpent alive, being dtfirous to know how far
his inflindl would carry him againil a being with which
he had been hitherto unacquainted. His firft emotion
feemed to be allonilhment mixed with anger, for his
hair became ereft •, but an inflant after, he flipped be¬
hind the reptile, and with a remarkable fwiftnefs and
agility leaped upon its head, (tized it, ar d crufhed it
between his teeth. This effay, and new aliment, feem¬
ed to have awakened in him his innate and deftru&ive
voracity, which till then had given way to the gentle-
nefs he had acquired from his education. M. d’Ob¬
fonville had about the houfe feveral curious kinds of
fowl-, among which the ichneumon had been brought
up, and which before the above adventure he had fuf-
fered to go and come unmolefled and unregarded •, but
in a few days after, when he found hirriieif alone, he
flrangled every one of them, ate a little, and, as appear¬
ed, had drunk the blood of two.
The ichneumon is faid to be (hurt-lived, but grows
very rapidly. They have been brought into our cli-
3 Q, 2 mates 5
M A M M A L I A.
492
Hiftory of
the Species.
. 84
Civet.
Fi,?. 36.
.8S
Toina,
Marten
Fig- 37-
males^ but cannot, without great difFiculty, be either
^ rearea or preferved, i hey appear much incommoded
by fi oft y weather, and loon fall vi<Siims to the change
of climate.
18. / . Civetta, Civet, ox Civet Cat.—This animal is
about two feet long from nofe to tail, and the tail mea-
fures aoout 14 inches. I ne ground colour of the body
is a yellowilh gray, marked with large blackiih or
dufky fpots, difpofed in longitudinal rows on each fide,
and iometimes intermixed with a tinge of rufty colour.
I he hair is coarfe, and Hands up along the top of the
back like a fort of mane j the ears are Ihort and round¬
ed j the eyes of a bright Iky blue j the tip of the nofe,
fides of the face, chin, bread, lips, and feet, are black j
the remainder of the face and part of the fides of the
neck of a yellowifh white ; and from each ear there are
three black ftripes terminating at the throat and flioul-
ders. The tail is generally black, but is fometimes
marked with pale fpots near its bale. At a little dif-
tance below the tail there is a large, double, glandulat
receptacle, which contains the fecretion called civet,
employed as a perfume. See Civet.
This animal is found in feveral parts of Africa and
India. It is of a wild difpofition, living, like mold: of
its kind, on birds and the fmaller quadrupeds. It is
laid to be very voracious, and will fometimes roll itfelf
for fome time on its food before it eats it. It is very
deftrutlive to poultry, which it feizes whenever it can
ileal into a farm yard. It is very prolific, aftive, and
nimble, jumping like a cat, and running very nimbly.
Its voire is ftronger than that of a cat, and fome what
refembles the cry of an enraged dog. It is capable of
being tamed, and is ufually kept by perfumers at Am-
iterdam and fome other places for the fake of the
civet.
Thefe animals, in a fiate of confinement, are placed,
from time to time, in flrong wooden cages or recepta¬
cles^ fo conftru&ed as to prevent the creature from
turning round, and biting the perfon employed in col¬
lecting the civet: this operation is faid to be performed
twice a week, and is done by fcraping out the civet
with a fmall ipoon. The quantity ufually colle&ed at
each time amounts to about a dram.
27. F. Foina, the Marten This is an animal of a
very elegant appearance. It is about 18 inches long
from nofe to tail, and its tail is about 10 inches. It is
of a blackilh tawney colour, with a white throat, and a
dulky brown belly. The tail is bufhy, and darker than
the reft of the body j the ears are pretty large and
rounded, and the eyes are very lively.
It is found in moft parts of Europe, and is not un¬
common in Britain. It inhabits woods and fields, and
preys on birds and other fmall animals. It breeds in
the hollows of trees, and brings forth from three to five
young at a birth.
The marten attacks pheafants when at rooft, and
makes great havock among them. For this reafon
game-keepers are careful to fet traps for them, which
are baited wfith a piece of pheafant or wood-pigeon.
Mr Daniel recommends the following mode of catching
them, in parks or places that are paled in. As they
conftantly run to the pales and polls to dry themfelves
in the morning, have a groove cut in fome of the polls
or gate-poits where they run, lufficient to contain a
MAMMALIA. Partr
ftrong hawk or rat trap; the trap mull be fet in this Fer*
groove without a bait ; in leaping upon the place they  r-
are fure to be taken ; a fmall chain Ihould be fixed to
the trap and faftened to the poll. The Ikin of the mar¬
ten affords a valuable fur.
29* V.Zibe/hna, the Sable.— I his animal is very fi- Zibelii!it
milar in its general appearance to the marten, but its Sable."
fur is finei, and of a deep gloffy brown ; the hair beinc
afh-coloured at the root, and black at the tips. The
tail is alfo much lliorter than in the marten.
It inhabits the northern parts of Afia, where it lives
in holes under ground, efpecially below the roots of
trees. In manners and difpofition it greatly refembles
the marten.
I he Ikins of fables form one of the moft valuable ar¬
ticles of the fur trade ; and for tliele the animals are
hunted with great eagernefs.
The hunting is ufually carried on by criminals con¬
fined to the defert regions of Siberia, or by foldiers fent
thither for that purpofe, who generally remain there for
feveral years. Both are obliged to furnifti a certain
quantity of furs. _ They {hoot with a fingle ball, to in¬
jure the Ikin as little as poffible. Ihey frequently take
them in traps, or kill them with blunt arrows. As an
encouragement to the hunters, they are allowed to {hare
among themfelves whatever {kins they take above the
allotted number ; and this, in a few years, amounts to
a confiderable premium.—The hunters form themfelves
into fmall troops, each of which is dire&ed by a leader
of their owm choofing.
The feafon of hunting is from November to Febru¬
ary ; for at that time the fables are in the higheft per-
fedlion. Thofe caught at any other time of the year
are full of {hort hairs, and are fold at inferior prices,
ihe belt {kins are fuch as have only long hair, which
is always black, amd of a gloffy brightnefs. Old furs
do not retain their glofs.—Both the Ruffians and Chi-
nefe have a method of dyeing their furs ; but the dyed
fables are eafily difcovered, having neither the linooth-
nefs nor the brightnefs of the natural hair. St
29. V. Put or ms, the Polecat, Fitchet, or Foumart. P^Lj
— 1 he length of this animal is about 17 inches, exclu-Polecat,
five of the tail; that of the tail fix. Its Ihape is longor i''ouma
and {lender ; the nofe ikarp-pointed, and the legs {hort :
in fine, admirably formed for infinuating itfelf into the
fmalleft holes and paffages, in fearch of prey. It is
very nimble and aftive, runs very fall, will creep up
the fides of walls with greA agility, and fpring with
vaft force. In running, the belly feems to touch the
ground ; in preparing to jump, it arches its back, which
aflifts it greatly in that action. The ears are {hort,
rounded, and tipt with white ; the circumference of the
mouth is wholly of a chocolate colour, almoft black.
The fides are covered with hairs of two colours, the
ends of which are of a blackiih hue, like the other
parts; the middle of a full tawney colour.
The toes are long, and feparated to the very origin ;
the tail is covered with pretty long hair.
Ihe polecat is very deftrudlive to young game of all
kinds, and to poultry : it generally refides in woods,
or thick brakes, burrowing under ground, forming a
{hallow retreat, about two yards in length, which com-
monly ends, for its lecurity, among the roots of fome
large trees. It will fometimes lodge under hay ricks,
and
(lap. III. ' • M A M M
r®. and in barns ; in the winter it frequents houfes, and
^ makes a common practice of robbing the dairy of the
milk. It alfo makes great havock in warrens.
Though the fmell of the polecat, when alive, is rank
and difagreeable, even to a proverb, yet the {kin is
. dreffed with the hair on, and ufed as other furs for tip¬
pets, &c. and is alfo fent abroad to line clothes.
Mr Bewick mentions an extraordinary method which
this animal fometimes praftifes to procure itfelf fubfift-
ence. During a fevere ftorm, one of thefe animals was
traced in the fnow from the fide of a rivulet to its hole,
at fome diftance from it. As it was obferved to have
made frequent trips, and as other marks were to be feen
in the fnow which could not be eafily accounted for, it
was thought a matter worthy of greater attention. Its
hole was accordingly examined, the foumart taken, and
x i fine eels were difcovered to be the fruits of its noc¬
turnal excurfions. The marks in the fnow were found
to have been made by the motion of the eels in the
eg creature’s mouth.
I,. Fer- 30. F. Fwro, the Ferret.—This animal is about 14
r inches long, and its tail about five. Its nofe is {harper
1 3s- than that of the polecat •, its ears are round, eyes red
and fiery, and the colour of its whole body a very pale
yellow. It breeds twice in- the year, unlefs it devours
its offspring, as it fometimes does as foon as brought
forth ; it then has three litters. The ferret goes with
young fix weeks, and has generally fix or feven young,
which are blind for a month.
It is a native of Africa, and was originally brought
into Spain, to free that country from the multitudes of
rabbits with which it was overrun.
After two months the young are fit for fervice in
catching rabbits 5 they thould be kept in tubs, or fmall
boxes, where they can be fupplied with plenty of clean
{{raw, as they are offenfive and fmell ftrong ; before
you ufe, do not feed them, for with their bellies full
they will not hunt, but fleep in the burrows for hours.
The ferret is the natural enemy to the rabbit, infomuch,
that if a dead rabbit be laid before a ferret, it inftantly
feizes upon it, although it has never feen one before ;
if {hewn a living rabbit, the ferret is ftill more eager,
fallens on the neck, winds itfelf round and fucks the
blood until fatiated. The ferret, however, is apt to
lofe its favage nature, unlefs the breed is croffed with
the polecat, which the warreners frequently do, and
the produce is of a much darker colour, partaking of
s that of the. fire.
Ygaris. 31. F. Vulgaris, Common Weafel.—This is one of
the fmalleft of the tribe j its general length being a-
bout (even inches, with a tail little more than two inches
long. It is ufually of a reddifh brown on the back,
fides, and legs, white on the throat and belly, and
below the corners of the mouth on each jaw is a fpot of
brown. The ears are fmall and rounded j the mouth
furnilhed with whifkers, and the eyes are black.
The female brings forth in the fpnng, and produces
four or five at a birth. Of thefe {lie is very careful,
and, as we are told by Aldrovandus, will carry them
about from place to place, when Hie fu!pe£ts that they
will be ftolen from her.
The food of this animal is fimilar to that of the other
fpecies, and it is very deftru6tive to young birds, poul¬
try, and rabbits. Its favourite food feems to be the
field moufe. It is alfo very fond of eggs. It is exceed-
ALIA. 493
irfgly active, and will run up the fides of walls with ^
fuch facility, that fcarcely any place is fecure from it ;the ^ecie^
and its body is fo fmall, that there are few holes through
which it cannot creep.
It is found in moft of the temperate parts of Europe,
is very common in this ifland, and is alfo occafionally
met with in Barbary. It inhabits the cavities below
the roots of trees, and the banks of rivulets, from
which it fallies out in queft of its prey.
The weafel was fuppoled by Buffon to be untame-
able ; but it appears from a communication made to
him by a lady, and publiftied in his 7th fupplemental
volume, that it may be rendered very gentle and do-
meftic. The account is very amufing, but we have not
room for it here. It is given by Dr Shaw, vol. i.
p. 521. and Mr Bingley, vol. i. p. 314.
Genus 18. LuTRA. OtTEBS. Lutra.
Teeth as in the former genus. Feet webbed.
Linnaeus formed two genera of the animals which
are ufually called weafels, viz. viverra and mujlela, in
the latter of which he comprifed the otters. Mr Pen¬
nant and Dr Shaw have united the muftelte to the vi-
verrte, and have made a new genus of the otters, to
whi;h Dr Shaw gives the name of lutra.
There are eight fpecies, viz
1. * L. Vulgaris, Common O. Brown, with naked
feet, and tail half as long as the body.—2. L. Lutreola,
Smaller O. Blackfill tawney, with hairy feet, equal
toes, Jfhd white muzzle.—3. L. Marina, Sea O. Black,
with hairy feet, and very fiiort tail.—4. L. Brajihana,
Brazilian O. Black, with yellow throat.5. L. San-
covienna, Saricovienne O Gray, {potted with black.
—6. L. Gracilis, Slender O. Brown, with extremely
{lender body.——7. Vifoni Vifon O. Body entirely
of a deep chefnut colour.— 8. L. Velina, Chinchemin O.
Of the fiiape and appearance of a cat. 0I
I. L. Vulgaris, Common O.—The ufual length of Vulgaris.
this animal is about two feet from nofe to tail, and the Common
tail is about 16 inches long. The head and nofe are^er'
broad and flat the eyes are fmall, but very brilliant, s" 39'
and are placed nearer to each other than in moft qua¬
drupeds, which gives the otter a Angular appearance,
not unlike an eel. The ears are extremely fiiort ; the
opening of the mouth final] •, the lips very mufcular,
capable of being brought very clofe together and the
nofe and corners of the mouth are furnished with long
whilkers. The legs are remarkably flrort, but very
mufcular ; and the joints are articulated foloofely, that
the animal can bring its legs on a line with its body,
and ufe them as fins for fwimming. Its fur is of a deep
brown colour.
Otters are found in moft parts of Europe, and are
met with occafionally in Britain. They inhabit the
banks of rivers, and their principal food confifts of fifh,
though they will fometimes attack poultry and the
fmalier quadrupeds. They are faid to be as deftruftive
in a ffihpond as a polecat is in a henhoufe.
The otter makes its neft in fome retired fpot, where
it can have an eafy and fecure accefs to the water, to
which it immediately flies on the leafl: alarm •, and as it
is very active, and fwims with great rapidity, it is not
eafily taken. This animal is very nice, and will eat no
fiih but fuch as are perfeclly frefti. As foon as he
catches
494 M A M M
H (lory of catches a fifli, he drags it on (here, and devours it as
t re Specie.. £ar as ven£. butunlefs extremely prelTed with hun¬
ger, he always leaves the reft. It fwims againft the
ftream in rivers, and may fometimes be feen in concert
with a companion hunting the falmon. It has been
fuppofed that the otter never goes out to fea, but this
appears to be a miftake, for they have been feen about
the Orkneys, hunting fea fifti, efpecially cod.
When taken young, the otter is eafily tamed, and
may be made to catch fifti for its matter’s ufe. The
ufual way of teaching them is, firft to make them fetch
and carry like a dog •, they have then given them a
trufs fluffed with wool, in the fhape of a fifti, w'hich
they art accuftomed to take in their mouths, and drop
at command. From this they proceed to real fifti,
w'hich are thrown dead into the water, whence they
are taught to fetch it; and thus by degrees they are
made to catch living fifli. Mr Bewick informs us that
a man near Wooler had a tame otter, which followed
him wherever he went. He frequently carried it to
fifli in the river, and, when fatiated, it never failed re¬
turning to its matter. One day, in the abfence of his
matter, being taken out by his fon to fifli, inftead of
returning as ufual, it refufed to come at the accuttomed
call, and was loft. The father tried every means to re¬
cover it j and after feveral days fearch, being near the
place where his fon had loft it, and calling it by its
name, to his inexpreflible joy it came creeping to his
feet, and ftiewed many marks of affe&ion and firm at¬
tachment. Its food, exclufive of filh, confifted chiefly
of milk and hafty pudding.
Some years ago, one James Campbell, near Inver-
nefs, had a young otter, which he brought up and
tamed. It would follow him wherever he chofe, and
if called on by its name, rvould immediately obey.
When apprehenfive of danger from dogs, it fought the
prote&ion of its mailer, and would endeavour to fly in¬
to his arms for greater fecurity. It was frequently em¬
ployed in catching fifti, and would fometimes take eight
or ten falmons in a day. If not prevented, it always
made an attempt to break the fifti behind the fin next
to the tail j and as foon as one was taken away, it im¬
mediately dived in purfuit of more. When tired, it
would refufe to fifti any longer, and was then rewarded
"with as much fifti as it could devour. Being fatisfied
with eating, it always curled itfelf round, and fell
afleep, in which ftate it was carried home. The fame
otter fiftied as well in the fea as in the river, and took
great numbers of codlings and other fifti. Its food was
generally frelh fifti, and fometimes milk. What is ftill
more extraordinary, the otter has been made to hunt
fifti along with dogs, who never gave him the fmall-
eft moleftation, though accuftomed to hunt other ot¬
ters.
The flefti of the otter is rank and difagreeable, and
partakes fo much of the nature of fifti, that by the Ro¬
man Catholic religion it is allowed to be eaten on fall
days ; and Mr Pennant tells us, that he faw in the
kitchen of the Carthufian convent, near Dijon, an ot¬
ter preparing for the dinner of that religious order, who
by their rules are prohibited during their whole lives
the eating of flelh,
I he fea otter is chiefly valuable on account of its fur,
which is thick and long, generally of a ftiining black
dolour, but fometimes of a filvery hue. It is hunted
Urfus.
Xj I .A. • Pjirt I
for its furs in Kamtfchatka, and the oppofite coafts of Feral'
America. —v,
Genus 19. Ursus. Bears.
Six front teeth in both jaws ; the two lateral of the
lower jaw longer than the reft, and lobed, with fmall-
er or fecondary teeth at their inner bales. Canine
teeth folitary. Grinders five or fix on each fide, the
firft very near the canine teeth. Tongue fmooth.
Snout prominent. Eyes furnillied with a nictitating
membrane.
The individuals of this fpecies have not many circum*
ftances in common, except thofe me ntioned in the gene¬
ric character. The foies of their feet are long, and
extend to the heel, from which circumftance they tread
very firmly. Their claws are long and lharp, and they
are thus enabled to climb trees w ith great dexterity, ei-
their in fearch of prey, or toefcape from their enemies.
Some of the fpecies ufe their fore paws as hands.
There are about nine fpecies, which are thus diftin-
guilhed.
1. U. v4r&os, Brorvn Bear. Blackilh brown, with
abrupt tail.—2. 17. Americanus, American B. Black,
with rufty cheeks and throat.—3. U. Maritimus, White
or Polar Bear. White, with elongated neck and
head, and abrupt tail.—4 U. Gn/o, Glutton. Reddilh
brown, with tail of the fame colour, and the middle
of the back black.—5. U. Lujcus, Wolverine. Rufty,
with dulky fnout, and forehead and lateral band of
the body whitilh.— 6. U. Lotor, Racoon, Tail ring-
marked, and a black band acrofs the eyes.—7. U,
Me/es, Badger. Tail unmarked; body gray above,
black below, and a longitudinal black band through
the eyes and head.—8. U. Labradonus, American Bad¬
ger. Pale yellowilh gray, with the throat and belly
white, and head ftriped with black.—9. U. lndicusy
Indian Badger. White above, black beneath.
I. C/r/ior 4r<5?0.r, Common or Brown Bear.—There is
a confiderable variety of colour in different individuals c'orrino
of this fpecies, according to the climate it inhabits. ?ear‘
1 he prevailing colour is a blackifh brown, but they are ^
fometimes feen gray, or even quite white. His general
appearance is very clumfy ; his body thick, legs very
ftrong, head round, neck Ihort, and he is covered with
a very long thick fur.
He is a native of almoft all the northern parts of
Europe and Afia, and is faid to be found in fume of the
Indian iftands, efpecially Ceylon. He inhabits woods
and usfrequented forefts, where he paffes the greateft
part of winter in a ftate of repofe and abftinence, com¬
ing out only at diftant intervals, and again concealing
himfelf till the approach of fpring. He lives chiefly on
vegetables, fuch as roots and fruits; but when preffed
by hunger, he becomes fierce and ravenous, and will
attack animals of almoft every defeription. He is fatd
to be particularly fond of honey, in fearch of which he
climbs trees, in order to get at the nefts of wild bees.
He will catch and devour fiih, and occafionally frequents
the banks of rivers for that purpofe. It is obierved that
the brown and black varieties differ fomewhat in their
choice of food, the former living almoft entirely oa ve¬
getables, while the latter frequently attack cattle,
lamb-, and kids, the blood of which they luck, like
many of the cat and weafel tribe.
The
HI. M A M M
The females bring forth two young at a birth. It
was formerly fuppofed that thefe cubs were nearly Ihape-
lei's maffes, that were gradually licked and falhioned
into fhape by the parent, whence the ex predion of an
unlicked cub, for an awkward ill-manner’d booby. This
has long been proved to be a vulgar error. Though
not lhaptlefs, the cubs are, however, ufually blind for
about a month. The bear is an animal that is extreme¬
ly ufeful to the inhabitants of the north of Europe •, his
fleih is nearly as good as pork, and makes excellent
bacon. His fkin is ufed for muffs, tippets, and other
articles of drefs, and the fat is held in great eftimation
by the inhabitants of Kamtfchatka as a very favoury
and wholefome nourith merit.
When tamed, it appears mild and obedient to its
mafter, but is not to be trufled without the utmoft cau¬
tion.—It may be taught to walk upright, to dance, to
lay hold of a pole with its paws, and perform various
tricks to entertain the multitude, who are highly plea-
fed to fee the awkward meafures of this rugged crea¬
ture, which it feems to fuit to the found of an inftru-
ment, or to the voice of its leader. But to give the bear
this kind of education, it muft be taken when young,
and early accutlomed to reftraint and difcipline. An
old bear will fuffer neither, without difcovering the
mod furious refentment •, neither the voice nor menace
of his keeper has any effeft upon him ; he equally
growls at the hand that is held out to feed, as at that
which is raifed to corretT him.
The exceffive cruelties pra&ifed upon this poor ani¬
mal, in teaching it to walk ereft, and regulate its mo¬
tions to the found of the flageolet, are fuch as make
fenfibility fhudder. Its eyes are put out, and an iron
ring being put through the cartilage of the nole, to
lead it by, it is kept from food, and beaten, till it yield
obedience to the will of its favage leaders. Some of
them are taught to perform by fetting their feet upon
hot iron plates, and then playing to them whilft in this
uneafy fixation. It is truly (hocking to every feeling
mind, to reflect that fuch cruelties fhould be exercifed
upon any part of the brute creation by our fellow men.
That they fhould be rewarded by numbers of unthink¬
ing people, who crowd around them to fee the animal’s
rude attempts to imitate human aftions, is not to be
wondered at •, but it is much to be wiflied, that the
timely interference of the magiftrate would prevent
every exhibition of this kind, that, in Britain at leaf!,
we might not be reproached with tolerating praftices fo
difgraceful to humanity.
One of thefe animals, prefented to the prince of
Wales a few years ago, was kept in the Tower. By
the carelefsnefs of the fervant, the door of his den was
left open, and the keeper’s wife happening to go acrofs
the court at the fame time, the animal flew out, feized
the woman, threw her down, and faiftened upon her
neck, which he bit, and without offering any farther
violence, lay upon her, fucking the blood out of the
wound. Refiftance was in vain, as it only ferved to
irritate the brute, and (he muft inevitably have perifhed,
had not her hufband luckily difcovered her fituation.
By a hidden blow he obliged the bear to quit his hold,
and retire to his den, which he did with great reluc¬
tance, and not without making a fecond attempt to come
at the woman, who was almoft dead through fear and
Ms of blood. It is fomewhat remarkable, that when*
ALIA, 495
ever it happened to fee her afterwards, it always growl- Hidoryof^
ed, and made moft violent ftruggles to get out to her.1 e ^cct \
The prince, upon hearing of the circuriiftance, ordered
the bear to be killed.
A few years ago, a man exhibited at Edinburgh a
bear, which it was difcovered he chiefly fed with dead
bodies taken from the burying-grounds. On complaint
being made to the magiftrates, they ordered the bear
to be (hot. What punifhment was infli&ed on the man
we do not recoiled!. _ 94
3. U. Maritimus, the White or Polar Bear.—ThxsMatitmt.
fpecies is confiderably larger and longer than the com-^l.r Hea
mon bear, having been fometimes found 12 feet in *^’4
length. It is exceedingly ftrong and fierce, and its
body is covered with a very long, thick, white fur. It
inhabits the coldeft regions of the north, and is fome¬
times carried on floating ice as far to the fouthward as
Newfoundland. In winter it buiies itfelf in the lnowr,
where it lies in a torpid ftate ; but in fummer it takes
up its refidence in the cliffs and caverns of the nume¬
rous ice iflands that are found in thofe high latitudes.
Here it brings forth its young, ufually one or two at a
birth. The parent is exceedingly tender and affeftion-
ate to her young, of which the following anecdote af¬
fords a ftriking and interefting example.
While the Carcafe frigate, which went out fome
years ago to make difcoveries towards the north pole,
was locked in the ice, early one morning the man at the
maft head gave notice that three bears were making
their way very faft over the frozen ocean, and were
dire&ing their courfe towards the (hip. They had, no
doubt, been invited by the fcent of fome blubber of a
fea-horfe that the crew had killed a few days before,
which had been fet on fire, and drew out of the flames
a part of the flefh of the fea-horfe that remained uncon-
fumed, and ate it voracioufly. The crew from the fhip
threw great lumps of the flefh of the fea-horfe, which
they had ftill left, upon the ice, which the old bear fetched
fingly, laid every lump before her cubs as fhe brought
it, and dividing it, gave to each a {hare, referving but
a fmjll portion to herfelf. As fhe was fetching away
the laft piece, they levelled their mufkets at the cubs,
and (hot them both dead, and in her retreat they wound¬
ed the dam, but not mortally. It would have drawn
tears of pity from any but unfeeling minds, to have mark¬
ed the affe&ionate concern expreffed by this poor beaft
in the dying moments of her expiring young. I hough
fhe was herfelf dreadfully wounded, and could but juft
crawl to the place where they lay, ftie carried the lump
of flefh fhe had fetched away, as fhe had done others
before ; tore it in pieces, and laid it before them j and
when fhe faw that they refufed to eat, (belaid her paws
firft upon one, and then upon the other, and endeavoured
to raife them up : all this while it was pitiful to hear
her moan. When fhe found fhe could not ftir them,
fhe went off, and when (lie had got at fome diftance,
looked back and moaned 5 and that not availing her to
entice them away, fhe returned, and fmelling round
them, began to lick their wounds. She went off a
fecond time as before, and having crawled a few paces,
looked again behind her, and for fome time flood moan¬
ing. But ftill, her cubs not rifing to follow her, fhe
returned to them again, and with figns of inexpreflible
fondnefs went round one, and round the other, pawing
them, and moaning. Finding at laft that they were
cold!
496
96
JVLeles,
Badger.
Fig. 42.
Hiftory of cold and Ht.elefs, die raifed Kcr head towards the (hip,
. e-‘lfa£S'and uttered a growl of defpair, which the murderers
returned with a volley of mulket balls. She fell between
her cubs, and died licking their wounds.
The polar bear lives chiefly on fifli, but fometimes
attacks the feals. He in his turn becomes a prey to the
inhabitants of the ardflic regions, who eat the flefli,
though it is very coarfe, and ufe the Ikin for coverings
9- of various kinds.
I Atfcm, _ 5- ^ Ltifcus, Wolverine.—This, by moft naturalifts,
Wolverine, is confldered only as a variety of the glutton. It is a
large animal, almoft equalling the wolf in fize. It is
pretty common in the northern parts of North America,
where it burrows under ground. It is a beaft of prey,
living on deer and fimilar animals. Though its pace
is very flow, it has a very acute feent, is extremely
ftrong, and poflefled of great fagacity. It is faid to be fo
fierce as to be a terror even to the wolves and bears j
and its flrength is fo great, that it has been known to
pull down a pile of immenfe logs of wood, in order to
get at fome provifions that had been hidden there,
though fome of the logs were as much as two men
could carry. It is a great enemy to badgers and foxes.
It is hunted in North America for the fake of its
Ikin.
7- U. Meles, The Badg er.—This is an animal of a
very clumfy make, being thick-necked and thick-bo¬
died, with very ftiort legs. His ufual length from
nofe to tail is about two feet and a half, and the tail
itfelf feldom exceeds fix inches. His eyes are very
fmall, ears fhort and rounded. The body is covered
with long coarfe hairs like briftles, that are of a dirty
yellowifh white next the root, black in the middle, and
gray at the tips. The badger differs from moft other
animals in having his back-of a lighter colour than
his belly. He is exceedingly ftrong, efpecially about
the legs and feet, which are formed for burrowing in
the earth.
This animal is found in all the temperate parts of
Europe and of Alia. It makes its habitation below
ground, and is a very cleanly animal, fo that when his
retreat is defiled by any other animal, as the fox, he
quits it for another. It feldom leaves its hole during
the day, feeding only by night. Its principal food ap¬
pears to confift of the fmaller quadrupeds, as rabbits,
birds, &c. though Mr Pennant will fcarcely allow it
to be a carnivorous animal. It is alfo faid to be very
fond of honey. It fleeps much d,uring winter, con¬
fining itfelf like the bear, in a half torpid ftate.
The female brings forth three or four young, in the
early part of fummer.
Badgers were formerly diftinguifhed into finv bad¬
gers and dog badgers, from the fuppofed refemblance
of their heads to thofe animals, though we do not
know of any with a head like that of fwine, its ufual
appearance being that of the dog.
No animal has fuffered more from vulgar prejudices
than the badger : harmlefs in his nature, he feems to
have had the ebarafter of ferocity given him, merely
becaufe he is a beaft of great ftrength, and is furnifhed
with ftrong teeth, as if formed to live by rapine ; he is,
however, found to be an animal perfectly inoffenfive.
Nature has denied the badger the fpeed* requifite to
efcape its enemies, but has fupplied it with fueh wea¬
pons of offence that fcarcely any creature will attack j
M A M M A L I A. . part]
few animals defend themfelves better, or bite harder, Fere
when purfued j it foon comes to bay, and fights with
great obftinacy ; the badger is very tenacious of life,
yet a fmall blow on the fnout is mortal both to him and
the otter. It is hunted with terriers, and its obftinate
defence affords great diverfion to thofe human brutes
who are capable of finding pleafure in the torments of
a harmlefs, inoffenfive creature.
Its fkin is ufed for piftol furniture, when dreffed with
the hair on ■, the hairs are made into bruthes that are
ufed by painters to foften their ftiades, and the fleih is
faid to make excellent bacon.
Genus 20. Didelphis. Opossums.
Front teeth imall and rounded ; fuperior 10, the two
middle ones longer ; inferior eight, the two middle
ones broader and very ftiort ; canine teeth long ;
grinders denticulated ; tongue ciliated with papilla;;
abdominal pouch (in moft; fpecies) containing the
teats.
I his curious tribe of animals firft became known to
naturalifts on the difeovery of America, where only,
moft of the fpecies are met with. They are principally
diftinguifhed by the extraordinary contrivance which
nature has adopted for enabling moft of the genus to
fecure their young, and which confifts of a pouch or
bag formed by a fold of the fkin of the belly. Into
this the young are received foon after birth, and are
there fuckled at teats within the bag, till they are able
to fhift for themfelves. In fome of thefe there are two
or three diftinct cavities that can be opened or fliut at
pleafure, by means of bones with which they are pro¬
vided for that purpofe. Some of the fpecies carry
their young on their backs, covering them with their
tail.
Ihis is a numerous genus, comprehending about rp
fpecies.
1. D. Virgwiana, Virginian O. Yellowifh gray,
w ith naked tail, and black, naked, rounded ears, edged
with white.-—2. D. Marfupialis, Molucca O. Brown,
with naked tail.—3. D. Coyopollin, Mexican O.
Brown, with tail longer than the body, and the eyes
furrounded with a blackifti border.—-4. D. Brachyura,
Short-tailed O. With hairy tail ; very fhort, naked
ears, reddlfh body, and no pouch.—5. D. Brunii, Ja¬
van O. Short naked tail, and long three-toed hind
feet.—6. D. Orienta/is, Phalanger. Rufty white be¬
neath, with blackifh dorfal line ; tail of the length of
the body, and hairy almoft to the middle, and the two
middle toes of the hind feet united.—7. D. Cancrivora,
Cayenne O. Nearly naked 5 fcaly tail almoft the
length of the body, and the nail of the thumbs flat.—-
8. D. Phi/ander, Philander. The tail hairy at the
bale, and with four teats in the abdominal pouch. 
9. D. Murina, Murine O. Tail half naked, and fix
teats.—10. D. Dorjigera, Merian O. Tail naked,
hairy at the bafe, anf the fore feet without claws.—
11. Z). Lemunna, Lemurine O. Afh-coloured, tawney
beneath, with cylindric, black, furry, prehenfile tail.—
12. D. Obefulo, Porcupine O. Subferruginous, whitifh
beneath, with longifh tail ; the fore feet five-toed,
with fmall exterior claws j the hind feet four-toed, with
two interior toes united.—13. D. Petaurus, Petaurine
O. Blackifh-gray, tinged with ferruginous j whitifh
beneath
TV,97 .
Didelphis
(sinp.
9*
P iniana.
\ jjnian
( (Turn.
1 43-
99
rfaera.
rian
offum.
;• 44-
100
lyurus.
III. M A M M
beneath, with lateral flying membrane, and long, fub-
cylindri*', very villofe tail.—15. Z). Sciurea, Squirrel
O. Pale gray, fnow-rvhite beneath, with lateral flying
membrane, and very villofe prehn nfile tail.—15. D.
Macroura, Long-tailed O. Afn coloured, whitilh be¬
neath, with lateral flying membrane, and very .long
black, tail.—16. D Pij^meea, Pygmv G. With lateral
flying membrane, and flatly pinnated linear tail.—17.
D. Vulpine O. Ferruginous, with black villous
tail.—iB.i). Aujlrala(iat cus. New Holland O.— 19.Z).
TJrJina, Urfine O. Yeliowiflr, wi;h cleft upper lip.
1. D. Virgi”iana, Virginian Opoffiim.—This animal
is about, the fize of a cat, but appears of a thicker form,
from the length and erect pofition of the hair. It has
an inelegant afpeft, having a long (harp face, and v£ry
wide mouth, armed with numerous (harp teeth. The
legs are fliort, and all the toes, except the thumbs of
the hind feet, are furnilhed with (harp claws. The tail
is ftrongly prehenflle, enabling the animal to fufpend
itfelf thereby.
This is one of thofe fpecies in which the abdominal
pouch is mod ftrongly marked, and into this receptacle
the female receives her young when they are in danger,
or when fatigued.
The Virginian opoffum, like all the other American
fpecies, is a carnivorous animal, and preys on poultry,
fmall birds, &c. in the manner of the European pole¬
cat j it is alfo frugivorous, eating feveral kinds of fruits,
roots, &c. It is of a gentle difpofition, and may ea-
lily be tamed ; but, like fome other fpecies, it has a
difagreeable fmell. Its voice is a fort of grunting
fqueak ; its pace in running is not fwift, but it is very
expert in climbing trees, and readily pafles, by means
of its clinging tail, from bough to bough, in the man¬
ner of a monkey. The female produces four or five at a
birth, and has the power of clofing the pouch fo ftrong¬
ly as to make it extremely difficult to open it by the
hand, nor will any torture compel the animal to loofen
it. The female, when ready to bring forth her young,
is faid to make herfelf a neft of dry grafs, in fome bulb
near the root of a tree.
10. D. Dorjigera, Merian O.—Almoft the only ac¬
count we have of this animal is given by Madame
Merian, in her work on the infefts of Surinam. Her
account is as follows. “ By way of filling up a plate, I
have reprefented a kind of wood-rat, which always car¬
ries her young ones upon her back ; (lie is of a yellow-
ifli brown colour, and white beneath. When thefe rats
come out of their hole, either to play or to feek their
food, they run about with their mother j but when they
are fatisfied with food, or are apprehenfive of danger,
they climb up again on the back of the mother, and
twift their tails round that of the parent, who runs with
them into her hole again.1,
Genus 2r. Dasyurus.
The organs of generation and abdominal pouch in the
female, as in the laft genus. Front teeth in the up¬
per jaw eight, in the lower fix. Canine teeth, two
in each jaw. Grinders 14, of which fix are (harp.
Head conical \ fnout fnrniihed with large whilkers.
Tail furniftied with long hair. Five toes on each
foot, all feparate j the thumb of the hind feet ex¬
tremely fliort.
Vol. XII. Part II.
ALIA. 497
This is a new genus, formed by Geoffrey, to com-jTftorrof
prebend f< v. ral ipecies which ar p iced, by I3r Shaw , .
under Viverra and Didelphis^ but which Geoffroy thinks
have fufficiently diitiuguithing charafttrs to be iepara-
ted from both. They are all found in New Holland,
and are herbivorous animals.
Geoffroy enumerates fix fpecies, to which he gives
the following names and charafters.
I. /). Mncrourus, Long tailed D. Chefnufc colour
fpotted with white. Tail equally fpeckled.—2. Z).
Maugei, Maugei D. Olive coloured, fpotted with
white j tail without fpots 3. D. Vivernnus, Viver-
rine D. Black, (potted with white) tail without (pots.
—4. Z). Tafa, Tafa D. Entirely brown ) tail of the
lame colour.——3. Z). Penicillatus, Brulh-tailed I). Afh-
coloured,without fpots.—6. Z). M.inirnu.s} Leaft D. En¬
tirely red ) tail of the fame colour. 101
M. Geoffroy has alfo formed a new genus, which he Peramel.es.
calls Perameles, in which he includes the didelphis obe-
fula of Shaw, and another fpecies that had not before
been defcribed. As we are not very certain of the ne-
ceflity of this new genus, wre have not included it in
the arrangement of the generic charafters ) and for a
defcription of the genus, we mull refer to Geoffroy
Memoir, in the fourth volume of Annales de Mufeutn
National, p. 56. 10a
Geoffroy calls the fpecies Perameles nafuta, and Obefula*-
P. obefula. The latter has been thus defcribed by Dr
Shaw. It is about the fize of a half-grown domeftic
rat, and is remarkable for a thicker or more corpulent
habit than moft others of the genus. The hind legs
are confiderably longer than the fore legs, and have in
miniature the form of thofe of the kanguroo, and fome
other Auftralafian quadrupeds ) though the middle
claws are far lefs in proportion *, the interior ones are
double, or both covered by a common (kin. The co¬
lour of this fpecies is a pale yellow brown, paler and
inclining to w hitilh below j and its hair is of a coarfer
or hardier appearance than in the reft of the fmall opof-
fumsj the ears are rounded, the tail rather long. When
viewed in a curfory manner, the animal bears a diftant
refemblance to a pig in miniature. 103
In Collins’s account of New South Wales, there is Wombat,
defcribed a very curious animal under the name of^S" 4^
wombat, which feems nearly allied to the opoffums, and
the other animals which we have juft mentioned. The
teeth, however, differ fo much from thofe of the three
laft genera, that it can fcarcely be ranked as a fpecies
of any of them, and perhaps it may hereafter confti-
tute a new genus. The account given in the work re¬
ferred to is as follows.
Its length, from the tip of the tail to the tip of the
nofe, is two feet feven inches, of which its body takes
upon one foot eleven inches. The head is feven inches,
and the tail five-tenths of an inch. Its circumference
behind the fore legs, 27 inches; acrofs the thickeft
part of the belly, 31 inches. Its weight by hand is
between 25 and 30 pounds. The hair is coarfe, and is
about one inch, or one and five-tenths in length, thinly
fet upon the belly, thicker on the back and head, and
thickeft upon the loins and rump 5 the colour of it a
light Tandy brown, of varying (hades, butdarkeft along
the back.
The head is large and flattifti, and, when looking
the animal full in the face, feems, excluding the ears,
4 R to
/
498
Ferte.
to form nearly an equilateral triangle, any fide of which
“ is about feven inches and five-tenths in length j but the
upper fide, or that which conftitutes the breadth of the
head, is rather the fliorteft. The hair upon the face
lies in regular order, as if it were combed, but its ends
point upwards in a kind of radii, from the nofe their
centre,
I he ears are fliarp and ereft, of two inches and
three-tenths in length, Hand well afunder, and are in
nowile ditpropo. donate. The eyes are fmall, and ra¬
ther funk than prominent, but quick and lively. They
are placed about two inches and five-tenths afunder, a
little below the centie of the imaginary triangle to¬
wards the nofe. The nice co-adaptation of their ciliary
proceiTes, which are covered with a fine hair, feems to
afford the animal an extraordinary power of excluding
whatever might be hurtful.
The nofe is large or fpreading, the noftrils large,
long, and capable of being clofed. They itand angu¬
larly wuh each other, and a channel is continued from
them towards the upper lip, which is divided like the
hare’s. rlhe wbilkers are rather thick and ftrong,
and are in length from two to three inches and a
half.
i he opening of its mouth is fmall j it contains five
long grafs-cutting teeth in the front of each jaw, like
thofe of the kanguroo 5 within them is a vacany for
an inch or more, then appear two fmall canine teeth of
equal height with, and lo much fimilar to, eight mo-
lares fituated behind, as fcarcely to be diftinguifhable
from them. The whole number in both jaws amount
to 24.
The neck is thick and fhort, and greatly reftrains
the motions of the head, which, according to the
common ex predion, looks as if it were duck upon the
fhoulders.
From the neck the back arches a little as far as the
loins, whence it goes off at a dat dope to the hinder-
mod parts, where not any tail is vifible. A tail, how¬
ever, may be found by carefully preding the finger
over the fiat Hope in a line with the back bone. After
feparating the hairs, it is den of feme half an inch in
length, a .d from three-tenths to one-tenth of an inch
in diameter, nakt d, except a few fine fhort hairs near
its end. This cuiious tail feemed to hold a much
bolder proportion in the young than in the full grown
animal.
The fore legs are very drong and mufcular : their
length, to the foie of the paw, is five inches and a half,
and the didance between them is five inches and a half.
The paws aie ded:y, round, and large, being one inch
and nine-tenths in diameter. T heir c]aws are five in
number, attached to as many diort digitations. The
three middle claws are drong, and about nine-tenths
of an inch in length } the thumb and little finger claws
are alfo drong, but fhorter ihan the others, being only
feven tenths of an inch long. The flediy root of the
thumb claw is dronger and more dexible than the others.
The fule of the paw is hard, and the upper part is co¬
vered with the common hair, down to the roots of the
claws which it overhangs. 1 he hind legs are lels drong
and mufcular than the fore ; heir length, to the foie, is
five inches and a half; the didance between, about
jeven inches and a half. The hind paw is longer than
ihe fore, but not lefs defhy j its length is two inches
M A M MALI A. Part j
and feven-tenths, in breadth two inches and three- Hiftory
fifths, i he claws are four in number j the three inner l*ie Spec!
ones are lefs drong, but about one-fifth of an inch ^
longer than the longed; of the fore claws, and there is
a Hediy fpur in the place of the thumb claw. The
whole paw has a curve, which throws its fore part ra¬
ther inward.
In fize the two fexes are nearly the fame, but the
female is perhaps rather the heavied.
In the opinion of Mr Bafs, this wombat feemed to
be very economically made ; but he thought it unne-
ceffary to give an account of its internal drudture in
his journal.
This animal has no claim to fwiftnefs, as mod men
could run it down. It pace is hobbling, like the awk¬
ward gait of a bear. It is mild and gentle, as becomes
a grak-eater ; but it bites hard, and is furious, when
provoked. Mr Bafs never heard its voice but then j it
was a low cry, between a hiding and a whizzing, which
could not be heard at a didance of above 40 yards. He
chafed one, and fuddenly lifted it off the ground with
his hands, and laid him along his arm like a child. It
made no noife, nor any edort to efcape. Its counte¬
nance was placid, and feemed as content as if Mr Bafs
had nurfed it from its infancy. He carried it more
than a mile, on his arm or his dioulder, which it
took in good part 5 but when he lecured his legs, in
order to go into a budr to cut a fpecimen of new
wood, its anger rofe, and it fnapped a piece from the
elbow of Mr Bals’s jacket with his grafs-cutting teeth.
Here their frienddnp ended, and the creature remain¬
ed implacable all the way to the boat, and kicked till
he was exhauded.
I his circumdance feemed to prove, that with kind
treatment the wombat might loon be rendered do¬
cile and affedionate •, but let his tutor beware of giv¬
ing him provocation, at lead if he Ihould be full
grown.
Befides Furneaux idand, the wombat inhabits the
mountains to the weft of Port Jacklon. It lives below
ground, being admirably formed for burrowing j but to
what depths it defcends, does not feem to be ascertain¬
ed. According to the account given of it by the na¬
tives, the wombat of the mountains is never feen dur-
ing the day, but lives retired in his hole, feeding only
in the night j but that of the idands feems to feed in all
parts of the day. His food is not well known, but it
is probably varied according to the fituation in which
he may be placed. T he ftomachs of fuch as Mr Bafs
examined were didended by the coarfe wiry grafs 5
and he, as well as others, had feen the animal Scratch¬
ing among the dry ricks of fea-weed thrown upon the
diores, though he could never difcover what the animal
was in fearch of.
Genus 22. Macropus. Kjnguroo.
Front teeth in the upper jaw> fix, emarginated 5 in the
lower jaw two, very large, long, (harp, and pointing
forwards 5 grinders five on each fide, both in the up¬
per and lower jaw, diftant from the other teeth ;
fore legs very (hort ; hind legs very long j abdomi¬
nal pouch in the female.
There are only two fpecies at prefent known, viz.
X. M* Major, Great K, Brownidi, with diarpifh ears,.
and
104
Macropa
(l ap. III. MAM M
||„r,e. and five-toed fore feel.— 2. M. Minor, Rat K. or Kan-
v, y—' gUroo rat. Brown, afti-coloured below, with rounded
ears, and four-toed fore feet.
Thefe were ranked by Linnaeus under the genus
DiDELPHIs, but differ fo much in many circumflances,
that they have been very properly formed into a fepa-
rate genus.
!°s i. M. Major, Great K.—This animal was firfl dif-
Ejliguroo. covered by Captain Cook’s people, while at Botany
j 47. Bay in New Holland, in 1770; and an interefting,
though not ftri&ly accurate account of it, is given in
Captain Cook’s firft voyage. It is thus defcribed by
Shaw. The general fize of the kanguroo is, at lead,
equal to that of a full grown fheep ; the upper parts of
the animal are fmall, while the lower are remarkably
large in proportion •, yet fuch is the elegance of grada¬
tion in this refpeft, that the kanguroo may juftly be con-
fidered as one of the moft pifturefque of quadrupeds.
The head bears fome refe mblance to that of a de^r, and
the vifage is mild and placid -, the ears are moderately
large, of a (lightly fharpened form, and upright •, the
eyes large, and the mouth rather fmall ; the neck thin
and finely proportioned, the fore legs extreme ly fhort,
with the feet divided into five toes, each furnifhed with
a flrarp and fomewhat crooked claw. From the breaft
downwards the body gradually enlarges, and again de-
creafes a little towards the tail ; the thighs and hind
legs are extremely flout and long, and the feet are fo
conftru&ed as to appear, at firft fight, to confift but of
three toes, of which the middle is by far the largeft,
and is furnifhed with a claw of great fize and firength j
the exterior toe is alfo furnifhed with a very ftrong
claw, but far fmaller than that of the middle one •, and
the interior confifts of two very fmall toes united under
a common fkin, with their refpe£tive claws placed fo
clofe to each other as to appear like a fplit cr double
claw j the whole appearance of the foot bears a diftant
refemblance to that of a bird. The kanguroo refts on
the whole length of the foot, which is callous, black-
ifli, and granulated beneath. The colour of the animal
is an elegant pale brown, lighter or more inclining to
whitenefs on the abdomen*, the ventral pouch, or re¬
ceptacle for the young, is fituated in the fame man¬
ner as in the opoffums, and is extremely large and
deep.
The dimenfions of a full grown kanguroo are given as
follows, in Governor Phillip’s Voyage to Botany Bay,
viz. eight feet from the tip of the nofe to that of the tail:
length of the tail, three feet and an inch •, of the bead
eleven inches *, of the fore legs two feet *, of the hind,
three feet feven inches : circumference of the fore part
of the animal near the legs, three feet nine inches *, of
the lower part near the legs, four feet five inches; round
the thickeft end of the tail 13 inches. The weight of
the largeft fpecimens is faid to have been about 150
pound*; but it is imagined that this animal attains a
much larger fize.
Though the general pofition of the kanguroo, when
at reft, is (landing on its hind feet, yet it frequently
places its fore feet on the ground alfo, and thus feeds
in the manner of other quadrupeds. It drinks by lap¬
ping. In its natural ftate it is extremely timid, and
fprings from the fight of mankind by vaft bounds of
*nany feet in height, and to a furprifing diftance.
When in a ftate of captivity, it has fometimes a way of
A L I A. 499
fpringing forwards find kicking with its hind feet m a Hiftory of
very forcible and violent manner; during which a&ionthe sPecie8*
it refts or props itfelf on the bafe of the tail. In a na- 'i~~
tural ftate it fometimes ufes its tail as a weapon of de¬
fence, and will give fuch fevere blows with it to dogs
as to oblige them to defilt from their attack. The fe¬
male kanguroo has two mammae fituated in the abdo¬
minal pouch, and in each are leated two teats; yet fo
far as has hitherto been obferved, the animal produces
but one young at a birth ; and fo exceedingly diminu¬
tive. is the young, when fiift found in the pouch, as
fcarcely to exceed an inch in length. Hie young con¬
tinues in the pouch till it is grown to a large fize, and
takes occafional refuge in it long after it has been ac-
cuftomed to come abroad.
The kanguroo feeds entirely on vegetable fubftances,
and chiefly on grafs. In their native ftate thefe ani¬
mals are faid to feed in herds of 30 or 40 together,
and one is generally obferved to be ftationed, as if ap¬
parently on the watch, at a diftance from the reft.
The fiefti of the kanguroo is faid to be rather coarfe ;
and fuch as to be eaten rather in defeat of other food
than as an article of luxury.
Genus 23. Talfa. MOLES. Talpa.
Front teeth in the upper jaw fix, unequal; in the lower
eight. Canine teeth one on each fide, the upper
larger. Grinders in the upper jaw (even, in the
lower fix.
The moles are furnifhed by nature for perforating
the earth in the moft expeditious manner. 'Iheir head
is long, and provided with very ftrong mufcles for ena¬
bling it to raife up the earth; their fnout is much
lengthened, and is moveable ; their hand' are large,
broad, and fiat, and armed with ftrong, flat, pointed
claws, directed backwards for throwing the earth be¬
hind them, and the fore legs are very fhort and ftrong,
and nearly hidden below the fkin. They have no ex¬
ternal ears, and their eyes are very fmall, and hidden
in the fur. They moftly feed on worms and infers,
and in this way would be of fervice, were it not that in
feeking for thefe, they make much havock among
young plants by turning up the earth. This circum-
ftance renders them very troublefome to gardeners
and farmers, who take every method to deftroy
them.
Naturalifts have defcribed about 7 fpecies, viz. 1.
* T.Europcea, Common M. Black (ulually) with fhort
tail and five-toed feet.— 2. T. Purpurafcens, Purple M.
Black, w ith a glofs of purple, with white tail and five¬
toed feet.— 3. T. Copenfu, Cape M. Gold-green, with
a glofs of copper colour, with three-toed fore feet.—-
4. T. Rufa, lied M. Red, with fliorl tail; three¬
toed fore feet, and four-toed hind feet.—5. T. Longi-
caudata. Long-tailed M. Brown, with tail moderate¬
ly long, and five-toed feet, hinder fealy.—6. T. Radia-
ta. Radiated M. Black, with white feet, and nofe
radiated with papillae.—7. T. Fufca, Brown M.
Brown, with white feet and tail, and very broad fore
feet. 107
Species 1. T. Europcea, Common M. Moldwarp,oxEuropxai
Moudiewaip. C.omnion
The figure of this animal is well known. Its eyes*^^
are fo fmall that it was long doubted whether it really
3 R 2 bad
Soi • M A M M
Hi (lory of had any. It has, however, been proved by difleftions
the Species. aflifted by the microfcope, that this animal not only
has eyes, but that its eyes are every way calculated for
diIfinft vifion. It poflefles the (enles of hearing and
fmelimg in a very acute degree, and according to Ray
and Buffon is peculiarily gifted in another faculty, 2n
which it would be improper here to enlarge. It is
fometimes found white.
Moles are found in every part of Europe, and are ex-
trem dy common in Britain.
1 hefe animals, as is well known, live below the
earth, where they make fubterranean paffages leading
from one hillock to another. They live in pairs, and
are laid to be the moft domeftic of all quadrupeds.
They feldom quit their holes except when compelled
to do fo by heavy rains, or when the earth is fo much
parched by conitant drought, that they are unable to
continue their work of burrowing. In winter they re¬
tire to elevated places, where they may be belt fecured
from inundations; but in fuminer defcend to the low
and flat lands, efpeeially meadows, which they prefer
on account of the earth there being frelher and
, fofter.
. They generally breed in the fpring, being found big
with young in January and February, and in April a
great many of their young may be feen.
It appears that moles are capable of fwimming to a
confiderable diftance ■, and a remarkable inftance of one
having been feen fwimming towards a fmall illand in
the middle of a lake 180 yards from land, is given by
Mr Bruce in the third volume of the Linnaean Tranf-
aftions.
. People in general are not aware of the great mifchief
oceafioned in fields and gardens by thefe animals. We
are however informed by Bufton, that in the year 1740,
he planted 15 or 16 acres of land with acorns, and^that
the greater part of them was in a little time carried
away by the moles to their fubterranean retreats. In
many of thefe there were found half a bulhel, and in
others-a bulhel. Bufibn, after this circumftance, caufed
a great number of iron traps to be conftrufted, by
which in lefs than three weeks he caught 1306. To
this inftance of the devaftation occafioned by thefe ani¬
mals, we may add the following : In the year 1742
they were fo numerous in fome parts of Holland, that
one farmer alone caught between 5000 and 6000 of
them. The deftruftion occafioned by thefe animals is
however no new phenomenon. We are informed by
hiftory, that the inhabitants of the ifland of Tenedos,
the Trojans, and the ^Eolians, were infefted by them
in the earlieft ages. For this reafon a temple was
erefted to Apollo Smynthius, the deftroyer of moles.
The catching of moles conftitutes a profeflion which
is well underftood in this country. For the particular
modes of taking them, we muft refer our readers to
Dr Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 370, and to the fecond
volume of the Philofophical Magazine, p. 34. Accord¬
ing to Mortimer, as quoted by Pennant, the roots of
white hellebore made into a pafte and laid into their
holes, will deftroy them. They feem to have few ene¬
mies among other animals, but we are told by Sir Ro¬
bert Sibbald, that there is a kind of mouie with a beak
that deftroys moles. We are allured that thefe animals
are not found in Ireland.
A L I A. Part ] j
J he Ikin of the mole is extremely tough ; its fur FcikS
clofe fet, and fofter than the fineft velvet, or perhaps vA
than the fur of any other animal j it is ufually black,
but moles have been found fpotted with white, and
fometimes, though rarely, they have been feen altoge¬
ther white.
Genus 24. SOREX. SHREWS. Soresf
Front teeth in the upper jaw two, long, bifid. In the
lower two or four 5 the intermediate ones ftiorter j
canine teeth feveral on each fide ; grinders cufpi-
dated.
This genus is nearly allied to the laft, and indeed a
few of its fpecies are fearcely to be diftinguilhed from
fome of the moles. It is therefore not furprifing that
Linnaeus, in the twelfth edition of his Syftema Nature,
ranked two fpecies under Sorex, which Ihould more
properly have been placed under Ta/pce.
There are 16 fpecies, which are thus diftinguiftied.
1. Araneus, Common S. or Shrew moule. Rufty
brown, whitilh below, with tail rather Ihorter than the
body.—2. 5. Mojchatus, Mufk S. Wbb-footed, with
naked, compreifed tail.—3. S. Radiatus, Canada S.
Biackilh, with lengthened fnout, radiated at the tip
with tentacula.—4. S. Cterulefcens, Perfuming S. Blue-
gray, with Hefti-coloured fnout, feet, and tail.—5. S.
Fodiens, Water S. Black, and white below.—6. S.
Braxi/ienjis, Brazilian S. Brown, with three black *
ftripes on the back.—7. S. Surinamenjis, Surinam S.
Bay, yellowifti afti colour below, with tail ftiorter than
the body.— 8. S. Probofcideus, Elephant S. Brown,
with very long cylindric fnout.—9. S. Leucodon, White¬
toothed S. Dulk, white below, with tail of middling
length.—10. S. Tetragonurus, Square-tailed S. Qua¬
drangular tail.—11. S. Xewrw/v/j, White-tailed S. Brown-
ifti, whitifli beneath, with ftiort tail, whitifti towards
the tip.—12. S. Unico/or, Cinereous S. Dulky afti-co-
loured, with tail narrowed at the bafe.-—13. S. Aluri-
tius, Murine S. Brown, with afti-coloured feet and tail,
the latter of middling length.—14. S. Puji/lus, Perfian
S. With rounded ears and fliort iubdiftichious tail.—-
15. S. Minutus, Minute S. With very long fnout.—
16. S. Exilis, Pygmy S. Extremely final], with very
thick eylindric tail.
1. S. Araneus, Shrew Moufe, or Hardy S. The Arancl.
length of this little animal, from the end of the nofe toCommoi
the origin of the tail, is two inches and a half j that ofSbrevv-
the tail, near ©ne inch and a half j the nofe is very ^lg'
long and flender, and the upper mandible is much
longer than the lower ; the ears are ftiort and rounded;
the eyes very fmall, and like thofe of the mole, almoft
concealed in the hair. The colour of the head, and
upper part of the body, is of a brownifli dark red, the
belly of a dirty white ; the tail is covered with ihort
dark hairs; the legs are very ftiort ; the hind legs are
placed very far back ; the feet are divided into five di-
ftinft toes.
I he teeth are 28 in number, and of fo lingular a
form as to engage the attention of moft naturalifts.
Gefner is of opinion, that nature feems to have formed
in this animal teeth of mixed ftiape, between thofe of
mice and ferpents ; the two upper fore teeth are very
ftiarp, and on each fide of them grows a minute pro-
cefs*
C ip. III. M A M M
I ne. cefs, fcarcely vifible, except on a near infpe&ion j the
other teeth are placed clofe together, are very fmall,
and feern fcarcely feparated.
The (hrew moufe inhabits old walls, heaps of ftones,
or holes in the earth j is frequently found near out¬
buildings, hay ricks, dunghills, and neceffary houfesj
it lives on infers, corn, and any filth, and has been
obferved rooting like a hog in the laft-named places.
Either from its food or its nature, it has a very difa-
greeable fmell, infomuch that the cat will kill it, yet
refufes to eat it. It is faid to bring four or five young
at a time. It is a very common animal in this coun¬
try.
_ Genus 2?. Erinaceus. Hedgehogs.
ICCU5* J
Front teeth, two both above and below} thofe of the up¬
per jaw diftant, of the lower approximated. Canine
teeth on each fide, in the upper jaw five, in the low¬
er three. Grinders on each fide, both above and
below, four. Body covered on the upper parts with
fpines.
There are five fpecies, viz. i. * Erinaceus Euro-
pctus, European or Common H. With rounded ears
and crefted noftrils.—2. E. Inauris, Earlefs H. With¬
out external ears.—3. E. Auntus^ Long-eared H.
With long oval ears, and crefted noftrils.—4. E. Ma-
dagafcarienjis, Striped H. With fpines and long briftles ^
the body longitudinally banded with black and white,
with long, iharp-pointed fnout.—5. E. Malaccenfis,
n Malacca H. With long fpines and pendulous ears.
I jpteus, x. Erinaceus Europteus, Common Hedgehog, or
C mon Urchin.
|beoho£* The ufual length of this animal, exclufive of the
[r ‘ tail, is about ten inches ; the tail is little more than an
inch long, but fo concealed by the fpines as fcarcely to
be vifible. The fnout is like that of the hog 5 the up¬
per jaw being much longer than the lower, and the
end flat j the noftrils are narrow, terminated on each
fide by a loofe thin flap ; the colour of the fnout is
dulky •, it is covered vdth a few fcattered hairs j the
upper part of the head, the fides, and the rump, are
I clothed with ftrong ftiff hair, approaching the nature
of briftles, of a yellowith and alb hue.
The legs are Ihort, of a dulky colour, and almoft
bare; the toes on each foot are five in number, long,
and feparated the whole way j the thumb or interior
toe is much lharter than the others j the claws long
but weak; the whole upper part of the body and fides
are ftrongly covered with clofe fpines of an inch in
length, and very ftiarp pointed ; their lower part is
white, the middle black, the points white. The mouth
is fmall, but full of teeth. The barbarity of anatomifts
furniflies us with an amazing inftance of its patience j
one that was diflefted alive, and whofe feet were nailed
down to the table, endured that, and every ftroke of
the operator’s knife, without even one groan.
It is found in moft parts of Europe, and is not un¬
common in this ifland.
It produces four or five young at a birth, which are
foon covered with prickles like thofe of the parent, but
Ihorter and weaker.
It is a noflurnal animal, keeping retired in the day,
but is in motion the whole night in fearch of food. It
generally refides in fmall thickets, in hedges, or in
ALIA. 5°*
ditches covered with bullies, lying w ell wrapped up in
mofs, grafs, or leaves j its food is roots, fruits, worms,the °
and in lefts. It lies under the undeferved reproach of
fucking cattle, and hurting their udders $ but the fmall-
nefs of its mouth renders that impoflible. It is a mild,
helplefs, and patient animal; and would be liable to in¬
jury from every enemy, had not providence guarded it
w ith a ftrong covering, and the power of rolling itfelf
into a ball, by that means fecuring the defencelefs
parts. It is hunted with dogs; but few' of them will
venture to attack it while roiled up, fo that its perfe-
cutors throw it into water, to oblige it to unroll itfelf.
Its flelh is elteemed good tood.
The hedgehog may be lamed ; and we are told of
one that lived at the Angel inn at Felton in Northum¬
berland in 1799, which performed the duty of a turn-
fpit, as well in every refpeft as the dog of that name }
ran about the houfe as familiarly as any other domeftic
quadruped; difplayed a facility till then unknown in
this fpecies of animals j and ufed to anfwer to the name
of Tom.
This order contains 12 genera, and about 184 fpecies.
Chap. IV. Glires.
II3J
Gen. 26. Hystrix. Porcupine. Hyftrix.
Front teeth two, both in the upper and under jaw, ob¬
liquely cut; grinders eight. Body covered with
fpines intermixed with hairs. Four toes on. the fore
feet, five on the hind.
There are fix fpecies ; viz.
I. H. Crijiata, Long-fpined Porcupine; with four-
toed fore feet, and five-toed hind feet; crefted head,
and Ihort tail.—2. H. Prehenjilis, Prehenfile P. Short-
fpined, with four-toed feet; and long half-naked pre¬
henfile tail.—3. H. Mexicana, Mexican P. Short-
fpined, with four-toed feet, and tail of moderate length.
—4. H. Macroura, Long-tailed P. Short-lpined, with
five-toed feet, and very long tail, tufted at the end
with club-fhaped briftles.—5. H. Fafciculata, Bruflr-
tailed P. Four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and
tail terminated by a tuft of flattened briftles.—6. H.
Dorfatay Canada P. Short-fpined, with very long
fur; four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet; fpiny
back, and ftiortilh tail..
1. H. CriJlatOy Common Porcupine.—The figure which Criftata,
we have given of this animal will convey a better idea ( ommon
of it than any defeription. We may remark only that Porcupine,
it is about two feet long from head to tail; and that the 5U
tail is about four inches long, being almoft entirely hid¬
den by the quills and long hair.
It is a native of Africa, India, and the Indian iflands;
and is found in fome of the warmer parts of Europe,
particularly in Sicily and Malta.
It was long believed that the porcupine had the
power of darting its quills to a confiderable diftance, at
any enemy that affaulted it. This is proved to have
been a vulgar error, arifing probably from the manner
in which the quills are detached when the animal is
moulting, at which time they are often thrown with a
jerk to a little diftance. The quills feem intended
merely as weapons of defence, and when attacked, the
animal has the power of railing them, as was remarked
with refpeft to the feales of the manis.
The
502
Hi (lory of The flefli of the porcupine is eaten in fome places j
t ie pcih.s. an(j we are j.0j^ when in Sicily,
he dined on it, and found it extremely lufcious, foon
palling on the appetite.
This animal feeds chiefly on fruits, roots, and vege¬
table lubitances. It commonly lives under ground,
lleeps much ny day, and goes in fearch of food only
during the night. The female produces two young
at a birth, and thefe, when taken early, are eallly
tamed.
MAMMALIA.
at the tips. Grinders on each lide four.
deprefled and fcaly.
Part II.
Tail long, Glites.
Collar bones in the Ikeleton. —
”4
Cavia.
II5
Cob ay a,
Guinea Pi?.
116
G*ftor.
Gen. 27. Cavia, Cavt.
Front teeth two, wedge-fliaped j grinders eight. Toes
on the fore feet, four or five ; on the hind feet, from
three to five. Tail very {hurt, or wanting. No cla¬
vicles.
The animals of this genUs are chiefly found in Ame¬
rica ; they live on vegetable fubftances, and inhabit
holes in the ground, or beneath the roots of trees.
There are feven fpecies ; viz.
I. Cavia Cobaya, Variegated Cavy, or Guinea Pig.
Taillefs j generally variegated either with black and
white, or rufous, &c.— 2. C. Paca, Spotted C. Tail¬
ed ; with five toed feet, and fides marked by rows of
yellowifh white fpots.—3. C. Capybara, Capybara.
Taillefs 5 with three-toed palmated hind feet.—4. C.
Aguti, Aguti. Tailed \ with the body reddifh brown,
and the belly yellowilh.—5. C. Acouchy, Acouchy.
Tailed ; with olive-coloured body.—6. C. Aperia,
Rock C. Taillefs ; with reddiih afh-coloured body.—
7. C. Patagonica, Patagonian C. Rufty gray, whit'fh
below, with extremely ihort naked tail ; large w’hite
patch on each thigh, and black rump.
1. C. Cobay a, Reftlefs Cavy, nr Guinea Pig.—This
animal is pretty w ell known among us, being frequently
kept as a kind of pet. It is a native of South America,
and naturally of a chilly tender conftitution j yet it
lives and breeds in our climates when kept in the houfe,
and properly fed. Few animals breed fo early as the
Guinea pig. Though it does not attain its full growth
till eight or nine months old, it has been known to bring
forth at tw’o months. The female goes with young
about three weeks, and at her firft litter produces four
or five young, but her fubfequent litters often confift of
ten or twelve. As thefe animals are thus prolific, and
will breed five or fix times in a year, it is computed that
a thoufand of them may be produced in one year from
a Angle pair. They feem capable of no fentiment but
the loweft fenfuality, and pafs their whole time in eat¬
ing, fleeping, &c. They live entirely on vegetable
food, and are very fond of parfley, apples, and other
fruits. They eat often, but little at a time.
They are very neat and cleanly, and are often feen
dreffing each other’s fur. They are eafily tamed, but
feem to feel no attachment to man. They grunt like,
a pig, make a chirping noife when pleafed, and utter a
lharp cry when hurt.
The flelh may be eaten, but is very indifferent.
Gen. 28. Castor. Beaver.
Front teeth in the upper jaw- truncated, and hollowed
with a tranfverfe angle; in the lower jaw tranfverfe
3
There are two fpecies $ viz.
1. C. Fiber, Common Beaver. Chefnut-coloured, F/ie,*7
with flat ovate naked tail.—2. C. Huidobrius, Chili B. Common
With long, compreifed, lance-fhaped, hairy tail j lobed ^eaver-
fore feet, and webbed hind feet.
1. C. Fiber, Common Beaver.—-This animal is eafily
diftinguifhed from all quadrupeds by the peculiar ap¬
pearance of its tail, which is of an oval form, nearly
flat, except on its upper furface, where it is flightly
convex, entirely deilitute of hair, except at the oafe,
and marked with fcaly divifions like the {kin of a filh.
The body is about three feet long, and the tail about a
foot in length. The general colour of the fur is a deep
chelnut, but it is fometimes found perfetlly black,
white, cream-coloured, or fpotted.
The beaver is found in moll of the northern parts of
Europe and Afia, and is very abundant in North Ame¬
rica. It was once met with in Britain, but the fpecies
has long been there extinfl. It delights in Ihady wa¬
tery fituations.
Many accounts have been given of the manners and
labours of this extraordinary animal, but we believe
none are in general more correct than the following by
Buffon.
The beavers begin to alfemble in the month of June
or July, for the purpofe of uniting into fociety. They
arrive in numbers from all corners, and foon form a
troop of 200 or 300. The place of rendezvous is gene¬
rally the place fixed for their eftablilhment, and is al¬
ways on the banks of waters. If the waters be flat,
and never rife above their ordinary level, as in lakes,
the beavers make no bank or dam •, but in rivers or
brooks, where the waters are fubjedl to rifings and fall¬
ings, they build a bank, and by this artifice they form
a pond or piece of water which remains always at the
fame height. The bank traverfes the river from one
fide to the other, like a fluice, and it is often from 80
to 100 feet long, by 10 or 12 broad at the bafe. This
pile, for animals of a fize fo fmall, appears to be enor¬
mous, and fuppofes an incredible labour. But the foli-
dity with which the Work is conftrudled is ftill more
aftonifhing than its magnitude. The part of the river
where they ere£t this bank is generally {hallow. If
they find on the margin a large tree, which can be
made to fall into the water, they begin with cutting it
down, to form the principal part of their work. This
tree is often thicker than the body of a man. By gnaw¬
ing the foot of the tree with their four cutting teeth,
they accomplifh their purpofe in a very fliort time, and
always make the tree fall acrofs the river. They next
cut the branches from the trunk to make it lie level.
Thefe operations are performed by the w'hole commu¬
nity. Several beavers are employed in gnawing the
foot of the tree, and others in lopping off the branches
after it has fallen. Others at the fame time traverfe
the banks of the river, and cut down fmaller trees,
from the fize of a man’s leg to that of his thigh. Thefe
they drefs, and cut to a certain length to make flakes
of them, and firfi drag them by land to the margin of
the river, and then by water to the place where the
building is carrying on. Thefe piles they fink down,
and
IV. M A M M
and interweave the branches with the larger flakes.
This operation implies the vanquiihing of many diffi¬
culties ; for to drefs thefe flakes, and to put them in a
lituation nearly perpendicular, fomeofthe beavers muff;
elevate, with their teeth, the thick ends againft the
margin of the river, or againft the crofs tree, while
others plunge to the bottom, and dig holes with their
fore feet, to receive the points that they may ftand on end.
While fome are labouring in this manner, others bring
earth, which they plafh with their feet, and beat firm
with their tails. They carry the earth in their mouths,
and with their fore feet, and tranfport it in fuch quan¬
tities that they fill with it all the intervals between the
piles. Thefe piles confift of feveral rows of flakes of
equal height, all placed oppofite to each other, and
extend from one bank of the river to the other. The
flakes facing the under part of the river, are placed
perpendicularly; but the reft of the work flopes up¬
wards, to fuftain the preffure of the fluid, fo that the
bank, which is 10 or 12 feet wide at the bafe, is re¬
duced to two or three at the top. It has, therefore,
not only all the neceffary thicknefs and folidity, but the
moft advantageous form for fupporting the weight of
the water, for preventing its iflue, and to repel its
efforts. Near the top, or thinneft part of the bank,
they make two or three doping holes, to allow the fur-
face water to efcape, and thefe they enlarge or contraft,
according as the river rifes or falls ; and when any
breaches are made in the bank by hidden or violent in¬
undations, they know how to repair them as foon as the
water fubfides.
It would be fuperfluous, after this account of their
public wmrk, to give a detail of their particular opera¬
tions, were it not neceflary, in a hiftory of thefe ani¬
mals, to mention every fa6t, and were not the firft
great ftru&ure made with a view to render their fmaller
habitations more commodious. Thefe cabins or houfes
are built upon piles near the margin of the pond, and
have two openings, the one for going to the land, and
the other for throwing themfelves into the water. The
form of the edifices is either oval or round, fome of
them larger and fome lefs, varying from four or five,
to eight or ten feet diameter. Some of them confift
of three or four ftories, and their walls are about two
feet thick, raifed perpendicularly upon planks, or plain
flakes, which ferve both for foundations and floors to
their houfes. When they confift but of one ftory, the
walls rife perpendicularly only a few feet, afterwards
aflume a curved form, and terminate in a dome or vault,
which ferves them for a roof. They are built with
amazing folidity, and neatly plaftered both without and
within. They are impenetrable to rain, and refift the
mod impetuous winds. The partitions are covered
with a kind of ftucco, as nicely plaftered as if it had
been executed by the hand of man. In the appli¬
cation of this mortar, their tails ferve for trowels, and
their feet for plathing. They employ different materi¬
als, as wood, ftone, and a kind of fandy earth, which is
not fubjeft to diffolution in water. The wood they ufe
is almoft all of the light and tender kinds, as alders,
poplars, and willows, which generally growf on the
banks of rivers, and are more eafily barked out, and
tranfported, than the heavier and more folid fpecies of
timber. When they once attack a tree, they never
abandon it till they cut it down, and, carry it off.
ALIA. 5°3
They always begin the operation of cutting at a foot, Hiftory of
or a foot and a half above ground j they labour in atne Pecte,‘
fitting pollute 5 and, befide the convenience of this fitu-
ation, they enjoy the pleafure of gnawing perpetually
the bark and wood, which are moft palatable to their
tafte ; for they prefer frefti bark and tender wood to
moft of their ordinary aliment. Of thefe provifions
they lay up ample ftores, to fupport them during the
winter $ but they are not fond of dry wood. It is in
the water, and near their habitations, that they efta-
blilh their magazines. Each cabin has its own maga¬
zine, proportioned to the number of its inhabitants,
who have all a common right to the ftore, and never
pillage their neighbours. Some villages are compofed
of 20 or 25 cabins. But thefe large eftablilhments are
rare, and the common republic feldom exceeds 10 or
12 families, of which each has his own quarter of the
village, his own magazine, and his feparate habitation.
They allow no ftrangers to fit down in their neigh¬
bourhood. The fmalleft cabins contain 2, 4, or 6, and
the large!! 18, 20, and, it is alleged, fometimes 30
beavers. They are almoft always equally paired, be¬
ing the fame number of females as of males. Thus,
upon a moderate computation, the fociety is often com¬
pofed of 150 or 200, wEo all, at firft, laboured jointly,
in railing the great public building, and afterwards in.
fele£l tribes or companies, in making particular habi¬
tations. In this fociety, however numerous, an uni-
verfal peace is maintained. Their union is cemented
by common labours, and it is rendered perpetual by-
mutual convenience, and the abundance of provifions
which they amafs, and confume together. Moderate
appetites, a fimple tafte, an averfion again!! blood and
carnage, deprive them of the idea of rapine and war.
They enjoy every poffxble good, while man only knows
how to pant after it. Friends to each other, if they
have fome foreign enemies, they know how to avoid
them. When danger approaches, they advertife one
another by linking their tail on the furface of the wa¬
ter, the noife of which is heard at a great diftance, and
refounds through all the vaults of their habitations.
Each takes his poll j fome plunge into the lake, others
conceal themfelves within their walls, which can only
be penetrated by the fire of heaven, or the fteel of man,
and which no animal will attempt either to open or to
overturn. Thefe retreats are not only very fafe, but
neat and commodious. The floors are fpread over with
verdure •, the branches of the box and the fir ferve them
for carpets, upon which they permit not the leal! dirti-
nefs. The window that faces the water anfwers for a
balcony to receive the frelh air, and to bathe. During
the greateft part of the day, they fit on end, with their
heads and interior parts of the body elevated, and their
pofterior parts funk in the water. This window is
made with caution, the aperture of which is fufficiently
raifed to prevent its being flopped up with ice, which,
in the beaver climates, is often two or three feet thick.
When this happens, they Hope the foie of the window,
cut obliquely the Hakes which fupport it, and thus open
a communication with the unfrozen water. This ele¬
ment is fo neceffary, or rather fo agreeable to them,
that they can feldom difpenfe with it. They often
fwim a long wray under the ice j it is then that they are
moft eafily taken, by attacking the cabin on one hand,
and, at the fame time, watching at a hole made at fome
diftance.
5°4 ^ M A M M
the Specie's ^u‘:ance> 'vv^ere they are ooliged to repair for the pur-
■ ' t Pole of refpiration. The continual habit of keeping
their tail and pofterior parts in the water, appears to
have changed the nature of their flelh. That of their
anterior parts, as far as the reins, has the tade and con¬
fidence of the defh of land or air animals 5 but that of
the tail and poderiors has the odour and all the other
qualities of fith. 1 he tail, which is a foot long, an
inch thick, and five or fix inches broad, is jud like an ex¬
tremity or genuine portion of a filh attached to the
body of a quadruped. It is entirely covered with fcales,
and with fkin perfedlly fimilar to thofe of large fifties.
They may be fcraped oft with a knife, and, after fall-
ing, they leave an impreffion on the fkin, as is the cafe
with all fifties.
It is in the beginning of fummer that the beavers af-
femble. They employ the months of July and Auguft;
in the conftrudlion of their bank and cabins. They
colleid, in September, their provifions of bark and wood j
afterwards they enjoy the fruits of their labours, and
tafte the fweets of domeftic happinefs. This is the time
of repofe and the feafon of love. Knowdng and loving
one another from habit, from the pleafures and fatigues
of a common labour, each couple join not by chance,
nor by the preffing neceflities of nature, but unite from
choice and from tafte. They pafs together the autumn
and the winter, and perfectly fatisfied with each other,
they never feparate. At eafe in their cabins, they go
not out but upon agreeable or ufeful excurfions, to bring
in fupplies of frefh bark, which they prefer to what is
too dry, or too much moiftened with water. The fe¬
males are faid to go pregnant for four months : they
bring forth in the end of winter, and generally pro¬
duce two or three young ones. About this time, thef
are left by the males, who retire to the country to en¬
joy the pleafures and the fruits of the fpring. They
return occafionally to their cabins, and are occupied in
nurfing, prote&ing, and rearing their young, who at
the. end of a few weeks, are in a condition to follow
their dams. The females, in their turn, make little ex¬
curfions to recruit themfclves by the air, by eating frefti
bark and herbage ; and in this manner pafs the fummer
upon the waters, and in the woods. They affemble not
again till autumn, unlefs their banks or cabins be over¬
turned by inundations j for when accidents of this kind
happen, they fuddenly colleft their forces, in order to
repair the breaches which have been made.
Some places they prefer to others for their habita¬
tions j and they have been obferved, after having their
labours frequently deftroyed, to return every fummer to
repair them, till, being fatigued with this perfecution,
and weakened by the lofs of feveral of their numbers,
they took the refolution of changing their abode, and of
retiring to folitudes ftill more profound. It is in winter
that they are chiefly fought by the hunters, becaufe
their fur is not perfectly found in any other feafon :
and, after their village is ruined, and numbers of them
are taken, the fociety is fometimes too much reduced
to admit of a- frefti eftablilhment 5 but thofe which ef-
cape death or captivity, difperfe and become vagabond.
Their genius, withered by fear, never 2gain expands.
They hide themfelves and their talents in holes j or,
funk to the condition of other animals, they lead a ti¬
mid and folitary life. Occupied only by prefling wants,
and exerting folely their individual powers, they l©fe
x*. L I A. . _ Part II
ior ever thofe focial qualities which We have been fo Giircs
juftly admiring.
I he beaver is hunted for the hike of its fur, which
as is well known, forms a conliderable article in the
manufacture of fine hats, as well as for the drug called
Caflor, for an account of which fee Materia Medica.
Its fleih is eaten in fome places, and is faid to have a
fifliy tafle.
Genus 29. Mus. Rats and Mice. mJ.11
Upper front teeth wedge-lhaped. Grinders on each
fide three, fometimes only two. Clavicles or collar¬
bones in the Ikeleton.
Thefe animals generally live in holes in the ground
ate very fwift, and able to climb trees. Their food is
chiefly vegetable, which moft of them feek in the night,
keeping in their retreats during the day. They feed
in a fomewhat upright pofition, carrying the food to
their mouth with their paws. Ihey are very proli¬
fic, the females breeding many times a year and bring¬
ing numerous litters. The females have ufually eight
teats. The ears of thefe animals are ufually fhort
and rounded j their fore feet are commonly four-toed,
with a warty excrefcence in place of a fifth. Many of
them are almoft amphibious, living much in the water
and fwimming very well. A few of them are furniftied
with cheek pouches for carrying food to their holes.
They are found in almoft all parts of the world,
and many of them are natives of Britain.
The fpecies are very numerous, and are therefore by
Dr Shaw diftributed into the following feftions.
A. With flattened tails.
1. M. Zibethicus, Mu Ik Rat. Rufty brown, with
long comprefled lanceolate tail, and unwebbed feet.
B. With round naked tails.
2. M. Pilorides, Piloris. Whitilh, with longilh,
fcaly, obtufe truncated tail.—3. M. Caraco, American
rat. Gray, with long, fcaly, fomewhat obtufe tail,
and {lightly femi-palmated hind feet.—4. * M. Decu-
manus, Norway R. Gray, ftiff-haired, with very long
fcaly tail, and body whitifh below.—5. * M. Rattus,
Black R. Blackifti, afti-coloured beneath, with very
long fcaly tail.—6. M. Malabaricus, Bandicot R.
Gray, with naked round ears, and the two exterior
toes of the hind feet fliorter than the reft.-—7. M. Per-
chal, Perchal R. Rufty brown, with the hind legs
larger than the fore.—8. M. Mufculus, Common M.
Brown, aflr-coloured beneath, with four-toed fore feet,
five-toed hind feet, and long nearly naked tail.—9.
* Sylvaticus, Wood M. Yellowifti brown, with
long naked tail, and body white beneath, the colours
being abruptly feparated on the fides.—10. M. Sigra-
rtus, Ruftic M. Yellowifti brown, with long fcaly
tail and black dorfal ftreak —11. M. Meflbrius, Har-
veft M. Rufty, white beneath, with long {lightly
hairy tail, and ears longer than the fur of the head.—
12. M. Minutusy Minute M. Rufty, whitilh beneath,
with long fcaly tail.—13. M. Soricmus, Soricine M.
Yellowifli gray, with long fnout, round furred ears,
and hairy tail of moderate length.—14. M. Vagus, Wan¬
dering M. Afti-coloured, with black dorfal band,
very long naked tail, and plaited ears,—15. M. Be-
tulinus,
TV. M A M M A L I A.
tulinuSy Birch M. Fulvous, with black dorfal band,
plaitec^ears, and very long naked tail.—16. M. Stri-
a'us, Streaked M. Rufous brown, with longilh naked
tail, and ihe body marked by feveral longitudinal
rows of white i’pots.—17. M. Barl/vrus, Barbary M.
Brown, marked with ten pale ftreaks *y with tail of
middling length, three-toed fore feet, and five-toed
hind feet.
Alh-brown, pouched, white beneath.—38. M. Songarus.
Ath-coloured, pouched, white beneath, with black fpi-
nal line, and the fides fpotted with white.—39. M. Fu-
runculuty Baraba R. Yellowifh gray, pouched, whitifh
beneath, with black dorfal ftreak.
E. Subterranean or Ground Rats, refembling Moles in
habit and manner of life.
■ t-r- ?*
5'-5
Hiftoiy of
the Species.
C. With hairy tails, in general either of a middling
length or fsort.
18. M. Cyanus, Blue R. Blue, whitifh beneath,
with four-toed forefeet, five toed hind feet, and [lightly
hairy tail of middling length.—19. M. Saxatilis, Rock
R Grayifh brown, with Ion gi fir tail; ears longer than
the fur, and feet about four-toed,—20. M. Amphibius,
Water R. Blackifn brown, afli-coloured below, with
ears fcarcely projeffing from the fur ; fore feet about
four-toed, and tail about half as long as the body.—
2i. M. Scherman, Scherman R. Deep brown, alb-co¬
loured below, with iligbtly hairy tail of moderate length,
fimll feet, and ears fhorter than the fur.—22. M. Lem¬
mas, Lemming R. Short-tailed, with ears fhorter
than the fur, five-toed fore feet, and body white below,
variegated above with black, white and fulvous.—23.
M. Arvalis, Meadow M. Dufky rufly, fhort-tailed,
deep aih-coloured beneath, with ears longer than the
fur, and about four-toed fore feet.—24. M. Torquatus,
Collared M. Short-tailed, rufty, with dufky variega¬
tions ; ears fhorter than the fur ; five-toed fore feet,
interrupted white collar, and black fpinal ftripe.—25.
M. Lagurus, Hare-tailed M. Short-tailed, aih-colour¬
ed, white below ; ears fhorterthan the fur ; about four¬
toed fore feet, and black dorfal line.—26. M. Econo-
mus. Economic R. Short-tailed, tawney whitifh be¬
low, with naked ears concealed by the fur, and about
four-toed fore feet.—27. M. Alliarius, Garlick M.
Afh-coloured, whitifh below, with rather large ears
flightly hairy, and tail about an inch long.— 28. M.
Rutilus, Red M. Fulvous afh-coloured beneath, with
tail about an inch long ; ears longer than the fur, and
about four-toed feet.—29. M. Laniger, Woolly M.
Afh-coloured, with four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind
feet, and tail of middling length.—30. M. Grega/is,
Baikal M. Gray, with ears fhorter than the fur, about
four-toed fore feet, and tail about one inch and a half
long.—3 r. M. Socialis, Social M. Pale gray, white
beneath, with very fliort rounded ears, about four toed
fore feet, and tail of half an inch long.—32. M. Hud-
fonius, Hudfon’s Bay M. Short-tailed, earlefs, afh-
eoloured, white beneath, with yellowifh brown dorfal
llripe, and five-toed hind feet.
D. With cheek pouches for the temporary reception of
their food.
33. M.Cricetus, Hamfter R. Reddifh brown, pouch¬
ed, with three while fpots on each fide, and deep black
belly.—34. M. Burfarius, Canada R. Afh-coloured,
with fhort nearly naked tail, pouched cheeks, and the
claws of the fore feet very large, and formed for bur¬
rowing in the ground. 35. M. Accedu/a, Yaik R.
Yellowifh gray, whitifli b neath, with pouched cheeks
and finuated ears.—36. M. Arenanus, Sand R. Afh-
coloured, pouched; with the feel, fides of the body,
belly and tail white.—37. M% Ihceus, Aftracan M.
Vol.XII. Part IE
40. M. Maritirnus, Coaft R. Pale yellowifh brown,
whitifh beneath, with very large and long naked teeth,
five-toed feet, no external ears, and fhort tail.—41. M.
Typhius, Blind R. Short-tailed, rufous brown, dufky
beneath, with five toed fore feet, broad front teeth, and
without eyes or external ears.-—-42. M. Afpnitx, Dau-
rian R. Short-tailed, earlefs, yellowifh afh-coloured,
with large wedged fore teeth, and long claws on the
fore feet.—43. M. Capenfis, Cape R. Short tailed,
reddifh afh, paler below, with very large naked fore
teeth, five-toed feet, and white muzzle.—44. M. Tal-
pinus, Mole R. Short-tailed, brown, with large wedged
front teeth, no external ears, and five-toed fore feet
formed for burrowing. up
4. * M. Decumanus, Common br
-—This is one of the muff commo
which our houfes and granaries are
well known to require any defcription. It was origi¬
nally, it is faid, brought to this country from Norway,
and has multiplied fo prodigioufly, and is fo ftrong and
voracious, as to form one of our moft unpleafant in¬
mates. St Pierre informs us, that in the Ifle of France
thefe rats are found in fuch prodigious fwarms, that
30,000 of them have been killed in fome of the houfes
in a fingle year. It is even faid that the Dutch en¬
tirely abandoned that poll from the number of rais by
which it was infefted. They will in a fingle night en¬
tirely deftroy a whole crop of corn. They frequently
infeft fhips in fuch numbers as to deftroy large quan¬
tities of provifions, and even endanger the veffel, by
gnawing its timbers. When the Valiant came from
the Havannah, in the year 1766, the rats had increa-
fed on board her fo much as to deltroy nearly one hun¬
dred weight of bifcuit in a day ; and on the fliip be¬
ing fmoked between decks, to fuffocate the rats, fix
hampers were for fome time filled every day with thofe
that had been thus killed.
In fummer it frequents the banks of rivers, ponds,
and ditches ; w here it lives on frogs, fiflies, and fmall
animals. But its rapacity is not confined entirely to
thefe : It deftroys rabbits, poultry, young pigeons, &c.
It infells the granary, the barn, and the ftore-houfe ;
does infinite mifchief among corn and fruit of all kinds;
and, not content with fatisfying its hunger, frequently
carries off large quantities to its hiditig place. It is a
bold and fierce little animal ; and when clofely pur-
fued, will turn and fallen on its affailant. Its bite is
keen, and the wound it inflifts is painful, and difficult
to heal, owing to the fofm of its teeth, which are long,
fharp, and irregular.
Their produce is enormous, as the female brings
forth from 12 to 18 at a litter, and ufually breeds
thrice a year, fo that from a fingle pair, provided 'ood
were lufhciently plentiful, and they had no enemie? to
diminifh their numbers, there might be propagated
above x,000,000 in the Ipace of two years ! Their ene¬
mies axe, however, numerous. They are deltroyed by
3 S dogs,
wn or Norway rat. Tiecwna-
1 fpecies of rat, by nus'> ^0T='
•in 1 1 • . way Rat.
inteited, and is too
506
Hutory of dogs, cats, and efpecially weafelsj and it is laid that
.the Species a ftrong rat is as much dreaded by its own fpecies, as
"v~ri" the whole race is by thofe animals that are their prey.
They are commonly taken by traps, or deftroyed by
poifon, which latter is the furtft method. Mr Bewick
* recommends for the purpofe a compolition of nux vomi¬
ca mixed with oatmeal, and a fmall proportion of mulk
xio and oil of rhodium.
Ha rafter. 33. M. Cricetm, Hamfter, or Hamfter Rat.—This is
Tg- 54. one of the fierce!! of the rat tribej being rather larger
and much ftronger than the Norway rat. It is of a pale
reddifti brown colour above, and blackifii below, with
a whitiih muzzle, reddilh cheeks, pretty large rounded
ears, and a fliort tail almoft bare. The male is alw'ays
larger than the female.
The hamfter is the only European fpecies of rat that
is furniftied with pouches. It is found in Auftria, Si-
lefia, and many parts of Germany. It lives under
ground, burrowing down obliquely. At the end of its
pafiage, the male finks one perpendicular hole, and the
female feveral, fometimes feven or eight. At the end
of thefe are formed various vaults, either as lodges for
themfelves and young, or as ftore-houfes for food. Each
young has its different apartment, and each fort of
grain its different vault j the former is lined with ftraw
or grafs. The vaults are of different depths, according
to the age of the animals : a young hamfter makes them
fcarcely a foot deep j an old one finks them to the depth
ef four or five. The whole diameter of the habitation,
with ail its communications, is fometimes eight or 10
feet. The female breeds twice or three times a year,
and produces from fix te 18 at a litter. The young
grow very rapidly, and are foon able to Ihift for them¬
felves. The male and female have always feparate
burrows •, for, except in their Ihort feafon of courtlhip,
they have no intercourfe. The whole race is fo male¬
volent, as conftantly to rejeft all fociety with one another.
They will fight, kill, and devour each other. The fe¬
male (hows little affe&ion even for her young } for if
any perfon digs into the hole, (he attempts to fave herfelf
by burrowing deeper into the earth, leaving them a prey
to the intruder. They would willingly follow her, but
Ihe is deaf to their cries, and even {huts up againft them
the hole which (lie has made. They feed on grain and
fruits, which they colled in large quantities in their
granaries j and in fome countries they do fo much
damage among the corn, that a confiderable reward is
offered for deftroying them. According to Mr Sultzer,
they abound to fuch a degree in Gotha, that in one year
11,564, in another 54,429, and in a third 80,136 of
their Ikins were delivered in at the hotel de ville of that
capital.
The life of a hamfter (fays Buffon) is divided be¬
tween eating and fighting. He feems to have no other
pafiion than that of rage, which induces him to attack
every animal that comes in his way, without in the
leaft attending to the fuperior-ftrength of the enemy.
Ignorant of the art of faving himfelf by flight, rather
than yield, he will allow himfelf to be beaten to pieces
with a flick. If he feizes a man’s hand, he muft be
Part I]
killed before he quits his hold. The magnitude of the Glires.
horfe terrifies him as little as the addrefs of the
dog, which laft is fond of hunting him. When the
hamfter perceives a dog at a diftance, he begins by
emptying his cheek pouches, if they happen to be filled
with grain. He then blows them up fo prodigioufly,
that the fize of the head and neck greatly exceeds that
of the reft of the body. He raifes himfclf on his hind legs,
and thus darts upon the enemy. If he catches hold, he
never quits it, but with the lofs of life. But the dog
generally feizes him behind, and ftrangles him. This
ferocious difpofition prevents the hamfter from being at
peace with any animal whatever. He even makes war
againft his own fpecies, not excepting the females.
When two hamfters meet, they never fail to attack
each other, and the ftronger always devours the weaker.
A combat between a male and a female commonly lafts
longer than between two males. They begin by pur-
fuing and biting each other •, then each of them retires
to a fide, as if to take breath ; a little after they renew
the combat, and continue t« fly and to fight till one of
them falls. The vanquilhed uniformly ferves for a re-
paft to the conqueror.
m
Genus 30. HyDROMYS (f). Hydromy
Cutting teeth two in each jaw j canine $ grinders two
in each row, furrowed on the fide, and having a
double excavation on the crown. Feet five-toed 5
toes on the fore feet three •, thofe on the hind web¬
bed. Tail round, and covered with fliort hair.
This is a newr genus, conftituted by Geoffrey to com¬
prehend the coypou, which is commonly ranked as a
fpecies of tnus^ and two other fpecies that had not been
deferibed.
His account of the genus is contained in the fixth
volume of the Annales de Mufeuin National) and a
tranflation of his memoir is given in the 22d volume of
the Philoiophical Magazine.
The three fpecies are thus diftinguifhed by Geoffrey.
I. H. CoypuS) Coypou H. Hair chefnut brown on
the back, red on the flanks, and bright brown below
the belly.—2. Yellow-bellied H. Hair
chefnut brown above, orange below.—3. H. Leucoga-
Jlei') White-bellied H. Hair brown above, white be¬
low. . . n»
1. H. CoypuS) Coypou, or Coypu Rat.—This curi-f0^Wj
ous animal was firft deferibed by Molina, who fpeaksCcmpou
of it as a fpecies of water rat, of the fize and colour of^*11,
an otter. According to Geoffroy, it is a large animal, ^
being about 14 inches from nofe to tail, with a tail
about two inches long. The general tint of the hair
on the back is a chefnut brown. This colour be¬
comes brighter on the flanks, and paffes to bright red ;
under the belly it is only a dirty and almoft dark ruf-
fet. Yet this colour is fufficiently changeable accord¬
ing to the manner in which the coypou raifes or lowers
its hair. This mobility in the tone-of its fur arifes from
each hair being of an afti-coloured brown at the root,
and bright red at the point. The felt concealed under
MAMMALIA.
(f) Geoffroy choofes to fpell this word hydromis ; but we have thought the orthography that we adopt more
conformable to the Greek origin of the name, viz. vfyfivs, ox water-rat.
(ap.1V. MAMM
jires. the long hair is an afh brown, of a brighter tint under
w belly. The long hair on the back has the points
only reddidi, and that on the flanks is of the latter co¬
lour throughout the half of its length.
As in all animals which go frequently into the water,
the hair of the tail is thin, flrort, ftiff, and of a dirty
red colour: in its naked parts it is fcaly. The contour
of the mouth and extremity of the muzzle are white.
The whilkers, which are long and ftiff, are alfo white,
fome black hairs excepted. Among the great number
of fkins which form part of the colledfion of M. Bechem,
M. Geoffroy faw fome belonging to animals which had
no doubt been affli&ed with the albine difeafe •, in one
of thefe the filky hairs were entirely ruffet, fo that the
back appeared of the fame tint as the Tides and the
belly j in another, the dorfal ftripe, inftead of being
chefnut, had palled entirely to a red colour, the flanks
being of a very pale red. He could not believe that
thefe varieties, on the one hand, were the character of
youth or of the female, becaufe thefe accidents were
rare, confidering the great number of fkins which he
examined ; and, on the other, becaufe IVT. d Azzara
has exprefsly told us that the female is entirely fimilar
to the male.
Molina and d’Azzara agree in regard to the mild
qualities by which the coypou is diftinguifhed. It eats
every thing given to it. It may be eafily tamed, and
foon becomes accuftomed to the ftate of domefticity. It
is never heard to cry but when harfhly ufed } it then
emits a piercing cry. The female produces five young,
which (he always carries with her.
The coypou is very common in the provinces of Chili,
Buenos Ayres, and Tucuman. On the other hand, it
is rarely found in Paraguay.
.jlomys. Genus 31. ArCTOMYS. MARMOTS.
Front teeth two in each jaw, ftrong, fliarp, and wedged.
Grinders in the upper jaw five on each fide ; in the
lower jaw four. Clavicles or collar bones in the
fkeleton.
This genus differs in very few particulars from that
ef mut. The marmots are of a thick form, with large,
roundiih, and fomewhat flattened heads, fmall mouths,
the fiffure having fomewhat of a perpendicular appear¬
ance \ ears very fhort, and fometimes none; a fhort
villous tail, and five-toed hind feet : the fkeleton is
furnifhed with clavicles or collar-bones, and the ccecum
or appendicular inteftine is very large. They are diur¬
nal animals ; feed on roots and grain, refide in fubterra-
neous holes or burrows, and fleep during the winter.
There are eight fpecies, viz.
1. A. Marmota, Alpine M. Brown, reddifli be¬
neath.— 2. A. Monax, Maryland M. Rufty brown,
with bluifti gray fnout, and longifh villous tail.—3.
A. Empetra, Quebec M. Gray, waved with darker
and lighter fhades, reddifti below', with dufky tail.—
4. A. Bobac, Bobac. Gray, reddifh below, with a
thumb claw on the fore feet.—5. A. Brmnofa, Hoary
M. Hoary, with black legs and tail.—6. A. Mau/wa,
Mauline M. Tail of middling length ; ears fharp-
pointed, and feet five-toed.—7. d. Gutuh, Gundi M.
Reddiili, with abruptly terminated ears.—8. A. Citillus,
Variegated M. Earlefs, with villous tail.
i. A. Mar met a, Alpine M.—This animal is ratheY
ALIA. S°7
larger than a rabbit, being about 16 inches long, eX‘ spexles.
clufive of the tail, which meafures about 6 inches. Its
head is rather large and flattifh } the ears fhort and hid- r2i^
den in the fur, and the tail thick and bulky. Mannota,
It is a native of the Alps and Pyrenees, being moft ^
frequently found in Savoy and Switzerland, where h
inhabits the higher regions, and feeds on various roots,
plants, infefts, See. It climbs readily, and afeends
with eafe the rocky eminences and fiffures.
It is an animal which delights in the regions of high
mountains. In fuch fituations feveral individuals unite
in forming a place of retreat, which is contrived with
great art, and confifts of an oval cavity or general
receptacle, large enough to contain feveral of the
animals, and having a large canal or pallage, which
divaricates in fuch a manner as to prefent two outlets
to the furface of the ground. Thefe receffes are prepared
on the declivity of elevated fpots j and the cavern or
receptacle is well lined with mofs and hay, which they
prepare during fummer, as if confcious of the neceflity
of providing for their long hybernal fleep. In fine
weather they are feen fporting about the neighbourhood
of their burrow's, and delight in bafking in the funfhine,
frequently affuming an upright pofture, fitting on their
hind feet. When affembled in this manner, it is
obferved, that one of the exterior number feems to aft
as a fentinel; and, on the approach of any danger,
alarms the fraternity by a loud fhriil whiffle, on which
they inftantly retire to their cavern. I hefe animals
make no provifion for w'inter; but as foon as the
autumnal frofts commence, they carefully flop up the
entrances to their manfions, and gradually fall into a
ftate of torpidity, in which they continue till the arrival
of fpring, when they again awake, and recommence
their excurfions. Before they retire to their winter
quarters they are obferved to grow excefiively fat j and,
on the contrary, appear greatly emaciated on firft
emerging from them. If carefully dug up during the
winter, from their holes, they may be conveyed away
in their fleeping ftate ; and when brought into a warm
chamber, gradually awaken, nearly in the fame manner
as the hamfter. If kept in a warm fituation, they do
not become torpid in winter. They breed early in
fummer, and the litter commonly confifts of three or
four, the growth of which is obferved to be very rapid.
When taken young, the marmot may be eafily tamed,
and is often taught to perform various gefticulation?.
In a domeftic ftate it will alfo eat almoft any kind of
animal or vegetable food, and is extremely fond of milk.
In feeding it generally fits in an upright pofition, mak¬
ing ufe of its paws in the manner of a fquirrel.
Genus 32. SciURUS. SQUIRRELS. Sciurus.
Upper front teeth wedged ; lower (harp. Upper grind¬
ers five on each fide, lower four. Clavicles. Tail
in moft fpecies fpreading towards each fide.
The beautiful animals which compofe this genus are
remarkable for the livelinefs of their difpofition, the ra¬
pidity of their movements, and the general neatnefsand
elegance of their appearance. A few of the fpecies are
furniftied with an expanfile lateral fkin, fimilar to that
in the calugo, by means of which they are enabled to
fpring to a great diftance, and to tranfport themfelves
occafiomfily from tree to tree. Like the calugo, they can-
3 S 2 not.
508
Hiftory of not, however, continue this motion, and are therefore
{be Species improperly called flying fquirrels. The fquirrels inha-
v bit woods, and prepare their nefts in hollow trees.
They live entirely on vegetable food.
There are 26 fpeeies, viz.
A. Notflripcd.
i. S. Maximus, Great S. Rudy, yellowilh below,
with the outfi.des of the f'mbs and tail black.—2. 6’. Ma-
dagafcaricnfls, Madagafcar S. Black, with the nofe,
ears, and under parts yellowilh white, and very long ta¬
pering tail.—3. S. Macrourus, Long-tailed S. Dark
brown, yellowi(h white below, with the tail twice the
length of the body.—4, S. Bicolor, Javan S. Black-
ilh, fulvous below', with pointed beardlefs ears, and
large rounded thumb claw.—5. S. Anomalus, Geor¬
gian S. Dulky rufty, with tail and lower parts ful¬
vous, and rounded beardlefs ears.—6. S. Erythrceus,
Ruddy S. Yellowiih brown, with the under parts and
tail red rufty, and ciliated ears.— 7. .S’. Indicus, Bom¬
bay S. Purple brown •, yellow below' ; tip of the tail
orange-coloured.—-8. * S. Vulgaris, Common S. Red-
diftr brown, white below, with pencilled ears.—9.
.S’. Cmereus, Gray S. Afh-coloured, white below, with
beardlefs ears.—10. S. Niger, Black S. Black, with
beardlefs ears.—11. S. Hudjbnius, Hudfon’s Bay S.
Iron gray, daftied with rufty. whitifh below, with dulky
ftde-ftripe, and lance-(haped tail edged with black.—
12. S. Perflcus, Perfian S. Dulky, yellow below, with
white lides, beardlefs ears, and blackilh gray tail, with
a white band 13. S. Flavus, Fair S. Yellow, with
roundith ears and five-toed feet.—14. S. JEfluans, Bra-
filian S. Dulky ; yellow below, with longitudinal white
ftripe in the middle.
B. Striped or variegated.
15. S. Variegatus, Coquallin S. Ruftyifh, orange-
tawney below, with the upper parts varied crofswife
with black, brown, and whitilh.—16. S. Mexit anus,
Mexican S. Alh brown, with five or feven longitudi¬
nal white ftripes.—17. 5. Getulus, Barbary S. Brown,
with four longitudinal white ftripes.—18. S. Palmarum,
Palm S. Brown, pale below, marked above with three
longitudinal ydlowith ftripes, and the tail with blackifh
ones.— sp. S. Ginginianus, Gingi S. Gray brown,
with a longitudinal white ftripe on each fide, and black-
Hh tail.— 20. S. Degus, Chilian S. Yellowilh brown,
with a black ftripe on each Ihoulder.— 21. S. Striatus,
Striped S. Yellowilh brown, with five longitudinal
blackilh ftripes.
C. Flying Squirrels.
22. S. Volans, Common-flying S. Pale gray, white
below, with the fide fkin dilated into a flying mem¬
brane.—23. -S’. Volucella, Virginian flying S. Brown,
yellowifh white below, with a dying membrane.-—24.
S. Sabrinus, Severn flying S. Rufty brown, yellowilh
white below, with flattilh villous tail.—25. S. Sagitta ?
Hooded flying S. Rufty brown, pale rufty below, with
the flying membrane commencing on each fide of the
head.—26. S. Petaurifla, Taguan S. Cbefnut-colour-
116 ed •, pale rufty beneath, with very long, round, taper-
Vulgaris, villous tail.
Squirrel'1 8- S. Vulgaris, Common Squirrel.—The tail of this
jig, 57. fpecies is long enough to cover the whole body, and is
M A M M ALIA. PartI[
covered with long hairs, difpofed on each fide horizon¬
tally, which gives it a great breadth. Thefe ferve a
double purpofe. When creficd, they prove a fecure
proteftion from the injuries of heat or cold : When ex¬
tended, they are very inftrumental in promoting thofe
vaft leaps the fquirrel takes from tree to tree. On the
authority of Klein and Linnaeus, we may add a third
application of the form of the tail. Thefe naturalifts-
tell us, that when the fquirrel is difpoied to crois a ri¬
ver, a piece of bark is the boat, the tail the fail.
This animal is remarkably neat, lively, a£Hve, and
provident, never leaves its food to chance, but fecures
in fome hollow’ tree a vaft magazine of nuts for winter
provifion. In the fummer it feeds on the buds and
young (hoots, and is particularly fond of thofe of the fir
and pine, and alfo of the young cones. It makes its
neft of mofs or dry leaves, between the fork of two
branches, and bririgs forth four or five young at a.time.
Squirrels are in heat early in thefpring, when it is very
diverting to lee the female feigning an elcape from the
purfuit of two or three males, to obferve the various
proofs they give of their agility, which is then exerted
in full force.
The colour of the whole head, body, tail, and legs
of this animal, is a bright reddilh brown : the belly
and bread white. In fome parts of Wales there is a
variety of the fquirrel kind, with a cream-coloured tail.
The ears are very beautifully ornamented with long
tufts of hair, of a deeper colour than thofe of the body.
The eyes are large, black, and lively. The fore teeth
ftrong, (harp, and well adapted to its food. The legs
are ftiort and mufcular j the toes long and divided to
their origin : the nails ftrong and (harp 5 in fhort, in
all refpedts fitted for climbing, or clinging to the fmall-
efi: boughs. On the fore feet it has only four toes, with
a claw in the place of the thumb or interior toe : on the
hind feet there are five toes. When it eats or drefies
itfelf, it fits ereff, covering the body with its tail, and
making ufe of the fore legs as hands. It is obferved
that the gullet of this animal is very narrow, to prevent
it from difgorging its food, in defeending of trees, or in
down leaps.
In northern climates thefe animals change their co¬
lour to gray on the approach of winter } and it is lingu¬
lar that this change will take place, even though they
are kept in the warmth of a ftove.
Genus 33. Myoxus. DORMICE.
Front teeth two *, upper v’edged, lower comprefled.
Grinders four in each jaw. Whilkers long. Tail
cylindric, villous, thicker towards the end. Legs of
equal length j fore feet four-toed.
There are feven fpecies, viz.
1. M. Gits, Fat D. Gray, whitilh below'.—2. M.
Nitela, Garden D. Rufous, grayilh white below, with
a black mark above the eyes and behind the ears.—
3. M. Dryas, Wood D. Grayifh rufous, whitilh be¬
low, with a ftraight black Itripe acrols the eyes to the
ears.—4. * M. Muflcardinus, Common D. Rufous,
with whitilh throat, and the thumbs of the bind feet
without claws.—5. M. Gilt-tailed D. Purp-
lilh brown, with the hind part of the tail and longitu¬
dinal ftripe on the head gold yellow.—6. M. Gutrlin-
gus} Guerlinguet D. Rufty, yellowilh rufous beneath,
with.
Glir
127
Myoxus.
Ihap-
Girt-
iiS
[uferdi-
,, Cum-
3n Dor-
ouf •
g's8-
IV. M A M M
with long rather depreffed tapering tail.—7. M- Afn-
canus, African D. Rudy gray, whitiflr below, with a
white fuperciliary and lateral line ; tail black in the
middle, and claws on the fore feet very long.
4. M. Mufcardinus, Common D.—The fize of the
dormoufe is equal to that of a moufe, but has a plumper
appearance, and the nofe is blunter j the eyes are large,
black, and prominent j the ears broad, rounded, thin,
and femitranfparent. The fore feet are furnithed with
fair toes, the hind feet with five j but the interior toes
of the hind feet are deilitute of nails. The tail is about
two inches and a half 3ong, covered on every fide with
hair : the head, back, fides, belly, and tail, are of a
tawney red colour-, the throat.white.
Thefe animals feldom appear far from their retreats,
or in any open place, for which reafon they leem lefs
common in England than they really are. They make
their nefts of grafs, mofs, and dead leaves, and ufually
bring forth three or four young at a time.
This animal agrees with the fquirrel with refpedl to
its food, refidence, and in many of its adlions j but it
wants much of the fprightlinefs of this animal, never
afpiring to the tops of trees, nor, like it, attempting to
bound from fpray to fpray. Like the fquirrel, it forms
little magazines of nuts for winter provifion, takes its
food in the fame manner, and fame upright pofture.
The confumption during the rigour of the feafon is but
fmall, for it fleeps mold part of the time, retiring into
its hole at the firid approach of the winter, where it lies
torpid for the greateld part of that gloomy feafon. In
that fpace it fometimes experiences a Ihort revival, in a
warm funny day, when it takes a little food, and then
relapfes into its former Rate.
Genus 34. Dipus. Jerboa.
)ipUS' Front teeth two both above and below. Fore legs very
Ihort ; hind legs very long. Clavicles.
There are fix fpecies, viz.
1. D. Sagitla, Common Jerboa.—Pale brown, white
beneath, with extremely long three-toed hind feet, and
very long tail, with fubpinnated black and white tip.—
2. D. Jacu/us, Alagtaga J. Pair brown-, white below,
with extremely long five-toed hind feet, and very long
tail, with fubpinnated black and white tip.—3-D. Ca-
fer. Cape J.. Rufty, pale alh.coloured below, with
five-toed fore feet, four toed hind feet, and very vil¬
lous tail, tipped with black.—4. D. Meridianus, Tor¬
rid J. Yellowifti brown, white below, with about four
toes on the fore feet and five-toed hind feet, and taper¬
ing tail.—5. Z). Tamaricinus, Tamarifk J. Yellow-
ilh brown -, white below-, with about four toes on the
fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and tapering tail obfcure-
ly ringed with brown.—6. D. Canadenjis, Canadian J.
Yellowith brown, whitifh below, with four-toed fore
feet, five-toed hind feet, the tail long and moufe-
like.
Sa%:ttn, I- So^itta, Common J.—This animal appears to
t !noii have been known to the ancients, under the name of
kxboa. Sittcvi;, or two footed moufe, and is reprefented,
Js 59' though not very corredlly, on fome coins of Cyrene,
where it is found in great abundance. Bv fome it is
fuppo'ed to be \\ie fopknn of the facred writings (in our
tranfiation rendered coney), though this is denied by Mr
Bruce. It is found in Egypt, Barbary, Palelline, in
up
ALIA. 5C9
the deferts between Baffora and Aleppo; the fandy Riftory ot
trafts between the Don and Volga, and fome other ^ Spec.c .
parts of Afia. M. bonmm has given a long account of ■“"’■’V-
it, as he found it in Egypt, and from this we lhall ex-
tradl the following delcription.
“ Its fize is nearly equal to that of a large rat. Its
head is broad, large in proportion to the body, the up¬
per part flat, and of a light-fawn colour, Itriped w-ith
black ; the upper jaw projects beyond the lower : they
are both provided with two cutting teeth ; the upper
ones broad, fquare, flat, and divided lengthwife by a
groove in the middle ; the lower ones longer, convex
externally, pointed at the extremity, and bent in¬
wards. The muzzle is ftiort, wide, and obtuie j a num¬
ber of ftiff hairs grow out on each fide, and form long
whilkers. The nofe is white, bare, and cartilaginous.
The iris of its large and projedling eye is brown 5 the
ears long, large, and covered with hair, fo ftiort that
they appear naked except on very clofe infpedtion 5 ex¬
ternally they are white in the lower part, and gray up¬
wards : their middle, as well as the fides of the head,
is of a very light-fawn colour, mixed with gray and
black : they entirely turround the meatus auditorius lor
about one-third of their length, fo that they exactly re-
fernble the larger end of a cone. This conformation
tnuft increafe the animal’s faculty of hearing, and is
particularly well calculated to deiend the inner part of
the organ from the extraneous fubftances that might
lodge there. The body is ftiort, well provided with
long, foft, filky hair -, that which covers the back and
fides is of an aftr colour throughout almoft the whole of
its length, and of a light fawn colour where it ap¬
proaches the points, which are black 5 but as the afti-
coloured part is not vifibie, it may be faid that the fur
is fawn-coloured, with blackifli zigzag ftripes. Ihefe
tints, which are fomewhat dufky, form an agreeable
contrail with the fine w hite of the belly'. 1 he fore legs
are fo fliort that they fcarcely extend beyond the hair :
they are white, and have five toes, the inner of which
is fliort, rounded at the end, and has no nail. The
four other toes, the fecond outtr one of which is the
longeft, are long, and armed with great hooked nails,
the heel is very high, and the middle of the foot is na¬
ked and of a ilefli colour. Thefe fore feet are of no ule
to the animal in walking, but ferve him only to lay
hold of his food, and to cany it to his mouth, as alfo
to dig his fubterraneous abode. The hind legs are co¬
vered with long hair, fawn-coloured and white j its
long feet are almoil entirely bare, tfpecially on the out-
fide, which muff neeefiarily be the cafe, fince the ani¬
mal, whether in motion or at reft, conftantjy leans on
that part. Thofe feet, fo exceedingly long, have each
three toes j the middle one fomething longer than the
other two : they are all provided with nails, which are
fliort, but broad and obtufe j they have alfo at the heel
a kind of ipur, or rather a very fmall rudiment of a
fourth toe, which gives the jerboa of Egypt feme refem-
blance to the alagtaga of Tartary, deferibedby Gmelin
in the Peterfburgh Tranla&ions, and which part proba¬
bly efcaped Haffelquift, as well as many others. The
toes and the heel are furnifhed below with long gray
hairs tinged v'ith yellow, ex< ■ pt that at the origin of
the toes, which is of a black.fh caff the nails, both of
the fore and hind feet, are of a dirty white. Accord¬
ing to Haft'elquift; the tail of the jerboa is three times
th&o
Sio
Hi (lory of the length of the body. I never, fays Sonnini, found it
the Species, more than half that length. It fcarcely exceeds
the circumference of a goofe quill, but is of a quadran¬
gular and not a round fhape. It is of a deeper gray
above than below, and is furnifhed with fliort hairs as
far as the extremity, which ends in a tuft of long lilky
* Sonnini's hair, half black and half gray
Travels in This animal is as Angular in its motions as in its
MAMMALIA.
Egypt.
131
Lepus.
13*
Timidus,
Common
Hare.
Fiff. Go.
form. It always ftands ere£t on its hind feet, the fore
feet performing thq office of hands. It runs faft, and,
when purfued, jumps five or fix feet from the ground j
burrows like rabbits j keeps , clofe in the day j fleeps
rolled up •, is lively during night 5 when taken, emits a
plaintive feeble note ; feeds on vegetables, and has
great ftrength in its fore feet. Two which Mr Pen¬
nant faw living in London, burrowed almoft through
the brick wall of the room they were in, came out of
their hole at night for food, and, when caught, were
much fatter and fieeker than when confined to their
box.
The jerboa is eafily tamed. M. Sonnini kept fix of
them for fome time in a large iron cage, but found it
was very difficult to preferve them, owing to their great
tendernefs.
Genus 35. Lepus. Hares and Rabbits.
Front teeth two in each jaw, the upper pair duplicate j
two fmall inner teeth ftanding behind the outer.
This genus approaches very nearly to the order of
Pecora, and it has even been fuppofed that the com¬
mon hare aftually ruminates j an opinion which is ow¬
ing not merely to the peculiar motions of its mouth, fi-
milar to thofe in ruminating animals, but to the llruc-
ture of the ftomach, which appears to be divided into
two regions by a particular fold. All the fpecies are
herbivorous.
There are 12 fpecies, viz.
1. * L. Timidus, Common H. Rufiyiffi brown, fliort-
tailed, with ears longer than the head and tipped with
black.—2. * L. Variabilis, Varying H. Tawney-gray,
fhort-tailed, (white in winter) with ears ftiorter than the
head, and tipped with black.—3. L. Americanus, A-
merican H. Tawney-gray, ffiort tailed, white below,
with the hind legs longer than the body, and the ears
and tail tipped with gray.—4. L. Tolai, Baikal H.
Pale brown, ffiort-tailed, with the upper edges of the
ears black.—5. * L. Cuniculus, Rabbit. Short-tailed,
brown, with the tips of the ears black, and the hind
legs ffiorter than the body.—6. L. Braxilietifis, Brazi¬
lian H. Taillefs, brown, white below, with a white
collar round the neck.—7. L. Capenjis, Cape H. Brown,
with reddiffi legs, and tail the length of the head.—
8. L. Vifaccia, Vifaccia. Browniffi, with long briftly
tail.— 9. L. A/pinus, Alpine H. Taillefs, rufty, with
rounded ears and browniffi feet.—10. L. Ogotana, O-
gotana H. Taillefs, pale brown, with oval fharpiffi
ears of the fame colour.— II. L. Pufillus, Calling H.
Taillefs, gray-brown, with nearly triangular ears edged
with white.—12. L. Minimus, Minute H. Short-tail-
ed, brown, long-nofed, with fmall hairy pointed ears.
I. L. Timiaus, Common H.—To deferibe an animal
fo well known would be fuperfluous j we may only re¬
mark, that nature, ever kind and provident, in pity to
its defencelefs ftate againft its numerous enemies, has
4
beftowed on it many faculties, by which it is frequent¬
ly enabled to evade their purfuit. Fearful of every
danger, and attentive to every alarm, the hare is conti¬
nually upon the watch, and being provided with very
long ears, moveable at pleafure, and eafily dire&ed to
every quarter, is warned of the moft diftant approaches
of danger. Its eyes are large and prominent, adapted
to receive the rays of light on every fide, and give no¬
tice of more immediate alarms. To thefe may be add¬
ed its great fwiftnefs, by which it foon leaves moft of
its purfuers far behind.—-The hind are much longer
than the fore legs, and are furniffied with ftrong muf-
cles, which give the hare a fingular advantage in run-
ning up a hill; and, as if fenfible of its pow ers in this
refpeft, it is always obferved to fly towards rifing ground
when firft flatted.
Thus formed for efcape, the hare might be fuppofed to
enjoy a ftate of tolerable fecurity; but as every rapaci¬
ous creature is its enemy, it is feldom permitted to live
out its natural term. Dogs and foxes purfue it by in-
ftindt j wild cats and weafels of all kinds, catch and
devour it; birds of prey are ftill more dangerous ene¬
mies, whilft man, far more powerful than all, makes
ufe of every artifice to obtain an animal which confti-
tutes one of the numerous delicacies of his table. If
we were to enumerate the various ftratagems which in¬
genuity has fuggefted to circumvent this perfecuted
creature, we would willingly omit the notable atchieve-
ments and gallant exploits of the chafe, which, to a
cool and difpaffionate obferver, feem to demand a no¬
bler game. This animal has alfo another means of fafety
from her colour very much refembling that of the
ground where flie fits. In the colder regions ffie is faid
to become white during the winter, when the ground is
covered with fnow.
The hare is very prolific, breeds four or five times in
the year, goes with young 30 days, and generally pro¬
duces three or four at a litter. They are firft in heat
about February. Hares generally keep within their
feats during the day, going out only at night in fearch
of food, and they always return to their forms by the
fame paths by which they left them.
The following inftance of the fagacity of the hare,
in endeavouring to efcape from its enemies, are quoted
by Mr Bewick. Touilloux fays, he has feen a hare
ftart from its form at the found of the hunter’s horn,
run towards a pool of water at a confiderable diftance,
plunge itfelf in, and fwim to fome ruffies in the middle,
where it lay down, and concealed itfelf from the pur¬
fuit of the dogs. He mentions another, which, after
running two hours before the dogs, puffied a hare from
its feat, and took polfeffion of it. Others he has feen
run into a ffieepfold, and lie down among the (beep ;
and fome have effected their efcape by mounting an old
wall, and clapping themfelves down in the midft of the
ivy which covered it.
The hare has been fometimes tamed, and rendered
very familiar. When Dr Townfon was at Gottingen,
he had a young hare that became fo frolicfome in the
evenings, as to run about upon the fofa and bed, fit
upon its hind legs, and pat him with its fore feet 5 and
while he was reading, it would even knock the book
out of his hand. Mr Borlafe faw a hare that was fo fa¬
miliar as to feed from the hand, lay under a chair in a
common fitting room, and appeared, in every other re-
fpeft,
Part I]
Glires,
IV. M A M M A L I A.
fpeft, as eafy and comfortable in its fituation as a lap-
dog. It now and then went out into the garden •, but
after regaling itfelf, always returned to the houfe as its
proper habitation. Its ufual companions were a grey¬
hound and a fpaniel, both fo fond of hare hunting, that
they often went out together without any perfon ac¬
companying them. With thefe two dogs this tame hare
fpent its evenings ; they always flept on the fame
hearth, and very frequently it would reft itfelf upon
Chap. V. PECORA.
Genus 37. Camelus. CAMELS.
511
Hiftory of
the Species.
Horns wanting. Front teeth in the lower jaw fix *, ra¬
ther thin and broad. Canine teeth diftant, three in
the upper jaw, two in the lower. Upper lip di¬
vided.
them. -
The fur of the hare is ufed for hats; and for this pur-
pofe many thoufands of their fleins are imported into
this country from liufiia, befides what are colletted
m here*
hunlcUiuu 5- Cuniculus, the Rabbit.—Refpe&ing an animal
Ubbit. fo well known as the rabbit, we (hall remark only, that
its fecundity is truly aftonilhing. It breeds feven times
in the year, and generally produces eight young at a
time. Hence it is calculated, that the produce of a
fingle pair may, in the courfe of four years, amount to
the amazing number of 1,274.840, fo that if frequent
reductions w ere not made by various ways, there is rea-
fon to apprehend that they would foon exceed the
means of their fupport, and overrun the face of the
country. They are, however, expofed to numerous
enemies. Befides the havock made among them by
man for their flelh and fkins, which latter are alfo ufed
in the manufacture of hats, they are the prey of foxes,
weafels, polecats, and other beafts of prey.
The rabbit is often kept in a domeftic ftate ; but the
flefti of the domeftic rabbit is far inferior to that of the
wild animal.
tfyraxl5 Genus 36. HyRAX. HrEAX, or DAMAN.
Front teeth in the upper jaw two, broad, and rather
diftant; in the lower four, broad, flat, twice notch¬
ed. Grinders four on each fide in both jaws, large.
Fore feet four-toed ; hind feet three-toed. No tail
or clavicles.
There are three fpecies, viz.
I. H. Capenjis, Cape H. Gray brown, paler be¬
low, with flat nails on the fore feet, and a fingle fliarp
crooked claw on the hind feet.—2. H. Syriacus, Sy¬
rian H. Reddifli gray, white below, wuth three-toed
feet, and nearly equal claws.—3. H. Hudfomus, Hud-
fon’s bay H. Afti brown, with the hair whitilh at the
tips, and all the feet four-toed.
* A long account is given of the fecond fpecies in Mr
Bruce’s Travels to Abyflinia. Mr Bruce calls it
ajkokoy and fuppofes it to be the faphan or coney of
the facred writings. For his defeription we muft refer
to the work itfelf.
This order contains 11 genera and 124 fpecies.
There are ufually enumerated feven fpecies, viz.
1. C. Dromedarius, Arabian C. With a fingle
bunch on the back.— 2. C. Battnanus, BaClrian C. With
two bunches on the back.—3. C. G/ama, Glama. Pale
rufty, whitilh below, with level back and pectoral
bunch.—4. C. Vicugna, Vicuna. Purplilh brown, whit¬
ilh below, with level woolly back, blunt fnout, and up¬
right tail.—5. C. Paco, Paco. Purplilh brown, wool¬
ly, white below, with oblong fnout.—6. C. Huanacus,
Guanaco. Tawney, white below, with gibbous back,
and upright tail.—7. C. Arcuranus, Chilihuque. With
fmooth woolly body, curved fnout, and pendulous ears
and tail.
I. C. Dromedarius, Arabian Camel. Dromedary. A Dromedary,
fingle bunch on the back.—i-This fpecies is thus deferib-o Arabian
ed by Dr Shaw. Camel.
The general height of the Arabian camel, meafuredFlS* 62‘
from the top of the dorfal bunch to the ground, is about
fix feet and a half; but from the top of the head, when
the animal elevates it, not lefs than nine feet. The
head, however, is generally fo carried as to be nearly
on a level with the bunch, or rather below it, the ani¬
mal bending the neck extremely in its general pofture.
The head is fmall ; the neck very long : the body of a
long and meagre thape ; the legs rather flender, and
the tail, which is flightly tufted at the end, reaches to
the joints of the hind legs. The feet are very large,
and are hoofed in a peculiar ftyle, being divided into
two lobes not reaching through the whole length of the
foot; and the extremity of each lobe is guarded by a
fmall hoof. The under part of the foot is covered with
an extremely ftrong, tough, and pliable fkin, which,
by yielding in all dire&ions, enables the animal to tra¬
vel with peculiar eafe and fecurity, over dry, ftony, and
fandy regions. On each leg are fix callofities, viz. one
on each knee, one on the infide of each fore leg on the
upper joint, and one on the infide of each hind leg at
the bottom of the thigh. On the lower part of the
breaft is alfo a large callus or tough tubercle (g).
The camel is generally of a dufky-brown colour, with
a rufty tinge.
Its hair is very fine and foft, and is employed in
making pencils for painters, and in the manufacture of
various fluffs.
This
(g) It was formerly fuppofed that, befides the four ftomachs common to all ruminating animals, the camel had
a fort of fifth ftomach or appendage to the fecond ftomach, calculated for receiving a large quantity of water to •
fupply the animal in his long journeys over the deferts. There is no fuch receptacle: but in the firft, and more
efpecially the fecond ftomach, there are feveral rows of cells, furnilhed round their edges with ftrong mufcular
fibres, by which they can be clofed at pleafure. Into thefe cells part of the water which the camel drinks, is, by
a peculiar mechanifm, received, and retained, in a pure ftate, till the animal has occafion for it. In an intereft-
ing paper on this fubjeft in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for 1806, Mr Home has given a compaxativa view of
the ftru&ure of the ftomachs in the ox and the camel, illuftr^d by plates.
512 M A M M ALTA.
Hiftary of This animal attains its full ftrength at about the age
the species.0f fix years, and lives about 40 years, or fometimes 50.
Only the males are ufually employed for labour j the
femtles being kept for breeding, and fuffered to range
at liberty. Thefe go with young about 12 months, and
ufually bring forth one at a time.
1 he camel is found wild in the deferts of Arabia, in
Africa, and in molt of the temperate parts of Alia. It
is domefticated chiefly among the Arab's, of whom it
forms the principal riches.
We are chiefly acquainted with this animal in a Rate
of domeftication ; and to this Hate only the accounts
that have been given of him are applicable. A few
days after birth the legs of the young camels are fold¬
ed up below' their belly, and they are conftrained to
remain in this polition On the ground, and are loaded
with a pretty heavy weight, which is never taken off
but to replace it by a greater. Inftead of allowing
them to feed and drink at pleafure, they begin by regu¬
lating their repafts, and increafing the intervals between
them, and diminilliing the quantity of their nourifli-
ment. When they have acquired a little more ftrength
they are exercifed in running, in which they ajre exci¬
ted to emulation by the example of horfes; and thus in
time they become both robuft and aftive.
Thus inltru£ted, the camels traverfe with great rapi¬
dity the immenfe deferts of Arabia, marching night
and day almoft without Hopping, and almoH without
taking food or drink. They are often made with ap¬
parent eafe to travel 300 leagues in eight days j and
during the whole of this time they are allowed but one
hour of the day for repofe, and for npurilhment: often
they will run for even nine or ten days without finding
water; but when they happen to find water at feme
diilance in their route, if permitted, they eagerly make
towards it, and are faid to fcent it at more than half a
league’s diflance.
1 he march of camels acrofs the fandy plains of Ara¬
bia has been elegantly defcribed by Buffon. “ Figure
to yourfelf (fays this animated writer) a country with¬
out verdure and without water, a burning fun, an air
always parched, fandy plains, mountains Hill more
aduff, which the eye runs over without perceiving an
animated being ; a dead earth perpetually toffed with
the wind, and prefenting nothing but bones, fcattered
flints, rocks perpendicular or overturned 5 a defert to¬
tally void, where the traveller never breathes under a
fhade, where nothing accompanies him, nothing recals
the idea of animated nature ; abfolute folitude, more
dreadful than that of the deepeft forefls : more folita-
tary and naked, more lofl in an unlimited wild, he
every where beholds fpace furrounding him like a
tomb • the light of day, more difmal than the dark-
nefs of night, ferves only to give him a clear idea of
hrs own wretchednefs and impotence, and to conceal
from his view the boundaries of the void, by extend¬
ing around him that immenfe abyfs, which ftparates
him from the habitable parts of the earth.
The Arab, however, by the afliHance of his ca¬
mel, has learned to turoiount, and even to appropriate
th 'e frightful intervals of nature. They ierve him
for an alylum, they fecure his repofe, and maintain
hii independence ; but man never ufes any thing with¬
out abufe. I his fame tree, independent, tranquil, and
©ven rich Arab, inHead of regarding his deferts as
the ramparts of his liberty, pollutes them with his
crimes j he traverfes them to carry off goods and Haves
.rom the adjacent nations } he employs them for per¬
petrating his robberies, which unluckily he enjoys
more than his liberty, tor his enterpriies are alrnoft al¬
ways fuccefsful ; notwithflanding the vigilance of his
neighbours and ih; fuperiorty of their ffrength, he car¬
ries off with impunity all that he ravilhes from them.
An Arab who gives himfelf up to this kind of land
piracy, is early accuHomed to the fatigues of travel¬
ling, to want of fleep, and to hunger, third, and heai
and with the fame view he ufes and inflru&s Ins ca¬
mels. After he is certain of the ftrengih, fleetnefs, and
fobriety of his camels, he loads them both with his own
and their food, fets oil with them, arrives unperceived
at the confines of the defert, robs the firfl paffenger he
meets, pillages the folitary houles, loads his camels wkh
the booty 5 and, if purfued, he is obliged to accelerate
his retreat. It is on thefe occafions, that he unfolds his
own talents and thofe of the camels ; he mounts one of
the fleeted, and condu&s the troop, and makes them
travel night and day, without almofl either flopping,
eating, or drinking 5 and in this manner he eaiily per¬
forms a journey of 300 leagues in eight days. During
this period of motion and fatigue his camels are perpe¬
tually loaded.”
In Turkey, Perfia, Arabia, Egypt, and Barbary, the
only means of tranfporting merchandife is by camels,
as this is of all others the cheapeft and mod expediti¬
ous method. I he merchants and other travellers unite
in a caravan, in-order to avoid the infults, piracies,
and robberies of the Arabs. Thefe caravans always
con fid of a greater number of camels than of men j
each of thefe animals is loaded according to his flrength,
and he fo well knows the proper extent of his load,
that when he is overloaded, he utters the mod lamen¬
table cries, and continues lying down till his burden
is lightened. The large camels ufually carry 10 or
even 12 hundred weight, and the fmaller 6 or 7 hun¬
dred weight.
Ih thefe commercial journeys they never hurry the
camels in their march, but regulate their days work j
they generally go a certain fpace, and travel about 10
or 12 leagues every day ; every evening their load is
taken off, and they are differed to feed at liberty. If
they are in a country abounding with herbage, they
ufuaily eat as much in an hour as is fufficient to ferve
them for the next twenty.four hours ; and, during the
remainder of the night, they continue to ruminate :
but they feldom find inch good paflurage ; and indeed
this delicate nouridiment does not appear to be neceffa-
ry for them j they even feem to prefer wormwood, thif-
tles, nettles, broom, caffia, and other prickly plants, to
more pleafant herbage. So long as they find plants to
browfe, they eafily go without drink.
Nothing is more admirable than their docility. At
the fird fipn they bow their knees, and crouch to the
earth to differ themfelves to be loaded in this fituation,
and, when loaded, they rife of their own accord without
a Hi dance. I hey follow exaftly the motions of their con-
duftor, and require neither whip nor fpur to urge them
forward; but, when they begin to be fatigued, their maf-
ters lupport their fpirit, or rather beguile their fatigue,
by finging or by the found of mufical inflruments.
When they wild to prolong their journey, they give
them
Part II,
Peeora.
fliap. V.
Hecora. them only an hour for repofe j and then refuming their
fong, they continue the march for feveral hours longer,
and give over finging only when they intend to ftop ;
then the camels crouch again with their burdens, from
which they are freed by loofening the cords and faften-
ings on each fide, while the poor animals remain kneel¬
ing on the earth, and deep in this pofture in the midll
of their bagg-age. Mr Pennant and fome other writers
tell us, that camels are made to go more expeditioully
by being whittled to by the drivers j but this is at leaft
not an univerfal practice, as we are told by Sonnini,
that the Bedouin Arabs, who poflefs great numbers
of camels, not only never ufe whittling themfelves,
but exprefs much uneafinefs when they hear others
whittle.
When the caravan on thefe long journeys acrofs the
deferts find themfelves in want of water, and have no
other means of procuring it, it is not uncommon for
them to kill a camel for the fake of the water contained
in his ftomach, which is faid to be always fweet and
pleafant.
This animal, fo patient, and fo obedient to the voice of
man, has, however, his periodical fits of rage, at which
he becomes wholly unmanageable. Thefe fits take
place at the rutting feafon, which happens every year
about fpring, and continues about 40 days. At thefe
times they are quite outrageous, eat little, foam at the
mouth, and bite at other animals, and even their ma¬
tters ; and they have been known to take up a man in
their teeth, throw him on the ground, and trample him
under their feet. Though fo remarkably docile, except
during the rutting feafon, they are, however, abundant¬
ly fenfible of injuftice and ill treatment-, and, when
they experience thefe, they feldom fail to {hew their re-
fentment, and endeavour to wreak their vengeance on
their unfeeling driver, w ho will not find it eafy to efcape
their vengeance, as they are faid to retain for a long
time the remembrance of an injury. Though eager to
exprefs their refentment, they feem incapable of har¬
bouring any rancour, w'hen they are once fatisfied ; and
it is fufficient to make them believe that they have ta¬
ken their defired vengeance on their perfecutor. When¬
ever the Arab finds that he has excited the rage of his
camel, as he well knows that the animal will take the
firft opportunity of feeking revenge, he lays down his
clothes in a fituation which the animal is to pafs, and
arranges them in fuch a manner as to feem as if he
bimfelf were lying there. The camel recognifes the
clothes, feizes them in his teeth, {hakes them violently,
and tramples them under his feet; but when his rage
has been thus fatisfied, he leaves them, and after this
his owner may approach, load, and guide him as ufual.
M. Sonnini fays, that he has fometimes feen them, when
weary with the impatience of their riders, ftop Ihort,
turn round their long necks to bite them, and utter
cries of rage. Under thefe circumftances the rider mutt
be careful not to difmount, or he would infallibly be
torn in pieces j and he mutt alfo beware of ftriking the
bead, as that would only increafe his fury. Nothing
can be done but to wait with patience, and endeavour
to appeafe the animal by patting him with the hand.
When once appeafed, which fometimes is not fpeedily
effe&ed, he can proceed on his journey at his ufual
pace.
Vol. XII. Part II.
5r3
Genus 38. MoSCHUS, Musk. fitftoryof
the Species.
Horns wanting j front teeth eight in the lower jaw } ——v—w
tulks folitary in the upper jaw, exferted. r37
J . . . Mofchus.
There are 7 fpecies, viz. 1. Mofchus Mofchiferus,
Tibetian Mulk. Gray-brown, with umbilical follicle.
—2. M. Indicus, Indian M. Rufous, whitilli below,
with fpurious hoofs, and fomewhat lengthened tail.—
3. M. Pygmceus, Pygmy M. Reddifti-brown, w'hite be¬
low, without falfe hoofs.—4. M. Meminna, Meminna.
Olive afb, white below, with the fides fpotted with
white, and no falfe hoofs.—5. M. Javanicus, Java M.
Rutty, longitudinally white beneath, with villous tail,
white below and at the tip, and fmall appendicular hoofs.
—6. M. Americanus, American M. Rufous brown,
with black muzzle and white throat.—-7. M. Deli-
catulus, -Leverian M. Rutty brown, fpotted above
with white. 138
Species 1. Mofchus Mofchiferus, Tibetian Mufk.— Mofhife-
This is an animal of confiderable importance, as it is rwj‘>
from it that the article mulk, fo ufeful as a medicineh
and perfume, is derived.
The fize and general appearance of this animal not
ill referable thofe of a fmall roebuck. It meafures about
three feet three inches in length, about two feet three
inches in height from the tip of the ftioulders to the
bottom of the fore feet, and two feet nine inches from
the top of the haunches to the bottom of the hind feet.
The upper jaw is confiderably longer than the lower,
and is furnifhed on each fide with a curved tulk about
two inches long, and confequently expofed to view
when the mouth is clofed. Thefe tulks are of a differ¬
ent form from thofe of any other quadruped, being fliarp-
edged on their inner or lower fide, fo as to referable in
fome degree, a pair of fmall crooked knives ; their fub-
ftance is a kind of ivory, as in the tulks of the babyruffa
and fome other animals. The ears are long and narrow-,
of a pale yellow- on the infide, and deep brown on the
outfide ; the chin is of a yellowiftr call ; the general
colour of the whole body a kind of deep iron-gray, the
the tips of the hairs being of a rutty call, the remain¬
der blackifti, growing much paler or whitifh towards the
roots. Each hair is fomewhat waved throughout its
w-hole length j and is of a ftrong elaftic nature, grow¬
ing fomewhat upright on the animal, and very thick.
In fome fpecimens the cheeks are whitilh, and the fides
of the neck marked by a longitudinal whitilh band,
defcending to the breatt, while the flank and fides are
obfcurely ftriped by a few waved whitilh ftreaks ; in
others the colour is uniform, or as at firft defcribed j
the hoofs are long and black, the tail extremely Ihort,
and fo concealed by the fur as to be fcarcely, if at all,
vifible on a general view.
The female is fmaller than the male, and wants the
tulks j it has alfo two fmall teats.
The mulk animal is principally found in-the king¬
dom of Tibet, in the province of Mohang Meng, Ton-
quin, and Boutan ; and it is alfo found about the lake
Baikal, and near the rivers Jenifea and Argun. Its
favourite haunts are the tops of mountains covered with
pines, where it delights to wander in places of the moft
difficult accefs, bounding with great celerity, and,
when purfued, taking refuge among the moft inaccef-
fible fummits.
>3T
MAMMALIA.
it
514 MAMMALIA. Part IT
Hiftory of It is hunted for the fake of the mufk contained in its
the Species. umb,ilical follicle, which is an oval receptacle, peculiar
‘‘"’’“V'""”' {0 tj:ie majej about the fize of a finall egg, hanging from
the middle of the belly. As foon as the animal is kill¬
ed, the hunters cut off the bag and tie it up for fale.
Tavernier informs us, that in one of his eaft'ern jour¬
neys, he purchafed no fewer than 7673 of thefe bags;
a proof how numerous thefe animals mult be in the ealt.
For the appearance and ufes of muik, with the method
of detecting its adulteration, fee Musk, Materia Me¬
dic a Index. Befides the mulk that they produce, the
Ikins of thefe animals are ufeful as clothing. The ftuf-
lians fevape off the hair, and prepare the leather, fo as
to render it as foft and bright as lilk.
T 'yj
emus. Gen. 39. Cervus. Deer.
Horns folid, covered while young with a hairy {kin,
growing from the top, naked, annual, branched.
Front teeth in the lower jaw eight. Canine teeth
none (fometimes fmgle in the upper jaw).
There are 12 fpecies, viz.—1. C. Alces, Elk. With
ftemlefs palmated horns, and guttural caruncle.— 2. C.
Tarandus, Rein D. Branched, recurvate, round horns,
•with palmated extremities.—3. * C. Elaphus^ Stag.
Reddifir brown, with cylindric, recurvate, branching
horns.—4. * C. Dama^ Fallow D. Yellowilh brown,
with {lightly recurvate, compreffed, branching horns,
palmated at the top.—5. C. Virginianus, Virginian D.
Pale brown, with (lender round branched horns, bending
forward, and llightly palmated at the tip.—6. C. Axis,
Spotted Axis. Pale reddilh brown, {potted with white,
with (lender three-forked horns.—7. C Pygargus, Tail-
lefs Roe. Taillefs, brown, yellowilh below, white be¬
hind, with three-forked horns and nofe furrounded with
black.—8. C. Mcsticanus, Mexican Roe. Red, with
rough three-forked horns, bending forward.—9. C. Por-
cinus, Porcine D. Brown, affi-coloured below, with
{lender three-forked horns.—10. * C. Capreolus, Com¬
mon Roe. Reddilh brown, with branching, upright cy¬
lindric horns, bifid at the top,— 11. C. Muntjac, Rib¬
faced I). With three-forked horns riling from a cylin¬
dric hairy bafe, with the upper fork hooked.—-12. C.
,40 Guineenfis, Gray D. Gray, blackifh below.
.dices, Elk. i. C. Aloes, Elk, or Moofe Deer.—In conformity
Fig. 64. with the opinion of moft naturalifts, we have given the
two Englilh names of Elk and Moofe Deer as fynony-
mous, though it is not yet clearly afeertained whether
they are not really diftinft fpecies. The elk is by far
the largeft of the deer tribe, and if we may believe the
accounts of fome travellers, a full grown moofe is many
times bigger than an ox, the tips of its horns being fome¬
times nearly 12 feet afunder. Its lhape is reprefented as
very inelegant, having a Ihort thick neck, large head,
horns fpreading out immediately from the bafe into a
broad palmated form ; a thick, broad, heavy upper lip,
hanging confiderably over the lower \ high {boulders
and long legs. Its colour is a dark grayilh brown, much
paler, or inclining to whitenefs, on the legs, and beneath
the tail. The hair, which is of a llrong, coarfe, and
elaftic nature, is much longer on the top of the {boul¬
ders and on the ridge of the neck than on the other
parts, forming a kind of ftiffilh name j beneath the
neck the hair is alfo of confiderable length, and in
fome fpecimens of the animal, a fort of caruncle or
\
pendent excrefcence, covered with long hair, h feen Pecora.
hanging from beneath the throat-, the eyes and ears —v-l
are large, the hoofs broad, and the tail extremely ftiort.
It is uiually bigger than a horfe, and Mr Pennant efti-
mates its greateft height at 17 hands, and its greateft
weight at 1230 pounds. Its horns fometimes weigh 36
pounds 5 and on a moderate calculation, meafure each
about 32 inches in length. The female is fmaller
than the male, and is delUtute of horns.
This animal inhabits both the Old and New Conti¬
nent; but it is commonly called elk on the former, and.
moofe deer an the latter. In Europe it is found chiefly
in (Sweden, Norway, and in iome parts of Ruflia ; in
Alia it is met with moft frequently in Siberia, where it
is of a prodigious fize ; and in America it is moft com¬
mon in Canada, efpecially about the great lakes. It
ufually refides in the midft of forelis, wi.ere it lives by
browling on the branches of the trees, as from its long
legs and ftiort neck it cannot eafily graze from the
ground. It feeds chiefly by night. Its ufual pace is a
high, Ihambling, but very fwift trot, the feet being lift¬
ed very high ; and, according to moft writers, the hoofs
during its running feparate as they approach the ground
in order to give the animal a better purchafe, and come
together again when they rife, producing a clattering
noife that is heard at a confiderable dittance.
Its faculty of hearing is fuppofed to be more acute
than either its fight or feent, which renders it very dif¬
ficult to kill it in the fummer time, as the Indians have
then no other method of doing it but by creeping after
it among the trees and bulhes, till they get within gun-
Ihot. In winter, when the fnow is fo hard frozen that
the natives can go upon it in their fnow {hoes, they are
able frequently to run it down y for its (lender legs break
through the fnow at every ftep, and plunge them up to
the belly. It is lo tender-footed, and fo (hort-winded,
that a good runner will generally tire it in lefs than a
day ; there have been fome, however, that have kept
the hunters in chafe for two days. On thefe occafions
the Indians, in general, take with them nothing more
than a knife or bayonet, and a little bag containing
implements for lighting a fire. When the poor animal
is incapable of further fpeed, it ftands, and keeps its
purfuers at bay with its head and fore feet, in the ufe of
the latter of which it is fo dexterous, that the Indians
are generally obliged to lalh their knives or bayonets to
the end of a long flick, and ftab the elk at a diftance.
Some who have negle&ed this neceffary precaution* and
ralhly attempted to rufh in upon it, have received very
ferious blows from its fore feet. When wounded, it
fometimes becomes furious, rulhes boldly on the hunters,
and endeavours to tread them down : in this cafe the
men are frequently compelled to leave their outer gar¬
ments, and efcape into the trees.
When fuddenly rouied, and endeavouring to make
its efcape, the elk is obferved at times to fall down, as
if deprived for fome moments of motion. Whether
this be owing, as has been frequently imagined, to an
epileptic fit, or whether it merely arifes from fear, is not
perhaps eafy to determine. The feft, however, is too
well authenticated to admit of our doubting it. This ha*
given rife to the popular luperftition of attributing to the
hoofs the virtue of an antiepileptic medicine y and the
Indians even ftill imagine that the elk has the power
of curing itfelf of its own diforder, or of preventing an
approaching
Chap. V. M A M M
Hiftory of approaching fit, by fcratching its ear with the hoof till
lie Species, it (jraws blood.
v The female produces from one to three young at a
time, generally about the end of April or beginning of
May.
The elk is an animal of great utility. Its flelh is eat¬
en, and is reckoned very good, but coarfer and tough¬
er than any other kind of venifon j its tongue is excel¬
lent, and the fat of its nofe is fo much like marrow, as
to be efteemed a great delicacy 5 its Ikin makes excel¬
lent tent covers and (hoe leather, and the hair of its
hams, which is of great length, is employed in Huffing
141 faddles.
'arandus, 2. C. Tarandns, Rein Deer.—This, in a domeftic
Lem Deer. p0int 0f view, is the molt ufeful animal to the natives of
the countries where it refides, ferving there molt of the
jpurpofes of our horfes. The height of this fpecies, when
full grown, is about four feet and a half. The body
is rather of a thick and fquare form, and the legs
ihorter in proportion than thofe of the Hag. Its general
colour is brown above, and white below- j but as it ad¬
vances in ?ge, it often becomes of a grayilh white, and
fometimes almoft entirely white ; the ipace about the
eyes is always black. The hair on the under part of
the neck is of much greater length than the reft, and
forms a kind of hanging beard in that part. Both fexes
are furniftied with horns, but thofe of the male are much
larger and longer than thofe @f the female. The hoofs
are long, large, and black, as are alfo the falfe or fecond-
ary hoofs behind ; and thefe latter, while the animal is
running, as was remarked of the elk, make a remark¬
able clattering found, which may be heard at a confi-
derable diftance.
The female begins to breed at the age of two years,
is in leafon the latter end of September, goes with young
eighth months, and generally brings forth two at a time.
The fondnefs of the dam for her young is very remark¬
able. They follow her for tw-o or three years, but do
not acquire their full ftrength until four. It is at this
age that they are trained to labour, and they continue
ferviceable four or five years. They feldom live above
15 or 16 years.
The rein deer is found in all the northern regions of
Europe, Alia, and America, particularly in Lapland,
Siberia, and Greenland, where it is employed to draw
the fledges of the inhabitants over the frozen fnow. To
this exercife the animals are accuftomed from an early
age. They are yoked to the fledge by a collar, from which
a trace is brought under the belly between the legs, and
fattened to the fore part of the fledge. Thefe carriages
are extremely light, and covered at the bottom with the
Ikin of the rein deer. The perfon who fits in it guides
the animal with a cord fattened to its horns; he drives
it with a goad, and encourages it with his voice. Thofe
of the wild breed, though by far the ftrongeft, often
prove refractory, and not only refufe to obey their maf-
ter, but turn againft him, and ftrike fo furioufly with
their feet, that his only refource is to cover himfelf with
his fledge, upon which the enraged creature vents his
fury. The tame deer, on the contrary, is pliant, aCtive,
and willing. When hard puttied, the rein deer will trot
the diltance of 60 miles without flopping ; but in fuch
exertions, the poor obedient creature fatigues itfelf fo
exceedingly, that its matter is obliged to kill it im¬
mediately, to prevent a lingering death that would
ALIA.
enfue. In general, they go about 30 miles without
flopping, and that without any dangerous effort. This
mode of travelling can be performed only in the winter
feafon, when the face of the country is covered with
fnow j and although the conveyance is fpeedy, it is in¬
convenient, dangerous, and troublefome.
As the rein-deer conttitutes the foie riches of the
Laplander, it may well be fuppoftd that a conftant at¬
tention to preferve and fecure it, forms the chief em¬
ployment of his life. It is no uncommon thing for one
perfon to poflefs above 500 in a Angle herd.
Thefe animals are much tormented by gnats, and a
fpecies of gadfly, called by Linnaeus ce/lrus tarandi. The
havock made among them by the latter is fo great, that
their Ikins are often found pierced almott full of holes.
The rein deer has fometimes been brought into Eu¬
rope, and Sir H. G. Liddle, Bart, had feveral of them
in his poffeffion, which he brought over from Lapland.
They do not, however, feem to agree with the more
temperate climates.
14*
Gen. 40. Camelopardalis, Giraffe. Cnmeiopnr-
dalis, or
Horns permanent, bony, covered with a briftly fkin. Giraffe.
Front teeth in the lower jaw eight j the exterior one FiS- 65*
on each fide deeply bilobate.
This genus was formed to include a fingle fpecies
that Linnaeus and other naturalifts had claffed under
cervus ; but as the form and connexion of its horns
differ very materially from thofe of the deers and an¬
telopes, it was judged better to conflitute of it a new
genus. This animal, with refpeft to its height, exceeds
all other known quadrupeds, as it meafures, when full
grown, nearly 17 feet from the top of the head to the
fore feet. The female is lower than the male. Not-
withftanding the unufual proportions of this animal, its
general form is in the higheft degree elegant and pic-
turefque j the head being fmall, the afpeett mild, the
neck extremely long and tapering, the fore parts much
higher than the hinder, and the difpofition of the co¬
lours lingular and pleafing. At firft view, the fore
legs feem nearly twice the length of the hind j but
this difference, on accurate examination, appears to re
fult chiefly from the extraordinary height of the ffioul
ders, compared with that of the thighs •, accordingly
among the old writers who have deferibed this animal
Petrus Gyllius perhaps approaches neareft to the truth
when be affirms, that all the legs or tibiae of the came
lopardi are of nearly equal length, but that the fore
thighs are fo long in comparifon with the hind, that
the back appears inclined like the roof of a houfe.
The horns of the Camelopardalis differ in texture
from thofe of all other horned quadrupeds, forming, as
it were, a part of the Ikull, and confifting of a porous
bony fubftance covered externally with fliort, coarfe,
briftly hair ; they terminate abruptly, on a flattilh or
flightly convex head, but little wider than the other
part of the horn, and edged with briftles all round the
outline. On the middle of the forehead is a con-
fiderable protuberance, owing to an elevation or bony
riling on that part of the Ikull. From the head to the
middle of the back runs a ffiort ftiffiffi mane. The tail
is of moderate length, of a cylindrical form, gradually
tapering towards the end, and terminating in a tuft of
long hair. The hoofs are moderately large and black.
3 T 2 The
\
•-16 M A M M
Hiftory of The fore part of the body is very thick and mufcular,
the Species. an(j ^ part anc[ meagre. The ground colour
'lof the animal is whitifh, variegated on all parts with
numerous, moderately large, and fomewhat fquarifh
fpots, which in the male are brown, and in the female
rufty. In the younger animals they are fometimes of
a bright reddifh-yellow. Thefe marks or fpots are of a
fomewhat lefs regular lhape on the tides, than on the
neck and Ihoulders.
This animal is an inhabitant of Africa, where it is
found chiefly in Ethiopia, and other internal parts of
the country, being rarely met with near the coafts. It
relxdes in the forefis, where it lives by browfing on the
branches of trees. It is of a mild and timid difpofition.
When purfued, it trots fo faft, that even a good horfe
is fcarcely able to keep pace with it, and it continues
its courfe for a long time without requiring reft. When
it leaps, it lifts firft the fore legs, and then the hinder
ones, in the manner of a horfe whofe fore legs are tied
together. Its general pofition, except when grazing, is
with the head and neck ereft. It feeds principally on the
leaves of trees, and particularly on thofe of a peculiar
fpecies of mimofa, common in the country where it is
found, to which the extreme length of its legs and neck
admirably adapt it. Wlnm it feeds from the ground,
it is under the neceflity of dividing its fore legs to a
eonfiderable dillance. In preparing to lie down, it
kneels like the camel.
It has been generally fuppofed that the giraffe poffef-
fed neither the power nor the ftrength to defend itfelf
againft the attacks of other animals j this, however,
feems to be unfounded, for M. le Vaillant has afferted,
that by its kicks it frequently wearies, difcourages, and
diftances even the lion. The utility of the horns appears
to be hitherto unknown j this writer fays that they are
not ufed as weapons of defence.
The giraffe is hunted by the Hottentots for the fake
of its flefli, and its marrow, which latter they efteem as
a great delicacy.
Astilope. Gen. 41. ANTILOPE. ANTELOPES.
Horns hollow, feated on a bony core, growing upwards,
ringed or wreathed, permanent. Front teeth in the
lower jaw eight. Canine teeth none.
The individuals of this genus, with the exception of
two or three fpecies, inhabit the hotteft parts of the
globe, or at leaft thofe parts of the temperate zones
that lie fo near the tropics as to form a doubtful climate.
None, therefore, except the faiga and the chamois, are
to be met with in Europe •, and notwithftanding the
warmth of South America is fuited to their nature, not
a Angle fpecies has yet been difcovered in any part of
the new world. Their proper climates feem, therefore,
to be thofe of Alia and Africa, where the fpecies are
very numerous.
As there appears a general agreement in the nature
of the fpecies that form this great genus, it will prevent
needlefs repetition to obferve, that the antelopes are ani¬
mals generally of a moft elegant and aftive make ; of a
reftlels and timid difpofition •, extremely watchful; of
great vivacity ; remarkably fwift and agile, and moft
•of their boundings fo light, fo elaftic, as to ftrike the
fpedlator with aftoniftiment. What is very lingular is,
ihat they will flop in the midft of their courfe, gaze
v • 3
ALIA. Part II
for a moment at their purfuers, and then refume their Fecora.
flight. i—■" v
As the chafe of thefe animals is a favourite amufe-
ment with the eaftern nations, from that may be colleft-
ed proofs of the rapid fpeed of the antelope tribe. The
greyhound, the fleeteft of dogs, is ufually unequal in
the courfe, and the fportfman is obliged to call in the
aid of the falcon, trained for the purpofe, to feize on
the animal, and impede its motions, in order to give
the dogs an opportunity of overtaking it. In India and
Perfia a fpecies of leopard is made ufe of in the chafe.
This is an animal that takes its prey not by fwiftnefs of
foot, but by the greatnefs of its fprings, by motions fi-
milar to thofe of the antelope $ but fhould the leopard
fail in its firft effay, the game efcapes.
The fleetnefs of the antelope was proverbial in the
country it inhabited, even in the earlieft times: the
fpeed of Afahel is beautifully compared to that of the
tzebi, and the Gadites. were faid to be as fwift as the
antelopes upon the mountains. To this day the great-
eft compliment that can be paid to female beauty in the
eaftern regions is Aine el csnaosel. You have the eyes
of an antelope.
Some fpecies of antelopes form herds of 2000 or 3000,
while others keep in troops of only five or fix^ They
generally refide in hilly countries, though fome inhabit
plains. They often browfe like the goat, and feed on.
the tender flioots of trees, from which their flelh ac¬
quires an excellent flavour. The flefh of moft of the
fpecies is eaten, but that of fome of them is faid to tafte
of mulk.
This is a very numerous genus, and moft of the fpecies
are comparatively newr, only fix having been known to
Linnaeus, who ranked them under the genus Capra*
The following are enumerated by Dr Shaw, though he
confeffes himfelf not certain that they are all diftintt
fpecies.
A. With Jlraight or nearly Jlraight horns.
I. Antilope Oryx, Egyptian A. Gray, with black
and white face, dufky dorfal ftripe, and very long,
tapering, fliarply-ringed horns.—2. A. Leucoryx, White
A. Milk white, with very long, tapering, flightly-
ringed horns.—3. A. Gaosella, Gazel. Bay, with
flightly-bowed, tapering, wrinkled horns.—4. A. Orcas,
Indian A. Slate-coloured, with reddith head, black
mane on the neck and breaft, and tapering wreathed
horns.—5. A. Ourehi, Ourebi. Rufty brown, with
the breaft, belly, hind part of the thighs, and infides of
the limbs, white; and fmall horns.—6. A. Oreotragus,
Klipfpringer. Yellowilh tawney ; whitilh below, with
very ftraight upright tapering horns, flightly wrinkled
at their bafe.—7. A. Scriptus, Harneffed A. Chefnut-
coloured, with white croffed ftripes on the fides; and
tapering wreathed horns.—8. A. Gritnmia, Guinea A.
Yellowilh bay, with Ihort horns, and black briftly tuft
on the forehead.—9. A. Pygmcea, Pigmy A. With Ihort
convex horns, wrinkled at the bafe.
B. With curved, bent, or twi/led horns.
10. A. PiBo, Nyl-ghau. Slate-coloured, with the
back of the neck and breaft maned, the feet barred
with black and white, and fomewhat triangular herns
bending forwards.—11. A. Trajocamelus, Indoftan A*
Gray, with maned neck and breaft, dorfal protuberance,.
^hap*
Pecora.
V. M A M M
long flocky tail, and tapering korns bending forwards.
J—12. A. Bubatis, Cervine A. Reddifti brown, with
large elongated head, thick, ftrongly wrinkled, lyrated
horns, and longilh tail.—13. A. Strefijiceros, Striped A.
Reddilh gray, with compreffed fpirally ridged horns,
white longitudinal dorfal, and tranfverfe lateral ftripes.
14. A. Cervicaftra, Common A. Tawney brown, white
below, with round, lyrated, ringed horns.—15. A.Ler-
wia, Gambian A. Reddilh, with the nape of the
neck bearded, and recurved wrinkled horns.—16.
Saiga, Saiga. Yellowilh gray, with diftant, femitranf-
parent, lyrated, and ringed horns.—17. A. Gutturofa,
Chinefe A. Tawney, whitilh below, with lyrated
yellowilh ringed horns, and prominent throat.—18. A.
Subgutturofa, Guldenfted’s A. Gray-brown, white
below, with lyrated horns, and tumid throat.—19. vf.
Euehore, Springer. Yellowilh brown, white below,
with dark lateral ftripe, lyrated horns, and expanfile
white patch above the tail.—20. A. Arundinacea, Rit-
bock. Alh-coloured, white below, with ringed horns,
bending forwards.—21. A. Sylvatica, Bolbock. Brown-
white below, the hind part of the body fpotted with
white, the horns fpirally, and ringed.—22. A. E-
leotragus. Cinereous A. Gray, fnowr-white below,
with fpirally ringed horns.—23. A. Dorcas, Barbary
A. Fulvous brown, white belowr, with lateral-brown
band, and lyrated horns.—24. A. Kevella, Flat-horned
A. Tawney-brown, white below, with brown lateral
band, and compreffed lyrated horns.—25. A. Bygarga,
White-faced A. Rulty brown, white below, with
brown lateral band, white rump, and lyrated horns.—■
26. A. Corinna, Corine. Fulvous brown, white be¬
low, with dark lateral band, and fublyrated, rather
eredt, fmoothifh horns.—27. A. Sumatrenjis, Sumatran
A. Black, with recurved horns, and whitilh briftly
name between the Ihoulders.—28. A. Leucophcea, Blue
A. Blue gray, with roundilh, arcuated, recurved,
ringed horns.
C. With hooked horns.
29. A. Gnu, Gnu. Rufty brown, with maned neck,
whitilh tail, and horns diredted forwards, and then fud-
denly backwards.—30. A. Dama, Nanguer. White,
with fulvous back, and round horns, incurvated for¬
wards.—31. A. Ridunca, Red A. Red brown, with round
flightly ringed horns, recurved forwards at the tips.—
32. A. Rupicapra, Chamois. Brown, with fmooth up¬
right horns, with the tips hooked forwards.
10. A. Picia, the Nyl-ghau.—This curious animal
fyl-ghau. was firft defcribed by Dr W. Hunter, in the Philofo-
'^.66. phieal Tranfadlions, vol. Ixi. Its height is about four
feet to the top of the Ihoulders, and it meafures nearly
about the fame in length from the bottom of the neck
to the bafe of the tail. It is of a fine Hate colour, with
a large white fpot below the throat, and twro white
bands above each foot. Its ears are large, edged with
white, white within, where they are marked with two
black ftripes. Along the top of the neck there is a
flight black mane, continued to fome diitance down the
back, and on the breaft there is a much thicker mane,
or tuft of the fame colour. The tail is moderately
long, and tufted at the end 5 the horns are Ihort, point¬
ed, fmooth, and three-cornered at the bafe. The fe¬
male refembles the male in general appearance, but
ALIA. 51 y
is confiderably fmaller. This animal is a native of the Hiltory of
interior parts of India, and was a favourite objeft of ^iie sPecie^
the chafe with the emperor Aurengzebe. Some years v"——’
ago twro of them were brought into England, and were
kept fome time by Dr Hunter, who has given the fol¬
lowing account of its manners.
Although the nyl-ghau is ufually reported to be ex¬
ceedingly vicious, yet the one he had the care of was
very gentle. It feemed pleafed with every kind of fa¬
miliarity, always licked the hand which either ftroked
it or gave it bread, and never once attempted to ufe
its horns offenfively. It feemed to have much depend¬
ence on the organs of fmell, and fnuffed keenly, and
with confiderable noife, whenever any perfon came
within fight. It did the fame when any rood or drink
was brought to it, and was fo offended with an uncom¬
mon fmell, or wras fo cautious, that it would not talle
bread that was offered with a hand that had touched
oil of turpentine or fpirits^
Its manner of fighting was very particular $ this was
obferved at Lord Clive’s, where two males were put in¬
to a little inclofure, and it was thus related by his lord-
fhip. While they were at a confiderable diftance from
each other, they prepared for the attack by falling down
upon their fore knees, and when they were come with¬
in fome yards, they made a fpring, and darted againlt
each other.
At the time that two of them were in his liable, Dr
Hunter obferved this particularity, that whenever any
attempt was made on them, they immediately fell
down upon their fore knees j and fometimes they would
do fo when he came before them 5 but as they never
darted, he fo little fuppofed this to be a hoftile pofture,
that he rather fuppofed it to be exprefiive of a timid
humility.
The intrepidity and force with which they dart againft
any object may be conceived, from an anecdote that has
been related of the fineft and largeft of thefe animals
that has ever been feen in England. A poor labouring
man, without knowing that the animal was near him,
and therefore neither meaning to olfend, nor fufpedling
the danger, came up to the outfide of the poles of the
inclofure where it was kept; the nyl-ghau, with the
fwiftnefs of lightning, darted againft the wood-work
with fuch violence that he {battered it to pieces, and
broke off one of his horns clofe to the root. This vio¬
lence was fuppofed to occafion his death, which happen¬
ed not long after. From this it appears, that at certain
feafons the animal is vicious and fierce, however gentle
it may be at other times.
Gen. 42, Capra, Goats.
Horns hollow, turning upwards and backwards, rough,
almoft clofe at their bafe. Front teeth in the lower
jaw eight. No tulks. Chin bearded in the male.
There are eight fpecies ; viz.
1. C. Ibex, Ibex. Gray brown, whitifh below', with
large horns, bending over the back j and bearded
throat.— 2. C. Aegagrus, Caucafan I. Gray brown,
white below, with large, keeled, {lightly wrinkled,
bowed horns, and bearded throat.—3. * C. Hircus, Com¬
mon G. With bow ed keeled horns, commonly turning
outwards towards the end.—4. C. Matnbrica, Syrian G„
With
MS-
Capra>.
146
Ibex.
Fig. 67.
■sfg • M A M M
Hiftory of With pendulous ears and horns reclined backwards.—
the Species. ^ q /ingorenfis, Angora G. With very long, pend-
v ent, fpirally-curled hair.-,-6. C. Depreffa, African G.
With very fmall depreffed horns, clofely incumbent on
the head.—-7. C. Reverfay Whidaw G. With upright
horns, recurved at the tips.—8. C. C'(ipricornvsy Capri¬
corn G. With (hort horns, turning forwards at the
tips, and ringed on the fides.
1. Ibex, Ibex.—As this isfuppofed to have been the
original ftock from which the common goat has been
derived, we (hall here give a fhort account of it.
This is an animal of great ftrength and activity, and
is confiderably larger than the common goat. It is of
a' deep hoary, or grayifh brown colour, with a whiter
fhade below, and on the inlides of the limbs. The
body is thick and ftrong, the head rather fmall; eyes
large, and the horns very large and long, fo as fome-
times to extend the whole length of the body. Thefe
are of a deep brown colour, and are marked above with
tranfverfe femreircular protuberances or knots. The
legs are ftrong, with ftiort hoofs; the tail is fhort, and
the chin is furnifhed with a brown or dufky beard. The
female is lefs than the male, and has fmaller horns.
The ibex is found in feveral parts of Europe and
Afia, chiefly in the mountainous parts of the country,
efpecially the Carpathian and Pyrenean mountains, the
Hheetian Alps, Mount Taurus, the high lands between
Eaftern Tartary and Siberia, and on the mountainous
parts ©f the ifland of Candia.
The flefli of the young ibex is faid to be in good
efteem as an article of food,* Its period of gettation is
faid to be the fame as in the common goat; vie. five
months.
In its general habits or manners the ibex refembles
the common goat, but poffeffes every attribute of
ftrength and aftivity in a degree proportioned to its na¬
tural date of wildnefs. It delights to climb mountains,
and hang upon the brinks of precipices ; and its chafe
is in confequence confidered, like that of the chamois,
as in the bighefl degree difficult and laborious. It is
even faid, that when hard preffed, this animal will fling
itfelf down a fteep precipice, and falling on his horns
efcape unhurt from its putfuers; nor will this appear
in the lead incredible, if we may rely on the faith of
Monardes, who affures us that he faw a Caucafan ibex
leap from the top of a high tower, and, falling on its
horns, immediately fpring up on its limbs, and leap
about without having received the leaft apparent in-
jury.
Two or three hunters ufually affociate in this perilous
occupation ; they are armed with rifle-barreled guns,
and furniffied with fmall bags of provifions; they ereft
a miferable hut of turf among the heights, where, with¬
out fire or covering, they pafs the night ; and on awa¬
king in the morning, they not unfrequently find the
entrance blocked up with fnow three or four feet deep.
Sometimes, in purfuit of this animal, being overtaken
by darknefs, amid crags and precipices, they are obli¬
ged to pafs the whole night Handing, and embraced to¬
gether, in order to fupport each other, and to prevent
themfelves from fleeping.
For an account of the common goat, we refer our
readers to Buffon and Mr Pennant’s Britifh Zoology,
where they will meet with every thing of confequence
%-efpefting that ufeful animal.
5
ALIA. Part H,
Gen. 43. Ovis, Sheep.
Horns hollowed, wrinkled, turning backwards, and fpi- Ovi^
rally twifted inwards. Front teeth eight in the lower
jaw. Canine teeth none.
There are ufually enumerated about eight fpecies*
1. Ovis Ammon, Argali. With arched femicircular
horns, flat below, and loofe hairy dewlaps.—2. * 0. A-
ries. Common S. With comprefled lunated horns.—
3. 0. Strepfieeros, Cretan S. With upright, keeled,
fpirally twifted horns.—4. 0. Polycerata. Many-horned
S.—5. O. Guineenfis, African S. With pendulous ears,
loofe hairy dewlaps, and head prominent at the back.
—6. 0. Laticaudata, Broad-tailed S.—7. 0. Steatophy-
ga, Fat-rumped S.—8. 0. Pudu, Pudu. With fmooth
round diverging horns, and beardlefs throat.
2. Ovis Aries, Common Sheep.—In its prefent ftate Aries Com.
of domeftication, the ffieep feems fo far removed from a mon Sheep,
ftate of nature as to make it a difficult matter to point
out its origin. But naturalifts are now generally of
opinion, that it has proceeded from the argali ©r wild
ffieep, (the movjlon of Buffon).
Climate, food, and, above all, the unwearied arts of
cultivation, contribute to render this animal in a pecu¬
liar manner, the creature of man, to whom it is obliged
to truft entirely for its prote&ion, and to whole necef-
fities it largely contributes. Though Angularly inoffen-
five, and harmlefs even to a proverb, it does not appear
to be that ftupid, inanimate creature defcribed by Buf¬
fon : “ devoid of every neceffary art of felf-prefervation,
without courage, and even deprived of every inftinCtive
■faculty, we are led to conclude that the ffieep, of all
■other' animals, is the moft contemptible and ftupid.”
But amidft thofe numerous flocks which range without
controul on extenfive mountains, where they feldom de¬
pend upon the aid of the fhepherd, it will be found to
affume a very different charaCler. In thofe fituations,
a ram or wedder will boldly attack a Angle dog, and
often comes off victorious ; but when the danger is more
alarming, they have recourfe to the collected ftrength
&f the whole flock. On fuch occafions they draw up
into a compaCl body, placing the young and the fe¬
males in the centre, while the males take the foremoff
ranks, keeping clofe by each other. Thus an arm¬
ed front is prefented to all quarters, and cannot be
eafily attacked without danger of deftruCtion to the afe
failant. In this manner they wait with firmnefs the ap¬
proach of the enemy ; nor does their courage fail them
in the moment of attack ; for when the aggreffor ad¬
vances within a few yards of the line, the rams dart
upon him with fuch impetuofity, as lays him dead at
their feet, unlefs he fave himfelf by flight. Againft
the attacks of fingle dogs or foxes, when in this fitua-
tion, they are perfe&ly fecure. A ram, regardlefs of
danger, will fometimes engage a bull, and his forehead
being much harder than that of any other animal, he
feldom fails to conquer. The bull, by lowering his
head, receives the ftroke of the ram between his eyes,
which ufually brings him to the ground.
In the feleCIion of their food, few animals difcover
greater fagacity than the ffieep, nor does any domeftic
animal (hew more dexterity and cunning in its attempts
to elude the vigilance of the ftiepberd, in order to fteal
fuch delicacies as are agreeable to its palate.
Befides
'hap. V1.
pecora. Befides its hardinefs in enduring great feverities of
—y-—■■ weather, the natural inftin£l of the iheep, in forefeeing
the approach of a ftorm, is no lefs remarkable. In
their endeavours to fecure themfelves under the fhelter
of fome hill,, whole flocks have frequently been buried
for many days under a covering of fnow, and have after¬
wards been taken out without any material injury.
There have been inftances, where fheep, at the ap¬
proach of a ftorm, have fled for (belter to a neighbour¬
ing cottage, and taken refuge under the fame roof with
their (lu-pherd.
The variety in this creature is fo great, that fcarcely
any two countries produce flreep of the fame kind.
There is found a manifeft difference in all, either in the
fize, the covering, the (hape or the horns. The woolly
(heep is found only in Europe, and the temperate pro¬
vinces of Aha. When traniported into warmer cli¬
mates, it lofes its wool, and becomes rough and hairy,
is lefs fertile, and its flefhr no longer retains the fame
flavour.
No country produces finer (beep than Great Britain j
their fleeces are large, and well adapted to the purpofes
of clothing. The Spanifh fleeces are indeed finer, but
for utility cannot be compared with thofe of Lincoln-
fhire or Warvvickftiire. In Edward Ill.’stime, when
wool was allowed to be exported, it brought into the
kingdom 150,000!. per annum, at the rate of 2l. 10s.
a pack. At this time, when our woollen manufaftory
(lands unrivalled by any nation of the world, and when
every method is taken to prevent this valuable commo¬
dity from being fent out of the kingdom, the annual
value of wool (horn in England is fuppofed to be about
5,coo,oool. llerling, and when manufa&ured together
with the Spaniih wool imported, amounting to about
600.000I. the total value muff be above 20,coo,cool.
Two of the front teeth in the (beep drop out before
they are two years old, at which time they are replaced
by others j at three years old, four of them are renewed,
and the remainder at the age of four.
The ewe produces one or twro lambs at a time, and
fometimes, though rarely, three or four. She bears her
young five months, and brings forth in the fpring. The
ram lives to the age of about 15 years, and begins to
procreate at one. When caftrated, they are called wed-
ders. They then grow fooner fat, and the flefh becomes
finer and better flavoured.
There is hardly any part of this animal that is not
ferviceable to man : of the fleece we make our clothes j
the (kin produces leather, of which are made gloves,
parchment, and covers for books $ the entrails are
formed into firings for fiddles, and other mufical in-
flruments, likewife coverings for whips •, its milk affords
both butter and cheefe, and its flefh is a delicate and
wholefome food.
To the foregoing account of the (beep, for w hich we
are indebted to Mr Bewick, we (hall add a few remarks
from Mr Cully’s obfervations on live (lock, on the
mod remarkable breeds of (heep at prefent cultivated in
this country.
P»Ir Cully begins with thofe of Lincolnfhire, which
are of a large (ize, big-boned, and afford a greater
quantity of wool than any other kind, owing to the
rich fat marflies on which they feed ; but their flefti is
coarfe, leaner, and not fo finely flavoured as that of
fmaller (beep. The fame breed extends, with fome va«
51 g
riations, through mod of the midland counties of Eng- Hiftory of
land. But the larged breed of (heep in this ifland, is the les;
to be met with on the banks of the Tees, which runs "'~v'
through a rich and fertile country, dividing the two
counties of Yorkdiire and Durham. This kind differs
from the preceding, in their wool not being fo long and
heavy; their legs are longer, but finer boned, and fup-
port a thicker, firmer carcafe. Their fledi is likewife
much fatter, and finer grained. Thefe (heep weigh
from 25 to 45 lbs. per quarter; fome have been fed to
50 lbs. and one in particular was killed which weighed
62 lbs. 10 oz. per quarter, avoirdupois ; a circumdance
ne ver before heard of in this ifland. The ewes of this
breed generally bring forth two lambs each feafon ;
fometimes 3, 4, and even 5. As an indance of extra¬
ordinary fecundity, it deferves to be mentioned, that
one of thefe ewes at the age of two years, brought forth
fix lambs at one time, the next fealon five, both within
11 months.
1 he Dorfetdure breed is likewife remarkably proli¬
fic, the ewes being capable of bringing forth tw ice a
year. It is from thefe, that the tables of our nobility
and gentry are fupplied with early lamb at Chridmas,
or fooner if required. Great numbers of thofe early
victims to luxury are yearly fent to the London markets,
where they are fold at the enormous price of 10s. 6d.
or perhaps 15s. per quarter. The manner of rearing
the lambs is curious. They are imprifoned in little
dark cabins ; the ewes are fed with oil-cakes, hay, corn,
turnips, cabbages, or any other food which the feafon of
the year affords ; thefe are given them in a field, con¬
tiguous to the apartments where the lambs are kept j
and at proper intervals, the nurfes are brought in to give
fuck to their young ones, while the attendants, at the
fame time, make their lodgmgs perfectly clean, and lit¬
ter them with frelh draw. Great attention is paid to
this, as much or the fuccefs of rearing thefe unfeaion-
able produ£tion* depends upon warmth and cleanlinefs.
T he Dorfetlhire diet p are modly white-faced, their
legs are long and fmall, and great numbers of them have
no wool upon their bellies, which gives them an uncouth
appearance. They produce a fmall quantity of wool,
but of a good quality, from which our fine Wiltfliire
cloths are made. T he mutton of thefe (heep is very
fweet and well flavoured. The variations of this breed
are fpread through mod of the feu them counties, but
the true kind is only to be found in Dorfetlhire and
Will (hire. There is a breed, not unlike this, in Nor¬
folk and Suffolk, but they are all gray or black-faced.
For fome obfervations on feeding (heep, fee Agri¬
culture, N° 600 ; for the bed method of providing
them with (belter againd the weather, fee Farriery,
N° 109; and for fome account of their difeafes, with
the moil approved methods of treatment, fee the fame
article, Part vi. pajfim.
Gen. 44. Bos, Ox. Eos.^
Horns concave, turned outwards, lunated, fmooth.
Front teeth eight in the lower jaw. Canine teeth
none.
There are numerous varieties, but naturalids have
not didinguiflred more than about fix fpecies; viz.
I. *Bos Taurus, Common O. With round horns curv¬
ing outwards, and loofe dewlap.*—2. B. Arnte, Arnee*
With
MAMMALIA.
M A M M ALIA.
520
Hi (lory of With upright lunated horns, fiat and wrinkled in their
!' e Species.upper furface.—3. B. Buba/us, Buffalo. With horns
lying backwards, turning inwards, and flat on the fore
part.—4. B. Mofchatus, Mufk O. With very long
pendent hair, and horns approximated at the bafe,
bending imvards and downwards, and outwards at the
tips.—3. B. Grunniens, Yak. With eylindric horns
curving outwards, very long pendent hair, and extreme¬
ly villous, horfe-like tail.—6.B. CapeO. With
the horns very broad at the bafe, then fpreading down-
150 wards, next upwards, and at the tips curving inwards.
Common i. Bos 1 aurus, Common Ox.—-Few animals are more
widely diffufed over the globe than the common ox.
Under different names, diftinguifhing feveral varieties,
it is found in a wild or domeftic flate throughout al-
moft the whole of the old continent, in molt of the
European and Afiatic iflands, and is very abundant in
feveral parts of America. It feems capable of enduring
equally the rigours of heat and cold, and inhabits the
frozen as well as the moft fcorching climates. Moft
animals preferve nature in their form with inflexible
perfeverance, but the ox appears to fuit himfelf in
every refpedt to the wants and conveniences of man¬
kind. In no animal is there to be found a greater va¬
riety of kinds, and in none a more humble and tradable
difpofition. Though in many countries thefe animals
are larger than thofe of Britain, yet on the whole
our cattle are to be preferred, both for beauty of form,
excellence of flefh, and general utility, to thofe of moft
other countries.
The climate of the Britifh ifles is, above moft others,
productive of the greateft variety and abundance of
wholefome vegetables, which are moft equally dif¬
fufed throughout every part of them. Hence the num¬
ber, variety, and excellence of our cattle, the richnefs
of our dairies, and innumerable other advantages. Caefar
fpeaks of the numbers of our cattle, and adds that we
negleded tillage, but lived on milk and flefh. Strabo
takes notice of our plenty of milk, but fays we were
ignorant of the art of making cheefe. Mela informs
us that the wealth of the Britons confifted in cattle ;
and in his account of Ireland reports that fuch was
the richnefs of the paftures in that kingdom, that the
cattle would even burft if they were fullered to feed in
them long at a time.
This preference of pafturage to tillage was delivered
down from our Britilh anceftors to much later times j
and continued equally prevalent during the whole period
of our feodal government: the chieftain whofe power
and fafety depended on the promptnefs of his vaffals to
execute his commands, found it his intereft to encourage
thofe employments that favoured that difpofition j the vaf-
lal, who made it his glory to fly at the firft call to the
ftandard of his chieftain, w'as fure to prefer that employ¬
ment which might be tranfaCled by his family w ith equal
fuccefs during his abfence. Tillage would require an at¬
tendance incompatible with the fervices he owed the ba¬
ron : while the former occupation not ohiy gave leifure for
thofe duties, but furnilhed the hofpilabie board of his
lord with ample provifion, of which the vaflal was equal¬
ly partaker. The relics of the larder of the elder Spencer
are evident proofs of the plenty of cattle in his days j
for after his winter provilions may have been fuppofed
to be moftly confumed, there were found, fo late as the
month of May, in fait, the carcafes of no fewer than 80
beeves, 600 bacons, and 600 muttons. The accounts
of the feveral great feafts in after times, afford amazing
inftances of the quantity of cattle that were confumed in
them. This was owing partly to the continued attach¬
ment of the people to grazing 5 partly to the preference
that the Englifh at all times gave to animal food. The
quantity of cattle that appear from the lateft calculation
to have been confumed in London, is a fufficient ar¬
gument of the vaft plenty of thefe times $ particularly
when we conflder the great advancement of tillage, and
the numberlefs variety of provifions, unknown to paft
ages, that are now introduced into thefe kingdoms from
all parts of the world.
This animal feems to have originated from a large
wild variety called the bifon, diftinguifhed by its gene¬
ral largenefs, particular ftrength of its fore parts, and
a thick ftiaggy mane and beard about its neck and chin.
This variety is found both in Europe and America, and
from this all the varieties at prefent met with are de-
fcended. Befides the bifon, and what may ftridtly be call¬
ed the common ox, writers enumerate under thisfpecies
the varieties called zebu, diftinguithed by a fmall Angle
bunch over the Ihoulders $ the Indian ox, having a
very large double or treble protuberance over the
fhoulders ; the loofe-horncd ox, whofe horns feem attach¬
ed only by the fkin j the boury, having a protuberance
on the back ; the Tinian ox, of a white colour with
black ears j and feveral other lefs important varieties.
In Britain we diftinguifh chiefly the Holjlein breed,
the Lancajhire and Lincolnfhire breeds, the Kyloe or
Highland cattle, the jdiderney cow, and a particular
fpecies of wild cattle.
In moft points of view, the female of this fpecies is
of more importance than the male. The cow goes with
young nine months, and feldom produces more than
one at a time. She has, as is well known, four teats,
which, in proportion to her young, is a peculiarity
fcarcely to be found in any other animal, the females
of which feldom have more teats than are fufficient to
fuckle the number of young which they produce.
The age of a cow is known by its horns. At the
age of four years, a ring is formed at their roots, and
every fucceeding year another ring is added. Thus,
by allowing three years before their appearance, and
then reckoning the number of rings, the creature’s age
may be exadlly known (h).
The quantity of milk given by cows is very various j
fome will yield only about fix quarts in one day, while
others give from 10 to 15, and fometimes even 20.
The
Part If,
Hecora.
(11) lo the earlier editions of his natural hiftory, Buffon afferted that the bull and cow fixed their horns at the
* 1 . ree years, and at this time had them replaced by others that were permanent. As this miftake was cor-
ie ir m one of his fupplemental volumes, wre fhould not now have thought it neceffary to notice it, had we not
, n cop’fd into a late work of confiderable merit, and feemingly the refult of much experience, Mr John Law¬
rence’s Treatxfe on Cattle, p. 17.
Jhap.
Pecora.
■ an the
'limal eco
my.
V. MAM M
The rlchilefs of the pafture contributes not a little to its
““’V”**' xncreafe. There have been inftances of cows giving
upwards of 30 quarts of milk in one day. In fuch
cafes there is a neceffit^ for milking them thrice; From
the milk of feme cows, I2lbs. or I4lbs, of butter are
made in a week.
It is a curious faft, that, in fome inftances, cows
are naturally barren 5 and this is faidto happen when a
cow brings forth two calves, one of them a male, the
other a female : the former is a perfect animal, but the
latter is incapable of propagation, and is well known to
farmers under the denomination of a free-martin. It re-
fembles the ox, or fpayed heifer, in figure, and is con-
fiderably larger than the cow. It is fometimes prefer-
ved by the farmer, for the purpofe of yoking with the
oxen, or fattening for the table. Mr Hunter obferves,
that the flefti of the free-martin, like that of the ox, is
in common much finer in the fibre than either the bull
or cow. It is fuppofed to exceed that of the heifer in
See Hun- delicacy of flavour, and bears a higher price at market **
It is unneceffary to enlarge further on the ox in a
dortieftic ftate. We Ihall therefore only give a fliort
account of a very Angular fpecies of wild cattle that
were formerly found in this country, but which are no*w
nearly extinft.
Numerous herds of them were kept in feveral parts
of England and Scotland, but they have been deftroyed
by various means. The only breeds now remaining in
the kingdom are in the park at Chillingham-caftle in
Northumberland ; at Wollaton in Nottinghamfhire,
the feat of Lord Middleton 5 at Gilburne, in Cravenj
Yorklhire ; at Limehall in Chelhire, and at Chartley in
Staffordftiire.
The principal external appearances which diftinguifti
this breed of cattle from all others are the following.
Their colour is invariably white, muzzles black 5 the
whole of the infide of the ear, and about one-third of
the outfide, from the tip downwards* red j horns white,
with black tips, very fine, and bent upwards. Some
ef the bulls have a thin upright mane, about one inch
and a half or two inches long.
At the firft appearance of any perfon, they fet off in
full gallop, and at the diftance of 200 or 300 yar^ds,
make a wheel round, and come boldly up again, tofting
their heads in a menacing manner. On a hidden they
make a full ftop, at the diftance of 40 or 50 yards,
looking wildly at the objeft of their furprife 5 but upon
the leaft motion being made, they all again turn round,
and fly off with equal fpeed, but not to the fame dif¬
tance. Forming a Ihort circle, and again returning
with a bolder and more threatening afpeft than before,
they approach much nearer, probably within 30 yards,
when they make another ftand, and again fly off. This
they do feveral tirrtes, Ihortening their diftance, and ad¬
vancing nearer, till they come within ten yards, when
moft people think it prudent to leave them, not choofing
to provoke them further, for there is little doubt but
m tw^o or three turns more they would make an attack.
The mode of killing them was, perhaps, the only
modern remains of the grandeur of ancient hunting.
On notice being given, that a wild bull would be kill¬
ed on a certain day, the inhabitants of the neighbour¬
hood came mounted, and armed with guns, &c. fome¬
times to the amount of 100 horfe and 500 foot, who
Vol. XII. Part II.
ALIA*
521
flood upon walls, or got into trees, while the horfemen Hiftory of
rode off the bull from the reft of the herd, until hethe sPPcie,»
flood at bay, when a markfman difmounted and {hot. T
At fome of thefe huntings, 20 or 30 fhots have been
fired before he was fubdued. On fuch occafions the
bleeding viftim grew defperately furious, from the
fmarting of his wounds, and the ftiouts of favage joy
that were echoing from every fide, But, from the
number of accidents that happened, this dangerous
mode has been little praftifed of late years j the park-
keeper alone generally {hooting them with a rifled gun
at one {hot.
When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a
week or ten days in fome fequeftered fituation, and go
and fuckle them two or three times a-day. If any per¬
fon come near the calves, they clap their heads clofe
to the ground, and lie like a hare in form, to hide
themfelves. This is a proof of their native wildnefs,
and is corroborated by the following circumftance that
happened to the Writer of this narrative, who found a
hidden calf, two days old, very lean, and very weak;
On ftroking its head, it got up, pawed two or three
times like an old bull, bellowed very loud, ftepped
back a few fteps, and butted at his legs with all its
force : it then began to paw again, bellowed, ftepped
back, and butted as before j but knowing its intention,
and ftepping afide, it miffed him, fell, and was fo very
weak that it could not rife, though it made feveral ef¬
forts. But it had done enough. The whole herd
were alarmed, and coming to its refeue, obliged him
to retire; for the dams will allow no perfon to touch
their calves without attacking them with impetuous fe¬
rocity. When any one happens to be wounded, or
is grown weak and feeble through age or weaknefs,
the reft of the herd fet upon it, and gore it to
death.
The weight of the oxen is generally from 30 to
50 ftones the four hind quarters, the cows about 30.
The beef is finely marbled, and of excellent fla-
Vour *. , * Bewick'’
There is fcareely any part of the ox that is not oi^uadru-
fome ufe to mankind. Boxes, combs, knife-handles,
and drinking veffels, are made of the horns. Thefe,
when fofteiied with boiling water, become fo pliable,
as to be formed into tranfparent plates for lanterns; an
invention aferibed to King Alfred, who is faid to have
firft ufed them to preferve his candle time-meafures
from the wind. Their dung is ufeful for manure.
Glue is made of the cartilages, griftles, and the finer
pieces of cuttings and parings of the hides, boiled in
water till they become gelatinous, and the parts fuffi-
ciently diffolved, and then dried. The bone is a cheap
fubftitute, in many inftances, for ivory. The thinneft
of the calves-Ikins are manufaftured into vellum. The
blood is ufed as the balls of Pruflian blue. Saddlers and
others ufe a fine fort of thread, prepared from thd
finews, which is much ftronger than any other equally
fine. The hair is valuable in various manufattures,
and the fuet, fat, and tallow, for candles. The uti¬
lity of the milk and cream is well known.
From the eircumftance of thefe animals furnifhing
the Gentoos with milk, butter and cheefe, their fa¬
vourite food, they bear for them a fuperftitious venera¬
tion, founded thus principally in gratitude. There is
3 U fear cel/
taiy
Fig 71
22 M A M M
Hiftory of fcarcely a Gentoo to be found that would not, were he
the Species. unjer a forced option, prefer facrificing his parents or
v children to the flaying of a bull or cow.
For the application of oxen to the purpofes of agri¬
culture, and for the belt methods of rearing, breeding,
and feeding of cows and cattle, fee Agriculture ; for
an account of the internal ftrutflure of this genus, fee
Anatomy, Part IV. Chap. IV. Se£t. III. 5 for the con-
ItrudKon of byres or cow-houfes, with fume obferva-
tions on the feeding of cows and calves, fee Farriery,
Part IV. j and for the difeafes incident to cattle, with
151 their treatment, fee the fame article, Part VI.
Gninnievs, B. Grunniens, Yak, or Grunting Ox.— The bed
Yak of account of this lingular fpecies is that given by Captain
Turner, in his account of an embafl'y to Tibet. It is
as follows.
The yak of Tartary, called foora goy in Hindodan,
and which Captain Turner terms the bup^j-tailed bull
of Tibet, is about the height of an Englilh bull, which
it refembles in the general figure of the body, head,
and legs. He could difcover between them no eflen-
tial difference, except that the yak is covered all over
with a thick coat of long hair. The head is rather
fhort, crowned with two fmooth round horns, which,
tapering from the* root upwards, terminate in fliarp
points j they are arched inwards, bending towards each
other, but near the extremities are a little turned back.
The ears are fmall j the forehead appears prominent,
being adorned with much curling hair; the eyes are
full and large $ the nofe fmall and convex j the nodrils
fmall 5 the neck Ihort, defcribing a curvature nearly
equal both above and below j the withers are high and
arched. The rump is low j over the (boulder rifes a
thick mufcle, which feems to be the fame kind of
protuberance peculiar to the cattle of Hindoftan, co¬
vered with a profufion of foft hair, which in general,
is longer and more copious than that along the ridge
of the back to the fetting on of the tail. The tail is
compofed of a prodigious quantity of long, flowing,
gloffy hair, and is fo abundantly furniftied, that not a
joint of it is perceptible ; but it has much the appear¬
ance of a large clufter of hair artificially fet on ; the
(boulders, rump, and upper part of the body, are cloth¬
ed with a fort of thick foft wool, but the inferior parts
with ftraight pendent hair that defcends below the
knee ; and Captain Turner has feen it fo long in fome
cattle, which were in high health and condition, as to
trail upon the ground. From the cheft, between the
legs, iffues a large pointed tuft of flraight hair, grow¬
ing fomewhat longer than the reft ; the legs are very
fhort j in every other refpeft he refembles the ordinary
bull, u
Thefe cattle, though not large-boned, feem, from the
profufe quantity of hair with which they are provided,
to be of great bulk. They have a downcaft heavy look,
and appear, what indeed they are, fullen and fufpicious,
difcovering much impatience at the near approach of
ftrangers. They do not low loud like the cattle of
Britain, any more than thofe of Hindoftan, but make
a low grunting noife, fcarcely audible, and that but
feldom, when under fome impreflion of uneafinefs.
Thefe cattle are paftured in the coldeft parts of Tibet,
upon the (hort herbage peculiar to the tops of moun¬
tains and bleak plains. The chain of mountains fitu-
A L I A. Part II.
ated between the latitudes of 270 and 28°, which di- Bella*.
vides Tibet from Boutan, and whofe fummits are moft  r—'
commonly clothed with fnow, is their favourite haunt.
In this vicinity the fouthern glens afford them food and
(belter during the feverity of winter j in milder feafons,
the northern afpeft is more congenial to their nature,
and admits a wider range. They are a very valuable
property to the tribes of itinerant Tartars, called Duck-
ba, who live in tents, and tend them from place to
place ; they at the fame time afford their herdfmen an
eafy mode of conveyance, a good covering, and whole-
fome fubfiftence. They are never employed in agri¬
culture, but are extremely ufeful as beafts of burden,
for they are ftrong, fure-footed, and carry a great
weight. Tents and ropes are manutaflured of their
hair j and amongft the humbler ranks of herdfmen, he
has feen caps and jackets made of their (kins. I heir
tails are efteemed throughout the eaft, as far as luxury
and parade have any influence on the manners of the
people 5 and on the continent of India they are found,
under the denomination of chownes, in the hands of
the meaneft grooms, as well as occafionally in thofe of
the firft minifter of (late. They are in univerfal ufe
for driving away winged infedls, flies, and mulketoes,
and are employed as ornamental furniture upon horfes
and elephants •, yet the beft requital with which the
care of their keepers is at length rewarded, for (eleft-
ing them good paftures, is in the abundant quantity of
rich milk which they give, and the butter produced
from it, which is moft excellent. It is their cuftom to
preferve this in (kins or bladders, and the air being
thus excluded from it, it will keep in this cold climate
throughout the year ; fo that, after fome time tending
their herds, when a fufficient (lore is accumulated, it
remains only to load their cattle, and drive them to a
proper market with their own produce, which confti-
tutes, to the utmoft verge of Tartary, a mod material
article of commerce.
Dr Pallas informs us, that the calves of this fpecies,
when firft; born, are covered with a ftrong woolly hair,
refembling that of a water fpaniel, and that in about
three months they begin to acquire the long hair of
the throat, lower parts, and tail.
This animal w as deferibed by Allian, under the name
of Poephagus.
This order contains eight genera and about 82 fpecies.
Chap. VI. BELLIDE.
Genus 45. Equus. HOUSE.
Front teeth in the upper jaw fix, parallel. In the
lower jaw, fix, fomewhat projefting. Canine teeth,
one on each fide, in both jaws, remote from the
reft. Feet with undivided hoofs.
Dr Shaw enumerates fix fpecies, viz. I. * Equus
Caballus, The Horfe.—Tail uniformly covered with
long hair.—2. E. Hemionus, Jickta. Oi an uniform co¬
lour, without a diftindl humeral crofs, with naked tail
haired at the tip.—3. * E. Hfinus, Afs. Blackifti crofs
over the (boulders, and tail tipped with long hair.—■
4. E. Zebra, Zebra. Variegated with numerous dark
brown (tripes.—5. E. ^uagga, Quagga. Rather ruf-
15*
Equus.
VI.
M A M M
153
'abaUw,
iommon
lorfe.
',g. 72.
ty, whitifh below, ftriped above with brown. Spotted
towards the hind parts.—6. £. Bifulcus, Cloven-footed
H. With cloven hoofs.
T. Efjuus Caballus, Common H.—Though it is
in a ftate of domeftication that we are chiefly to confi-
der this moft noble animal, we muft firft, however,
mention a few circumftances refpefting him in his na¬
tive ftate of liberty.
Horfes are found wild in feveral parts of the glebe.
Large herds of them are occafionally feen in the fouth-
ern parts of Siberia, and in the great Mongalian de-
ferts, and among the Kalkas to the north-weft of Chi¬
na. They are alfo found in the deferts on each fide
the river Don; but it is fuppofed that thefe are defcend-
ed from the Ruffian horfes employed in the fiege of
Afoph, in the year 1697, who being turned looi'e for
want of forage, efcaped into the deferts, and their de¬
fendants have gradually acquired the appearance of
native wildnefs.
The horfe in its wild ftate is confiderably fmaller
than moft of our domeftic horfes, and poflfefies much
lefs fymmetry of form. He is extremely fwift, adlive
and vigilant, and like fome other tribes of animals,
thefe horfes have always a centinel, who by a loud
neigh gives notice to the herd of approaching dan¬
ger, when they all gallop off with aftonifhing rapi¬
dity.
In South America there are alfo found large herds
of wild horfes j but thefe are of Spanifh origin, derived
from thofe that were carried over by the firft conque-
nors of America. They are now become fo numerous
as to live in herds, fome of which are faid to confift of
10,000. As foon as they perceive domeftic horfes in
the fields, they gallop to them, carefs, and by a kind
of grave and prolonged neighing, invite them to run
off. The domeftic horfes are foon feduced, unite them-
felves to the independent herd, and depart along with
them. It happens not unfrequently that travellers are
flopped on the road by the effeft of this defertion. To
prevent this, they halt as foon as they perceive thefe
wanderers, watch their own horfes, and endeavour to
frighten away the others. In this cafe the wild horfes
refort to ftratagem ; fome are detached before, and the
reft advance in a clofe column, which nothing can in¬
terrupt. If they are fo alarmed as to be obliged to re¬
tire, they change their dire&ion, but without fuffering
themfelves to be difperfed. Sometimes they make fe¬
veral turns round thofe they wifti to feduce, in order to
frighten them, but they often retire after making one
turn. When the inhabitants wifti to convert fome of
thefe wild horfes into domeftic ones, which they find
not very difficult to be done, perfons mounted on horfe-
back attack a troop of them, and when they approach
them, they throw ropes with great care round their
kgs, which prevent them from running away. When
brought home they are tied with a halter to a ftake or
tree, without food or drink, for two or three days.
After this they are cut, and then broke in the fame
manner as the domeftic horfes. They foon become do¬
cile •, but if not carefully watched, will again join their
wild friends.
The attention with which the wild horfes of Siberia
protect their young, is finely exemplified in a commu¬
nication by a gentleman in that country to the editor
of the Bee. The wild horfe, he fays, though a grega-
ALIA. 523
rious animal, does not go in promifeuous flocks like Hiftoiy of
cattle or ffieep j but each male chooies tor himfelt at ie t1*-1-165;
certain number of females, with whom alone he afibci-
ates during the whole year, beating oflf every other
male which offers to approach them. The ftrongell of
courfe has the beft haram, and the weaker are obliged
to go without any. But when he has once fixed him-
felf, he defends his own property, never attempting to
encroach on that of another. The battles that are
fought for the females at the beginning of the feafon
are furious, and often prove fatal to one ot the parties j
but when the victory is once decided, the weakeft
never afterwards for that feafon difpute for iuperi-
ority.
The horfe, wffien he has once obtained his females,
governs them with defpotic authority. Whenever he
calls upon them they muft obey, otherwife they are pu-
nilhed feverely j and the mares are fo fenfible of this,
that they difeover every fymptom of the moft perfeft
obedience to their lord and mafter.
His government, however, is founded on love, and
his authority is exercifed, rather for the protection of
his fubjedts, than their injury. The great enemy they
have there to dread is the wolf*, and if the horfe did
not take care to keep them clofe together, fo as to re¬
ceive the benefit of his protection, they would be foon
exterminated. It is the foals only that the wolf ever
attacks, and againft his attacks they are much upon
their guard. When they fee any appearance of dan¬
ger, the horfe gives the call, and they all inftantly
gallop up to him. The foals are then put all together,
and the mares laying their heads together above the
foals, form a circle all round with their heels outward,
ready to ftrike their enemy if he approaches. The
horfe in the mean time remains without the circle to
be ready to attack wherever the danger fliall be great-
eft. One wolf dares never make the attack by him-
felf. When they come up, the horfe gallops round
his family, trampling to death every one he can reach,
or tearing them with his teeth ; and fo ftrong is his
bite when thus enraged, that they frequently have been
known with a fingle gnafti of their teeth, to break
the back of a wolf, and to kill him entirely. It fel-
dom happens that the wolves prevail in this conteft j
and they fo much dread the pow'er of this noble ani¬
mal, that they feldom make the attack unlefs when
they are much pinched with hunger.
This breed of borfes, though nimble and aCtive, are
not of a very large fize. The hunting of thefe horfes,
which is only attempted by the natives for catching
them alive, efpecially the young ones, is attended with
difficulty and danger, and muft not be attempted with¬
out due precautions *. * Bee, vol.
In a domeftic or improved ftate, the horfe is fouad XVii* P-S8*
in almoft every country of the world, except within
the Arftic circle 5 but he is found in his higheft per-
fe£tion in Arabia, where he feems as little degenerated
in his race and powers as the lion or tiger of the Afri¬
can forefts. To the Arabian hordes the horfes are as
dear as their children $ and the conflant intercourfe ari-
fing from living in the fame tent with their owner and
his family, creates a familiarity that could not other-
wflfe be effected, and a traftability that arifes only
from the kindeft ufage. They are the fleeteft animals
of the defert, and are fo w ell trained as to flop in their
3 U 2 moft
MAMMALIA.
52+
Hiftory of moft rapid courfe, by tbe flighteft check of the rider.
the Species. Unaccuftomed to the fpur, the lead touch with the
foot fets them, again in motion, and fo obedient are
they to the rider’s will, as to be dire&ed in their courfe
merely by the motion of a fwitch. They form the
principal riches of many of the Arab tribes, who ufe
them both in the chafe and in their plundering expedi¬
tions. In the day time they are generally kept faddled
at the door of the tent, prepared for any excurlion
their mailer may take. They never carry any heavy
burdens, or are employed on long journeys. Their
conllant food, except in fpring, when they get a little
grafs, is barley, which they are fuffered to eat only
during the night. The Arab, his wife, and children,
always lie in the fame apartment with the mare and
foal, who, indead of injuring them, fuffer the chil¬
dren to reft on their necks and bodies without incom¬
moding them in the lead. , The poor gentle animals
even feem afraid to move left they fhould hurt them.
The Arabs never beat or corredl their horfes, but always
treat them with the utmoft kindnefs. They talk to and
reafon with them.
I he whole flock of a poor Arabian of the defert
confided of a beautiful mare j this the French conful
at Said offered to purchafe, with an intention to fend
her to Louis XIV. I. he Arab, preffed by want, hefi-
tated for a long time, but at length confented, on con¬
dition of receiving a very confiderable fum of money,
which he named. The conful wrote to France for
permiffion to clofe the bargain, and having obtained
it, fent immediately to the Arab the information. The
man, fo poor as to poffefs only a miferable rag, a co¬
vering for his body, arrived with his magnificent cour¬
ier, and looking firft at the gold, and then ftedfaftly at
his mare, heaved a deep figh. “ To whom is it (he ex¬
claimed) that I am going to yield thee up ? To Euro¬
peans ! who will tie thee clofe, who will beat thee,
who will render thee miferable. Return with me, my
beauty, my jewel ! and rejoice the hearts of my chil¬
dren !” As he pronounced the laft words, he fprang
upon her back, and was out of fight almoft in a mo¬
ment: .
The horfes of France are thus charafterized by Buf-
fon. Fhofe of Bretagne are pretty ftrongly made, and
have generally black hair, or brown bay ; and they
have good legs and feet, with a hardy mouth, and a
head ftiort and flelhy, but in general they are rather
clumfy. The horfes of Franche Compte are faid to
hare the legs of tigers, and belly of a hind j but they
are Ihort and thick, and of a middle fize, being much
more proper for drawing than riding. The horfes of
Gafcony are not unlike thofe of Spain, j but they are
not fo handfome nor fo attive, and therefore they are
more proper to draw carriages. The Limofin horfes
are very vicious, and are good for little till they are
fix years old. Their colour is generally bay, or a bay
brown. 1 he horfes of Normandy are much like thofe
of Bretagne j and thofe of Poitou have good bodies,
legs, feet and eyes, but they are far from being hand¬
fome.
The horfes of Germany are much better and hand-
fomer than thofe of the Low Countries. They are of
great ufe for carriages, but much more for the army,
and for drawing the artillery. They have a great deal
®f hair, efpecially about the legs. They are not large,
but they are well fet, and yet they have tender feet. Belluse
The Hungarian horfes are excellent for the coach, as'—v-
well as. for riding ; but they are large, though well
proportioned ; and they are of all colours, and in ge¬
neral very fwift. 6
The Danilh horfes are low, Ihort, and fquare ; but
they have a fine.head, and Ihort hair. The horfes of
the Low Countries are very fit for the coach, and they
are beft known by the name of Flanders mares. The
Polifti horfes are like the Danilh, only they have not
fo fine a forehead ; their colour is generally a bright
bay, and that of the outward peel of an onion, and
they are fiery and vicious. The horfes of Switzerland
are pretty much like thofe of Germany, which is not
furprifing, fince the Germans purchafe a great number
of them. The horfes of Piedmont are fiery, of a middle
fize, and of all forts of colours j their legs are good
and handfome, their eyes fine, their ears fmall, and
their mouths good $ but they do not carry their heads
w'ell.
The horfes of Naples and Italy are generally ill
made and lean, and yet they are good and ufeful, for
they are light and proper for racing, though not for a
long courfe ; they never do well in a colder climate.
The Spanifh horfes are very well made and handfome
as well as very a6live and nimble j they have good
eyes, handfome legs and heads, and are eafily mana¬
ged ; they are alfo good for racing, if they are well
kept j however, they are not fo good in northern cli¬
mates as in their own country. The Turkilh horfes
are of different lhapes, but they are generally fwift
though their mouths are bad. Moft of them are white*
though there are other colours, and they are large,
hardy, ftrong, and fit for the road.
The horfes of Barbary, commonly called barbs, have
ftrong hoofs, and are more proper for racing than any
others whatever j fome have faid they never grow old
becaufe they preferve their vigour to the laft. They
are excellent ftallions, and fome of them are ufed as
fuch in Britain ; however, the Arabian herfes are not
quite fo good as the Barbary, though fome think they
are both of the fame kind j only thofe that are ufed to
the deferts of Arabia are always in aflion. The horfes
of the Gold coaft of Guinea are very few in number,
and in other parts of that coaft there are none at all $
for many of the negroes, when they have been firft
brought over to our American plantations, have ex-
preffed great admiration at the fight of the horfe, and
even been afraid to come near one.
Ihe horfes of the Cape w^ere originally brought from
Perfia, and they are fmall, of a chefnut colour, as the
natives of that country are all wild, and could never
be tamed. The horfes of China are good, and more
particularly thofe in the province of Yun Nan, for
they are vigorous, though rather low. The horfes of
the Eluth J. artars are good and full of fire, and their
fize is much the fame as that of the Polifti horfes ; they
are afraid of nothing, not even of lions and tigers, but
this perhaps may be owing to ufe. In the country of
the Mogul they are very numerous, and of all colours j
they are generally of the middle fize, though fome are
as large and handfome as thofe of Europe.
The breed of horfes in Great Britain is as mixed as
that of its inhabitants. Ihe frequent introduflion of
foreign horfes has given us a variety, that no fingle
country
:hap. VI. M A M M
Bellii*- country can boafl; of j mofi; other countries produce on-
—]y one kind, while ours, by a judicious mixture of the
feveral fpecies, by the happy difference of our foils, and
by our fuperior (kill in management, may triumph over
the reit of Europe, in having brought each quality of
this noble animal to the higheft perfection.
In the annals of Newmarket, may be found inftances
of horfes that have literally outftripped the wind.
Childers is an amazing inftance of rapidity, his fpeed
having been more than once exerted equal to 824 feet
in a lecond, or nearly a mile in a minute. The fame
horie has alfo run the round courfe at Newmarket
(which is about 460 yards lefs than four miles) in fix
minutes and 40 feconds, in which cafe his fleetnefs is
to that of the fwifteft Barb as four to three. This
horfe was allowed to be the fleeteft that was ever bred
in the world j he ftarted repeatedly at Newmarket a-
gaintt the beft horfes of his time, and was never beaten.
He won in different prizes to the amount of nearly
2000I. and was afterwards referved as a ftallion. His
fire vvas an Arabian, fent by a gentleman as a prefent
to his brother in England. Next to Childers was the
famous Eclipfe, who won prizes to a great amount.
High-Jlier was accounted the beft horfe of his time in
England. Though he never ftarted after he was five
years old, he won to the amount of nearly 9000I. He
was never beaten, nor ever paid a forfeit. Bay Mal-
ton, the property of the late marquis of Rockingham,
won, in feven prizes, nearly 6000I. At York he ran
four miles in lefs than eight minutes.
One of the moft remarkable inftances of the work
done by poft-horfes in a ftiort time, is that mentioned
by Buffon, of the poft-mafter of Stretton, who in the
year 1745, rode on different horfes along the London
road no lefs than 215 miles in 11 hours and a half j
a rate of above 18 miles an hour. In July 1788, a
horfe belonging to a gentleman of Billeter fquare, Lon¬
don, was, for a wager, trotted 30 miles in an hour and
25 minutes, which is above 21 miles in an hour.
No country can be compared with ours with refpeCl
to the ftrength and fize of draught horfes, and for the
aClivity and ftrength of thofe that form our cavalry. In
London there have been inftances of a fingle horfe
drawing, for a ftiort fpace, the weight of three tons j
and fome of the pack horfes of the north ufually carry
burdens weighing upwards of 4001b. But the moft
remarkable proof of the ftrength of the Britilh horfes
is in our mill horfes, fome of which have been known
to carry, at one load, 13 meafures of corn, that in the
whole would amount to more than 9001b. in weight.
Our cavalry in the late campaigns, ftiowed over thofe
of our allies, as well as the French, a great fuperiority
both of ftrength and aftivity : the enemy was broken
through by the impetuous charge of our fquadrons,
while the German horfes, from their great weight, and
inaCtive make, were unable to fecond our efforts, though
thofe troops were aCtuated by the nobleft ardour. The
prefent cavalry of this illand only fupports its ancient
glory j it was eminent in the earlieft times 5 our fcythed
chariots, and the aCtivity and good difcipline of our
horfes, even ftruck terror into Caefar’s legions. It is
now impoffible to trace out this fpecies, for thofe which
exift among the indigenae of Great Britain, fuch as the
little horfes of Wales and Cornwall, the hobbies of Ire¬
land, and the ftielties of Scotland, though admirably well
I
ALIA. 525
adapted to the ufes of thofe countries, could never have Hiflory of
been equal to the work of war. Thofe we employ for t^e Specie*.
that purpofe, or for the draught, are an offspring of the y '' J*
German or Flemifh breed, meliorated by our foil, and a
judicious culture.
The Englifti were ever attentive to an exaCt culture
of thefe animals, and in very early times fet a high
value on their breed. The efteem that our horfes were
held in by foreigners fo long ago as the reign of Athel-
Jlan, may be collected from.a law of that monarch pro¬
hibiting their exportation, except they were defigned as
preients. Thefe muft have been the native kind, or the
prohibition would have been needlefs, for our commerce
was at that time too limited to receive improvement
from any but the German kind, to which country their
own breed could be of no value.
But when our intercourfe w ith the other parts of Eu¬
rope was enlarged, we foon laid hold of the advantages
this gave of improving our breed. Roger de Bellefme,
earl of Shrewfbury, is the firft that is upon record. He
introduced the Spanifti ftallions into his eftate in Powis-
land, from which that part of Wales was for many
ages celebrated for a fwift and generous race of horfes.
Giraldus Cambrenjis, who lived in the reign of Henry
II. takes notice of it, and Michael Drayton, cotempo¬
rary with Shakefpeare, fings their excellence in the 6th
part of his Polyalbion. This kind was probably deftined
to mount our gallant nobility, our courteous knights
for feats of chivalry, in the generous contefts of the
tilt-yard. From thefe fprung, to fpeak the language of
the times, the flower of couriers, whole elegant form
added charms to the rider, and whofe aftivity and ma¬
naged dexterity gained him the palm in that field of
gallantry and romantic honour. That this was the chief
objeft of cultivating the mixed breed, is very probable,
for racing in its prefent form was not introduced into
England till the reign of James I. the earlieft notice of
the diverfion being in that reign. Croyden in the fouth,
and Garterly in Yorkihire, were then famous horfe
courfes. That it was not in vogue in the preceding
reign, is reafonable to imagine, for among the nume¬
rous entertainments exhibited at Kenelworth by Eliza¬
beth’s favourite on her vifit there, and where no amufe-
ment then praftifed was omitted, we do not find horfe-
raeing among them.
Not that we deny this diverfion to be known in thefe
kingdoms in earlier times ; we only affert a different
mode of it, gentlemen being then their own jockeys,
and riding their own horles. Lord Herbert of Cher-
bury enumerates it among the fports that gallant philo-
fopher thought unw'orthy of a man of honour. “ The
exercife (fays he) I do not approve of, is running of
horfes, there being much cheating in that kind j nei¬
ther do 1 fee why a brave man ftiould delight in a crea¬
ture whofe chief ufe is to help him to run away.”
As no kingdom can boaft of parallel circumftances,
fo none can vie with us in the number of thefe noble
quadrupeds. It would be extremely difficult to guefs
at the exa<ft number of them, or to form a periodical
account of their increafe $ the number feems very fluc¬
tuating. Mr William Fitz-Stephen relates, that in the
reign of King Stephen, London alone poured out
20,000 horiemen in the wars of thofe times j yet we
find that in the beginning of Queen Elizabeth’s reign,
the whole kingdom could not fupply 2000 horfes to
form
526
Hiftory of form our cavalry ; and even in the year 1588, when
tne Species. t]ie najJon was jn the moft imminent danger from the
Spanilh invafion, all the cavalry w'hich the nation could
then furnifli amounted only to 3000. To account for
this difference we muft imagine, that the number of
horfes which took the field in Stephen’s reign was no
more than an undifciplined rabble j the few that ap¬
peared under the banners of Elizabeth, a corps well
formed, and fuch as might be oppofed to fuch a formi¬
dable enemy as was then expected. But fuch is their
prefent increafe, that in a late war, the number em¬
ployed was 13,3755 and fuch is our improvement in
the breed of horfes, that moft of thofe which are ufed
in our waggons and carriages of different kinds, might
be applied to the fame purpofe. Of thofe our capital
alone employs near 22,000.
Of all quadrupeds, fays Buffon, the horfe, together
with grandeur of ftature, poffeffes the greateft elegance
and proportion of parts. If we compare him with the
animals immediately above and below him, we fliall
find that the afs is ill-made ; that the head of the lion
is too large 5 the limbs of the ox too ftiort and flender j
that the camel is deformed, and the elephant a fliape-
lefs mafs. The regularity and proportion of the parts
of his head, gave him a light and fprightly afpedt, which
is well fupported by the beauty of his cheft. He ele¬
vates his head as if anxious to exalt himfelf above the
condition of quadrupeds, and in this noble attitude he
beholds man face to face.
We ihall here give Buffon’s defeription of what he
confiders as a perfedl horfe 5 but that this and fimilar
defcriptions may be better underftood, we (hall premife
an explanation of the technical terms commonly em¬
ployed in defcribing a horfe. The figures prefixed to
the terms refer to fig. 72. Plate CCCXI1I. The fore
part. 1. The forehead. 2. The temples. 3. Cavity
above the eye. 4. The jaw. 5. The lips. 6. The
noftrils. 7. The tip of the nofe. 8. The chin. 9.
The beard. 10. The neck. 11. The mane. 12. The
fore-top. 13. The throat. 14. The withers. 15.
The fhoulders. 16. The cheft. 17. The elbow. 18.
The arm. 19. The plate vein. 20. The chefnut.
21. The knee. 22. The {hank. 23. The main ten¬
dons. 24. The fetlock joint. 25. The fetlock. 26.
The paftern. 27. The coronet. 28. The hoof. 29.
The quarters. 30. The toe. 31. The heel. The
body. 32. The reins. 33. The fillets. 34. The
ribs. 35. The belly. 36. The flanks.—— The hind
part. 37 The rump. 38. The tail. 39. The but¬
tocks. 40. The haunches. 41. The ftifle. 42. The
thighs. 43. The hock. 44. The kerb. 45. The point
of the hock.
When the horfe is without blemifh, fays Buffon, the
legs and thighs are clean, the knees ftraight, the ftiin
and (hank thin, and the back finew ftrong and well
braced. The finews and the bones (hould be fo diftinft,
as to make the legs appear thin and lathy, not full and
round. The paftern joints {hould never be large and
round ; nor muft there be any fwelling near the coronet.
1 he hock ifhould be lean and dry, not puffed up with
wind. With regard to the hoof, the coronet {hould be
equally thick, and the horn {hining and grayifti. A
white horn is a fign of a bad hoof, for it will wear out
in a fliort time 5 and likewife when the horn is thin, it
is liable to be fpoiled in {hoeing, and by travelling hard
Part II,
on ftony grounds. This is beft known when the fhoe Kellu*.
is taken off, for then the verge all round the foie wull ap- y
pear thin, and the horfe will wince at theleaft touch of
the pincers.
A ftrong foot has the fibres of the hoof very diftinft,
running in a direft line from the coronet to the toe,
like the grain of wood. In this cafe, care muft be
taken to keep the foot moift and pliable. The greateft
inconvenience attending a hard ftrong foot, is its being
fubje6t to rifts and fiffures, which cleave the hoof
quite through fometimes from the coronet down to the
bottom.
A narrow heel is likewife a defeft 5 and when it is
not above two fingers in breadth, the foot is bad. A
high heel caufes a horfe to trip and {tumble often ; and
the low one, with long yielding pafterns, is very apt to
be worn quite away on a journey. Too large a foot in
proportion to the reft of the body, renders a horfe weak
and heavy.
The head of a horfe {hould be fmall, and rather lean
than fleftiy. The ears {hould be fmall, ereft, thin,
fprightly, and pointed. The forehead, or brow, {hould
have a ftar or fnip thereon. The nofe {hould rife a
little, and the noftrils fliould be wide that he may
breathe more freely. The muzzle fliould be fmall, and
the mouth neither too deep nor too {hallow. The jaws
{hould be thin, and not approach too near together at
the throat, nor too high upwards towards the onfet,
that the horfe may have fuflicient room to carry his head
in an eafy graceful pofture. The eyes fliould be of a
middle fize, bright, lively, and full of fire. 1'he tongue
{hould be fmall, that it may not be too much preffedon
by the bit 5 and it is a good fign when his mouth is full
of white froth, as it {hows that he will not foon be over¬
heated.
The neck fliould be arched towards the middle,
growing fmaller by degrees from the breaft and flioul-
ders to the head. The hair of the mane ftiould be long,
fmall, and fine, and it will not be amifs if it be a little
frizzled. The ftioulders ftiould be pretty long, the wi¬
thers thin, and ftiould gradually enlarge downwards,
but fo as to render the breaft neither too narrow nor
too thick. A thick-ftiouldered horfe foon tires, and
trips and {tumbles every minute, efpecially if he has at
the fame time a thick, large neck. When , the breaft
isfo narrow that the fore thighs almoft touch, the horfe
is never good for much. A horfe of a middle fize
ftiould have the diftance of five or fix inches between
his fore thighs, and there fliould be lefs diftance be¬
tween his feet than his thighs near the ftioulders when
he ftands upright.
The body or carcafe of a horfe ftiould be of a mid¬
dling fize in proportion to his bulk, and the back fliould
fink a little below the withers 5 but the other parts
ftiould be ftraight, and no higher behind than before.
He fhould alfo be home-ribbed, but the ftiort ribs fliould
not approach too near the haunches, and then he will
have room to fetch his breath. When a horfe’s back is
fliort in proportion to his bulk, and yet otherwife well
limbed, he will hold out a journey, though he w ill tra¬
vel flow. When he is tall, with very long legs, he is but
of little value.
The wind fliould never be overlooked in the choice of
a horfe, and it may eafily be known by his flanks, whether
he is broken-'winded, when he ftands quiet in the lia¬
ble 5
MAMMALIA.
VI. M A M M
ble; becaufe then he always pinches them in with a very
flow motion, and drops them fuddenly. A thick-wind¬
ed horfe fetches his breath often, and fometimes rattles
and wheezes. This may be always difcovered when he
is put to brifk exercifes.
The temper of a horfe fhould always be obferved a
vicious horfe generally lays his ears clofe to his pole,
Ihows the whites of his eyes, and looks fullen and dog¬
ged. An angry horfe may be known by his frowning
looks 5 and he generally feems to Hand in a pofture of
defence. When he is very vicious, he pays no regard
to the groom that feeds him, though fome horfes that
are tieklith will lay back their ears, without being
of a bad difpolition. A fearful horfe is apt to ftart,
and never leaves off" till he is old and ufelels. A fret¬
ful horfe is very unfit for a journey, and you may dif-
cover his temper as foon as he gets out of the liable.
A dull, heavy, lluggilh horfe, may be eafily known,
whatever tricks are ufed to roufe his fpirits. With re¬
gard to the colour of a horfe, the bright bay, and in¬
deed all bays in general, are accounted good colours.
The chefnut horfe is generally to be preferred to the
forrel, unlefs the former happens to be party-coloured
with white legs. Brown horfes have generally black
manes and tails, and their joints are of a rufty black.
Thofe of this colour that are dapple are much hand-
fomer than the reft. Horfes of a ftiining black, and
well marked without too much white, are in high
efteem for their beauty. A ftar, or blaze, or white
muzzle, or one or more feet tipped with white, are ge¬
nerally thought to be rather better than thofe that are
quite black.
Of grays, the dappled are accounted beft, though
the lilver gray make a more beautiful appearance, and
often prove good. The iron gray with white manes and
tails, are thought not to be fo hardy. Grays of every
kind will turn white fooner or later •, but the nutmeg
gray, when the dappled parts incline to bay or chefnut,
are fa id to be good hardy horfes. Roan horfes have a
diverfity of colours mixed together j but the white is
more predominant than the reft. They are all general¬
ly hardy, and fit for the road; and fome are exceeding
good. Thofe of a ftrawberry colour moft referable the
forrel, and they are often marked with w'hite on the
legs and face. When the bay is blended with it, he
feems to be tindlured with claret, and fome of thefe
prove to be very good. Dun, fallow, and cream-co¬
loured horfes have a lift down their backs, and their
manes and tails are black. Dun horfes are feldora cho-
fen by gentlemen, and yet they may be very ufeful to
the country farmer. The fwallow and cream-colour¬
ed are more efteemed, both for beauty and ufe. Thofe
horfes that are finely fpotted with gray colours like leo¬
pards are a great rarity, and for that reafon they are
only in the hands of great men.
As in this country the form of the race-horfe is more
particularly attended to, we fhall give the following
rules for the beft proportions of race-horfes, as laid down
by Mr Ferron.
“ It has been obferved by feveral authors, with good
authority, that the head of a horfe, divided into 22
equal parts, is the common meafure for every part of
the body *, but if the head Ihould appear too long or too
Ihort, that meafure muft be abandoned, to take the
height of the body from the top of the withers to the
4
ALIA. 527
ground. The third part of this meafure will give you Hiftory of
a juft length for every other part of the body, and will the Spcaes.
Ihew you likewife how much the head was defeftive.
“ A horfe well made and beautiful in his fore hand,
ftjould meafure 3 heads and 16 parts from the top of the
head to the ground, the head Handing in its natural po-
fition—the neck thould meafure one head and 13 parts
from the withers to the top of the head,—the fame mea¬
fure gives the length of the neck from the top of the
head to its termination in the cheft—the height of the
body Ihould meafure three heads from the withers to
the ground—we obferve the fame meafure from the
rump to the ground,—the length of the body Ihould
meafure three heads and four parts, from the point of
the Ihoulder to the pofterior part of the buttock.
“ The line which falls from the articulation of the
Ihoulder with the arm, Ihould meafure two heads and
feven parts. This line muft direftly touch the hoof in
front of the toe. If the foot Ihould ftand before this
line, the leg will be in an oblique direction forward,
which ftrudlure will confine the horfe in all his ac¬
tions, becaufe the fore legs are obliged to come upon
the ground nearly the fame way as thofe of a horfe go¬
ing down hill 5 that is to fay, the heels will touch the
ground firft, inftead of the toes ; but if the legs ftand
obliquely backwards from above, which is the oppofite
defetft, the cafe is a great deal worfe, becaufe the ani¬
mal is continually ftumbling or even falling, on ac¬
count of his feet being drawn too much under the belly,
which fituation obliges him to fupport too great a weight
of the body. When this defeat originates from the
knees only, it bends the legs more or lefs, in w hich cafe
the horfe is called bow-legged. In either cafe fuch an
animal muft be rejefted, and confidered as unfit for a
racer.
“ The line which falls from the top of the fore leg ta
the point of the heel, Ihould meafure one head and 20
parts. This line is extended to fhow the perfeft per¬
pendicular pofition of the whole limb. The diftance
from the top of the withers to the ftifle ftiould meafure
one head and 20 parts ; the fame meafure gives the
diftance from the rump to the elbow, or vice verfa.
The width of the neck ftiould meafure one head, ta¬
ken from the top of the withers to the point of the
fhoulder.
“ The narroweft part of the neck, and the breadth of
the head taken a little below the eyes, meafures 12
parts of a head each. The thicknefs of the body, from
the middle of the back to the middle of the belly,
ftiould be one head and two parts. The fame line con¬
tinued to the ground, fhews the centre of gravity of the
horfe’s body. The diftance from the root of the tail to
the ftifle, ftiould meafure one head and four parts. The
fame meafure gives the length from the ftifle to the
hock. The fame meafure gives the diftance from the
hock to the ground. The breadth of the fore-arm,
taken from the anterior parts of the elbow, (hould mea¬
fure 11 parts of a head. The fame meafure gives the
breadth of one of the hind-legs, taken juft under the
fold of the buttocks. The breadth of the hock, taken
from its anterior part to the top of the os calcis, {hould
meafure feven parts of a head. The fame meafure gives
the breadth of the head above the noftrils, meafured
fideway.
“ The breadth of the head, taken from one eye to the
other.
528
Hiftory of
the Species,
Ferron's
Farriery,
p. 2S.
*54
AJinus.
The Afs.
37*
M A M M
other, fnould meafure feven parts of a head. The fame
' meafure fhould give the diftance between the fore legs.
The thieknefs of the knees (hould meafure five parts of
a head. The fame meafure gives the breadth of the
fore legs, juft above the knees. The breadth of the
hind fetlock joints fhould meafure four parts of a head.
The breadth of the fore patterns fhould meafure z|-
parts of a head. The breadth of the coronet fhould
meafure 44 parts of a head. The breadth of the hin¬
der legs or fhank bones, fliould meafure three parts of a
head. The breadth of the fore legs fhould meafure l\
parts of a head. The perpendicular line which falls
from the articulation of the ftifle, fhould touch the
ground at the diftance of half a head from the toe. Too
far or too near this diredlion, proves the hock defec¬
tive. If the hind feet advance too much under the bel¬
ly, the hocks muft be proportion ably bent, and the
weight of the body overcharging them, will of courfe
increafe the deformity. The feet being too much under
the belly, will render it impoflible for them to cover
much ground j therefore their fteps will be very much
confined. The extenfion of the hocks terminating al-
moft in an upright dirfeftion, will rather ferve to raife
the body than to pufh it forwards If, on the contrary,
the hind feet ftand too far behind this line, the hocks
will be too ftrait, and their flexion too confined. The
extenfion of the hinder parts taking place, only in a per¬
pendicular diredfion backward, will produce a defedt ca¬
pable of retarding their fpeed
The flefh of the horfe is dark and coarfe ; but it has
appeared from the accounts we have of long fieges, that
it may be employed for food, and we are aflured that it
is by no means unpalatable. In fad!, in fome countries
it is employed as food from choice. In the medical dic¬
tionary of the Encyclopedic Methodique, art. Cheval,
tom. iv. p. 696. is a curious account of the mode of pre¬
paring an extraordinary part of this animal, that forms
an ingredient in ragouts, with which fome of the Mogul
Tartars regale themfelves in their moft fplendid enter¬
tainments.
The chief ufe to which the remains of the horfe can
be applied, is for collars, traces, and other parts of the
harnefs j and thus, even after death, he preferves fome
analogy with his former employment. The hair of the
mane is fometimes ufed in making wigs 5 that of the
tail in making the bottoms of chairs, floor cloths, and
cords, and to the angler in making lines.
_ For feveral other particulars refpedting the horfe, efpe-
cially on the ufe of that animal among the Jews, on
the management of horfes upon and after a journey,
and on the breeding of horfes, fee the article Horse.
On the ufe of horfes in hufbandry, with a comparative
view of the profits arifing from them and oxen, fee the
article Agriculture, Part III.; for a Ihort account
of the anatomical ftrudlure of the horfe, fee Farriery,
Part II. •, for various methods of Ihoeing horfes, and
leveral other operations, fee the fame article, Part III. 5
for the beft method of conftrudfing ftables, and the moft
proper food of horfes, fee Part IV.; and for the defcrip-
tion and treatment of the difeafes incident to horfes
with the remedies employed, fee Parts V. and VI. of the
fame article 5 and for the art of riding, training, and
managing horfes, fee Horsemanship.
3. E. AJitius, the Afs.—It is unneceffary to defcribe
the appearance of the domeftic afs j but as this animal
ALIA.   part n
in his native ftate ot wildnefs difiers confiderably from Bella*,
him who is the Have of man, we ftiall give a ftiort do-
fcription of the w ild afs.
Its ufual colour is faid to be white, or a pale filvery
gray, with a flight fliade of ftraw colour on the fides of
the neck and body. Along the back runs a deep brown
ft ripe of thickith wavy hair, to the beginning of the
tail 5 this ftripe is croffed over the flioulders, as in the
tame animal, by another of fimilar colour ; but it is
faid that this is peculiar to the male. The neck is fur-
nilhed with a brown mane three or four inches long,
confifting of foft woolly hair ; the tail is tufted at the
end by dufky hairs of about fix inches in length j the
forehead is arched, and the earsereft, pointed, and lined
internally with white curling hairs. It ftands higher
on its limbs than the dometticated animal, and its legs
are more flender in proportion. The hair on the whole
body is very fine, bright, foft, and filky j and on fome
parts is marked by a few obfcure undulations of a dark¬
er fhade than the reft. Thofe which are found in Afri¬
ca are faid to be of a pale alh colour, rather than of the
caft above defcribed.
The food of the wild afs confifts chiefly of faline, or
bitter and laclefcent plants. It is alfo fond of fait or
brackilh water. "Ihe manners of thefe animals very
much referable thofe of the wild horfe. They affemble
in troops under the conduct of a leader, and are ex¬
tremely ftiy and vigilant, and, like the former animals*
dart off with the utmoft rapidity on the fight of man¬
kind. They have been at all times celebrated for their
fwiftnefs. Their voice refembles that of the common
afs, but is fomewhat Ihriller. -
Wild affes are found in feveral parts of Afia, efpe-
cially in the dry and mountainous deferts of Tartary,
and in the fouthern parts of India and Perfia. Large
herds of them are alfo found in South America, where
they were originally introduced by the Spaniards, and
as the climate feems peculiarly favourableto them, they
have multiplied to fo great a number, as in fome places
to have become quite a nuifance. In the kingdom of
Quito they are hunted for the purpofe of domeftica-
tion, and the hunting is conduced in the following
manner.
A number of perfons go on horfeback, and are at¬
tended by Indians on foot. When arrived at the proper
places, they form a circle in order to drive them into
lome valley, W'here, at full fpeed, they throw the noofe
and endeavour to halter them. The creatures, finding
themfelves inclofed, make very furious efforts to efcape j
and if only one forces his way through, they all fol¬
low with an irrefiftible impetuofity. However, when
noofed, the hunters throw them down and fecure them
with fetters, and thus leave them till the chafe is over.
Then, in order to bring them away with greater facili¬
ty, they pair them with tame affts ; but this is not ea-
fily performed, for they are fo remarkably fierce, that
they often wound the perfons who undertake to manage
them.
They have all the fwiftnefs of horfes, and neither de¬
clivities nor precipices can retard their career. When
attacked, they defend themfelves with their heels and
mouth with fuch addrefs, that without flackening their
pace, they often maim their purfuers. But the moil re¬
markable property in thefe creatures is, that, after car¬
rying their firft load, their celerity leaves them, their
dangerous
3iap. VI. MAMMA L I A. 529
Beliuae. dangerous ferocity is loft, and they foon contract the
ftupid look, and the dulnefs peculiar to their fpecies.
It is alfo obfervable that thefe creatures will not per¬
mit a horfe to live among them. They always feed
together, and if a horfe happens to ftray into the place
where they graze, they all fall upon him, and without
even giving him the choice of flying, bite and kick him
till they leave him dead on the fpot.
Though the afs is at prefent naturalized in this coun¬
try, his introduction into Britain feems to have been
very late, as he was entirely loft among us during the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, when, as Hollinlhed in¬
forms us, “ our lande did yeelde no aftes.” There is,i
however, no reafon to fuppofe that the afs was unknown
among us fome hundred years before, as we find men¬
tion made of him fo early as the time of Athelred, and
again in the reign of Henry III. fo that the lofs of
them during the reign of Queen Elizabeth muft have
been owing to fome accident. They were probably in¬
troduced again under the fucceeding reign, when we
renewed our intercourfe with Spain, in which country
this animal is much ufed, and where it has been brought
to great perfection.
The qualities of this animal are fo well known as to
need no defcription. His gentlenefs, patience, and
perfeverance, are without example. He is temperate
with regard to food, and eats contentedly the coarfeft
and moft negleCted herbage. If he give the preference
to any vegetable, it is to the plantain, for which he
will negleCt every other herb in the pafture. In his wa¬
ter he is Angularly nice, drinking only from the cleareft
brooks. He is fo much afraid of wetting his feet, that,
even when laden, he will turn afide to avoid the dirty
parts of the road.
He is ftronger, in proportion to his fize, than the
horfe, but more fluggilh, ftubborn, and untraftable.
He is healthier than the horfe, and of all other quadru¬
peds is leaft infefted with lice or other vermin j proba¬
bly owing to the extreme hardnefs and drynefs of his
<kin. For the fame reafon, perhaps, he is lefs fenfible
of the goads of the whip, or the flinging of flies.
He is three or four years in coming to perfection,
and lives to the age of 20, or fometimes 25 years. He
lleeps much lefs than the horfe, and never lies down for
that purpofe but when he is much fatigued. The fhe-
afs goes 11 months with young, and feldom produces
more than one at a time.
In pleading the caufe of this injured and negleCted
animal, we cannot do better than copy the eulogy of
the abbe la Pluche.
“ I confefs (fays he) that the afs is not mafter of
very ftrining qualities, but then he enjoys thofe that are
very folid. If we refort to other animals for diftinguilh-
ed fervices, this at leaft furnifhes us with fuch as are
moft neceffary. His voice is not altogether melodious,
nor his air majeftic, nor his manners very lively j but
then a fine voice has very little merit with people of
folidity. With him the want of a noble air has its
compenfation in a mild and modeft countenance j and in-
ftead of the boifterous and irregular qualities of the
horfe, which are frequently more incommodious than
agreeable, the behaviour of the afs is entirely fimple
and unaflfeCted ; no fupercilious and felf-fufficient airs.
He marches with a very uniform pace, and though he
is not ext raordinarily fwift, he purfues his journey for a
Vol. XII. Part II.
long time, and without intermiflion. He finUhes his Hiftory of
work in filence, ferves you with a fteady perfeverance,the ^PeCie&
and difcovers no oftentation in his proceedings, which is * " '
certainly a confiderable accomplithment in a domeftic.
His meat requires no preparation, for he is perfectly
well contented with the firlt thiftle that prefents itfelf
in his way. He does not pretend that any thing is due
to him, and never appears fqueamilh or diffatisfied : he
thankfully accepts whatever is offered to him j he has
an elegant relifh for the belt things, and very civilly con¬
tents himfelf with the moft indifferent. If he happens
to be forgotten, or is faftened a little too far from his
fodder, he entreats his mafter, in the moil pathetic lan¬
guage he can utter, to be fo good as to fupply his ne-
ceflities. It is very juft that he Ihould live, and he em¬
ploys all his rhetoric with that view. When he has fi-
nilhed his expoftulations, he patiently waits the arrival
of a little bran, or a few withered leaves j and the mo¬
ment he has difpatched his meal, he returns to his bufi-
nefs, and marches on without a murmur or reply. His
occupations have a tinge of the meannefs of thofe who
fet him to work 5 but the judgments that are formed,
both of the afs and his mafter, are equally partial.
The employments of a judge, a man of confequence,
and an officer of the revenue, have an important air,
and their habit impofes on the fpeftators. On the con¬
trary, the labour of the peafant has a mean and con¬
temptible appearance, becaufe his drefs is poor and his
condition defpifed. But we really make a falfe eftima-
tion of thefe particulars. It is the labour of the pea¬
fant which is moft valuable, and alone truly neceflary.
Of what importance is it to us when a manager of the
revenue glitters from head to foot with gold ? We have
no advantage from his labours. I confefs, judges and
advocates are, in fome meafure, neceffary, but they are
made fo by our folly and miffiehaviour ; for they would
no longer be wanted, could we conduit ourfelves in a
rational manner. But, on the other hand, we could
on no account, and in no feafon or condition of life, be
without the peafant and the artizan. Thefe people may
be confidered as the fouls and finews of the community,
and the fupport of our life. It is from them we are
conftantly deriving fome accommodations for our wants.
Our houfes, our habits, our furniture, and our fufte-
nance rife from their labours. Now', what would be¬
come of your vine-dreffers, gardeners, mafons, and the
generality of country people, that is to fay, of two-
thirds of all mankind, if they were deftitute of men and
horfes to convey the commodities and materials which
they employ and manufacture ? The afs is perpetually
at their fervice *, he carries fruit, herbs, coal, wood,
bricks, tiles, plafter, lime, and ftraw. The moft abjeCf
offices are his ordinary lot, and it is as Angular an ad¬
vantage to this multitude of workmen, as well as to
ourfelves, to find a gentle, ftrong, and indefatigable
animal, who, without expence or pride, furnilhes our
cities and villages with all forts of commodities. A
fhort comparifon will complete the illuftration of his
fervices, and in fome meafure raife them from their ob-
fcurity. The borfe very much refembles thofe nations
who are fond of glitter and hurry ; who are perpetual¬
ly finging and dancing, and extremely ftudious to fet
off their exterior, and mix gaiety in all their aClions.
They art; admirable on fome diftinguilhed and decifive
occalions, but their fire frequently degenerates into ro-
3 X ' * mantic
53°
Hufory of mantic enthuilafni j they fall into wild tranfports; they
tiie Species. ex)iau|t themfelveg, and lofe the molt favourable eon-
junctures for want of management and moderation.
The als, on the contrary, relembles thole people who
are naturally heavy and pacific, whole underltandi-ng
and capacity are limited to hufbandry or commerce,
and who proceed in the fame track without difeompo-
iure, and complete, with a politive air, whatever they
have once undertaken.”
The fkin of this animal is very hard and elaftic, and
may be ufed for drums, fiioes, and many other purpofes.
It is, we believe, feldom employed, except for the
leaves of pocket memorandum books. The fielh of the
wild afs is faid to be good food, and eafy of digeftion.
Mule! The he-afs and the mare readily breed together, but
74* the commerce between the flallion and the fhe-afs is
faid to be difficult. The produce of either connexion
is the common mule, an animal fuperior both to the
horfe and afs for travelling over wild and mountainous
trails of country.
The common mule is very healthy, and will live a-
bove 30 years. It is found very ferviceable in carrying
burthens, particularly in mountainous places, where
horfes are not fo fure-footed. The fize and ftrength of
our breed have lately been much improved by the im¬
portation of Spaniffi male aiTes $ and it were much to
be wiffied, that the ufeful qualities of this animal were
more attended to j for, by proper care in its breaking,
its natural obftinacy would in a great meafure be cor¬
rected ; and it might be formed with fuccefs, for the
fuddle, the draught, or the burthen.
People of the firit quality in Spain are draw n by mules,
where 50 or 60 guineas is no uncommon price for one of
them ; nor is it furprifing, when we confider how far
they excel the horfe in travelling in a mountainous coun¬
try, the mule being able to tread fecurely where the
former can hardly hand. Their manner of going down
the Alps, Andes, &c. is very extraordinary. In thefe
pallages, on one fide, are fteep eminences, and on the
other frightful abyffes j and as they generally follow
the direction of the mountain, the road initead of lying
in a level, forms at every little diftance fteep declivi¬
ties of feveral hundred yards downward. Thefe can
only be defeended by mules, and the animal itfelf
feems fenfible of the danger, and the caution to be ufed
in fuch dsfeents. When they come to the edge of one
of thefe precipices, they flop without being checked by
the rider, and if he inadvertently attempt to fpur them
on, they continue immoveable. They feem all this
time ruminating on the danger that lies before them,
and preparing themfelves for the encounter. They not
only attentively view the road, but tremble and fnort
at the danger. Having prepared for the defeent, they
place their fore feet in a pofture as if they were flopping
themfelves ; they then alfo put their hind feet together,
but a little forward, as if they were going to lie down.
In this attitude, having as it wfere taken a furvey of the
road, they Hide down with the fwiftnefs of a meteor. At this
time all the rider has to do is to keep himfelf faft on
the faddle without checking the reins, for the leaft mo¬
tion is fufficient to deftroy the equilibrium of the mule,
in which cafe both he and his rider would perilh. The
addrefs of thele animals in this rapid defeent is truly
wonderful, for in their fwlfteft motion, when they feem to
have loft all government of themfelves, they follow ex»
Part II,
aflly the different windings of the road, as if they had BeilutE.
previoufiy fettled in their minds the route they w'ere to
follow, and had taken every precaution for their fafety.
On thefe occafions the natives place themfelves along
the fides of the mountains, and holding by the roots of
trees, they animate the beaftswithlhouts, and encourage
them to perfevere. Some mules after having been long
ufed in fuch journeys, acquire a fort of reputation for
their fafety and fkill, and their value rifes in proportion
to their celebrity *. * Beur'd's
Mules very rarely breed among each other, or w ith
horfes or afles, but a few inltances of this kind have^'*
occurred. t
4. E. Zebra, the Zebra.-—This may be confidered aszebia.
the moft beautiful animal of the horfe tribe, but it is that Fig. yrf
fpeeies with which we are leaft acquainted. It is w ild in
its nature, and fo fwift in its motions, that it can feldom
be taken.
In fize the zebra commonly equals the afs, and it is
often eonfiderably larger. Its form is much more
elegant than that of the afs ; its head and ears being
w ell ftiaped, and of a moderate fize. What, however,
chiefiy diftinguiffies this animal, is the beauty and
fymmetry of its colours. The ground of the fkin is
either a pure white or cream colour, fometimes with
a flight ffiade of buff, or a pale rufty tinge, and the
fkin is ornamented on every part with numerous ftripes
of a black or blackifli brown colour, difpofed with die
greateft regularity, fo as to produce an appearance
as if the animal were decorated with dark ribbands.
Thefe ftripes run tranfverfely on the body and limbs,
and in a longitudinal direftion down the face. The
tail is moderately long, round, rather flender, marked
wdth fmall blackifh bars, and terminated by a pretty
thick tuft of a blackifh or brown colour.
The zebra is chiefly confined to the hotter parts of
Africa, from Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope,
where there are large herds. In manners they refemble
the wild horfe and afs, and are exceflively fwift and vi¬
gilant.
All attempts to tame this animal, fo as to render it
ferviceable, have been hitherto fruitlefs. Wild and in¬
dependent by nature, it feems ill adapted to fervitude
and reftraint. If, however, it were taken young,
and much care was beftowed on its education, it
might very probably be in a great meafure domefticat-
ed. A beautiful male zebra, at Exeter change, Lon¬
don, which w'as afterwards burnt to death by the mif-
chievous aft of a monkey fetting fire to the ftraw on
which he lay, appeared to have entirely loft his native
wildnefs, and was fo gentle as to fuffer a child of fix
years old to fit quietly on his back, without exhibiting
the leaft fign of difpleafure. He was familiar even with
ftrangers, and received thofe kind of careffes that?
are ufually given to the horfe with evident fatisfac-
tion.
One that was, fome years ago, kept at Kewq feemed
of a favage and fierce nature $ no one dared venture
to approach it, except the perfon who was accuftomed
to feed it, and who alone could mount on its back.
Mr Edwrards faw this animal eat a large paper of to¬
bacco, paper and all 5 and was told it would eat flefti,
and any kind of food whatever that was given it. This,
however, might proceed from habit or neceflity in
its long voyage to this country j for in a native ftate
thefe
M A M M A L I A,
Chap.
Belluae.
VI. MAMMALIA.
thefe animals all feed, like horfes and aiTes, on vege- are divided into four parts
^ Nichol.
fourn. 410.
rol. ii.
ISI
iippopota-
nus.
ri£- 77*
J tables.
In fome parts about tbe Cape, where there are many
zebras, there is a penalty of fifty rix-dollars infliftedon
any perfon who (hoots one of them j and wherever any
of them happen to be caught alive, they are ordered
to be fent to the governor.
It has been found that the zebra and the afs will
breed together. For the purpofe of afcertaining this,
an experiment was made in the year 1773 with a ze¬
bra that belonged to Lord Clive. No account of this
experiment appeared till Mr Nicholfon publifhed the
fubftance of fome anfwers made by Mr Parker to a
fet of queftions propofed by Sir Jofeph Banks.
The zebra was firft covered by an Arabian horfe.
For this purpofe it was found neceffary to bind her,
and {he (hewed great difguft. As (lie did not con¬
ceive, an Englifli afs was procured, to which (lie (bow¬
ed a degree of averfion, fcarcely if at all lefs than to
the horfe, and was fubjedled to him by the fame means.
The refult of this trial not being more favourable than
the other, recourfe was had to the extraordinary expe¬
dient of painting another afs fo as to refemble the ze¬
bra. Complete fuccefs attended this deception. When
the animals were put together, the zebra at firfl ap¬
peared fhy, but (he received the embraces of the paint¬
ed afs, and conceived. The offspring wras a fine large
male foal, which was juft turned of fix months old at
the time of inquiry, namely, December 1773. It re-
fembled both parents', the father as to make, and the
mother as to colour j but the colour vTas not fo ftrong,
and the ftripes on the (boulders were more confpicuous
than on any other part. In anfwer to a queftion di-
refted to that objeft, the relater dates it as his opinion,
that it would very probably propagate its fpecies, as it
did not appear at all to be like a mule.
In the courfe of the year after this information was
received, his lordftiip died fuddenly, and the colleftion
of animals was difpofed of. Sir Jofeph Banks was then
abfent from town j and upon his return he was prevent¬
ed by this circumftance, either from purchafing the
animals, or acquiring any further information refpedting
the foal *.
Genus 46. Hippopotamus.
Four front teeth in each jaw, the upper (landing dif-
tant in pairs, lower prominent, the two middle
longed:; canine teeth folitary, lower extremity large,
long, curved, and obliquely truncated j feet armed
at the margin with four hoofs.
There is only one fpecies, viz. H. Amphibius, the
Hippopotamus, Hippopotame, or River Horfe.—The
head of this animal is of an enormous fize, and the
mouth extremely wide. The ears are fmall and point¬
ed, and very thickly lined within with ftiort fine hairs.
The eyes and noftrils are fmall in proportion to the
bulk of the animal •, on the lips are fome ftrong hairs
feattered in patches here and there. The hair on
the body is very thin, of a whitifh colour, and
fcarcely difcernible at firft fight. There is no mane on
the neck, as fome writers affirm, but the hairs on that
part are rather thicker. The (kin is very thick and
ftrong, and of a dulky colour. The tail is about a
foot long, tapering, compreffed, and naked j the hoofs
53*
The legs ate ftiort and Hiftory of
thick. In bulk it is fecond only to the elephant, and^ie
by fome writers, is faid even to be fuperior to him. V "
The length of a male has been found to be 17 feet,
the circumference of the body 15, the height nearly
feven, the legs nearly three, the head three and a half,
and the girth nearly nine. The mouth, when open, is
above two feet wide, and furniffied with 44 teeth of
different figures. The cutting, and particularly the
canine teeth of the lower jaw, are very long, and ex¬
ceedingly hard and ftrong. The fubftance of the ca¬
nine teeth is fo white, fine, and hard, that it is pre¬
ferred to ivory for making artificial teeth. The cut¬
ting teeth, efpecially thole of the under jaw, are very
long, cylindrical, and chamfered. The canine teeth
are alfo long, crooked, prifmatic, and (harp, like the
tufks of the wild boar. The grinders are fquare, or
oblong, like thofe of man, and fo large that one of
thefe teeth fometimes weighs three pounds. The tulks,
according to Dr Sparrman, are 27 inches long. With
fuch powerful arms, and fuch a prodigious ftrength of
body, the hippopotamus might render himfelf formi¬
dable to every animal. But he is naturally of a mild
difpofition, and is formidable only when provoked. His
bulk is fo great that 12 oxen have been found neceffary
to draw affiore une that had been (hot; and it is (aid
that the hide is a load for a camel. Though he de¬
lights in the water, and appears to live in it as eafily
as on land, he has not, like the beaver, or otter, mem¬
branes between his toes. The great fize of his belly
renders his fpecific gravity nearly equal to that of wa¬
ter, and enables him to fwim with eafe.
Thefe animals inhabit the rivers of Africa, from the
Niger to Berg river, many miles north of the Cape of
Good Hope. They formerly abounded in the rivers
nearer the Cape, but are now almoft extirpated j and to
preferve the few which are left in Berg river, the
governor abfolutely prohibited the (hooting of them
without particular permiffion. They are not found in
any of the African rivers that run into the Mediterra¬
nean, except in the Nile, and even there only in Upper
Egypt, and in the fens and lakes of Ethiopia, through
which the Nile paffes. From the unwieldinefs of his
body and the ftiortnefs of his legs, the hippopotamus is
not able to move fail upon land, and is there extremely
timid. When purfued, he takes to the water, plunges
in, finks to the bottom, and is feen walking there at
eafe ; he cannot, however, continue there long, with¬
out rifing towards the furface j and in the day-time is
fo fearful of being difcovered, that when he takes in
freftr air the place is hardly perceptible, as he fcarcely
ventures to put his nofe out of the water. In rivers not
frequented by mankind, he is, however, lefs cautious,
and there puts his whole head out of the water. If
wounded, he will rife and attack boats or canoes with
great fury $ and is faid frequently to fink them by bit-
ing large pieces out of the fides; for he is as bold in
the water as he is timid on the land. In (hallow rivers
the hippopotamus makes deep holes in the bottom for
the purpofe of concealing his great bulk. When he
quits the water, he ufually puts out half his body at
once, fmells and looks around, but fometimes he nifties
out with great impetuofity, and tramples down every
thing in his way. During the night he leaves the ri¬
vers to graze upon the land, where he eats fugar canes,
3X2 rufties.
532 M A M M
Hiitory of rufties, millet, rice, &c. eonfaming great quantities,
Sjie Species.a;.-| doJng much damage in the cultivated fields. As
V'a”t"V"rT'' he is fo timid on land, it is, however, not difficult to
drive him off. The Egyptians (as Mr Haffelquift in¬
forms us) have a curious method of freeing thetnfelves
in fome meafure from this deffruflive animal. They
remark the places he frequents mod, and there lay a
large quantity of peafe : when the animal comes on ffiore
hungry and voracious, he falls to eating what is neareft
him, and, filling his belly with peale, they occafion an
infupportable third: j he then returns immediately into
the river, and drinks large draughts of water, which by
iwelling the peafe, caufe his fudden death ", for not long
after the Egyptans find him dead on the ffiore, blown
up as if killed with drong poifon. He alfo feeds on the
roots of trees, which he loofens with his great tulks $
but he never feeds on fiffi. i'hefe animals, deep on the
reedy idands in the middle of the dream, and here they
bring forth their young. There is but one male to a
herd of females : thefe bring forth one young at a time
on the land, but they fuckle them in the water.
They are generally taken in pit-falls, and the poor
people eat their deffi. Indeed the deffi of the young
animals or calves, as they are called, is edeemed a dainty
by the natives. In fome parts they place in their corn
grounds boards full of ffiarp irons, which thefe beads
ftrike into their feet, and thus become an eafy prey.
Sometimes they are taken in the water by driking them
with harpoons fadened to cords, and to or 12 canoes
are employed in the chafe. The hippopotamus was
known to the Romans. Scaurus treated the people
with the fight of five crocodiles and one hippopota¬
mus during his edile ffiip, and exhibited them in a tem¬
porary lake. Augudus produced one at his triumph
over Cleopatra.
This animal is the behemoth of Job, who admirably
defcribes its manners, food, and haunts. Vid. chap. xl.
ver i 5.
For an anatomical account of the fkeleton of the
hippopotamus by Cuvier, fee jdnn. de Muf. Nat. tom. iv.
p. 299.
Genus 47. Tapir. Tapir.
Front teeth in both jaws io. Canine teeth in both
jaws fingle, incurvated. Grinders in both jaws five
on each fide, very broad. Feet with three hoofs and
a falfe hoof on the fore feet.
There is only one fpecies, viz.
s59 y. Americanus, American Tapir, which is thus de-
iZ fcyibed by M. Bajon.
Jig. 78. The figure of the tapir bears fome general refem-
blance to that of a hog •, but he is of the height of a
fmall mule, having an extremely thick body and ffiort
legs. He is covered with hair of a longer kind than
the horfe or afs ; but not fo long nor thick as that of a
hog. His mane, which is draight, is but little longer
than the red of the hair, and reaches from the top of
the head to the ffioulders *, the head is large and long,
the eyes very fmall and black : the ears black, and
fomewhat like thole of a hog. He is provided with a
trunk on the upper lip of nearly a foot long, the move¬
ments of which are extremely fupple, and in which re-
fides the organ of fmell, as in the elephant, and which
he extends in order to grafp fruits, &c. The two nof-
trils part the end of the trunk. The tail is only two
1S8
Tapir.
ALIA. Part II,
inches long, and is nearly naked. The hair of the bo- Beilu®.
dy is of a fomewhat deep brown ; the limbs ffiort and v—^
thick the feet very large, and rather rounded; the
fore feet have tour toes, and the hind three : all the
tots are covered with a hard thick hoof or horn.
Though the head is very large, it contains but a very
fmall brain ; the jaws are much eiongattd, and furnilli-
ed, in general, with 40 teeth ; but fometimes there are
more, and fometimes fewer. 'I he cutting teeth are
ffiarp edged, and are the teeth which vary as to num¬
ber. After the cutting teeth, we find a canine tooth
on each fide, both above and below, which have a good
deal of refemblance to thofe of a boar j we then find a
fmall fpace or interval without teeth, and then follow
the grinders, which are very large, with very broad
furfaces.
M. Bajon imagined, that, on diffe&ion, he difcover-
ed three itomachs within this animal •, and therefore he
confi'.lered it to be a ruminating animal ; but this was
afterwards found to be a miftake. It appeared, on dif-
fe&ing a tapir brought alive to Paris, that the ftomach
was very large, and was contrafted in two places, but
was ftill a fingle uniform ftomach.
The female tapir is larger than the male, and has a
weaker voice.
The tapir was once confidered as an amphibious ani¬
mal j but this opinion feems to be erroneous.
For an anatomical account of the fkeleton of the
tapir, by Cuvier, fee Annales de Muf. Nat. tom. iii.
132-
Genus 48. Sus. Hog. Sus.1^
Front teeth in the upper jaw four, converging. In the
lower jaw fix, projecting. Canine teeth or tufks, in
the upper jaw tw-o, long, exferted. Snout trunca¬
ted, prominent, moveable. Feet cloven.
In their manners the whole of this tribe nearly re-
femble each other, being in general filthy and difguft-
ing, and very fond of wallowing in the mire. They
feed indifferently on animal and vegetable food, but
feem to prefer the latter w hen they can obtain it. They
are particularly fond of acorns, beech maft, and fimilar
fruits, and with their ftrong tendinous fnout they dig
up the earth in fearch of roots. They are exceedingly
prolific.
There are about five fpecies, viz. *
1.* S. Scrofa, Common H. Body briftled in front j
tail hairy.—2. S. Ethiopicus, Ethiopian H. Wattles
beneath the eyes.—3. S. Africanus, Cape Verd H.
Only two front teeth.—4. S. Babyrujpi, Babyrouila, or
Horned H. The two upper tufks growing from the
upper part of the front.—5. S. Tajajfu, Pacary. Tail-
lefs, with a glandular orifice on the back.
I. S. Scrofa, Common H.—The common hog is Scrofa,
found either in a wild or domeftic ftate, in almoft all the Common
temperate parts of Europe and Alia ; but it is not metH°g-
w ith in the moft northern parts of thefe continents. Itis^'^'
alfo found in the upper parts of Africa. Dr Shaw re¬
marks, that it is not indigenous to the Britiih ifh s; but
Mr Pennant afferts, that the wild boar was formerly a
native of this country, as appears from the laws of
Hoel dda, who permitted his grand huntfman to chafe
that animal from the middle of November to the begin¬
ning of December. William the Conqueror punifhed,
with the lofs of their eyes, any that were convifted of
killing
lap. VI. M A M M
Beliu® killing the wild boar, the flag, or the roe-buck $ and
— V"— Fitz-Stephens tells us, that the vaft foreft that in his
time grew on the north fide of London, was the retreat
of ftfgs, fallow-deer, wild boars, and bulls.
The wild boar inhabits woods, living on various
kinds of vegetables, viz. roots, maft, acorns, &c. &c.
It alfo occafionally deyours animal food. It is, in ge
neral, confiderably fmaller than the domeftic hog, and
is of a dark brindled gray colour, fometimes blackilh j
but, when only a year or two old, is of a pale red or
dull yellowifh brown caft ; and, when quite young, is
marked by alternate dufky and pale ftripes difpofed lon¬
gitudinally on each fide the body. Between the
briftles, next the Ikin, is a finer or fofter hair, of a
woolly or curling nature. The fnout is fomewhat long¬
er in proportion than that of the domeltic animal j but
the principal difference is in the fuperior length and
fize of the tulks, which are often feveral inches long, and
capable of inflifting the moft fevere and fatal wounds.
The hunting of the wild boar forms one of the
amufementsof the great in fome parts of Germany, Po¬
land, &c. and is a chafe of fome difficulty and danger,
not on account of the fvviftnefs, but the ferocity of the
animal.
Wild boars, fays Buffon, which have not pafled their
third year, are called by the hunters beajls of company,
becaufe previous to this age they do not feparate, but
follow their common parent. They never wander alone
till they have acquired fufficient ftrength to refift the
attacks of the w'olf. Thefe animals, when they have
young, form a kind of flocks ; and it is upon this alone
that their fafety depends. When attacked, the largeft
and ftrongeft front the enemy, and by prefling all round
againft the weaker, force them into the centre. Do¬
meftic hogs are alfo obferved to defend themfelves in a
fimilar manner. The wild boar is hunted with dogs,
or killed by furprife, during the night, when the moon
fhines. As he flies {lowly, leaves a ftrong odour be¬
hind him, and defends himfelf againft the dogs, and of¬
ten wounds themdangeroufly, fine hunting dogs are un-
neceflary, and would have their nofe fpoiled, and acquire
a habit of moving flowly by hunting him. Maftiffs,
with very little training, are fufficient. The oldeft
boars, which are known by the track of their feet,
fliould alone be hunted ; a young boar of three years
old is difficult to be attacked, becaufe he runs very far
without flopping •, but the old boars do not run far, al¬
low the dogs to come near, and often flop to repel
them. During the day the boar commonly keeps in
his foil, which is in the moft fequeftered parts of the
woods, and comes out by night in queft of food •, and
in fummer, when the grain is ripe, it is eafy to furprife
him among the cultivated fields, which he frequents
every night.
As the wild boar advances in age, after the period of
three or four years, he becomes lefs dangerous, on ac¬
count of the growth of his tulks, which turn up, or
make fo large a curve, as often rather to impede than
aflift his intentions of wounding with them.
According to the French newfpapers for the year
1787, a wild boar, of moft extraordinary fize, was
killed in the neighbourhood of Cognac in Angumois,
which had often efcaped from the hunters, had received
many gun fliot wounds, and had coft the lives of feve¬
ral dogs and men each time of attacking him. When ,
ALIA. . 533
this animal was at length {lain, feveral bullets were faid Hiftory of
to have been found between his Ikin and flefh. M. Son- the Species.
nini, who details this anecdote from the public papers,
obferves, that if the relation had not been given by
hunters of diftinguilhed order, and too well acquainted
with thefe animals to have made any miftake, we might
imagine that this formidable creature, which had long
committed its ravages in the park of Cognac, belonged
to a totally different fpecies. It was of enormous fize,
with a very long head, a very {harp or pointed fnout j
and its mouth was armed with teeth of a very Angular
form. The hairs of the body were white, thofe of the
head yellowifti, the neck marked with a black band in
form of a cravat, and the ears large and ftraight j and
what appears furprifing, confidering its fize, it was of
uncommon fwiftnefs.
In a domeftic ftate the fow brings forth twice a year,
and produces from 10 to 20 at a litter. She goes ra¬
ther more thjn four months with young. At the time
of bringing forth {he muft be carefully watched, as {he
fometimes devours her young,and it isftill moreneceffary
to keep off the boar, who may deftroy the whole litter.
Tliere are feveral varieties of the hog bred in this
country j but thofe in greateft requeft are generally
known by the name of Berkjhire pigs. Thefe are ufu-
ally of a reddifti-brown colour, with black fpots } they
have large ears hanging over their eyes, are ftiort-
legged, fmall-boned, and very eafily fattened. Mr
Culley mentions one of thefe that was killed at Congle-
ton in Cheftiire, which meafured from the nofe to the
end of the tail nine feet eight inches, was four feet and
a half high, and weighed, when killed, 86 ftones n lbs.
avoirdupois.
The Chinefe, or black breed, are now very common
in England. They are fmaller, have ftiorter legs, and
their flelh is whiter and fweeter than the common kind.
Of this fort were thofe tound in New Guinea, which
proved fo feafonable a relief to our circumnavigators,
when that country was firft vifited by them. There are
likewife great numbers of them in the Friendly and So¬
ciety iflands, the Marquefas, and many other of the
lately difcovered iflands in the South feas. Thefe are
fed with plantains, bread-fruit, and yams j and are ex¬
ceedingly fat. They are frequently feen by the natives
in their canoes, fwimming from one ifland to another,
and killed by them with lances and arrows.
The hog fpecies, though very numerous and diffufed
over Europe, Afia, and Africa, did not exift in Ame¬
rica, till tranfported thither by the Spaniards. In ma¬
ny places they have multiplied exceedingly, and be¬
come wild. They referable the domeftic hog, but their
bodies are Ihorter, and their fnout and Ikin thicker.
This animal has been compared to a mifer, who is
ufelefs and rapacious in his life j but on his death be¬
comes of public ufe, by the very effefts of his fordid
manners. The hog, during life, does not render the
leaft fervice to mankind, except in removing that filth
which other animals rejefl. His more than common
brutality urges him to devour even his own offspring., .
All other domeftic quadrupeds (hew fome degree of re-
fpeft to mankind, and even a fort of tendernefs for us
in our helplefs years; but this animal will devour in¬
fants, whenever it has opportunity.
The parts of this animal are finely adapted to its way
of life. As its method of feeding is by turning up the
earth.
534 M A M M
ear^a *or r0°^3 different kinds, fo nature has given it
t.‘e . Pecic" a more prone form than other animals ; a ftrong braw ny
neck, eyes fmall, and placed high in the head, a long
fnout, nofe callous and tough, and a quick fenfe of
fmelling to trace out its food. Its inteftines have a
Itrong refemblance to thofe of the human fpecies j a
circumftance that ftiould mortify our pride. The ex¬
ternal form of its body is very unwieldy, yet, by the
llrength of its tendons, the wild boar is enabled to fly
from the hunters with amazing agility. The back toe
on the leet of this animal prevents it from flipping
"while it defcends declivities, and muft be of lingular ufe
when purfued $ yet, notwithftanding its powers of mo¬
tion, it is by nature ftupid, inactive, and drow fy ; much
inclined to increafe in fat, which is difpofed in a differ¬
ent manner from other animals, and forms a regular
coat over the whole body. It is reftlefs at a change of
weather, and in certain high winds is fo agitated as to
run violently, fcreaming horribly at the fame time : it
is fond of wallowing in the dirt, either to cool its fur-
feited body, or to deftroy the lice, ticks, and other in-
fefls with which it is infefted. Its difeafes generally
• arife from intemperance: meafles, impofthumes, and
fcrophulous complaints, are reckoned among them.
Linnaeus obferves that its flelh is a w-holefome food
for athletic conftitutions, or thofe that ufe much exercife,
but bad for fuch as lead a fedentary life. It is of moft
univerfal ufe, and furniflies numberlefs materials for
epicurifm, among which brawn is a kind peculiar to
Lngland. The flefh of the hog is an article of the firft
importance to a naval and commercial nation, for it
takes fait better than any other kind, and confequently
is capable of being preferved longer. The lard is of
great ufe in medicine, being an ingredient in feveral
forts of plafters, either pure, or in the form of pomatum j
and the briftles are formed into bruflies of feveral kinds.
4. S. BabyruJftj, the Babyroufla.—This animal near¬
ly refembles the common hog in fize 5 but his body is
rather longer, his limbs more flender, and, inftead of
briftles, he is covered with fine fhort, rather woolly
hair, of a deep brown or blackifli colour, with only a
few briftles on the upper and hinder parts of the back.
It is principally diftinguiftied from other fpecies by the
very extraordinary pofition and form of the upper tulks.
Thefe, inftead of being fituated internally on the edge
of the jaw, as in other animals, are placed without,
through the Ikin of the fnout, turning upwards towards
the forehead. As the animal advances in age, thofe
tufks become fo extremely long and curved, as to touch
the forehead, and then bend downwards, when they
xnuft lofe their power as offenfive weapons, for which
they were probably intended in the younger animal.
Thefe upper tulks are of a fine hard grain, and may be
ufed as ivory. The tulks of the lowrer jaw referable thofe
of the other fpecies, and are very long, fliarp, and
curved ; but not nearly fo large as thofe of the upper
jaw. The eyes are fmall; the ears ere£l and pointed ;
the tail pretty long, flender, and terminated by a tuft
of long hairs.
This fpecies is gregarious, and found in large herds
in feveral parts of Java, Amboyna, and other Indian
iflands. It feeds entirely on vegetables, and often eats
the leaves of trees. When fleeping or refting itfelf in a
Handing pofture, it is faid to hook its tulks acrofs the
lower branches of the trees by way of fupport. When
162
Bahyntjfa
Fig. So.
ALIA.
purfued, thefe animals will often plunge into a river, or
even into the fea, and they can fwim with great eafe
and to a vaft diftance. Their voice is faid to refemble
that of the common hog ; but it is fometimes a ftrong,
loud, growling note. It is occafionally domefticated
by the natives of the Indian iflands, and its flelh is con-
fidered as wholefome food.
This order contains four genera and 13 fpecies.
In the clafs Mammalia, we have enumerated or
defcribed about 537 fpecies; of which the following
Table fhews the number in each genus.
Part ]
'Bellu a
SfMIA contains
Lemur,
Galeopithecus,
Vespertilio,
Bradypus,
Myrmecophaga, about
Manis,
Dasypus about
Rhinoceros, perhaps
Elephas,
Platypus,
Trichecus, about
Phoca,
C axis, about
Felis, about
VlVERRA, about
Lutra,
Ursus, about
Didelfhis, about
Dasyurus,
Perameles,
Wombat,
Macropus,
Talpa,
Sorex,
Erinaceus,
Hystrix,
Cavia,
Castor,
Mus, about
Hydromys,
Arctomys,
Sciurus,
Myoxus,
Dipus,
Lepus,
Hyrax,
Camelus,
Moschus,
Cervus,
Camelopardalis,
Antilope,
Capra,
Ovis,
Bos,
Eshjus,
Hippopotamus,
Tapir,
Sus,
62 fpecies
J3
1
24
3
6
3
6
3
1
1
7
23
2?
48
8
9
18
6
2
1
2
7
16
6
7
2
44
3
8
26
7
6
12
3
7
7
12
1
32
8
8
6
6
1
1
5
Total 537
Of thefe about 36 are found in Britain.
The
tap.
VI.
M A M M
plana. The compiler of this article is confcious that it la-
ofthc hours under many deficiencies •, that many animals,
I late*, u hic-h ought to have been defcribed, are merely enu-
^ ' " merated ; and that the accounts of feveral, which are
ufually confidered as important objects of natural
hillory, are much lefs complete than tnight have been
expefted. For many of thefe defects he does not
hold himfelf accountable. From the very limited fpace
within which he was obliged to confine the article, it
was neceffary, either that he fhould treat of every fpe-
cies in a very concife manner, fo as to make the treatife
A Xj I A.
merely a tabular Iketch, or that he fliould content him¬
felf with a fyftematic arrangement of all the mamma¬
lia at prefent known, and enlarge only on a few of the
mere important fpecies. He has chofen the latter al¬
ternative, which, by making the article more intereft-
ing to the generality of readers, feems belt adapted to
the nature of this work ; while the fyftematic arrange¬
ment, with the fpecific charafters, will aflift the natu-
ralift who knows where to refer for a particular account
of the individuals.
Explana¬
tion of the
Plates.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate CCCI.
Fig. I. Simia Satyrus, Oran Otan.
Fig. 2. Simia bums, Magot or Barbary Ape.
Fig. 3. Simia Sy/vanus, Pygmy.
Fig. 4. Simla Sfi/iinx, Great Baboon.
Fig. 5. Simia Bcel%ebuly Alouatte, or Preacher Mon¬
key.
Fig. 6. Simia Argentata, Mico or Fair Monkey.
Plate CCCII.
Fig. 7. Lemur Tardigradus, Slow Lemur.
Fig. 8. Ga/eopithecus Volans, Flying Calugo.
Fig. 9. Vefpertilio Auritus, Long-eared Bat.
Fig. 10. Vefpertilio Vampyrus, Vampyre Bat.
Fig. II. Bradypus TridaSiylus, Three-toed Sloth.
Fig. 12. Myrmecophaga Jubata, Great Ant-Eater.
Plate CCCIII.
Fig. 13. Manis Pentadaclyla, Pangolin, or Short¬
tailed Manis.
Fig. 14. Manis Tetrada&yla, Long-tailed Manis.
Fig. 15. Six-banded Armadillo.
Fig. 16. Rhinoceros Unicornis-) Single»horned Rhino¬
ceros.
Plate CCCIV.
Fig. 17. E/ephas Maximus, Elephant.
Fig. 18. Sukotyro.
Fig. 19. Platypus Anatinus, Duck-billed Platypus.
Fig. 20. Trichecus Rofmarus, Arctic Walrus.
Plate CCCV.
Fig. 21. Phoca Vitalina, Common Seal, or Sea-
calf.
Fig. 22. Canis Dome/hcus, Commoa Dog,
Yar. Shepherd’s Dog.
Fig. 23. MaftifF.
Fig. 24. Foxhound.
Fig. 25. Terrier.
Fig. 26. Greyhound.
Fig. 27. Irilh Greyhounds
Plate CCCVI.
Fig. 28. Canis Lupus, Wolf..
Fig. 29. Cams Hycena, Hyaena.
Fig. 30. Cams Aureus, Jackal.
Fig. 31. Canis Zerda, Fenaec.
Fig. 32. Felis Leo, Lion.
Fig. 33. Felis Tigris, Tiger. A
Plate CCCVII.
Fig- 34. Felis Catus, Wild Cat.
Fig. 35. Viverra Ichneumon, Ichneumon^
Fig. 36. Viverra Civetta, Civet Cat. '
Fig. 37. Viverra Foina, Marten.
Fig. 38. Viverra Furo, Ferret.
Fig. 39. Lutra Vulgaris, Common Otter.
Plate CCCVIII.
Fig. 40. Urfus ArSos, Brown Bear.
Fig. 41.. Urfus Maritimus, White or Polar Bear.
Fig. 42. Urfus Meles, Badger.
Fig. 43. Didelphis Virginiana, Virginian Opoffum.
Fig. 44. Didelphis Dorfgera, Merian Opoffum.
Fig. 45. Dafyurus Viverrinus, Viverrine Dafyurus-
Plate CCCIX.
Fig. 46. The Wombat.
Fig. 47. Macropus Major, Kanguroo.
Fig. 48. Talpa Radiata, Radiated Mole.
Fig. 49. Sorex Araneus, Common Shrew.
Fig. 50. Erinaceus Europccus, Common Hedgehog,,
Fig. 51. Hystrix Crifata, Porcupine.
Fig. 52. Cajior Fiber, Common Beaver.
Plate CCCX.
Fig. 53. Cavia Cobaya, Reftlefs Cavy, or Guinea-
Pig.
Fig. 54. Mus Criceius, Hamfter Rat.
Fig. 55. Hydromys Coypus, Coypou Rat.
Fig. 56. ArBomys Marmola, Alpine Marmot.
Fig. 57. Sciurus Vulgaris, Common Squirrel.
Fig. 58. Myoxus Mufcardinus, Common Dormoufe,
Fig. 59. Dipus Jaculus, Common Jerboa.
Plate CCCXI.
Fig. 60. Lepus Timidus, Hare fitting.
Fig. 61. Hyrax Syriacus, Syrian Hyrax.
Fig. 62. Camelus Dromedarius, Arabian Camel or
Dromedary.
Fig. 63. Mofchus Mofchiferus, Tibetian Mulk.
Fig. 64. Cervus Alces, Elk.
Fig. 65. Camelopardalis Girajfa, Camelopardalis or
Giraffe.
Plate
S3<5
MAMMALIA.
Explana¬
tion of the
Plates.
Plate CCCXII.
Fig. 66. Antilope PiSia, Nyl-ghau.
Fig. 67. Copra Ibex, Ibex.
Fig. 68 Ovis Arga/i, Argali or Wild Sheep.
Fig. 69. Ovs Aries, var. Wallachian Ram.
Fig. 70. Bos Taurus, var European Bifon.
Fig. 71. Bos Grunniens, Yak of Tartary.
Plate CCCXIII.
Fig. 72. Equus Caballus, Horfe.
Fig. 73. Equus AJinus, Wild Afs.
Fig. 74. Mu/e.
Plate CCCXIV.
Fig. 75 Equut Zebra, Zebra.
Fig. 76. Equus ^uagga, Quagga.
Fig. 77. Hippopotamus Amphibius, Hippopotamus, or
River Horfe.
Fig. 78. Tapir Americanus, Tapir.
Fig. 79. Sus Scrofa, Wild Boar.
Fig. 80. Sus Babyrujfa, BabyrouiXa.
Index,
Explana
tion of the
Plates.
A.
j/jIlDROVANDUS'S writings on qua¬
drupeds, N° 6
„ z43
p. 453. N° 143
144
44
24
28
29
30
25
p. 453. and N° 123
Antelope tribe,
Antilope tribe,
pifta,
Ant-eater tribe,
Ape tribe,
taillefs,
Barbary,
Pygmy,
Apes,
ArBic walrus,
ArBomys tribe,
marmota.
Armadillo tribe,
Arijlotle's writings on quadrupeds,
4fi,
B.
124
46
5
IJ4
'Baboon, great ®r mottled,
pig-tailed,
Baboons,
Babyrouffa,
Badger,
Barb ary ape,
Bafs's account of the wombat,
Bat tribe,
long-eared,
vam pyre,
Bear tribe,
common,
white,
Beaver tribe,
common,
Beh moth.
Bet luce p. 450.
BewicPs work on quadrupeds,
B;ngley\ Animal Biography,
Bloodhound,
Bos tribe,
taurus,
grunniens,
Brady pus tribe,
trida&ylus,
Urfinus,
Brut a.
3*
32
26
162
96
29
103
38
39
40
92
93
94
116
It7
lSl
23
9
11
n 67
p. 453. N° 149
P-452.
p. 4 ?o. 463
,5f
N° 41
42
ib.
N° r 9
BujfotCs natural hiftory of quadrupeds, 8
I N D E X.
Bujffbn’s account of the beaver,
Bull dog,
C.
N* 117
64
P- 453-
Calugo tribe,
flying,
Camel tribe,
Arabian,
Camelopardalis,
Giraffa,
Camelus tribe,
dromedarius,
Canis tribe,
familiaris,
lupus,
hyaena,
aureus,
vulpes,
zerda,
Capra tribe,
ibex,
Cqflor tribe,
fiber,
Cat tribe,
wild,
domeftic,
Cavia tribe,
cobaya,
Cavy tribe,
reftlefs,
Cervus tribe,
alces,
tarandus,
Chimpanzee,
Civet cat,
Corfe. See Scot.
Coypu rat,
Cuvier's claflification of quadrupeds,
36
37
z35
136
N° 142
ib.
p. 453. N° 135
136
P. 452. N° 59
60
72
73
74
75
76
p. 453. N° 145
146
p. 453. N° 116
H7
77
81
ib.
p. 453. N° 114
JI5
H4
„ ri5
p. 453. N° 139
140
141
28
84
122
16
haman,
Dafypus tribe,
Dofyurus,
Deer tribe,
moofe,
rein,
Didelphis tribe,
virginiana,
dorfigera,
D.
134
p. 452. N 46
p. 452. N°
100
139
140
141
p. 452. N° 97
98
99
Didelphis obefula,
Dipus tribe,
fagitta,
Dog tribe,
domeftic,
varieties of,
ftiepherd’s,
Siberian,
bull,
maftifly
fox-hound,
blood-hound,
grey-hound,
terrier,
fpeaking,
Dormoufe tribe,
common,
Dromedary,
E.
p. 452. N° 102
P- 453- N° 129
130
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
70
71
' 127
128
136
Elephant,
fome remarks
Scot,
Elephas tribe,
Elk,
Equus tribe,
caballus,
afinus,
zebra,
Erinaceus tribe,
europseus,
on, by Mr Corfe
p. 468—471
p. 452. N° 50
140
P* 453- N° 'i2
i53
J54
155
p. 453. N° no
in
Eelis tribe,
leo,
tigris,
pardus,
leopardus,
catus,
Tennec,
Ferce,
Ferret,
Fitchet,
Foumart,
Fox,
Foxhound,
F.
G.
Galeopithecus tribe,
volans,
p. 452. N° 77
78
79
80
ib.
81
76
p. 450. N° 20
08
87
ib.
75
66
p. 452. N° 36
37
Gefnedt
MAMMALIA.
PLATA' CCCI.
Fy 2.
Ty 4
//</ /
FyA.
Fy.S.
A.When Sculpr
MAMMALIA
Fy.12.
FW 7
PLATE CCCJI.
fit/8.
^..Wilson Sculpt
^4. Wilson Sculp
MAMMALIA.
PLATE CCCJII.
Fit) 14.
PLATE CCCIl
MAMMALIA
lill
llilt
A.Wtbon Sculp?
MAMMALIA
PIRATE CCCV.
1
MAMMALIA
PLATE CCCVI.
Fuj .28.
Fig. zg.
Fig. 31.
Fig.30.
Ena1! MA.IVUsonEdin.
MAMMALIA.
PLATE CCCVTl.
/■'///.,'j.i.
Eng? Iry A. Wilson. E3znT
MAMMALIA.
PLATE CCCVTII.
K/ 40.
/iff. 42.
A. ffiZron Jrrtfo?
MAMMALIA
PIRATE CCCIX.
Fig. 46. Fig. 47.
K
MAMMALIA.
^4. Xfi/j'on Satfr.r £dihr
/>}/. *56.
rLATE rrrx.
MAMMALIA
FLATE ( ( ( XL
MAMMALIA
plate err All
MAMMALIA
plate err.mu
&, 73.
. ffiZsm x/cu^pt £dinburgr/i
MAMMALIA.
PLATE CCCXTV.
Index.
Gejner's work on quadrupeds.
Giraffe,
Glires,
Goat tribe,
Grey-hound,
Irifh,
Guinea pig,
H.
N° 6
142
p. 450, and N° 21
145
68
69
115
flam/ler,
Hare tribe,
common,
Hedgehog tribe,
common,
Hippopotamus,
Hog tribe,
common,
babyrouffa,
120
136
137
no
in
p. 453, N° 157
N° 160
161
162
Home's account of the camel's ftomachs,
p. 511, Note (g)
Homo, charafter of,
Hope's anecdote of the terrier,
of the lion,
Hor/e tribe,
common,
fea,
river,
Hycena, ftriped,
Hydromys tribe,
coypou,
Hyrax tribe,
Hystrix tribe,
criftata,
I.
P-452
70
78
*52
153
56
I57
n 73
p. 453, N° 121
122
p. 453, N° 134
p. 453, N° 112
IJ3
Jacha/,
”ex,
Ichneumon, Egyptian,
Jerboa tribe,
common,
Jocko,
Johnson's work on quadrupeds,
Kangaroo tribe,
great,
K.
L.
74
146
83
129
130
28
6
104
105
lemur tribe, p. 452, N° 34
tardigradus, or flow-moving, 35
r fl7ing> 37
Leopard, 80
Lepus tribe, p. 453, N° 131
timidus, 132
cuniculus, 133
linnaus's claffification of mammalia, 12
obje6tions to,
anfwered,
Lion,
Lizard, fcaly,
Lutra tribe,
vulgaris,
M.
Macauco tribe,
Macropus tribe,
major,
Magot,
Vol. XII. Part II.
13
14
78
p. 452, N 90
91
n 34
p. 452, N 104
I°5
29
MAMMAL! A.
Mammalia, definition of N°
utility of the ftudy of,
prefent knowledge of, im¬
perfect,
writers on,
claflification of, p. 449
by Linngeus, 12
by Pennant, 15
by Cuvier, 16
generic characters of, p. 452
52
Mammoth,
Manatis,
Manis tribe,
Marmot tribe,
alpine,
Marten,
Majliff,
Megatherium,
Moldvoarp,
Mole tribe,
common,
Monkey, preacher,
Monkeys,
Moofe deer,
Mofchus tribe,
mofehiferus,
Moufe tribe,
ftirew,
Mule,
Mus tribe,
decumanus,
cricetus,
Mujk tribe,
tibetian,
Myoxus tribe,
mufeardinus,
Myrmecophaga tribe,
55
p. 452, N 45
123
124
85
65
43
107
106
107
33
27
140
p. 453, N° 137
N° 138
118
109
„ x55
p. 453, N 118
119
120
137
o 138
p.453, N 127
128
p. 452, N°44
remarks on by La Ce-
pede, p. 464
Nyl-ghau,
N.
O.
Opoffum tribe,
Virginian,
Merian,
Oran otan,
Ornithorynchus paradoxus,
Otter tribe,
common,
fea,
Ovis tribe,
aries,
Ox tribe,
common.
144
97
98
99
28
54
90
91
P.
p.453, N° 147
N° 148
149
45
80
52
Pangolins,
Panther,
Peale's account of the mammoth,
Pecora, p. 450, and N° 22
Pennant's works on quadrupeds, 7
claflification of, 15
Perameles tribe, 101
obefula, 102
Phoca tribe,
vitulina,
Platypus tribe,
duck-billed,
Pliny's Natural Hiftory,
Pole cat,
Pongo,
Porcupine tribe,
common,
Preacher monkey,
Primates,
Pygmy>
R.
Rabbit,
Rat tribe,
Norway,
hamfter,
coypou,
Rein deer,
Rhinoceros tribe,
unicornis,
bicornis,
537
p. 452, N° 57
58
p. 452, N° 54
lb.
5
87
*28
112
n113
N 33
p. 449, N° 18
30
133
118
119
120
122
141
p. 452, N° 47
48
49
Sable, 86
Saphan, i^o
Sciurus tribe, p. 453, N° 125
vulgaris, 126
Scot's (J. Corfe, Efq.) remarks on the
elephant, p. 468, 469, 471
Sea calf,
Seal tribe, yy
common,
Shaw's General Zoology, 10
Sheep tribe,
common,
Shepherd's dog,
Shrew tribe,
common,
Simla tribe,
fatyrus,
inuus,
fylvanus,
fphinx,
nemeftrina
beelzebul,
Sloth tribe,
three-toed,
urfine,
Sorex tribe,
araneus,
Squirrel tribe,
common,
Sukotyro,
Sus tribe,
Talpa tribe,
Europsea,
J'apir tribe,
Americanus,
Terrier,
Tiger,
Trichecus tribe,
rofmarus,
3 Y •
T.
147
148
62
108
109
p. 452, N° 24
28
29
30
32
33
41
42
P- 463
P- 453> N° 108
109
j25
126
p. 452, N° S3
P- 453
p. 452, N° 106
107
P- 453, N° 158
I59
70
79
p. 452, N° 55
56
U-
538
MAMMALIA.
u.
Vampyre bat,
Vefpertilio tribe,
auritus,
vampyrus,
Viverra tribe,
ichneumon,
civetta,
foina,
zibellina,
putorius,
N8 40
p. 452, N° 38
39
p. 452, N 82
83
84
85
86
87
Viverra furo,
vulgaris,
Urchin,
Urfus tribe,
ar&os,
maritimus,
lufcus,
meles,
Walrus tribe,
ardlic,
W,
N° 88
89
in
p. 452, N° 92
93
94
95
96
55
56
Weafel tribe,
common.
Wolf,
Wolverine,
Wombat,
Tab of Tartary,
Zebra,
Zerda,
Y.
Z,
Index.
N° 82
ib.
79
95
I03
I55
MAM
Mammea MAMMEA, MAMMEE-Tree ; a genus of plants
II belonging to the polyandria clafs $ and in the natural
Mammoth, method ranking with thofe of which the order is doubt-
v ful. See Botany Index.
MAMMON, the god of riches, according to fome
authors •, though others deny that the word ftands for
fuch a deity, and underftand by it only riches them-
felves. Our Saviour fays, We cannot ferve God and
Mammon; that is, be religious and worldly-minded at
the fame time. Our poet Milton, by poetic licenfe,
makes Mammon to be one of the fallen angels, and
gives us his charafter in the following lines ;
Mammon, the leaft erefted fpirit that fell
From heav’n j for ev’n in heav’n his looks and
thoughts
Were always downward bent j admiring more
The riches of heav’n’s pavement, trodden gold,
' Than ought divine or holy elfe enjoy’d
In beatific vifion t by him firft
Man alfo, and by his fuggeflion taught,
Kanfack’d the centre, and with impious hands
Rifled the bowels of their mother earth,
For treafures better hid. Soon had his crew
Open’d into the hill a fpacious wound,
And digg’d out ribs of gold. Let none admire
That riches grow in hell $ that foil may beft
Deferve the precious bane.
MAMMOTH, or Mammuth, the name of a huge
animal, now unknown, to which are faid to have belong¬
ed thofe tufks, bones, and fkeletons, of vaft magnitude,
which have been frequently found in different parts of
1 Siberia, as well in the mountains as the valleys j like-
wife in Ruffia, Germany, and North America. Many
fpecimens of them may be feen in the Imperial cabinet
at Peterfburgh; in the Britifh, Dr Hunter’s, and the
late Sir Afhton Lever’s mufeums, and in that of the
Royal Society. A defcription of the mammoth is given
by Muller in the Recueil des Voyages au Nord: “ This
animal, he fays, is four or five yards high, and about
30 feet long. His colour is grayifh. His head is very
long, and his front very broad. On each fide, precife-
ly under the eyes, there are two horns, which he can
move and crofs at pleafure. In walking he has the
power of extending and contra£ling his body to a great
degree.” Ifbrandes Ides gives a fimilar account j but
he is candid enough to acknowledge, that he never
3
M A M
knew any perfon who had feen the mammoth alive. Mammoth,
Mr Pennant, however, thinks it “ more than probable _ Mamre.
that it ftill exiils in fome of thofe remote parts of the ' ’ J
vaft new continent, impenetrated yet by Europeans.
Providence (he adds) maintains and continues every
created fpecies y and we have as much affurance, that
no race of animals will any more ceafe while the earth
remaineth, than feed-time and harvef, cold and heat,
fummer and winter, day and nighty The Ohio In¬
dians have a tradition handed down from their fathers
refpefting thefe animals, “ That in ancient times a herd
of them came to- the Big-bone Licks, and began an
univerfal deftru&ion of the bears, deer, elks, buffaloes,
and other animals which had been created for the ufe o£
the Indians : that the Great Man above, looking down
and feeing this, was fo enraged that he feized his light¬
ning, defcended to the earth, feated himfelf upon a
neighbouring mountain on a rock, on which his feat
and the print of his feet are ftill to be feen, and hurled
his bolts among them till the whole were flaughtered,
except the big bull, who, prefenting his forehead to
the fhafts, fhook them off as they fell ; but at length
miffing one, it wounded him in the fide •, whereon,
fpringing round, he bounded over the Ohio, the Wa-
bafh, the Illinois, and finally over the great lakes^
where he is living at this day.” See Mammalia
Index.
MAMRE, an Amorite, brother of Aner and Efh-
col, and friend of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 13.)- It was
with thefe three perfons, together with his own and
their domeftics, that Abraham purfued and overcame
the kings after their conqueft of Sodom and Gomorrah-
This Mamre, who dwelt near Hebron, communicated
his name to great part of the country round about.
Hence we read (chap. xiii. 18. xxiii. 17, &c.), that
Abraham dwelt in Mamre and in the plain of Mamre.
But it is obferved, that what we tranflate the plain
fhould be rendered the oab, of Mamre, becaufe the word > I
elon fignifies an oak or tree of a long duration. * Sozo-
men tells us, that this tree was ftill extant, and famous
for pilgrimages and annual feafts, even in Conftantine’s
time j that it was about fix miles diftant from Hebron ;
that fome of the cottages which Abraham built were
ftill {landing near it $ and that there was a well like-
wife of his digging, whereunto both Jews, Chriftians,
and Heathens, did at certain feafons refort, either out
of devotion or for trade, becaufe there was held a great
mart.
M A N i 539 h M A N
Mf.mre, reart. To thefe fuperflitions Conftantlne the Great put
i^ian. a flop.
' MAN. Of all the otye&s which the univerfe pre-
Tiportance fents to our obfervation, there is none that fo powerful-
the fttutyly calls for our attention, there is none with which it fo
man. much concerns us to be intimately acquainted, as the
human fpecies. If we admit, what mankind, in that
pride of heart, which is fo natural to thofe who ftyle
themfelves the hrds of the creation, have aflumed, that
man is the only being poflefled of reafon j there is no
created thing that can in the leaft ftand in competition
with him. But, without examining into the validity of
this exelulive claim, without inquiring whether fome of
our inferioryQ’//0‘u; mortals may not be admitted to fome
fmall {hare of this faculty j it muft be allowed that,
whether we confiderhim as a folitary being, poffeffed of
beauty and intelligence fuperior to the other claffes of
animated nature, or in the more amiable charafter of
a focial being, capable of the fentiments of affe&ion,
friendfhip, gratitude, and benevolence, man is a moft
diftinguilhed perfonage $ and, to his fellow men, cer¬
tainly the moft interefting objeft to which they can di-
red! their attention j that in ftiort,
“ The proper ftudy of mankind is man.”
A full examination of every thing relating to the hu¬
man fpecies would include almoft all that is interefting,
ufeful, or curious in nature. Indeed this whole work
is little more than a colledtion of fadls and reafonings,
that either mediately or immediately relate to Man. It
may not be improper here to refer to a few of the prin¬
cipal articles alluded to, before we enter on the proper
bufinefs of this article, which is to ftate a few general
circumftances relating to the natural hijlory of man,
t confidering him as \.\ie frjl animal in the creation,
inline of Firjl, Man may be confidered generically ; as confti-
e ftudy oftuting a tribe of animals differing from all others, in his
JlruBure, funElions, difeafes, and in poffeffmg the fa¬
culty of reafon.
Thejlruclure of man has been detailed under Ana¬
tomy j \n§ funBions will be treated of under Physio¬
logy j the difeafes and accidents to which he is expo-
fed, with their treatment and remedies, will form the
fubjedb of Medicine, Midwifery, Surgery, and
Materia Medica; and the nature and exercife of his
reafoning powers are difcuffed under Logic, Meta¬
physics, Language, Grammar, Oratory, Arith¬
metic, Algebra, Geometry, &c.
Secondly, Man may be confidered fpecifcally, as
differing from others of the fame tribe in height, fea¬
tures, colour, difpojition, and mannersrefulting from
climate and other local circumftarrces. In a general
point of view, the varieties of the human fpecies fall to
be noticed here^; but for a particular account of the
inhabitants of different regions of the globe, we refer
the reader to the geographical articles Africa, Asia,
America, Abyssinia, Ceylon, Hindostan, New
Holland, &c.
Thirdly, Man may be confidered as a dependent and
an accountable being, in relation to his Creator, his neigh¬
bour, or himfelf. The religious and moral duties of
man are explained under Theology, Christianity,
Moral Philosophy, and Law j and to thefe may be
added, as conneifted with man in this third view, PO¬
LITICAL Economy, Agriculture, Gardening, Ar¬
chitecture, Chemistry, Dynamics, Mechanics,
Hydrodynamics, and a number of other branches of'”v '
fcience, that teach man how' to employ to the belt ad¬
vantage thofe powers and faculties with which Heaven
has endowed him, for his individual and common be¬
nefit.
Lafly, We may confider man with refpeft to the re¬
lations th&t fubfift between him and the inferior claffes
of the creation, as they minifter to his neceflities, fup-
ply his wants, abridge his comforts, or oppofe his pro-
grefs. This coniideration naturally leads us to the ar¬
ticle Natural History, and its fubdivifions, Mam¬
malia, Cetology, Erpetology, Ophiology, Or¬
nithology, Ichthyology, Helminthology, Con-
chology, Botany, Mineralogy, Geology, and
Meteorology.
Of thofe writers who direftly treat of man, the Writersen
lofopher and the moralijl confider him in the abftrad $ the natural
the geographer defcribes him as he exifts in communi-history of
ties ; the hiflorian traces the origin of fociety, the pro- man*
grefs of man in arts, civilization, and refinement, and
the changes that have taken place among the human
fpecies, from the natural operation of phyficai caufes,
or from the folly, villainy, and ambition of princes and
heroes j the biographer treats of man as an individual,
and {hewys the effeds of exalted virtue, eminent abilities,
or ftriking vices, both on their poffeffor and on the
community at large. It is the bufinefs of the ncturaiijl
to defcribe the external form of man, as it differs from
that of other animals 5 to confider the ufual varieties of
it in different nations, and the more ftriking peculiari¬
ties that are occafionally found in individuals; to de¬
fcribe the habits and manners of the human fpecies; the
progrefs of life from infancy to death ; the duration of
life and its caufes ; and the effeds produced on the bo¬
dy by death.
Of the writers who have treated on fome part of the
natural hiftory of man, we might give a moft copious
lift, even without including the almoft innumerable ca¬
talogue of medical works. For the generality of read¬
ers, it may be fufficient to refer to Buffon’s Natural
Hiftory, or the Abridgement of it by Goldfmith ; to
Virey’s Hifloire Naturelle du Genre Humain; Cuvier’s
Tableau fJementaire de I'Hifoire Naturelle des Animaux;
Herder’s Outlines of the Philofophy of the Hiftory of
Man ; and the works of Daubenton, Vicq d’Azyr,
Camper, Blumenbach, &c. &c.
We had propofed giving here a ftiort popular view of
the JlruBure and economy of man; but as even this
would lead us into details for which we cannot afford
room, we muft refer our readers to Kerr’s Tranflation
of the Syftem of Linnseus, and Dr Hunter’s Introduc¬
tory Ledures to his courfe of Anatomy.
It is of more confequence to our prefent purpofe to
mention the particular circumftances that diftinguiili
man from thofe animals to which he feems neareft al¬
lied. Thefe diftindive marks are well defcribed by
Blumenbach, in his work De Generis Humani Varietate
Nativa, and by M. Daubenton, in his introdudion to
the Didionary of Natural Hiftory in the Encyclopedic
Methodique; with the latter we {hall prefent our read¬
ers.
The only animals that bear any ftriking refemblance Principal
to man, in point of ftrudure, are the apes, efpecially differences
the oran otan, and the gibbon ; but according to M.betWee"
3 Y 2 Daubenton,;^ ni
MAN
[ 540 ]
M
A
N
Man.
Daubenton, there are two principal circumftances that
particularly diftinguifh man from thefe animals ; the
lirft is the ftrength of the mufcles of the legs, by which
the body is fupported in a vertical pofition above them 5
the fecond coniifts in the articulation of the head with
the neck by the middle of its bafe.
We Hand upright, bend our body, and walk, with¬
out thinking on the power by which we are fupported
in thefe feveral 'pofitions. This power refides chiefly in
the mufcles which conftitute the principal part of the
calf of the leg. Their exertion is felt, and their mo¬
tion is viflble externally, when we ftand upright and
bend our body backwards and forwards. This power
is no lefs great when we walk even on a horizontal
plane. In afcending a height, the weight of the body
is more fenfibly felt than in defcending. All thefe mo¬
tions are natural to man. Other animals, on the con¬
trary, when placed on their hind legs, are either inca¬
pable of performing them at all, or do it partially, with
great difficulty, and for a very fliort time. r£\ie gibbon^
and the oran otan, can ftand upright with much lefs
difficulty than other brutes; but the reftraint they are
under in this attitude, plainly ffiews that it is not na¬
tural to them. The reafon is, that the mufcles in the
back part of the leg in the gibbon, &c. are not, as in
man, fufficiently large to form a calf, and confequent-
ly not fufficiently ftrong to fupport the thighs and body
in a vertical line, and to prefervethem in that pofture.
See Mammalia, N° 28,
M. Daubenton has difcovered, that the attitudes
proper to man and to other animals, are pointed out by
the different ways in which the head is articulated with
the neck. The two points by which the offeous part
of the head is connected with the firft joint of the
neck, and on which every movement of the head is
made with the greateft facility, are placed at the edge
of the great hole of the occipital bone, which in man is
fltuated near the centre of the bafe of the flcull (afford¬
ing a paffage for the medullary fubftance into the verte¬
bral canal,) as upon a pivot or point of fupport. The face
is on a vertical line, almoft parallel to that of the body
and neck. The jaws, which are very ffiort when com¬
pared with thofe of moft other animals, extend very
little farther forwards than the forehead. No animal
has, like man, its hind legs as long as the body, neck,
and head, taken together, meafuring from the top of
head to the os pubis.
In the frame of the human body the principal parts are
nearly the fame with thofe of other animals j but in the
quadrupeds connexion and form of the bones there is as great a dif-
iu general, ference as in the attitudes proper to each. Were a
man to affume the natural pofture of quadrupeds, and
try to walk by the help of his hands and feet, he would
And himfelf in a very unnatural fituation j he could not
move his feet and hands but with the greateft difficulty
and pain •, and let him make what exertions he pleafed,
he would find it impoffible to attain a fteady and con¬
tinued pace. The principal obftacles he would meet
with would arife from the ftrudlure of the pelvis, the
hands, the feet, and the head.
The plane of the great occipital hole, which in man
is almoft horizontal, puts the head in a kind of equili¬
brium upon the neck when we ftand ere£l in our na¬
tural attitude } but when we are in the attitude of qua¬
drupeds, it prevents us from raifing our head fo as to
.Difference
between
man and
look forwards, becaufe the movement of the head is Man.
ftopt by the protuberance of the occiput, which then ap- '"■“-v-*
proaches too near the vertebrae of the neck.
In moft animals, the great hole of the occipital bone
is fituated at the back part of the head ; the jaws are
very long j the occiput has no protuberance beyond the
aperture, the plane of which is in a vertical direftion,
or inclined a little forwards or backwards 5 fo that the
head is pendent, and joined to the neck by its pofterior
part. This pofition of the head enables quadrupeds,
though their bodies are in a horizontal direftion, to
prefent their muzzle forwards, and to raife it fo as to
reach above them, or to touch the earth with the extre¬
mity of their jaws when they bring their neck and head
down to their feet. In the attitude of quadrupeds, man
could touch the earth only with the fore part or the top
of the head. ^
To thefe differences of ftru&ure, we may add, that Man could
when man is (landing, his heel refts upon the earth as never be a
well as the other parts of his foot; when he walks it is quadruped,
the firft part that touches the ground j man can ftand
on one foot} thefe are peculiarities in ftruflure and in
the manner of moving which are not to be found in
other animals. We may therefore conclude that man
cannot be ranked in the clafs of quadrupeds. We may
add, that in man the brain is much larger, and the
jaws much (horter, than in any other animal. The
brain, by its great extent, forms the protuberance of
the occipital bone, the fore head, and all that part of
the head which is above the ears. In the inferior ani¬
mals, the brain is fo fmall, that mofi: of them have no
occiput, and the front is either wanting or little raifed.
In animals which have large foreheads, fuch as the
horfe, the ox, the elephant, &c. they are placed as low
as the ears, and even lower. Thefe animals likewife
want the occiput, and the top of the head is of very
fmall extent. The jaws, which form the greateft por¬
tion of the muzzle, are large in proportion to the fmall-
nefs of the brain. The length of the muzzle varies in
different animals j in folipede animals it is very long j
it is ffiort in the oran otan, and in man it does not
exift at all: no beard grows on the muzzle ; this part
is wanting in every animal *. *
Man then alone, of all the animals with which we ton.
are acquainted, can conftantly and uniformly fupport
himfelf in the ereft pofture ; and whatever the ingeni¬
ous and learned writer of Ancient Metaphyfics has ad¬
vanced in favour of fo ftrange a hypothefis, we cannot
believe that even in bis earlieft; and rudeft ftatd of civi¬
lization man could ever have been a quadruped. We
are aware that Kotzebue, in the entertaining work in
which he relates his exile to Siberia, fpeaks of an idiot
he faw on his return, that went on all fours, with as
much eafe as if it were his natural attitude, but we do
not confider this Angle inftance as affording a proof-
that fuch would be the attitude of man in a ftate of na¬
ture.
“ There are (fays Cuvier) feveral circumftances in the
anatomical ftrufture of man, which fufficiently prove that
nature never intended him to walk on all fours. In this-
fituation his eyes would be dire&ed towards the earth j
but not being poffeffed of the cervical ligament that is
found in quadrupeds, he would not be able to fupport
bis head. His inferior extremities would be too much
elevated in proportion to his arms, and his feet too
ftiort
MAN r 541 1 MAN
Man fliort to enable him conveniently to bend them like
other animals who tread only on their toes. His eh eft
is fo large that it would impede the free motion of his
arms. He could not even climb with fo much facility
as apes, becaufe he has not, like them, the great toe fe-
parated from the reft $ nor could he climb like the cats,
# Tableau on account of the weaknefs of his nails
Elemen- The body of a well-fhaped man ought to be fquare,
taire. the mufcles ought to be ftrongly marked, the contour of
the members boldly delineated, and the features of the
face well defined. In women, all the parts are more
rounded and fofter, the features are more delicate, and
the complexion brighter. To man belong ftrength and
majefty : gracefulnefs and beauty are the portions of the
other fex. The ftruflure effential to each will be found
in the defcription of the human Ikeleton, under the ar-
7 tide Anatomy.
Noblenefs Every thing in both fexes points them out as the fo¬
ot'the form vereigns of the earth j even the external appearance of
and attitude man declares his fuperiority to other creatures. His
Btman. body is ered } his attitude is that of command j his
auguft countenance, which is turned towards heaven,
bears the impreffions of his dignity. The image of his
foul is painted in his face *, the excellence of his nature
pierces through the material organs, and gives a fire
and animation to the features of his countenance. His
majeftic deportment, his firm and emboldened gait, an¬
nounce the noblenefs of his rank. He touches the
earth only with his extremity, he views it only at a
diftance, and feems to defpife it. It has been juftly
obferved, that the countenance of man is the mirror of
his mind. In the looks of no animal are the ex-
preflions of paflions painted with fueh energy and
rapidity, and with fuch gentle gradations and {hades,
as in thofe of man. We know, that in certain emotions
of the mind, the blood rifes to the face, and produces
blufliing *, and that in others the countenance turns
pale. Thefe two fymptoms, the appearance of which
depends on the ftrufture and the tranfparency of the re¬
ticulum, efpecially rednefs, conftitute a peculiar beauty.
In our climates, the natural colour of the face of a man
in good health i^ white, with a lively red fuffufed upon
the cheeks. Palenefs of the countenance is always a
fufpicious fymptom. That colour which is {haded with
black is a fign of melancholy ; and conftant and univer-
fal rednefs is a proof that the blood is carried with too
much impetuofity to the brain. A livid colour is a
morbid and dangerous fyraptom ; and that which has
a tint of yellow is a fign of jaundice or repletion of
bile. The colour of the {kin is frequently altered by
„ _ want of fleep or of nourilhment, or by loofenefs and
tBf"- diarrhoea f. .
Diverfny of Notwithftanding the general fimilitude of counte-
the Human nance in nations and families, there is a wonderful di-
■eatures. verfity of features. No one, however, is at a lofs to
recollect the perfon to whom he intends to fpeak, pro¬
vided he has once fully feen him. One man has live-
linefs and gaiety painted in his countenance, and an¬
nounces beforehand, by the cheerfulnefs of his appear¬
ance, the charatfter which he is to fupport in focie'y.
The tears which bedew the cheeks of another man
would excite compaftion in the moft unfeeling heart.
Thua the face of man is the rendezvous of the fymptoms
both of his moral and phyfical affections j tranquillity,
* ' X
anger, threatening, joy, fmiles, laughter, malice, love, Man.
envy, jealoufy, pride, contempt, difdain or indignation, *
irony, arrogance, tears, terror, aftonilhment, horror,
fear, ftiame or humiliation, forrow and affliftion, com¬
paftion, meditation, particular convulfions, fleep, death,
&c. &c. The difference of thefe characters appears
to us of fufticient importance to form a principal article
in the natural hiftory of man. 9
When the mind is at eafe, all the features of the General
face are in a ftate of profound tranquillity. Their Pr.0'^
portion, harmony, and union, point out the ferenity oftures
the thoughts. But when the foul is agitated, the hu¬
man face becomes a living canvas, whereon the paffions
are reprefented with equal delicacy and energy ; where
every emotion of the foul is expreffed by fome feature,
and every adlion by fome mark $ the lively impreflioii
of which anticipates the will, and reveals by pathetic
figns our fecret agitation, and thofe intentions which io
we are anxious to conceal. It is in the eyes that theTheeyes>
foul is painted in the ftrongeft colours, and with the
niceft ftiades. The different colours of the eyes are,
dark hazel, light hazel, green, blue, gray, and whitiftr
gray. The moft common of thefe colours are hazel
and blue, both of which are often found in the fame
eye. Eyes which are commonly called black, are
only dark hazel 5 they appear black in confequence of
being contrafted with the white of the eye. Where-
ever there is a tint of blue, however flight, it becomes
the prevailing colour, and outftiines the hazel, with
which it is intermixed, to fuch a degree, that the mix¬
ture cannot be perceived without a very narrow exa¬
mination. The moll beautiful eyes are thofe which ap¬
pear black or blue. In the former there is more ex-
preflion and vivacity j in the latter more fweetnefs, and
perhaps delicacy. ir
Next to the eyes, the parts of the face by which the The eye-
phyfiognomy is moft ftrongly marked, are the eyebrows. {>rows*
Being of a different nature from the other parts, their
effedt is increafed by contraft. They are like {hade
in a pidlure, which gives relief to the other colours and
forms. J2
The forehead is one of the largeft parts of the face, The fore,
and one that contributes moft to its beauty. Every body head,
knows of how great importance the hair is in the phy-
fiognomy, and that baldnefs is a very .great defcdt.
When old age begins to make its approaches, the hair
which firft falls off is that which covers the crown of
the head and the parts above the temples. We feldom
fee the hair of the lower part of the temples, or of the
back of the head, completely fall off. Baldnefs is pe¬
culiar to men 5 women do not naturally lofe their hair,
though it becomes white as well as that of men at the
approach of old age. •
The nofe is the moft prominent feature of the face jThe riofe.
but as it has very little motion, and that only in the
moft violent paflions, it contributes lefs to the expref-
fion than to the beauty of the countenance. The nofe
is feldom perpendicular to the middle of the face, but
for the moft part is turned toward the one fide or the
other. The caufe of this irregularity, which according
to painters, is perfedlly confiftent with beauty, and
of W'hich even the want would be a deformity, appears
to be frequent preffure on one fide of the cartilage of
the child’s nofe againft the breaft of the mother whd|t
it
MAN [ 542 ] M A N
Man. it receives fuck. At the early period of life the car-
'“’"■v'-”' tilages and bones have acquired very little folidity, and
iq are eafily bent.
Mouth and Next to the eyes, the mouth and lips have the great*
eft motion and expreflion. The motions of thefe parts
are under the influence of the paflions. The mouth,
fet off by the vermilion of the lips, and the enamel of
the teeth, marks, by the various forms it affumes, their
different ehara&ers j and this feature receives anima¬
tion from the organ of the voice, which communicates
to it more life and expreflion than is poffeffed by any
other feature,. The cheeks are uniform features, and
have no motion, and little expreflion, except what arifes
from that involuntary rednefs or palenefs with which
they are covered in different paflions, fuch as lhame,
anger, pride, and joy, producing rednefs j and fear, ter-
1$ ror, and forrow, producing palenefs.
Changes on In different paflions, the whole head affumes differ-
b^the^f6*ent P0^^ons» and is affe&ed with different motions. It
lions,16 Pal" hangs forward during (hame, humility, and forrow ; it
inclines to one fide in languor and compaflion ; it is
elevated in pride, ereft and fixed in obftinacy and felf.
conceit. In aftonifhment, it is thrown backwards;
and it moves from fide to fide in contempt, ridicule,
anger, and indignation. In grief, joy, love, fhame, and
compaflion, the eyes fwell and the tears flow. The
effufion of tears is always accompanied with an exten-
fion of the mufcles of the face, which opens the mouth.
In forrow, the corners of the mouth are depreffed, the
under-lip rifes, the eyelids fall down, the pupil of the
eye is round and half concealed by the eyelid. The
other mufcles of the face are relaxed, fo that the di-
ftance between the eyes and the mouth is greater than
ordinary $ and confequently the countenance appears to
be lengthened. In fear, terror, confternation, and hor¬
ror, the forehead is wrinkled, the eyebrows are raifed,
the eyelids are opened as wide as poflible, the upper
lid uncovers a part of the white above the pupil, which
is depreffed and partly concealed by the under lid. At
the fame time the mouth opens wide, the lips recede
foom each other, and difcover the teeth both above and
below. In contempt and derifion, the upper lip is
raifed to one fide and expofes the teeth, while the other
fide of the lip moves a little, and wears the appearance
of a fmile. The noftril on the elevated fide of the lip
fhrivels up, and the corner of the mouth falls down.
The eye on the fame fide is almoft fhut, while the other
is open as ufual $ but the pupils of both are depreffed,
as when one looks down from a height. In jealoufy,
envy, and malice, the eyebrows fall down and are
depreffed. The upper lip is elevated on both fides,
while the corners of the mouth are a little depreffed,
and the under lip rifes to join the middle of the upper.
In laughter, the corners of the mouth are drawn back,
and a little elevated j the upper parts of the cheeks
rife j the eyes are more or lefs clofed $ the upper lip
rifes, and the under one falls down j the mouth opens,
and in cafes of immoderate laughter, the fkin of the
nofe wrinkles. That gentler and more gracious kind
of laughter which is called fmiling, is feated wholly
in the parts of the mouth. The under lip rifes ; the
angles of the mouth are drawn back, the cheeks are
puffed up, the eyelids approach one another, and a
fmall twinkling is obferved in the eyes. It is very ex¬
traordinary, that laughter may be excited either by a
moral eaufe without the immediate aftion of external STa»,
obje&s, or by a particular irritation of the nerves with-
out any feeling of joy. Thus an involuntary laugh is
excited by a flight tickling of the lips, of the palm of
the hand, of the foie of the foot, of the armpits, and in
Ihort, below the middle of the ribs. We laugh when two
diflimilar ideas, the union of which was unexpected,
are reprefented to the mind at the fame time, and when
one or both of thefe ideas, or their union, includes
fome abfurdity which excites an emotion of difdain ming¬
led with joy. In general, ftriking contrails never fail
to produce laughter.
A change is produced in the features of the counte¬
nance by weeping as well as by laughing, In weeping,
the under lip is feparated from the teeth ; the forehead
is wrinkled * the eyebrows are depreffed \ the dimple
which gives a gracefulnefs to laughter, forfakes the cheek $
the eyes are unufually compreffed, and bathed in tears.
In laughter, tears not unfrequently appear, but they
flow more feldom and lefs copioufly.
The arms, hands, and every part of the body, con*
tribute to the expreflion of the paflions. In joy, for
inftance, all the members of the body are agitated with
quick and varied motions. In languor and forrow, the
arms hang down, and the whole body remains fixed
and immoveable. In admiration and furprife, a fimilar
fufpenfion of motion is likew ife obferved. In love and
hope, the head and eyes are raifed to heaven, as if to
folicit the wilhed-for good $ the body bears forw ard as
if to approach itj the arms are ftretched out, and feem
to feize before hand the defired objeft. On the con¬
trary, in fear, hatred, and horror, the arms feem to
pufti backward, and repel the objedft of averfion. We
turn away our head and eyes, as if to avoid the fight
of it; we ftart back as if to Ihun it *. * Buff it
For the beauty of the human form, fee Beauty and
Drawing. ^
At his birth, man is the moft feeble of all animals ; Origin
he cannot fubfift but by the care of his parents, for family at-
which he has occafion for a much longer time thanfedtion;
other animals. Hence the natural continuance of con¬
jugal affeftion, and the intimate ties that bind together
the parents with each other and with their children.
As the father partakes with his companion in the care
of educating their children, man ought more than any
other animal, to live in a ftate of monogamy, the pro¬
priety of which is demonftrated by the nearly equal
number of male and female children that on an average
come into the world. ^
Man is formed for fociety, which is rendered effen- and of fo-
tially neceffary to him from his natural weaknefs, and c,a*inter'
without which he would not be able to refill the wildcourfe'
beads ©f the foreft, nor procure for himfelf the necef-
faries of life : for he has no arms offenfive or defenfive,
fuch as horns, claws, fcales 5 nor any thing that refem-
bles that faculty which we call inftinft, which many
fpecies of animals derive from nature herfelf, and by
which they conftruft themfelves habitations, or change
their climate, according to the diverfity of the feafons. jg
All gregarious animals have a certain language byOflanguage
which they can in fome meafure communicate their and arts,
thoughts to each other; but man enjoys in this refpefl
two remarkable prerogatives. 1. The faculty of articu¬
lating founds, which no quadruped enjoys in common
with him, and which mull give ty his language an in¬
finite
MAN f 543 ] MAN
Man. finite variety and precifion. 2. An unlimited power of
generalizing his ideas, and of fixing and retaining ab-
itraft notions by means of words. On this depend me¬
mory and judgment, which latter is the foundation of
reafon, or of that faculty of reflefling and combining
ideas, which is confidered as peculiar to man.
It is by means of language than man communicates
to the reft of his fpecies the obfervations and difcoveries
made by each individual, and this communication is
the great fource of the infinite perfe&ibility of the hu¬
man race. The arts are the offspring of fcience, pro¬
duced by the combination of thefe obfervations and
difcoveries, and by that addrefs which refults from the
peculiar conformation of our hands and fingers.
By means of the arts man has learned to procure for
himfelf fubfiftence, and to provide againft the incle¬
mencies of the weather in every climate of the earth.
Thus, he has eftablilhed himfelf every where ; while the
reft of the animal creation have each a determinate
fpace, beyond which they cannot pafs without the pro-
tedlion of man, who has tranfported with him the do-
meftic kinds, and has been followed in fpite of himfelf
I9 by the paralitical tribes.
Progrefs of The nations who eftablifhed themfelves in the icy re-
civilization. g|ons 0f the north, not finding there enough of vege¬
table nourilhment, nor pafture fufficiently abundant
for cattle, derived all their fubfiftence from the chafe
or filhing. Obliged to devote all their time to the pro¬
curing of this fubfiftence, and multiplying but ilowly,
from the deftru&ion of the game which furrounded
them, it is not furprifing that among them man has
made leaft progrefs in arts and civilization. Their arts
were confined to the conftruftion of huts, to the prepa¬
ring of fkins for their covering, and to the manufafture
of fpears and arrow's. The inhabitants of the northern
and eaftern parts of Siberia, and the favages of North
America, are almoft the only people who are in this
low ftate of civilization.
Other nations learned to fecure for themfelves in the
pofleflion of numerous herds, certain fubfiftence, and to
find fufficient leifure to increafe their knowledge j but
their wandering life, in fearch of new paftures and more
agreeable climates, kept them ftill within very narrow
limits with refpeift to civilization. They, however,
acquired more induftry in the conftru&ion of their ha¬
bitations, and learned the value of property ; the natu¬
ral confequences of which were riches, and an inequa¬
lity of condition. The Laplanders in the north of Eu¬
rope, the Tartars who inhabit the vaft extent of coun¬
try in the interior of Alia, the Bedouin Arabs who
occupy the fands of Arabia and the north of Africa,
the Caffres and Hottentots in the fouth of Africa, are
the principal wandering tribes with which we are ac¬
quainted.
Man did not multiply to any great extent, nor rife
to any great perfedlion in the arts and fciences, till
landed property allowed him to pay attention to agri¬
culture, by means of which the labour of one part of
the community could procure fubfiftence for the reft,
and leave them fufficient leifure to employ themfelves
in arts lefs neceflary than ornamental. Laftly, The
invention of money, by facilitating the transfer of com¬
modities, brought to the higheft pitch induftry, luxury,
and inequality of fortune, and by a necelTary confe-
quence, the vices of effeminacy, and the rage of ambi- Man.
Man living in every climate, fearing no other ani¬
mal, but having even deftroyed or confined to the de-
ferts all thofe who could moleft him, became incom¬
parably more numerous than any other tribe of large
animals. Hem;e, having few other animals to combat,
he foon began to make war on his own fpecies, and he
may be confidered as almoft the only animal that is
perpetually at war with thofe of the fame tribe. Sa¬
vages difpute the forefts in which they follow the chafe ;
Nomads, the paftures where they feed their cattle j
more civilized people combat for the monopoly of com¬
merce or the prerogatives of pride and ambition.
Hence the neceffity of government, to regulate nation¬
al difputes, and to reduce to certain rules the quarrels * Cuvier,
of individuals *. 20
It is chiefly the features of the countenance, and the^a.rks l^at
colour of the Ikin, that ferve to diftinguifh the varieties dl m^1' V
r - ti • varieties ot
ot the human Ipecies. Independently of particular andtjie human
individual differences, the human race may be diftin-fpecies.
guilhed into five principal varieties, the diftindlive cha¬
racters of which are deeply ftamped, and appear to re¬
fill even the powerful influence of climate. In faCt we
fee, under the fame parallel of latitude, and in the fame
country, exifting together for a number of ages, the
dark Hungarian or gypfy, and the faireft people of Eu¬
rope $ the copper-coloured Peruvian, the brown Malay,
and the almoft white Abyffinian, in the fame zone that
is inhabited by the blacked people in the univerfe.
The inhabitants of Van Diemen’s land are black, w hile
the Europeans of the fame degree of north latitude are
white ; and the inhabitants of the Malabar coaft,
though placed beneath a Iky much hotter than the in¬
habitants of Siberia, are not browner than thefe latter.
The Dutch who colonized the Cape of Good Hope,
have not, during two centuries, acquired the fame co¬
lour with the Hottentots who people that country ; and
the Parfi remain white in the midft of the olive-colour¬
ed Hindoos.
The colouring matter feated in the mucous mem¬
brane below the Ikin, is not the only diftinCtive cha¬
racter that marks the varieties of the human fpecies, as
in each of them there is a peculiar form, diftinguilhed
by general and conftant marks, depending on the con¬
formation of the bones. The muzzle of the Negro j
the very prominent cheek-bones of the Calmuck; the
flattened Ikull and nofe of the Caribbee Indian ; the ob¬
lique eyes of the Japanefe and Chinefe, do not appear
owing to art, like the lengthened ears or the tattaooed
fkin of the natives of the South ft a iflands. The fair
or red colour of the hair in Europeans 5 the blue 0*
gray eyes of the north, are almoft never feen, except
in a few morbid cafes, in any other varieties. The hair
of all the reft is very black, even from infancy ; fleek
and thick in all the Mongol nations, the Malays, and
the Americans, both of the fouth and north, but wool¬
ly in Negroes and Hottentots j the beard which is late
and thin in all the Monguls, exifts naturally through¬
out the American tribes, though, as among molt other
favage people, all the Caribs eradicate it from their
youth, which has induced a fuppofition that all thefe
favage people are naturally beardlefsf. \ Virey,
Mankind with refpeCt to their varieties, have been
very
MAN r 5
Man. very differently divided by naturalius. Linnaeus makes
five varieties, viz. I. Americans, of copper-coloured
Varieties 0fconiplexion;choleric conftitution, and remarkably eredf.
man as fta 2. Europeans; of fair complexion, fanguine tempera-
ted by Lin-ment, and brawny form. 3. AJiatics ; of footy com-
na;us. plexion, melancholic temperament, and rigid fibre.
4. Africans; of black complexion, phlegmatic tempera¬
ment, and relaxed fibre j and, 5. Monjiers ; compre¬
hending, 1. Aipini; the inhabitants of the northern
mountains : they are fmall in ftature, adtive. and timid
in their difpofition. 2. Patagonici; the Patagonians
of South America, of vaft fize, and indolent in their
manners. 3. Monorchides ; the Hottentots, having one
tefticle extirpated. 4. Imberbes; moft of the Ameri¬
can nations, who eradicate their beards and the hair
. from every part of the body except the fcalp. 5. Ma-
crocephali. 6. Plagiocepkali; the Canadian Indians, who
have the fore part of their heads flattened, when young,
2a by compreflion.
By Gnielin. The following arrangement of the varieties in the
human fpecies, is offered by Gmelin as more con¬
venient than that of Linnaeus. 1. White, (Horn.
A/bus.) Formed by the rules of fymmetrical elegance
and beauty j or at leaf! what we confider as fuch.—
This divifion includes almoft all the inhabitants of Eu¬
rope j thofe of Afia on this fide of the Oby, the Caf-
pian, Mount Imaus, and the Ganges; likewife the
natives of the north of Africa, of Greenland, and the
Efquimaux.
2. Brown : (Horn. Badius.) Of a yellowifh brown
colour ; has fianty hairs, flat features, and fmall eyes.
——This variety takes in the whole inhabitants of Afia
not included in the preceding divifion.
3. Black : (Horn. Niger.) Of black complexion ;
has frizzly hair, a flatnofe, and thick lips.—The whole
inhabitants of Africa, excepting thofe of its more
northern parts.
4. Copper-coloured : (Horn. Cupreus.) The com
plexion of the Ikin refembles the colour of copper not
burnilhed.—The whole inhabitants of America, except
the Greenlanders and Efquimaux.
5 Tawney : (Horn. Fufcus.) Chiefly of a dark
.blackifli-brown colour ; having a broad nofe, and harfti
coarfe ftraight hair.—The inhabitants of the fouthern
iflands, and of moll of the Indian iHands.
Buffon enumerates fix varieties, 1. The polar or Lap-
land race ; 2. The Tartar or Mongul ; 3. The fouth¬
ern Afiatic ; 4. The European ; 5. The Ethiopian ;
and, 6. The American. For an account of thefe va¬
rieties fee Buffon’s Natural Hillory by Smellie, and
Herder’s Outlines of the Philofophy of the Hiftory of
Man.
Virey the difciple of Buffon, dillributes man into five
varieties, 1. The Celtic race, containing moll of the
Europeans. 2. The Mongul and Lapland. 3. Malay.
4. The Negro and Hottentot ; and, 5. The Carrib.
For his deforipcion of thefe varieties, with portraits il-
luftrating them, fee his Htjioire Naturelle du Genre
Humain, tom. i. p. 129.
Of all the divifions which we have feen, we confider
that given by Cuvier, in his Tableau Elementaire de
THifloire Naturelle des Ammaux, as the leaft exception¬
able ; and as it is very concife, we (hail here give a
2g tranflation of it. Cuvier’s enumeration is as follows.
White race. The white race, with oval viiage, long hair, pointed
+4 1
M A N
*3
Xy Buffon.
24
By Virey.
aS.
By Cuvier.
nofe; to which belong the polilhed natives of Europe, Man.
which appears to us the moll comely of all the varieties,“v---
is alfo far fuperior to the reft in ftrength of genius, in
courage, and aftivity. The Tartars, properly lb call¬
ed, from whom the Turks are delcended ; the* Circafli-
ans, and other people about Mount Caucafus, who are
the faireft of the human race : the Perfians, the native
inhabitants of Hindoftan, the Arabians, the Moors who
inhabit the north of Africa, .and the Abyflinians, who
appear, as well as the Jews, to be derived from the
Arabians, belong to the fame race with the Europeans.
Thefe nations are larger and fairer in the north, their
hair is there fair, their eyes blue; whereas in the fouth
they are dark, and often very brown, and their hair and
eyes are black. There are intermixtures of thefe co¬
lours in the more temperate regions.
2. All the north of the two continents is peopled with Laplan*
men that are very dark, w ith flat viiage, black hair race,
and eyes; with a body thick and extremely Ihort. To
this belong the Laplanders in Europe, the Samoiedes,
Oftiacs, Tfchutlki in Alia ; the Greenlanders and Ef¬
quimaux in America. The inhabitants of Finland re-
femble thefe ^Imoft in every circumftance, except that
their height equals that of the European. The Hun¬
garians and feveral wandering tribes of Afia, have a
fimilar form, and fimilar language and manners with the
Fins.
3. The Mongul race, to which belong meft of tkeMoi)g^|
people we call Tartars, as the Monguls, the Mant- race,
cheoux, the Calmucs, &c. and who have extended
their conquefts from China to Hindoftan, and are even
advanced as far as the frontiers of Europe, is charac¬
terized by a flat forehead, a fmall nole, prominent
cheek-bones, black hair, very thin beard, fmall oblique
eyes, thick lips, and a colour more or lefs yellow.
The Chinefe and Japanefe, and the Indians beyond
the Ganges, to whom we give the name of Malays,
appear to hold a near relemblance to the Monguls.
The illands of the South fea, and the great continent of
New Holland, are inhabited by original Malays.
Thofe who live neareft the equator have the Ikin almoft
as black as the Negroes. Such are, among others, the
Papons. . a9
• 4. The Negroes inhabit all the coafts on the fouth of Negro race*
Africa from the river Senegal to the Red fea. Befides
the blacknefs of their Ikin, they are diftinguilhed by
their flat nofe and forehead, their long muzzle, promi¬
nent cheek bones, and frizzled hair. They are black¬
er than the inhabitants of Guinea, and have the nofe
exceflively long. Thofe of Congo are the moft come¬
ly. Towards the tropic of Capricorn they become a
little paler, and take the name of Caffres. Almoft all
the inhabitants of the eaftern coaft of Africa are of this
fubvariety. The Hottentots form another fubdivifion,
which is found in the moft fouthern point, and they have
cheek-bones fo prominent, that their vifage appears tri¬
angular, Their colour is a brown olive.
It is fuppofed that the interior parts of Africa,
which are very hilly, are inhabited by a race of white
men like Abyflinia.
5. America was peopled with men of a copper co-G0,,p"errace,
lour, with long and coarfe hair, who, according to moft:
travellers, generally want the beard, and even the hair
on the body. Others allures us that they eradicate
thefe. It is alfo faid, that the fanciful form of their
heads
MAN [ 545 1 MAN
Man. heads arife from the compreffion they undergo in in-
l—' fancy. This race comprehends the favage nations of
America, and the remaining inhabitants of Mexico and
Peru. It is towards the fouthern point of this conti¬
nent that we find the tailed; race of men in the uni-
verfe ; but their height, which the earlier travellers
reprefented as gigantic, fcarcely exceeds fix feet. Thefe
are the people fo celebrated under the name of Pata¬
gonians.
All thefe different varieties of men can intermix and
produce children, who hold a mean between the forms
and colours of their parents. Thefe intermixtures can
again mix with the original races, and the produce ap¬
proaches to thefe races according to the degree of mix¬
ture. All thefe progenies are prolific as well as their
fathers and mothers.
It appears that there are fometimes born in the dif¬
ferent races of our variety, fubjefts'of a milky white-
nefs, which is the effe£l of difeafe, and this colour is
accompanied with feeblenefs of body and weakneis of
light. Some travellers have believed that thefe men
form entire nations, which they have called Dariens in
America, Dondos or Albinos, in Africa, and Chack-
leras in India. See Albinos. 4
The different colours which diftinguifh the varieties
of the human fpecies, refide not in the cuticle, but in
the mucus and reticular membrane which is immedi-
* Cuvier. aj-eiy be}ow it *_
Varieties Blumenbach remarks, that fome late writers feem
if man not doubtful whether the numerous dittindt races of men
liilincT: ought to be confidered as mere varieties, which have
levies. ariien from degeneration, or as fo many fpecies altoge¬
ther different. The caufe of this feems chiefly to be,
that they took too narrow a view in their refearches,
feledted, perhaps, two races the moft different from
each other poflfible, and, overlooking the intermediate
races that formed the connedfing links between them,
compared thefe two together ; or, they fixed their at¬
tention too much on man, without examining other
ipecies of animals, and comparing their varieties and
degeneration with thofe of the human fpecies. The
firit fault is, when one, for example, places together a
Senegal negro and an European Adonis, and at the
fame time forgets that there is not one of the bodily
differences of thefe two beings, whether hair, colour,
features, &c. which does not gradually run into the
fame thing of the other, by fuch a variety of (hades,
that no phyfiologift or naturalift is able to eftablifh a
certain boundary between thefe gradations, and confe-
quently between the extremi s themfelves.
Ihe fecond fault is, when people reafon as if man
were the only organized being in nature, and confider
the varieties in his fpecies to be ftrange and problema¬
tical, without refledfing that all thefe varieties are not
more ftriking or more uncommon than thofe w ith which
10 many thoufands of other fpecies of organized beings
degenerate, as it were, before our eyes.
We cannot here enter into the merits of the queftion,
whether, confidering the varieties of the human fpecies
which we have defcribed, all thefe could have originat¬
ed from one pair, as related in the Mofaic hiffory. To
thole who affedt to di(believe the Mofaic account, it
may he fufficient to reply, that to the almighty power
of the Divine Being it was not more difficult to change
and modify the defendants of one man and one wo-
Vol. XII. Part II.
man, in order to adapt them to the different regions of Man.
the earth which they were deftined to occupy, than to " v ^
create at the firft five or fix pairs placed in different fi-
tualions, to be the progenitors of the nations that we
now fee inhabiting the globe.
On the nature and caufes of the different colour ofThb illuf-
the (kin, that charadterizes the varieties of the humantrated a
fpecies, fee the article Complexion. On this fubjed!^?1^^011
we (hall here add a curious comparifon between the hu with fwine.
man race and fwine, by Profeffor Blumenbach, intend¬
ed to refute the fecond error into which he confiders
waiters have fallen, in treating of the varieties of
man.
More reafons, fays he, than one have induced me to
make choice of fwine for this comparifon •, but, in par¬
ticular, becaufe they have a great fimilarity, in many
relpedfs, to man j not, however, in the form of their en¬
trails, as people formerly believed, and therefore ftu-
died the anatomy of the human body purpofely in
fwine j fo that even, in the 17th century, a celebrated
difpute, which arofe between the phyficians of Heidel¬
berg and thofe of Durlach, refpedfing the pofition of
the heart in man, was determined, in confequence of
orders from government, by infpedting a low, to the
great triumph of the party which really was in the
w rong. Nor is it becaufe in the time of Galen, accord¬
ing to repeated affertions, human flefii was faid to have
a tafte perfedfly fimilar to that of fwine •, nor becaufe
the fat, and the tanned hides of both, are very like to
each other 5 but becaufe both, in general, in regard to
the economy of their bodily ftrufture, taken on the
whole, (hew unexpe&edly, on the firft view, as w'ell as
on clofer examination, a very ftriking fimilitude.
Both, for example, are domeftic animals j both om¬
nivor a i both are difperfed throughout all the four
quarters of the wrorld j and both confequently are ex-
pofed, in numerous ways, to the principal caufes of de¬
generation ariling from climate, mode of life, nourifti-
ment, &c.: both, for the fame reafon, are fubjedt to
many difeales rarely found among other animals than
men and fwine, fuch as the done in the bladder ; or to
difeafes exclufively peculiar to thefe two, fuch as the
worms found in meailed fw ine.
Another reaion, continues he, why I have made
choice of fw ine for the prefent comparifon is, becaufe
the degeneration and defeent from the original race are
far more certain in thefe animals, and can be better
traced, than in the varieties of other domeftic animals.
For no naturalift, I believe, has carried his fcepticilm
fo far as to doubt, the defeent of the domeftic ( w ine from
the wild boar 5 which is much the more evident, as it is
well knowm that wild pigs, when caught, may be eafily
rendered as tame and familiar as domeftic fwine : and
the contrary alfo is the cafe j for if the latter, by any ac¬
cident get into the woods, they as readily become wild
again 5 fo that there are inllances of fuch animaft being
(hot for wild fwine, and it has not been till they were
opened, and found caftrated, that people were led to a
diftovery of their origin, and how', and at what time,
they ran away. It is well afeertained, that before the
difeovery of America by the Spaniards, fwine w ere un¬
known in that ^quarter of the world, and that they
were afterwards carried thither from Europe. All the
varieties, therefore, through which this animal has fince
degenerated, belong, with the original European race,
3 X to
MAN r 546 1 MAN
to one and the fame fpecies ; and fince no bodily differ¬
ence is found in the human race, either in regard to
ftature, colour, the form of the Ikull, &c. as will pre-
fently appear, which is not obferved in the fame pro¬
portion in the fwine race, this tomparifon, it is to be
hoped, will lilt nee thole fceptics who have thought
proper, on account of thefe varieties of the human
Ipecies, to admit more than one ipecies.
With regard to ftature, the Patagonians, as is well
known, have afforded the greateft employment to an-
thropologifts. The romantic tales, however, of the
old travellers, and even the more modeft relations of
Englifti navigators, have been doubted by other tra¬
vellers, who on the fame coaft fought in vain for iuch
children of Anak. But even admitting every thing
faid of the fize of thefe Patagonians, there is not among
them nearly luch an excels of ftature as that ohlerved
in many parts of America among the iwine originally
carried thither from Europe and of thefe we (hall
mention particularly thole of Cuba, which are more
than double the; lize of the original Europeans.
The natives of Guinea, Madagafcar, New Holland,
New Guinea, &e. are black •, many American tribes
are reddifti brown, and the Europeans are white. An
equal difference is obferved among fwine in different
countries. In Piedmont, for example, they are black.
When I paffed, fays our author, through that country,
during the great fair for fwine at Salenge, I did not fee
a ftngle one of any other colour. In Bavaria, they are
reddifh brown j in Normandy they are all white. Hu¬
man hair is, indeed, fomewhat different from fwines
briftles, yet, in the prefent point of view, they may
be compared with each other. Fair hair is foft, and of
a ftlky texture ; black hair is coarfer, and among feve-
ral tribes, fuch as the Abyffinians, Negroes, and the
inhabitants of New7 Holland, it is woolly, and moft fo
among the Hottentots. In like manner, among the
white fwine in Normandy, as I u'as affured by an in¬
comparable obierver, Sulzer of Bonneburg, the hair on
the whole body is longer and fofter than among other
fwine ; and even the briftles on the back are very little
different, but lie flat, and are only longer than the hair
on the other parts of the body. They cannot, there¬
fore, be employed by the brufh-makers. The difference
between the hair of the wild boar and the domeftic
fwine, particularly in regard to the lofter part between
the ftrong briftles, is, as is well known, ftill greater.
The whole difference between the cranium of a ne¬
gro and that of an European, is not in the leaft: degree
greater than that equally ftriking difference which
exift* between the cranium of the wild boar and that
of the domeftic fwine. Thofe who have not obferved
thh in the animals themfelves, need only to caft their
eye on the figure which Daubenton has given of both.
I {hall paf over, fays Blumenbach, lefs national va¬
rieties which may be found among fwine as well as
among men, and only mention, that I have been affu-
fed by Mr Sulzer, that the peculiarity of having the
bone of the leg remarkably long, as is the cafe among
the Hindoos, has been remarked with regard to the
fwi ne in Normandy. They (land very long on their
hind legs *, their back, thererore, ishigheft at the rump,
forming a kind of inclined plane, and the head proceeds
in the lame direffion, fo that the fnout is not far from
the ground. I ftiall here add, that the fwine in feme
2
countries have degenerated into races which in fingu- Man,
larity far exceed every thing that has been found
ftrange in bodily variety among the human race.
Swine with iolid hoofs were known to the ancients, and
large herds of them are found in Hungary, Sweden, &c.
In like manner the European fwine, firft carried by the
Spaniards, in 1509, to the ifland of Cuba, at that time
celebrated for its pearl fifhery, degenerated into a mon-
ftrous race, with hoots which were half a fpan in length.
From thele fadls our ingenious author concludes, that
it is abfurd to allow the vait variety of twine to have
defeended from one original pair, and to contend that
the varieties of men are fo many diftindl fpecies.
No part of the natural hiftory of man can be more proe^fsof
interefting than that which deferibes the progreflivehuman life,
improvement and decay of human life, from the cradle
to 1 be grave. This tubjedl has been treated of in a moft
animated manner by Buffon,and we thall here give an
abridgement of this part of his work.
Nothing (lays M. Buffon) exhibits fuch a ftriking
picture of our weaknefs, as the condition of an infant
immediately after birth. Incapable of employing its
organs, it requires afliftance of every kind. In the firft
moments of our exiftence, we prelent an image of pain
and mifery, and are more weak and helplefs than the
young of any other animal. At birtbjthe infant paffes
from one element to another •, when it leaves the gentle
warmth of the tranquil fluid by which it was complete¬
ly furrounded in the womb of the mother, it becomes
expofed to the impreffions of the air, and inftantly
feels the tffedls of that aftive element. The air adling
upon the olfaftory nerves, and upon the organs of
reipiration, produces a {hock fomething like that of
fneezing, by which the breaft is expanded, and the
air admitted into the lungs. In the mean time, the
agitation of the diaphragm preffes upon the bowels, and
the excrements are thus for the fiift time difeharged.
from the inteftines, and the urine from the bladder.
The air dilates the veficles of the lungs, and after
being rarefied to a certain degree, is expelled by the
fpring of the dilated fibres reading upon this rarefied
fluid. The infant now refpires, and articulates founds
or cries.
Moft animals are blind for feme days after birth.
Infants open their eyes to the light the moment they
come into the world ; but they are dull, fixed, and
commonly blue. The new-born child cannot diftin-
guilh objeds, becaufe he is incapable of fixing his eyes
upon them. The organ of vifion is yet imperfed the
cornea is wrinkled ; and perhaps the retina is too foft
for receiving the images of external objeds, and for
communicating the lenlation of diftind vifion. At the
end of 40 daysj the infant begins to hear and to fmile.
About the fame time it begins to look at bright ob¬
jeds, and frequently to turn its eyes towards the win¬
dow, a candle, or any light. Now likew ife it begins
to weep ; for its former cries and groans were not ac¬
companied with tears. Smiles and tears are the effed:
of two internal fenfations, both of which depend on the
adion of the mind. Thus they are peculiar to ihe hu¬
man race, and ferve to exprefs mental pain or plea-
fure, w hile the cries, motions, and other marks of bo¬
dily pain and pleafure, are common to man and moft;
of the other animals. Confidering the fubjed as meta-
phyficians, we fhall find that pain and pleafure form the
univerfal
\
M A N [
Man. univerfal power which fets all our paffion^ in iuo-
*'V“W lion.
The fize of an infant born at the full time is com¬
monly 21 inches •, and that foetus, which nine months
before was an imperceptible bubble, now weighs ten
or twelve pounds, and fometimes more. The head is
large in proportion to the body ; and this disproportion,
which is dill greater in the firft ilage of the foetus, con¬
tinues during the period of infancy. The fkin of a
new-born child is of a reddilh colour, becaufe it is fo
fine and tranfparent as to allow a llight tint of the co¬
lour of the blood to (bine through. The form of the
body and members is by no means perfe6t in a child
foon after birth ; all the parts appear to be fwollen. At
the end of three days, a kind of jaundice generally
comes on, and at the fame time milk is to be found in
the breads of the infant, which may be fqueezed out
by the fingers. The fwelling decreafes as the child
grows up.
The liquor contained in the amnios leaves a vifeid
whitidr matter upon the body of the child. In this
country we have the precaution to wadi the new-born
infant only with warm water j but it is the cudom with
whole nations inhabiting the colded climates, to plunge
their infants into cold water as foon as they are born,
without their receiving the fmalled injury. It is even
faid that the Laplanders leave their children in the
fnow till the cold has almod dopped their refpiration,
and then plunge them into a wrarm bath. Among thefe
people, the children are alfo walhed thrice a day dur¬
ing the firil year of their life. The inhabitants of nor¬
thern countries are perfuaded that the cold bath tends
to make men dronger and more robud, and on that
account accudom their children to the ufe of it from
their infancy. The truth is, that we are totally igno¬
rant of the power of habit, or how far it can make
our bodies capable of differing, of acquiring, or of lo~
fmg.
The child is not allowed to fuck as foon as it is
born ; but time is given for difcharging the liquor and
dime from the domach, and the meconium or excrement,
which is of a black colour, from the intedines. As
thefe fubdances might four the milk, a little diluted
wine mixed with lugar is fird given to the infant, and
the bread is not prefented to it before 10 or 12 hours
have elapfed.
The young of quadrupeds can of themfelves find the
way to the teat of the mother : it is not fo wfith man.
The mother, in order to fuckle her child, mud raife it
to her breads •, and, at this feeble period of life, the
infant can exprefs its wants only by cries.
New-born children have need of frequent nouridi-
ment. During the day, the bread ought to be given
them every two hours, and during the night as often
as they awake. At fird they deep almod continually j
and they feem never to awake but when preffed by
hunger and pain. Sleep is ufeful and refrelhing to
them j and it is fometimes confidered as neceffary to em¬
ploy narcotic dofes, proportioned to the age and conlii-
tution of the child, for the purpofe of procuring them
repofe. The common way of appeadng the cries of
children is by rocking them in a cradle 5 but this
agitation mud be very gentle, otherwife a great rilk is
run of confudng the infant’s brain, and of producing a
total derangement. It is neceffary to their being in
547 ] MAN
>- good health, that their deep be long and natural. It ^at1, ,
is podible, however, that they may deep too much, v
and thereby endanger their conditmion. In that cafe,
it would be proper to take them out of the cradle, and
awaken them by a gentle motion, or by prefenting
fome bright obj< £t to their eyes. At this age we re¬
ceive the fird impredions from the fenfes, which, with¬
out doubt, are more important during the red of life
than is generally imagined. Great care ought to be
taken to place the cradle in fuch a manner that the
child (hall be directly oppofite to the light, for the
eyes are always directed towards that part of the room
where the light is dronged ; and if the cradle be pla¬
ced fideways, one of them, by turning towards the
light, will acquire greater drength than the other, and
the child will fquint. For the fird two months, no
other food diould be given to the child but the n ? k
of the nurfe 5 and when it is of a weak and del' ;
conditution, this nourilhment alone diould be conk :: d
during the third or fourth month. A child, however
robud and healthy, may be expofed to great danger
and inconvenience, if any other aliment is adminidered
before the end of the fird month. In Holland, Italy,
Turkey, and the whole Levant, the food of children
is limited to the milk of the nurfe for a whole year.
The favages of Canada give their children fuck for
four, five, fix, and fometimes even feven years. In
this country, as nurfes generally have not a fufficient
quantity of milk to fatisfy the appetite of their chil¬
dren, they commonly fupply the want of it by panada,
or other light preparations. ^
The teeth ufually begin to appear about the age of Dentition,
feven months. The cutting of thefe, although a natu¬
ral operation, does not follow the common laws of na¬
ture, which a6ls continually on the human body with¬
out occafioning the {mailed pain, or even producing
any fenfation. Here a violent and painful effort is
made, accompanied with cries and tears. Children at
fird lofe their fprightlinefs and gaiety ; they become
fad, redlefs, and fretful. The gums are red, and fwell-
ed •, but they afterwards become white, when the
preffure of the teeth is fo great as to dop the circula¬
tion of the blood. Children apply their fingers ta
their mouth, tha^they may remove the irritation which
they feel there. Some relief is given, by putting into
their hands a bit of ivory or coral, or of fome other
hard and fmooth body, with which they rub the gums
at the affefted part. This preffure, being oppofed to
that of the teeth, calms the pain for a moment, con¬
tributes to make the membrane of the gum thinner,
and facilitates its rupture. Nature here ads in oppofi-
tion to herfelf j and an incifion of the gum mud fome¬
times take place, to allow a paffage to the tooth. For
the period of dentition, number of teeth, &c. fee Ana¬
tomy, N0 27.
When children are allowed to cry too long, and too Difeafes of
often, ruptures are fometimes occafioned by the efforts fancy,
they make. Thefe may eafily be cured by the fpeedy
application of bandages j but if this remedy has been
too long delayed, the difeafe may continue through
life. Children are very much fubjed to worms. Some
of the bad effeds occafioned by thefe animals might, ac¬
cording to Buffon, be prevented by giving them a little
wine now and then, for fermented liquors have a ten¬
dency to prevent their generation,
3 Z 2
Though
t
MAN
Man.
37
Mortality
of iniants.
35
Speech.
39
Adolef-
cence and
puberty.
Though the body is very delicate in the ftate of in-
~ancy, it is then leis fenfible of cold than at any other
period of life. I he internal heat appears to be great¬
er. 1 he pulfe in children is much quicker than in
adults, from which we are certainly entitled to infer,
tnat the internal heat is greater in the fame propor¬
tion.
1 ill three years of age, the life of a child is very
precarious. In the fecund or third following years it
becomes more certain, and at fix or feven years of age
a child has a better chance of living than at any other
period of life. From the bills of mortality publifhed
at London, it appears, that of a certain number of
children born at the fame time, one half of them dies
the three fir ft years 5 according to which, one-half of
the human race would be cut off before they are three
years of age. But the mortality among children is
not everywhere fo great as in London. M. Dupre du
Sumt-Maur, from a great number of obfervations made
in France, has fhewn that half of the children born at
the fame time are not extindl till feven or eight years
have elapfed.
Among the caufes which have occafioned fo great a
mortality among children, and even among adults, the
fmallpox may be ranked as the chief. But luckily the
means of alleviating the effedts of this terrible fcourge
are now univerfally known by inoculation, and ftill
more by the introduftion of the cowpox.
Children begin learning to fpeak about the age of
12 or 15 months. In all languages, and among every
people, the firft fyllables they utter are ba, ba, ma, ma,
pa, pa, taba, abada ; nor ought this to excite any fur-
prife, when we confider that thefe fyllables are the
founds moft natural to man, becaufe they confift of
that vowel, and thofe confonants, the pronunciation of
which require the fmalleft exertion in the organs of
fpeeeh. Some children at two years of age articulate
diftinftly, and repeat whatever is faid to them ; but
moft children do not fpeak till the age of two years and
a half, or three years, and often later.
.The life of man and of other animals is meafured
only from the moment of birth ; they enjoy exiftence,
however, previous-to that period, and begin to live in
the ftate of a foetus. This ftate is defcribed and ex¬
plained under the article Anatomy, N° 113. The
period of infancy, which extends from the moment of
birth to about 12 years of age, has already been con-
fidered.
The period of infancy is followed by that of adol-
efcence. This begins, together with puberty, at the
age of 12 or 14, and commonly ends in girls at 15, and
in boys at 18, but fometimes not till 21, 23, and 25
years of age. According to its etymology (being de¬
rived from the Latin adolefceutia), it is completed
when the body has attained its full height. Thus, pu¬
berty becomes adolefcence, and precedes youth. This
is the fpring of life j this is the feafon of pleafures, of
loves, and of graces •, but this fmiling feafon is of thort
duration. Hitherto nature deems to have had nothing
in view but the prefervation and increafe of her work j
Ihe has made no provifion for the infant except what is
neceffary for life and growth. It has enjoyed a kind
[ 548 ]
MAN
Man,
Buffo*.
of vegetable exiftence which w as Ihut up within itfelf,
and which it was incapable of communicating. In this
firft ftage. of life, reafon is ftill afleep ; but the prin¬
ciples of life foon multiply, and man has not only what
is neceffary to his own exiftence, but what enables him
to give exiftence to others. This redundancy of life
can no longer be confined, but endeavours to expand
and diffufe itfelf*.
1 hus far we have followed Buffbn in his animated
fketch of the progrefs of human life ; but here, we rruft
leave him for a while, as we confider the picture he
has given of the approach of puberty and its corre-
fponding circumftances to be lefs calculated to ferve the
purpoLs of fcientific information, than to gratify idle
and vicious curiofity, and roufe thofe paflions which
feldom require much excitement. The fubje&s of the
procreation of the human fpecies, of pregnancy and
parturition, are llri&ly medical, and are treated^of in
fufftcient detail under their proper heads in this work.
Perhaps we (hall be accufed, by fome of the philofb-
phifts of the prefent age, of being too faftidious in
omitting fo important and interefting a part of the na¬
tural hiftory of man \ but we had rather incur the im¬
putation of negligence, than introduce into an article
that is intended for general readers any thing that may
offend the niceft delicacy.
Soon after the age of puberty the body of man at¬
tains its full ftature. Some young people ceafe to
grow after 15 or 16 ; while others continue to increafe
in height till 20, or even 23. During this interval
they are ufually very {lender, but by degrees the limbs
fwell, and aflume their proper fhape ; and before the
age of 30, the body has generally attained its greateft
perfection with regard to ftrength, confiftence, and
fymmetry. Adolefcence is confidered as terminating
at the age of 20 or 25, and at this period (according
to the ufual divifion of man’s life into ages), youth be¬
gins. This continues till the age of 30 or 35.
The ftature of man varies confiderably in different Stature oi!
climates, and under different circumftances. Authors man.
are by no means agreed as to what fhould be confidered
the medium height of the human body. Buffon ftates
it at from five feet or five feet and an inch, to five feet
four inches, making the medium height about five feet
two inches.' Flaller on the contrary, reckons the true
medium height of men in the temperate climates of
Europe to be about five feet five or fix inches. In «
general, women are feveral inches fhorter than men. It
has been remarked by Haller, that in mountainous
countries, fuch as Switzerland, the inhabitants of the
plains are commonly much taller than thofe of the
higher fituations. It is difficult to afcertain with preci-
fion the aCfual limits of the human ftature ; but we may
remark that in furveying the inhabited parts of the
earth, we find more remarkable differences in the fta¬
ture of different individuals of the fame nation, than in
the general height of different nations. In the fame
climate, among the fame people, and often even in the
fame family, we find fome individuals that are far above
the medium ftandard, and others as far below it. The
former we call giants, and the latter dwarfs. See Giant
and Dwarf (a).
The
(a) In addition to the relations of gigantic men given under Giant, we fliall here prefent our readers with
4. Blair’s
MAN
The body having acquired its full height during the
period of adolefcence, and its full dimenfions in youth,
remains for fome years in the fame ftate before it be¬
gins to decay. This is the period of manhood, which
extends from the age of 30 or 35 to that of 40 or 45
years. During this itage, the powers of the body con¬
tinue in full vigour, and the principal change which
takes place in the human figure arifes from the forma¬
tion of fat in different parts. Exceflive fatnefs disfigures
the body, and becomes a very cumberfome and incon¬
venient load.
Phyfiologifts give the name of old age to that period
of life which commences immediately after the age of
manhood and ends at death •, and they dittinguifh green
old age from the age of decrepitude. But in our opi¬
nion fuch an ( Xtenlive fignification of the word ought
not to be admitted. We are not old men at the age
of 40 or 45, and though the body then gives figns of
decay, it has not yet arrived at the period of old age.
M. Daubenton obferves, that it would be more proper
to call it the declining age, becaufe nature then becomes
retrograde, the fatnefs and good plight of the body
diminifh, and certain parts of it do not perform their
functions with equal vigour.
The age of decline is from 40 or 45,To 60 or 65 years
of age. At this time of life, the diminution of the fat
is the caufe of thofe wrinkles which begin to appear in
the face and fome other parts of the body. The fkin,
not being fupported by the fame quantity of fat, and
being incapable, for want of elafticity, of contra&ing,
finks down and forms folds. In the decline of life, a re¬
markable change takes place alfo in vifion. In the vigour
of our days, the cryftalline lens, being thicker and more
diaphanous than the humours of the eye, enables us to
read letters of a very fmall charafter at the diftance of
eight or ten inches. But when the age of decline comes
on, the quantity of the humours of the eye diminllhes,
MAN
they lofe their clearnefs, and the tranfparent cornea be- Man,
comes lefs convex. To remedy this inconvenience, we —“"V*”
place what we wifh to read at a greater diftance from
the eye ; but vifion is thereby very little improved, be¬
caufe the image of the obje£t becomes fmaller and more
obfcure. Another mark of the decline of life is a weak-
nef? of the ftomach, and indigellion, in molt people who
do not take fufficient exercife in proportion to the quan¬
tity and quality of their food.
At 60, 63, or 65 years of age, the figns of decline Old age.
become more and more vifible, and indicate old age.
This period commonly extends to the age of 'yo, fome-
times to 75, but feldom to 80. When the body is ex¬
tenuated and bent by old age, man then becomes crazy.
Crazinefs, therefore, is nothing but an infirm old age.
The eyes and Itomach then become weaker and weaker ;
leannefs increafes the number of the wrinkles, the beard
and the hair jpecome white } the llrength and the me¬
mory begin to fail.
After 70, or at moft 80 years of age, the life of man
is nothing but labour and forrow j fuch was the lan¬
guage of David near 3000 years ago. Some men of
flrong conftitutions, and in good health, enjoy old age
for a long time without decrepitude j but fuch inftances
are not very common. The infirmities of decrepitude
continually increafe, and at length death concludes the
whole. This fatal term is uncertain. The only con-
clufions which we can form concerning the duration of
life, muft be derived from obfervations made on a great
number of men who were born at the fame time, and
who died at different ages.
The figns of decrepitude form a ftriking pidture of
weaknefs, and announce the approaching diffolution of
the body. The memory fails, the fibres become hard, the
nerves blunted •, deafnefs and blindnefs take place ; the
fenfes of fmell, of touch, and of tafte, are deftroyed j
the appetite fails j the neceffity of eating, and more
frequently
[ 549 1
Blair’s account of O’Brien, the Irifh giant, who exhibited himfelf at London and Edinburgh a few years ago,
and died very lately. He pretended to be nearly nine feet high. We infert this account the more readily, as
it exactly agrees with what we ourfelves obferved when O’Brien was in Edinburgh.
“ I vifited this Irifhman (fays Mr Blair), on the 5th of May 1804, at N° 11. Haymarket. He was of a very
extraordinary ftature, but not well formed. As he would not fuft’er a minute examination to be made of his per-
fbn, it is impoffible to give any other than a fhort defcription of him. He declined the propofal of walking
acrofs the room, and I believe was afraid of difcovering his extreme imbecility. He had the general afpedt of
a weak and unrefiedting perfon, with an uncommonly low forehead j for as near as I could afcertain, the fpace
above his eye-brows, in a perpendicular line to the top of his head, did not exceed two inches. He told me his
age was 38 years, and that moft of his anceftors, by his mother’s fide, were very large perfons. The difpropor-
tionate fize of his hands ftruck me with furprife, and in this he feemed to make his principal boaft. He refufed
to allow a caft to be made of his hand, and faid it had been done many years ago $ but as I have feen that caft
at Mr Bacon’s, I am convinced the fize is much too fmall to reprefent his prefent ftate of growth. All his joints
were large, and perhaps rickety *, his legs appeared fwollen, mifhapen, and I thought dropfical; however, he did
not like my touching them. The feet were clumfy, and concealed as much as poffible by high fhoes. His limbs
were not very ftout, efpecially his arms, and I judged that he had fcarcely got the ufe of them $ for, in order to
lift up his hand, he feemed obliged to fwing the whole arm, as if he had no power of raifing it by the aftion of
the deltoid mufcle. He certainly had a greater redundancy of bone than of mufcle, and gave me the tmpreffion
of a huge, overgrown, fickly boy; his voice being rather feeble as well as his bodily energies, and his age ap¬
pearing under that which he affirmed. Indeed I find he gave a different account of himfelf to different vifitors.
The ftate of his pulfe agreed with the general appearance of his perfon, viz. feeble, languid, and flow in its mo¬
tions. With regard to his aftual height, I felt anxious to detect the fallacy he held out of his being nine feet l
Upon extending my arm to the utmoft, I reached his eye-brow with my little finger : allowing his height to
have been two inches and one-fourth above this, it could not be more in the whole than feven feet ten inches ; fo
that I am perfuaded the common opinion, founded on the giant’s own tale, is greatly exaggerated.” Philofophu
cal Magazinet vol. xviii. p. 356,
M<in.
44
Death.
MAN [ 55° ] M
frequently that of drinking, are alone felt $ after the tions, another diffolves
teeth fall out. mafhcation is imperfe£lly performed,
out, ^ ^  
and digeftion is very bad; the lips fall inwards; the
edges of the jaws can no longer approach each other ;
the mufcles of the lower jaw become to weak, that they
are unable to raife and fupport it. The body finks
down ; the fpine is bent outward, and the vertebrae
grow together at the interior part; the body becomes
extremely lean ; the ftrength fails ; the decrepid wretch
is unable to fupport himfelf; he is obliged to remain
on a feat, or ftretched in his bed ; the bladder becomes
paralytic ; the intellines lofe their ipring ; the circula¬
tion of the blood becomes flower ; the ttrokes of the
pulfe no longer amount to the number of 80 in a minute
as in the vigour of life, but are reduced to 24 and
fometimes fewer ; refpiration is flower ; the body lofes
its heat ; the circulation of the blood ceafes ; death
follows; and the dream of life is at an end.
Nothing can be more humiliating to the pride and
vanity of man than a comparifon of the ftate to which
his body is reduced by death, with that which it exhi¬
bits in the prime and vigour of youth. Let us contem¬
plate a female in the prime of youth and beauty. That
elegant voluptuous form, that graceful flexibility of
motion, that gentle warmth, thofe cheeks crimfoned
with the rofes of delight, thofe brilliant eyes darting
rays of love, or fparkling with the fire of genius ; that
countenance enlivened by fallies of wit, or animated
by the glow of paflion, appear united, to form a molt
fafcinating being, A moment is fufficient to deftroy
the illufion. Senfe and motion ceafe without any ap¬
parent caufe ; the body lofes its heat; the mufcles be¬
come flat, and the angular prominences of the bones
appear; the luftre of the eye is gone ; the cheeks and
lips are livid. Ihefe, however, are but preludes of
changes ftill more horrible. The flelh becomes fuc-
cefiively blue, green, and black. It attracts humidity,
and while one portion evaporates in infediious emana-
A N
into a putrid, fanies, which is
alfo diflipated. In a word, atter a few fhort days there
remains only a fmali number of earthy and faline
principles. I he other elements are ditperfcd in
air, and in water, to enter again into new combina¬
tions *. * Cuvier'1
Man has no right to complain of the ihortnefs ofC,0wA
life. Ihroughout the whole of living beings, there ,*
are few who unite in a greater degree all the internal
caufes which tend to prolong its different periods. The
term of geflation is very confiderable ; the rudiments of
the teeth are very late in unfolding ; his growth is
flow, and is not completed before about 20 years have
elapfed.—The age ot puberty, alio, is much, later m
man than in any other animal. In {hurt, the parts of
his body being compofed of a fofttr and more flexible
fubtlance, are not (u foon hardened as thole of inferior
animals. Man, the-refore, feems to receive at his birth
the. feeds of a long life ; if he reaches not the diftant
period which nature feemed to promiie b>m, it muff be
owing to accidental caufes foreign to himfelf. luftead
of faying that he has finilhed his life, we ought rather
to fay that he has not completed it.
The natural and total duration of life is in fome Duration
meafure proportioned to the period of grow’th. A tree°fhuma*
or an animal Which foon acquires its full fize, decaysufe'
much fooner than another which continues to grow for
a longer time. It is true that the life of animals is
eight times longer than the period of their growth, we
might conclude that the boundaries of human life may
be extended to a century and a half.
On the fubjedt of longevity, and the general cir-
cumftances on which it depends, we have already
treated under the article Longevity, and have there
given a lift of a great number of perfons who have
been celebrated for the length of their lives. To this
lift we ftiall add a few more names in the note be¬
low (b) ; but on the general fubjedt of longevity, we
* ftiall
(b) William Lecomte, a Ihepherd, died fuddenly in 1776, in the county of Caux in Normandy, at the age
of no. Cramers, phylician to the emperor, faw at Temefwar two brothers, the one aged no, and the other
n2, both of whom were fathers at that age. St Paul the hermit was 113 at his death. The Sieur Ifwan-
Horwaths, knight of the order of St Louis, died at Saar-Albe in Lorrain in 1775, aged almoft in. He was a
great hunter. He undertook a long journey a (hort time before his death, and performed it on horfeback. Ro-
iine Iwiwaroulka died at Minfk in Lithuania at the age of 113. Fockjel Jonas died in the year 1775, aged 113.
Marik Jonas died at Vilejac in Hungary, aged 119. John Niethen of Bakler in Zealand lived to the age of
120. Eleonora Spicer died in 1773, in Virginia, aged 121. John Argus was born in the village of Laltua in
lurkey, and died in 1779, at the age of 123, having fix Ions and three daughters, by whom he had pofterity to
the fifth generation. Ihey amounted to the number of 160 fouls, and all lived in the fame village. His father
died at the age of 120. In December 1777, there lived in Devonlhire a farmer named John Brookey, who was
134 years of age, and had been fifteen times married. The Philofophical Tranfa&ions mention an Englifliman
called Ecclefton, who lived to the age of 143. Another Engliihman, named Effingham, died in 1757 at the age
of 144. Niels Jukens of Hamerfet in Denmark died in 1764, aged 146. Chriftian Jacob Drakemberg died in
1770 at Archufen, in the 146th year of his age. This old man of the north w-as born at Stavangar in Norway
m 1624, and at the age of 130 married a widow of 60. In Norway fome men have lived to the age of 150.
John Rovin, who w as born at Szatlova-Carantz-Batcher, in the bannat of Temefw ar, lived to the age of 172, and
his wife to that of 164, having been married to him for 147 years. When Rovin died, their youngeft fon was
99 years of age. Peter Z Tten a peafant, and a countryman of John Rovin, died in 1724 at the age of 185.
IBs youngeft fon was then 97 years of age. The hiftory and whole length pictures of John Rovin, Henry Jen¬
kins, and Peter Zorten, are to be leen in the library of S A. R Prince Charles at Bruffels; and engravings of
Rovin and Zorten, with a Ihort account of them, are given in Sir John Sinclair’s “ Code of Health and Longe¬
vity.” Profeffor Hanovius at Dantzic, mentions in his nomenclature an old man who died at the age of 184;
and another, then alive, had attained the extraordinary age of 186. For other inftances, fee Sir J. Sinclair’s
work above mentioned.
Man.
46 f
. 'or'rait ot
roan
Jjrme'f for
mgevity.
Hufeland
n pre ■ mg-
17? Life,
W-
47
'capita-
'’-ion.
MAN [5Si] MAN
{hall add nothing to what has been faid under that
head, except the portrait of a man deftined tor lon¬
gevity, drawn by the celebrated Hufeland.
He has a proper and well proportioned ftature, with¬
out being too tall. He is rather of the middle fize,
and fomewhat thick fet. His complexion is not too
florid ; at any rate, too much ruddmefs in youth is fel-
dom a fign of longevity. His hair approaches rather
to the fair than the bla.;k $ his {kin is itrong, but not
rough. His head is not too big ; he has large veins
at the extremities, and his (boulders are rather round
than flat. His neck is not too long j his belly does
not project, and his hands are large, but not too deep¬
ly cleft. His foot is rather thick than long, and his
legs are firm and round. He has alfo a broad arched
cheft, a flrong voice, and the faculty of retaining his
breath for a long time without difficulty. In general,
there is a complete harmony in all his parts. His
fenfes are good, but not too delicate j his pulfe is clear
and regular. His ilomach is excellent, his appetite
good, and digeftion eaiy. He eats (lowly, and has not
too much thirft, which is always a fign of a rapid con-
fumption. He is ferene, adlive, fufceptible of joy,
love, and hope, but inftnfible to the impreffions of ha¬
tred, anger, and avarice. His paffions never become
too violent. If he gives way to anger, he experiences
an unufual flow of warmth, a kind of gentle fever,
without any overflowing of the gall. He is fond of
employment, particularly calm meditation, and agree¬
able fpeculations ; is an optimift ; a friend to natural
affedlions, and domeftic felicity ; has no third after
honours or riches, but is fatisfied with his lot *.
M. Daubenton has given a table of the probabilities
of the duration of life, of which the following is an
abridgement. Of 23,994 children born at the lame
time, there will probably die,
In one year
Remaining or 15,996.
In eight years
Remaining ^ or ll^y.
In 38 years
Remaining ^ or 7998.
In 50 years
Remaining ^ or 5998.
In 61 years
Remaining ^ or 3999.
In yoyears
Remaining ^ or 2399.
In 80 years
Remaining or 599.
In 90 years
Remaining or 79-
In 100 years
Remaining -redros or 2.
7998
II>997
j5>996
17.994
19.995
2M95
22,395
23,9J4
23,992
It thus appears, that a very fmall number of men
indeed pafs through all the periods of life, and arrive
at the goal marked out by nature. Innumerable caufes
accelerate our diffblution. The life of man confifts in
the adlivity and exere fe of his organs, which grow up
and acquire ftrength during infancy, adolefcence, and
youth. No fooner has the body attained its Ui.moft
perfeftion, than it begins to decline. Its decay is at
firlt imperceptible, but in progrefs of time the mem¬
branes become cartilaginous, and the cartilages acquire
the confiftence of bone; the bones become more folid, and
all the fibres are hardened. Almofl all the fat wades
away $ the (kin becomes withered and fealy •, wrinkles
are gradually formed •, the hair grows white ; the teeth
fall out j the face lofes its ffiapi ; the body is bent,
and the colour and confidence of the . crydalline hu¬
mour become more perceptible. The fird traces of
this decay begin to be perceived at the age of 40, and
fometimes fooner ; this is the age of decline. They in-
creaie by flow degrees till 60, which is the period of
old age. They increafe more rapidly till the age of
70 or 75. At this period crazinefs begins, and conti¬
nues always to increafe. Next fucceeds decrepitude,
when the memory is gone, the ufe of the fenfes lod,
the drength totally annihilated, the organs worn out,
and the functions of the body almod dedroyed. Little
now remains to be lod, and before the age of 90 or
100 death terminates at once decrepitude and life.
1 be body then dies by little and little ; its motion
gradually dimimffies •, life is extinguifhed by fucceffive
gradations, and death is only the lad term in the fuc-
ceffion. When the motion of the heart, which conti¬
nues longed, ceafes, man has then breathed his lad 5 he
has paffed from the date of life to the date of death \
and as at his birth a breath opened to him the career
of life, fo with a breath he fin idles bis courfe.
I his natural caufe of death is common to all ani¬
mals, and even to vegetables. We may obferve that
the centre of an oak fird peridies and falls into dud,
becaufe theie parts having become harder and more
compact, can receive no further nouriffiment. The
caules of our diffblution, therefore, are as neeeflary as
death is inevitable; and it is no more in our power to
retard this fatal term than to alter the edabliffied laws
of the umverfe. In whatever manner death happens,
the time thereof is unknown. It is confidered, how¬
ever, as at all times terrible, and the very thoughts of
it fill the mind with fear and trouble. It is, notwith-
danding, our duty frequently to dirrfl our thoughts to
that event, which mud inevitably happen, and by a
life of virtue and innocence to prepare againd thofe
confequences which we fo much dread.
As in women the bones, the cartilages, the mufcles,
and every other part of the body, are lofter and lefs
folid than thofe of men, they mud require more time
in hardening to that degree which occafions death.
Women of courfe ought to live longer than men. This
reafoning is confirmed by experience j for by confult-
ing the bills of mortality, it appears, that after women
have pafffed a certain age, they live much longer than
men who have arrived at the fame age. In like man¬
ner, it is found by experience, that in women the age
of youth is ffiorter and happier than in men, but that
the period of old age is longer, and attended with more
trouble.
It is not our bufinefs here to confider thofe circum-
dances which are calculated to preferve health and
prolong life. Many of theie are mentioned in the
medical articles; and thofe who wifli to make this fub-
jeft their particular dudy, have now ample materials
provided for them, in Sir John Sinclair’s “ Code of
Health and Longevity.”
IJle of Man, an ifland in the Iridi fea, lying
about feven leagues north from Anglefey, about the
fame didance weft from Lancaftiire, nearly the like
diftance
Man.
MAN [ 552 ] MAN
Man. diftance fouth-eaft from Galloway, and nine leagues
* eaft from Ireland. Its form is long and narrow, ftretcb-
ing, from the north-eaft of Ayre point to the Calf of
Man, which lies fouth-weft, at lead 30 Englifh miles.
Its breadth in fome pjaces is more than nine miles, in
moll places eight, and in fome not above five ; and it
contains about 160 fquare miles.
The firfi author who mentions this ifland is Caefar j
for there can be as little doubt, that, by the Mona
of which he fpeaks in his Commentaries, placing it in
the midft between Britain and Ireland, we are to un-
derftand Man j as that the Mona at Tacitus, which
he acquaints us had a fordable (trait between it and the
continent, can be applied only to Anglefey. Pliny
has fet down both Blands; Mona, by which he intends
Anglefey, and Monabia, which is Man. In Ptolemy
we find Monaceda, or Monoida, that is, the farther or
more remote Mbn. Orofius ftyles it Menavia; tells
us, that it was not extremely fertile •, and that this, as
well as Ireland, was then poffeflfed by the Scots. Be-
da, who diftinguifhes clearly two Menavian iflands,
names this the northern Menavia, beftowing the epithet
of fouthern upon Anglefey. In fome copies of Nen¬
nius, this ifle is denominated Eubonia ; in others, Me¬
navia ; but both are explained to mean Man. Alured
of Beverley alfo fpeaks of it as one of the Menavian
iflands. The Britons, in their own language, called
it Manaw, more properly Main au, i. e. “ a little
ifland,” which feems to be Latinized in the word Me¬
navia. All which clearly proves, that this fmall ifle
was early inhabited, and as well known to the reft of
the world as either Britain or Ireland.
In the clofe of the firft century, the Druids, who
were the priefts, prophets, and philofophers of the
old Britons, were finally expelled by Julius Agricola
from the fouthern Mona *, and wre are told, that they
then took (belter in the northern. This ifland they
found well planted with firs ; fo that they had, in
fome meafure, what they delighted in moft, the (belter
of trees; but, however, not the (belter of thofe trees
in which they moft delighted, viz. the oaks: and there¬
fore thefe they introduced. No hiftories tell us this $
but we learn it from more certain authority, great
W'oods of fir having been difcovered interred in the
bowels of the earth, and here and there fmall groves
of oaks : but as thefe trees are never met with inter¬
mixed, fo it is plain they never grew together •, and as
the former are by far the moft numerous, we may pre¬
fume them the natural produce of the country, and
that the latter were planted and preferved by the
Druids. They gave the people, with whom they
lived, and over whom they ruled, a gentle govern¬
ment, wife laws, but withal a very fuperftitious re
ligion. It is alfo very likely that they hindered
them, as much as they could, from having any corre-
fpondence with their neighbours 5 which is the reafon
that though the ifland is mentioned by fo many
waiters, not one of them, before Orofius, fays a word
about the inhabitants. A little before this time, that
is, in the beginning of the fifth century, the Scots had
tranfported themfelves thither, it is laid, from Ireland.
The tradition of the natives of Man (for they have a
traditionary hiftory) begins at this period. They
ftvle this firft difooverer Mannan Mac Lear; and
they (ay that he was a magician, who kept this coun¬
try covered with mills, fo that the inhabitants of other
places could never find it. But the ancient chronicles
of Ireland inform us, that the true name of this ad¬
venturer was Orbjenius, the fon of Alladius, a prince
in their ifland j and that he was furnamed Mannanan,
from his having firft entered the ifland of Man, and
Mac Lir, i. e. “ the offspring of the flea,” from his
great (kill in navigation. He promoted commerce 5
and is faid to have given a good reception to St Pa¬
trick, by whom the natives were converted to Chriifi-
anity.
The princes who ruled after him feem to have been
of the lame line with the kings of Scotland, with
which country they had a great intercourfe, aflift-
ing its monarchs in their wars, and having the edu¬
cation of their princes confided to them in time of
peace.
_ In the beginning of the feventh century, Edwin
king of Northumberland invaded the Menavian iflands,
ravaged Man, and kept it for fome time, when, Bed^
affures us, there weie in it about 300 families j which
was lefs than a third part of the people in Anglefey,
though Man wants but a third of the fize of that
ifland.
The fecond line of their princes they derive from
Orri, who, they fay, was the fon of the king of Nor¬
way j and that there we?e 12 princes of this houfe
who governed Man. The old conititution, fettled by
the Druids, while they (wayed the fceptre, was per¬
fectly reltored ; the country was well cultivated and
well peopled 5 their fubjefts were equally verfed in the
exercife of arms and in the knowledge of the arts of
peace : in a word, they had a confiderable naval force,
an extenfive commerce, and were a great nation, though
inhabiting only a little ifle. Guttred the fon of Orri
built the cattle of Ruffyn, A. D. 960,' Xvhich is a
ftrong place, a large palace, and has fubfifted now-
above 800 years. Macao was the ninth of thtfe
kings, and maintained an unfuccefsful ftruggle againft
Edgar, who reduced all the little fovereigns of the dif¬
ferent parts of Britain to own him for their lord ; and
who, upon the fubmiflion of Macao, made him his
high-admiral, by which title (archipirata, in the Latin
of thofe times) he fubfcribes that monarch’s charter
to the abbey of Glaftonbury.
After the death of Edward the Confeffor, when
Harold, who poffeffed the crown of England, had de¬
feated the Norwegians at the battle of Stamford,
there was amongft the fugitives one Goddard Crow-
nan, the fon of Harold the Black, of Iceland, who
took fhelter in the ifle of Man. This ifle was then
governed by another Goddard, who was a deicendant
from Macao, and he gave him a very kind and friendly
reception. Goddard Crownan, during the (hort Hay
he made in the ifland, perceived that his namefake
was univerfally hated by his fubjefts ; which infpired
him with hopes th'at he might expel the king, and
become mafter of the ifland. This he at laft aceom-
pliftied, after having defeated and killed Fingal the
fon of Goddard, w>ho had fucceeded his father. Up¬
on this he affigned the north part of the ifland to
the natives, and gave the fouth to his own people j
becoming, in virtue of his conqueft, the founder of
their third race of princes. However he might ac¬
quire'his kingdom, he governed it with (pirit and
prudence,
JT
MAN
is [ Man. -prudence, made war with fuccefs in Ireland ; gained
y, | u—v—— feveral viftories over the Scots in the Ifles ; and, ma¬
king a tour through his new-obtained dominions, de¬
ceased in the ifland of Hlay. He left behind him
three fons. A civil war breaking out between the
two eldeft, and both of them dtceafing in a few years,
Magnus king of Norway coming with a powerful
fleet, poffeffed himfelf of Man and the Ifles, and held
them as long as he lived j but, being flain in Ireland,
the people invited home Olave, the youugtit fon of
Goddard Crownan, who had fled to the court of
England, and been very honourably treated by Henry
the Second. There were in the whole nine princes
of this race, who were all of them feudatories to the
kings of England $ and often reforted to their court,
were very kindly received, and had penfions bellowed
upon them. Henry III. in particular, charged O'ave,
king of Man, with the defence of the coafts of Eng¬
land and Ireland j and granted him annually for that
fervice 40 marks, 100 meafures of wheat, and five
pieces of wine. Upon the demife of Magnus the
laft king of this ifle, without heirs male, Alexander III,
king of Scots, who had conquered the other illes,
feized likewife upon this j which, as parcel of that
kingdom, came into the hands of Edward I. who di-
redled William Huntercumbe, guardian or warden of
that ifle for him, to reftore it to John Baliol, who
had done homage to him for the kingdom of Scot¬
land.
But it feems there was Hill remaining a lady named
Aujlrica, who claimed this fovereignity, as coufin and
nearelt of kin to the deceafed Magnus. This claimant
being able to obtain nothing from John Baliol, ap¬
plied herfelf next to King Edward, as the fuperior
lord. He, upon this application, by his writ which
is yet extant, commanded both parties, in order to
determine their right, to appear in the king’s bench.
The progrefs of this fuit does not appear j but we
know farther, that this lady, by a deed of gift, con¬
veyed her claim to Sir Simon de Montacute ; and,
after many difputes, invafions by the Scots, and other
accidents, the title was examined in parliament, in the
feventh of Edward III. and folemnly adjudged to
William de Montacute ; to whom, by letters-patent,
dated the fame year, that monarch releafed all claim
whatfoever.
In the fucceeding reign, William Montacute, earl
of Salilbury, fold it to Sir William Scroop, afterwards
earl of Wiltftiire ; and, upon his lofing his head, it
was granted by Henry IV. to Henry Percy, earl of
Northumberland ; who, being attainted, had, by the
grace of that king, all his lands reftored, except the
ifle of Man, which the fame monarch granted to Sir
John Stanley, to be held by him of the king, his
heirs and fucceffors, by homage, and a call of falcons
to be prefented at every coronation. Thus it was
poffeffed by this noble family, who were created earls
of Derby, till the reign of Queen Elizabeth j when,
upon the demife of Earl Ferdinand, who left three
daughters, it was, as Lord Coke tells us, adjudged to
thefe ladies, and from them purchafed by William ear]
of Derby, the brother of Ferdinand, from whom it
was claimed by defcent, and adjudged to the duke of
Athol.
This ifland, from its fituation dire£tly in the mouth
Vol. XII. Part II.
MAN
of the channel, is very beneficial to Britain, by leffen- Man.
ing the force of the tides, which would otherwife "■“V—
break with far greater violence than they do at prefent.
It is frequently expofed to very high winds j and
at other times to mifts, which, however, are not at all
unwholefome. The foil towards the north is dry and
fandy, of confequence unfertile, but not unimprovable 5
the mountains, which may include near two-thirds
of the ifland, are bleak and barren ; yet afford excel¬
lent peat, and contain feveral kinds of metals. They
maintain alfo a kind of fmall fwine, called purrs,
which are elteemed excellent pork. In the valleys
there is as good pailure, hay, and corn, as in any of
the northern counties $ and the fouthern part of the
ifland is as fine foil as can be wiflied. 'ihey have
marl and limeflone fufficient to render even their
poorett lands fertile ; excellent flate, ragftone, black
marble, and lome other kinds for building. They
have vegetables of all forts, jmd in the utmott perfec¬
tion } potatoes in immenfe quantities j and, where
proper pains have been taken, they have tolerable
fruit. They have alfo hemp, flax, large crops of oats
and barley, and fome wheat. Hogs, flreep, goats,
black cattle, and horfes, they have in plenty ; and,
though fmall in fize, yet if the country was thoroughly
and fkilfully cultivated, they might improve the breed
of all animals, as experience has flrown. They have
rabbits and hares very fat and fine ; tame and wild
fowl in great plenty ; and in their high mountains
they have one airy of eagles, and two of excellent
hawks. Their rivulets furnilh them with falmon,
trout, eels, and other kinds of freflr-water fiih j on
their coafts are caught cod, turbot, ling, holibut, all
forts of ftiell-fifli (oyfters only are fcarce, but large
and good), and herrings, of which they made ancient¬
ly a great profit, though this fiftiery is of late much
declined.
The inhabitants of Man, though far from being
unmixed, were perhaps, till within the courfe of the
18th century, more fo than any other under the do¬
minion of the crown of Great Britain j to which they
are very proud of being fubjedls, though, like the in¬
habitants of Jerfey and Guernfey, they have a eonftitu-
tion of their own, and a peculiarity of manners natu¬
rally refulting from a long enjoyment of it.—The
Manks tongue is the only one fpoken by the common
people. It is the Old Britifh, mingled with Norfe,
or the Norwegian language, and the modern language.
The clergy preach and read the common prayer in it.
In ancient times they werediftinguifhed by their ftature,
courage, and great fldll in maritime affairs. They
are at this day a brilk, lively, hardy, induftrious, and
well-meaning people. Their frugality defends them
from want : and though there are few that abound,
there are as few in diftrefs ; and thofe that are, meet
with a cheerful unconftrained relief. On the other
hand, they are choleric, loquacious, and as the law
till lately was cheap, and unencumbered with folicitors
and attorneys, not a little litigious. The revenue in
the earl of Derby’s time, amounted to about 2500I.
a-year; from which, dedufting his civil lift, which
was about 700I. the clear income amounted to 1800I.
At the fame time, the number of his fubjeds was
computed at 20,000.—The fovereign of Man, though
he has long ago waved the title of king, was ftill in-
4 A veiled
[ 553 1
MAN f 5;
Man. yefted with regal rights and prerogatives: but the
diftinft juriidi&um of this Jittle fuborduiate royalty,
being found inconvenient for the purpofes of public
juftice and for the revenue (it affording a commo¬
dious afylum for debtors, outlaws, and Imugglers), au¬
thority was given to the treafury, by flat. 12 Geo. I.
c. 28. to purchafe the intereff of the then proprietors
for the ule of the crown : which purchafe was at
length completed in the year 1765, and confirmed by
fiat. 5 Geo. III. c. 26. and 39.} whereby the whole
ifland and all its dependencies (except the landed
property of the Athol family), their manorial rights
and emoluments, and the patronage of the bifhopric
and other ecclefiaftical benefices, are unalienably veiled
in the crown, and fubjedled to the regulation of the Bri-
tilh exeife and culloms.
The mull general divifion of this illand is into north
and fouth j and it contains 17 parillies, of which five
are market towns, the reft villages. Its divifion yith
regard to its civil government, is into fix Iheedings,
every one having its proper coroner, who is in the na¬
ture of a Iheriff, is intrufted with the peace of his di-
ftridl, fecures criminals, brings them to juftice, &c.
The lord chief jullice Coke fays, “ their laws were
fuch as fcarce to be found anywhere elfe.” In July
1786, a copper coinage for the ufe of the ifland was
iffued from the l ower of London.—There is a rjdge
of mountains runs almnft the length of the ille, from
whence they have abundance of good water from the
rivulets and fprings ; and Snafield, the higheft, rifes
about 580 yards. The air is lharp and cold in winter,
the frofts fhort, and the fnow, efpecially near the fea,
, lies not long on the ground. Here are quarries of good
ftone, rocks of limellone and red freeltone, and good
flate, with fome mines of lead, copper, and iron. The
trade of this ifland was very great before the year
1726 ; but the late Lord Derby farming out his cu-
ftoms to foreigners, the infolence of thefe farmers drew
on them the refentment of the government of England,
who, by an adl of parliament, deprived the inhabitants
®f an open trade with this kingdom. This naturally
introduced a clandeftine commerce, which they car¬
ried on with England and Ireland with prodigious
fuccefs, and an itnmenfe quantity of foreign goods w as
run into both kingdoms, till the government in 1765
thought proper to put an entire flop to it, by pur-
chafing the ifland of the duke of Athol, as already
mentioned, and permitting a free trade with England.
On the little ifle of Peele, on the weft fide of Man, is a
town of the fame name, with a fortified caftle. Be¬
fore the fouth promontory of Man, is a little ifland call¬
ed the Ca/f of Man: it is about three miles in circuit,
and feparated from Man by a channel about two fur¬
longs broad. At one time of the year it abounds with
puffins, and alfo w ith a fpecies of ducks and drakes, by
the Englifti called barnacles, and by the Scots c/akes
and fo/an geefe.
Few men of extraordinary talents have appeared in
this ifland $ perhaps, becaufe few oecafions have offered
for calling them forth. The Rev. J. Stowell is an ex¬
ception, matter of the free-grammar fchool at Peele, who
pofftffed the ftrongeft powers of mind, was benevolent
to the poor, free from pedantry, and forcibly illuftrated
all his precepts by his example.
The W'omen in the ifle of Man are not remarkable
5
4 1 M A N
for elegance of form or delicacy of features. The prac- M*n
tice of her domeftic duties, and the regulation ot her H
domettic affairs, conttitute the employment of the Manks 1'Vldna^>
w lie j and if not io refined as the dames of more poljih- v ' '"J
ed nations, the is perhap.- as happy.
Landed property is very much divided in the ifland,
there being feareely fix men who have eftates above
500I. a year.
The internal feenery of the ifle of Man is far from
being beautiful, of which the chief caufe is the want
of wood j and the rivers are fo Imall as to add little
to the richnefs of the views. The Manks are fond
of dancing, and dance well,. Two balls in the year
are given at Caftletown y one on the king’s birth day,
the other on the queen’s, and there are frequent pri¬
vate dances. At Ramfay, during the winter of 1801,
a fociety of ladies and gentlemen was formed, which
met three evenings in the week for the purpoie of read¬
ing Shakefpeare, and fuch a number of copies were
procured, that each charadler of the drama w asfupport-
ed by a feparate individual.
The inhabitants of this ifle (the number of which is
eftimated at 40,000) are of the church of England j
and the bifhop is ttyled Bijhop of Sodor and Man. He
has no vote in the Britifh houle of peers. This biftiop-
rick was firft eredled by Pope Gregory IV. and for its
diocefe had this ifle and all the Hebrides or Weitern
iflands of Scotland j but which were called Sodoroe by
the Danes, who went to them by the north, from
the Swedifti Sodor, Sail or Oar iflands, from which the
title of the bifhop of Sodor is fuppofed to originate.
The bifliop’s feat was at Rqfhin, or Caftletown, in the
ifle ef Man, and in Latin is entitled Sodorenfs. But
when this ifland became dependent upon the kingdom
of England, the Weftern iflands withdrew themfelves
from the obedience of their bifhop, and bad a bifhop
of their own, whom they entitled alfo Sodorenfs, but
commonly Bifhop of the ifes. The patronage of
the bifhopric was given, together with the ifland, to
the Stanleys by King Edward IV. and came by an
heir-female to the family of Athol, and, on a vacancy
thereof, they nominated their defigned bifliop to the
king, who difmiffed him to the archbifhop of York for
confecration.—By an aft of parliament, the 33d of
King Henry VIII. this bifhopric is declared in the pro¬
vince of York.
MAN-of-war Bird. See Pelicanus, Ornithology
Index.
MANAGE. See Manege.
MANASSEH, in Scripture hiflory, the eldeft fonof
Jofeph, and grandfon of the patriarch Jacob (Gen. xli.
50, 51.) was born in the year of the world 2290, before
Jefus Chrift 1714.
The tribe defeended from him came out of Egypt,
in number 32,200 men fit for battle, upwards of 20
years old, under the conduft of Gamaliel fon of Pe-
dahzur (Numb. ii. 20. 21.). This tribe was divided
at their entrance into the land of Promife. One half
had its portion beyond the river Jordan, and the other
half on this fide the river. The half tribe of Manaffeh
which fettled beyond the river poffeffed the country
of Bafhan, from the river Jabbok to Mount Libanus,
(Numb. xxii. 33. 34. &c.) j and the other half tribe of
Manaffeh on this fide Jordan, obtained for its inheri¬
tance the country between the tribe of Ephraim to the
fouth
M A N
[ 555 3
MAN
Man; hef-
ter.
Manaffeh fouth 6f the tribe of Iffachar to the north, having the
river Jordan to the eaft and the Mediterranean fea to
the weft, (Jo{h. xvi. xvii.).
t Manasseh, the 15th king of Judah, being the fon
and fucceffor of Hezekiah. His ads are recorded in
2 Kings, xx. xxi. and 2 Chr. xxxiii.
MAN AT I. See Trichecus, Mammalia Index.
MANCA, was a fquare piece of gold coin, com¬
monly valued at 30 pence j and mancufa was as much
as a mark of filver, having its name from mnnu cufa,
being corned with the hand : (Leg. Canut.) But the
manca and mancufa were not always of that value j for
fometimes the former was valued at fix Ihillings, and
^the latter, as ufed by the Englilh Saxons, was equal
in value to our half crown. Manca fex folidis cefimetur,
(Leg. H. 1. c. 69 ). Thorn in his chronicle, tells us,
that mancufa ejl pondus duorum folidorum et fex dena-
Tiorum ,* and with him agrees Du Cange, who fays,
that 20 mancce make 50 Ihillings. Manca and mancufa
are promifcuoufly ufed in the old books for the fame
money.
MANCHA, a territory of Spain in the province of
New Cattile, lying between the river Guadiana and
Andalufia. It is a mountainous country •, and it was
here that the famous Don Quixote was fuppofed to per¬
form his exploits.
MANCHESTER, a town of Lancalhire in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 2. 42. N. Lat. 53. 27.
Mr Whitaker conje&ures, that the ftation was firlt
occupied by the Britons about 500 years B. C. but
that it did not receive any thing like the form of a town
till 450 years after, or 50 years B. C. when the Britons
of Chelhire made an irruption into the territories of
their fouthern neighbours, and of confequence alarm¬
ed the Seftuntii, or inhabitants of Lancalhire, fomuch,
that they began to build fortreffes, in order to defend
their country. Its Britifh name was Mancenion, that
is, “ a place of tents it was changed, however, in¬
to Mancuninm by the Romans, who conquered it un¬
der Agricola in the memorable year of the Chriftian
sera 79. It appears alfo to have been called Mandue-
fuedum, Manduejfedutn, Manucium, and Manceflre; from
which laft it feems mod evident that the prefent name
has been derived. It is diftant from London 182 miles,
and from Edinburgh 214 j Handing near the conflux
of the Irk and the Irwell, about three miles from the
Me r fey.
Manchefter was accounted a large and populous
town even 50 years ago j but fince that time it is
fuppofed to have increafed in more than triple pro-
ioaf 1792. p0rtjan^ both in refpeiR; to buildings and inhabitants.
The houfes amount to a number not far Ihort of 1 2,000 ;
and perhaps it may not be an overrate to reckon feven
perfons to each, when it is confidered, that, of the houfes
occupied by working people of various defcriptions,many
have two, three, and fometimes more, families in each.
For though many hundred houfes have been built in
the courfe of a few late years, yet are they conflantly
engaged as foon as poffible ; the avidity for building in-
creafing with every new acceflion of inhabitants, and
rents rifing to a degree fcarcely known in other places.
The progrefs of this oty-opeivix may be partly eftimated
by the price of building, land, and materials : a guinea
per fquare yard, chief rent, having been refufed for
Ibme central plats j and bricks felling at 24s. per 1000,
"his ac-
»unt ’was
'rwwn up
which about four years fince were not more than half Manchei-
the price. Such, however, has been the happy concur- , ter'
rence of ingenuity and induftry, and fuch the aftonilh- v~”
ing improvements daily making in its numerous manu¬
factures, together with the encouragement thefe afford
to fkilful artilts in various branches, that ftreets muft
extend in proportion : yet population appears to have in¬
creafed more rapidly than buildings j hence competitions
naturally arife, and hence a temporary advance of rents.
The manufactures of this town and neighbourhood,
from humble domeitic beginnings about two centuries
ago, have now, after progreflive improvements, ac¬
quired fuch celebrity, both in the fcale of ornament
and utility, as to fpread in ten thoufand forms and co¬
lours, not only in thefe kingdoms, but over all Eu¬
rope, and even into the diltant continents j being at
once molt precious mines of well-earned private wealth,
and important contributors to the necelfary public trea-
fure of the date. Its pod-office alone may afford an
evidence of its extenfive commerce. The population
of the town may be further calculated from the great
number of cotton factories within the boundaries of
the town, wherein it is thought that 20,000 men, wo¬
men, and children, are employed in the mere branches
of preparing warp and weft. If to thefe be added
the many hands applied to weaving, &c. &c. &c. be-
fide all the more general mechanics, as well as houfe-
holders, domeitic lervants, &c. Mancheder may be
ranked as the mod populous market-town in Great
Britain. The marriages in Mancheder and Salford,
from January 1791 to January 1792, were 1302,
the chridenings 2960, and the burials 2286. Hence,
fliould it be computed that one in every 30 perfons
died, the number of inhabitants would amount to
68,580 $ but in 1801 the population of Mancheder,
including Salford, exceeded 84,000. The dreets are
fpacious and airy, great part of the old buildings be¬
ing removed, and the new dreets allowed a convenient
breadth. The town is lighted every night by 2000
lamps, and guarded by nearly 200 vvaichmen.
The college was founded in 1422 by Thomas Wefl%
Lord Delaware j and confided of a warden, eight fel¬
lows, four clerks, and fix choriders. About the fame
time the prefent collegiate church was built (timber
only having been ufed for the former church). This
church is a fine drufture of what is termed the Gothic
fydem, and is much enriched with fculpture. The
collegiate body confids of a warden, four fellows, two
chaplains, two clerks (one of whom by a very late
regulation, is to be at lead bachelor of arts and in
pried’s orders), four choriders, and four finging men.
Befides the collegiate church, there are alfo the fol¬
lowing. St Anne’s, a handfame church, begun in 1709
and finiflied in 1723 : it is in the gift of the bilhop of
Cheder. St Mary’s, built by the clergy of the collegi¬
ate church, and confecrated upwards of 30 years ago, is
a neat and indeed an elegant edifice j as is St John’s,
which was built about 20 years fince by the late Ed¬
ward Byrom, Elq. The next prefentation thereof is,
by aft of parliament, veded in his heirs, afterw ards de¬
volving to the warden and fellows of the collegiate
church. St Paul’s church was erefted upwards of 12
years ago, and is a handfome fpacious building, chief¬
ly brick •, to which has been added, within the lad two
years, a lofty and fubdantial done tower. St James’s
4 A 2 church
MAN
f 5
Manchef- church has been finiftied within the laft ten years: it
, ter‘ is a large well-lighted building of brick and done,
with a fmall done deeple. St Michael’s is alfo of brick
and done, with a fquare tower. It was built by the
late Rev. Humphrey Owen (one of the chaplains of
the collegiate church, and reftor of St Mary’s), in
whole heirs the prefentation is veded for a term of 60
years, and thenceforward in the warden and fellows of
the college. To thefe may be added, St Thomas’s,
Ardwick Green, and Trinity church, Salford : for
though the Irwell intervenes between Mancheder and
Salford, and each is governed by its refpeftive con-
ftables •, yet, being connected by three bridges, by
mutual frienddiip, and by the common purfuit of uni-
verfally ufeful manufadlures and commerce, the two
places are generally confidered under the name of Man-
chejler, as the borough of Southwark is not improperly
deemed a part of the metropolis. In Salford there is
likewife a Methodid chapel nearly finidied. A new
church is alfo about to be built and dedicated to St Ste¬
phen.—In Mancheder a new church is lately finidied,
and called St George's ; but divine fervice has not yet
been performed therein. St Peter’s church, at the end
of Mofiey-dreet, was begun about three years fince :
when finidied, it will be a drong and elegant done
ftru&ure with a high fpire; at prefent the body only
is completed, and lighted, in a manner not very com¬
mon, by dx femicircular window's. The foundation of
another church, to be called St Clement's, has alfo been
.laid, within the prefent year 1792, in Stephenfon’s
fquare lately planned ; and alfo one called the New Je-
rufalem Church, nearly finidied. Befides the 14 churches
above enumerated, there are, a Catholic chapel, a
large Methodid chapel, a chapel for the people called
Quakers, and 5 chapels for diffenters of other denomi¬
nations.
Cheetham’s Hofpital, commonly called the Col¬
lege, becaufe it W'as originally the place of refidence of
the warden and fellows, is deferving of particular
notice. Humphrey Cheetham of Clayton near Man¬
cheder, Efq. having been remarkably fuccefsful in
trade in the middle of the lad century, bought the
college, and liberally endowed it for the maintenance
and education of 40 poor boys, admidible between the
age of 6 and 10 years. By an improvement of the
funds of the charity, the number of boys was in-
creafed to 6o •, and continued fuch till the Eader
meeting of the feoffees in 1780, when another aug¬
mentation took place, and the number has fince been
condantly 80. The townfhips, pointed out by the
founder for obje&s of his charity, are the following,
together with the refpeddive numbers admitted from
each : Manchefier, original number 14, now 28 ;
Sallord 6, now 1 ;> ; Hroylfden 3, now 6 ; Crump-
fall 2, now 4 ; Bolton-le-moors 10, now 20 5 Turton
5, now 10. So that 89 perlons are now annually pro¬
vided for by this liberal benefa&or ; including for the
hofpital a governor, one man and five women fervants
a fchool-mader j and, on the library edablifiiment, a
librarian. (See an authentic letter in the Gent. Mag.
for June 1792, p. 521.). The boys of this hofpital
are comfortably provided for till the age of 14, when
they are further clothed, and with a premium placed
apprentices to ufeful trades; and, in order to incite
early habits of indudry, to make them good fervants,
56 ] MAN
and at length good maders, it has been fuggeded to Manehef-
furnidi fome kind of eafy employment for a fmall part ter-
of their time not engaged at fchool. The Libra-
ry, which occupies an extenfive gallery of the fame
building, owes its foundation and increafing impor¬
tance to the fame benevolent fource. The annual
value of the fund originally bequeathed for the pur-
chafe of books and for a librarian’s falary was Ii61. j
but by recent improvements of the edate, the income
is more than thrice that fum. The books at this time
amount to 10,000 volumes, of w-hich a catalogue hand-
fomely printed in 2 volumes 8vo has been publilhed by
the prefent librarian, the Rev. John Radcliffe, A. M.
At dated hours on all days, except Sundays and
other holidays, the dudious may have free accefs to
read, in the library, any book it contains ; and in order
to render it comfortable during the cold feafon of the
year, feveral doves are kept heated at the reading
hours. This college and a large inclofed area are
fituated upon a high perpendicular rock, bounded by
the Irk clofe to its conduence with the Irwell; and is
thought by Mr Whitaker to be included, as well as
the collegiate church, within the boundaries of the an¬
cient Roman praetorium j the whole of which fite to¬
wards the Irwell, as on the fide of the Irk, is confider-
ably elevated above the water and the oppofite land
of Salford. The free-fchool, higher up on the fame
fide of the Irk, almod joining to the college, is fupport-
ed by the rents of three mills j one of which is for
grinding malt, another for corn, and the third is em¬
ployed as a fnuff mill. Thefe rents are now increafed
to 700I, per annum, from which falaries are paid to
three mailers and two affiftants. The fcholars educa¬
ted here have certain exhibitions allowed at the uni-
verfity ; and fuch of them as are entered at Brazen-
nofe college Oxford have a chance of obtaining fome
valuable exhibitions arifing from lands in Manchefter
bequeathed by Mr Hulme. The deferved reputation of
this fchool is a powerful recommendation of its fcholars
entering at the univerfities. The Academy is a large
and commodious building, raifed by the fubfcriptions
of feveral refpe6fable diffenters, and placed under the
care of able tutors. Here youth above 14 years of age
are admitted and inftrudled in the various branches of
liberal knowledge, preparatory to trade or the profef-
fions. The Literary and Philofophical Society of Man¬
chefter was inftituted in the beginning of the year
1781, and is well known by its Memoirs, of which fe¬
veral volumes 8vo, containing feveral excellent papers
on various literary and fcientific fubje6ts, have been
publifhed ; thefe have been tranfiated into the Ger¬
man language. A fociety was eftabliftied here in
November 1789, under the name of the Lancajhire
Humane Society, for the encouragement of all who,
may attempt the recovery of perfons apparently drowm-
ed. The • Infirmary, Difpenfary, Lunatic Afylum,
and public Baths, are all fituated on one large airy
plot of land, in the moft elevated and agreeable part
of the town; a pleafant grafs plot and gravel-walk
extending the whole length of the buildings j a ca¬
nal intervening between them and the public ftreet,
next to which it is guarded by iron palifades. The
Lying-in hofpital is fituated in Salford, at the end of
the old bridge. A new Work-houfe is nearly completed;
and for fuch. a purpofe a happier fpot could not be found
MAN [ 557 ] MAN
jlanrhef- in any town than that whereon it is ere&ed, being on
ter‘ an equal eminence with the college on the oppofite
■’■'V fide of the Irk, and promifing the greateft poffible
comforts to fuch as may be neceflitated to become its
inhabitants. The Exchange was a ftrong good build¬
ing j but fince the late adt of parliament ordained for
farther improvements of the town, it has been fold
and taken down, and its file formed into a convenient
area, to the great advantage of the furrounding houfes.
The Theatre is a neat building, wherein the boxes are
placed in a femicircle oppofite to the ftage. The Gen¬
tlemen’s Concert-room is an elegant building, capacious
enough to accommodate 1200 perfons. The concerts
are fupported by annual fubfcriptions: but ftrangers
and military gentlemen have free admiffion to the pri¬
vate concerts ; as alfo to the public concerts, with a
fubfcriber’s ticket. The new Affembly-rooms are large
and commodious. A Circus is almoft finilhed. Here
are two Market-places, the old and the new ; which
are well fupplied with every thing in feafon, though at
high rates. There are feveral charity-fchools belonging
to different churches and chapels, where children are
furnifhed with clothes and taught to read. The Sunday-
fchools are numerous, and afford inftruftion to upwards
of 5000 children.
Over the Irwell are three bridges, uniting the town
with Salford: the old bridge is very high at the
Manchefter end, whence it flopes into Salford. The
middle bridge, four feet wide, raifed upon timber
and flagged, is only for the accommodation of foot-
paffengers, who from the Manchefter fide muft de-
fcend to it by nearly forty fteps. The lower bridge
is a handfome ftone building of two arches j this
bridge affords a level road for two or three car¬
riages abreaft. It was undertaken and finifhed by the
private fubfcription of a few gentlemen ; and a (mail
toll is taken for all palling, which toll is now annually
let by auction, and pays the proprietors remarkably
well.—From Manchefter there are likewife the fame
number of bridges over the Irk •, only one, however,
is adapted for the paffage of carriages. The Irwell,
having at a great expence been rendered navigable for
veffels of 20 or 30 tons burden, there is a conftant com¬
munication between Liverpool, Manchefter, and the in¬
termediate places on the Irweli and Merfey, to the
great advantage of the proprietors of the country at
large. This navigation, and more efpecially the duke
of Bridgewater’s canal, opening a paffage from Man¬
chefter to the Merfey at 30 miles diftance, have, to¬
gether, greatly contributed to the prefent highly flou-
rifhing ftate of the town. Advantages ftill greater,
becaufe more widely diffufive, may refult from the
intended union of the Humber and the Merfey by
means of canals. Indeed, every mile of canal would
benefit many miles of land ; and fuch would be the re¬
ciprocity of intereft, that it would undoubtedly extend
and be felt far beyond the vifible meafurement of the
navigation.”
The News Room and Library in Manchefter is an
elegant building, and an ornament to the town ; and
as it comprehends in it a news room, circulating libra¬
ry, and reading room, muft be produ6live of general
utility. The propbfal of this inftitution met with
much oppofition at firft j but it was finally carried by
I
the unwearied exertions of a Mr Robinfon, a man whofe Manchefter
charafter was univerfally loved and admired. I] .
We muft not omit to notice the new penitentiary ‘>ncJp
houfe, called the New Bailey, for feparate confine¬
ment of various criminals. Over the entrance is a
large feffion room, with adjoining rooms for the ma-
giftrates, council, jurors, &c. Beyond this, in the
centre of a very large area inclofed by very high walls,
ftands the Prilbn, an extenfive building, forming a crofs
three ftories high j and the four wards of each ftory
may in an inftant be feen by any perfon in its centre.
This prifon is kept furprifingly neat and healthy ; and
fuch as can work at any trade, and are not confined for
crimes of the greateft magnitude, are employed in a
variety of branches 5 fo that one may be feen beating
and cleanfing cotton, another carding it, another roving,
and a fourth fpinning. In the next place may be ob-
ferved a man or a woman bufy at the loom j and in
another, one or more engaged in cutting and railing the
velvet pile. Hence induftry is not fuffered to (lumber
in the folitary cell, nor to quit it under the acquired
impreflions of that torpor which formerly accompanied
the emancipated prifoner from his dungeon j rendering
him, perhaps, totally unfit for the duties of honeft fo-
ciety, though well qualified, in all probability, to hord
W'ith gamblers, and be then, if not before, initiated in¬
to their pernicious myfteries.—At Kerfal-moor, three
miles diftant, horfe-races are annually permitted. The
banks of the rivers and various brooks about the town
afford excellent fituations for the numerous dye-houfes
employed for a multitude of fabrics. Among other
things the manufacture and finilhing of hats is carried
on to an extent of great importance.—The general
market is here on Saturdays. Tuefday’s market is
chiefly for tranfafting bufinefs between the traders and
manufacturers of the town and circumjacent country.
The fairs are on Whit-Monday, OCtober ill, and
November 17th.
Manchefter is a manor with courts leet and baron.
It fends no members to parliament, but gives title to
a duke. The annual fall of rain is here about 42
inches j though from January 1791 to January 1792
it was 44 inches. The fun’s greateft heat in 1791 was
76°, July 17.
MANCHINEEL. See Hippomane, Botany
Index.
MANCIPATIO, was a term made ufe of in the
Roman law, and may be thus explained *, every father
had fuch a regal authority over his fon, that before the
fon could be releafed from his fubjeCtion and made
free, he muft be three times over fold and bought, his
natural father being the vender. The vendee was
called pater fiducianus. After this fictitious bargain,
the pater Jiducianui fold him again to the natural father,
w ho could then, but not till then, manumit or make
him free. The imaginary fale was called ;
and the aCt of giving liberty or letting him free after
this was called emancipatio.
Mancipatio alfo lignifies the felling or alienating of
certain lands by the balance, or money paid by weight,
and five witneffes. This mode of alienation took place
only amongft Roman citizens, and that only in refpeCt
to certain eftates fituated in Italy, which were called
mancipia.
MANCIPLE,.
M A N
Manciple MANCIPLE (manceps), a clerk ef the kitchen, or
J| . caterer. An officer in the inner temple was anciently
t an^ called vvho is now the fteward there ; of whom
Chaucer, the ancient Engliffi poet, fome lime a Un¬
dent of that houfe, thus writes :
A manciple there was within the temple,
Of which all caterers might take enfample.
This officer ftill remains in colleges in the univerfi-
; ties.
MANCUNIUM, in Ancient Geographic a town of
the Brigantines in Britain. Now Manchejler in Lan-
caffiire. See MANCHESTER.
MANCUS (formed of manu cufux)^ in antiquity,
an Anglo-Saxon gold-coin, equal in value to 2-§- folidi,
or 30 pence j and in weight to 55 Troy grains. The
firft account of this coin that-occurs in the hiftory of
our country, < is about the clofe of the 8th century,
in an embaffy of Cenwulf king of Mercia to Leo III.
requeuing the reftoration of the jurifdiftion of the fee
of Canterbury : this embafly was enforced by a prefent
of 120 mancufes. Ethel wolf alfo fent yearly to Rome
300 mancufes: and thefe coins are faid to have con¬
tinued in fome form or other till towards the conclu-
fion of the Saxon government. The heriots of the
nobility are chiefly eftimated by this ftandard in Ca¬
nute’s laws. It came originally from Italy, where it
was called ducat: and is fuppofed to have been the fame
with the drachma or miliarenlis current in the Byzan¬
tine empire.
MANDAMUS in Law, a writ that iffues out of
the court of king’s-bench, fent to a corporation, com¬
manding them to admit or reftore a perfon to his
office. This writ alfo lies where juftices of the peace
refufe to admit a perfon'to take the oaths in order to
qualify himfelf for enjoying any port or office j or
where a bifhop or archdeacon refufes to grant a probate
of a will, to admit an executor to prove it, or to fwear
a church warden, &c.
MANDANES, an Indian prince and philofopher,
who for the renown of his wifdom was- invited by the
ambaffadors of Alexander the Great to the banquet of
the fon of Jupiter. A reward was promifed him if he
obeyed, but he was threatened with puniflimcnt in cafe
■of a refufal. Unmoved by promifes and threatenings,
the philofopher difmifled them with obferving, that
though Alexander ruled over a great part of the uni-
verfe, he was not the fon of Jupiter ; and that he gave
'himfelf no trouble about the prefents of a man who
poflefled not wherewithal to content himfelf. “ I de-
fpife his threats (added he): if I live, India isfufficient
for my fubfiflence •, and to me death has- no terrors, for
it will only be an exchange of old age and infirmity for
the happinefs of a better life.”
MANDARINS, a name given to the magiflrates
and governors > f provinces in China, who are chofen
out of the moil learned men, and whofe government is
always at a great diftance from the place of their birth.
Mandarin is alfo a name given by the Chinefe to the
learned language of the country j for befides the lan¬
guage peculiar to every province, there is one common
to all the learned in the empire, which is in China
what Latin is in Europe : this is called the mandarin
tongue, or the language of the court.
C 558 1
MAN
MANDATE, in Law, a judicial commandment to Mandate
do fomething. See the article Mandamus. I|
Mandate, in the canon law, a refcript of the pope Mandlng-
commanding an ordinary collator to put the perfon ’ ”
therein named in pofftffion of the firft vacant benefice
in his collation.
M AND ALUM, was a fee or retainer given by the
Romans to the procuratores and advocati. The manda-
tum was a neceffary condition, without which they had
not the liberty of pleading. Thus the legal eloquence
of Rome, like that of our own country, could not be
unlocked without a golden key.
MANDERSCHEIT, a town of Germany in the
circle of the Lower Rhine, and in the eleftorate of
Triers, capital of a county of the fame name, between
the diocefe of Triers and the duchy of Juliers. E.
Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 50. 20.
MANDEVILLE, Sir John, a phyfician, celebrat¬
ed on account of his travels, w’as born at St Alban’s,
about the beginning of the 14th century. He had a
liberal education, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of
phyfic 5 but being at length feized with an invincible
defire of feeing diftant parts ef the globe, he left Eng¬
land in 1332, and did not return till 34 years after.
His friends, wffio had long fuppofed him dead, did not
know him when he appeared. He had travelled
through almoft all the eaft, and made himfelf mafter of
a great variety of languages. He particularly vifited
Scythia, Armenia the Greater and Lefs, Egypt, Ara¬
bia, Syria, Media, Mefopotamia, Perfia, Chaldea,
Greece, Dalmatia, &c. His rambling difpofition did
not fuffer him to reft j for he left his own country a fe-
cond time, and died at Liege in the Netherlands in
1372. He wrote An Itinerary, or an Account of his
Travels, in Englifti, French, and Latin.
Mandeville, Bernard de, an eminent Writer In
the i£th century, was born in Holland, where he flu-
died phyfic, and took the degree of doftor in that fa¬
culty. He afterwards came over into England, and
in 1714 publiffied a poem, entitled “ The Grumbling
Hive, or Knaves turned Honeft upon which he af¬
terwards wrote remarks, and publilhed the whole at
London, 1723, in 8vo, under the title of “ The
Fable of the Bees, or private Vices made public Be¬
nefits $ with an Effay on Charity and Charity-fchools,
and a Search into the Nature of Society.” This book
was prefented by the jury of Middlefex in July the
fame year, and feverely animadverted upon in “ A
Letter to the Right Honourable Lord C.” printed in
the London Journal of Saturday July 27. 1723. Our
author publiffied a Vindication. His book was attack¬
ed by feveral writers. He publiffied other pieces, and
died in 1724.
MAN DING, a large ftate in the interior of Africa,
filuated in N. Lat. 12. 40 and W. Long. 6. 40. The
government, according to Mr Park, feems to be a kind
of republic, or rather an oligarchy. Many fpecies of
edible roots are ffiund here j but the fugar cane, coffee,
and the cocoa tree, appear to be unknown to the inha¬
bitants. The Mandingoes are reputed a very gentle
race of people, cheerful in their difpofitions, inquifitive,
credulous, Ample, and fond of flattery. The men, in
general, are about the middle fize, well-ffiaped, ftrong,
and capable of enduring great labour j the women are
good-
M A N [ 5
jtfandmg, good-natured, fprightly, and agreeable. Both fexes
drefs in cotton cloth of their own manufa&ure, and
both feem irrefiilibly inclined to commit depredations on
the property of unprotected Grangers ; yet, ftrange as
it may appear, they will contribute to the perlbnal
iafety of the very people whom they are bent upon
plundering.
Parental and filial affeCtion is very ftrong between
the mother and her child, but not fo between the father
and his children, which muft originate from that di¬
vided love which never fails to be an attendant on po¬
lygamy. The care of the mother extends to the culti¬
vation of the mind j and one of the firft leffons in which
they inftrucl their offspring, is the praBice of truth.
To fuckle their children three years is an ordinary oc¬
currence, during which time the hufband devotes all
his attention to his other wives. When a young man in¬
tends to marry a young girl, he firrt addreifes the pa¬
rents, as her confent is not deemed neceffary. If the
parents are agreeable, the muft either accept of the
hand of her lover, or continue unmarried all her life
long. The Mandingoes praCfife circumcifion both on
males and females, which is a very painful operation,
but not performed by them from any religious motive,
for they have a fuperftitious notion that it contributes
to render the married ftate prolific. Mr Park affhres
us, that the belief of one God, and a future ftate of
rewards and punifhments, is univerfal among them, but
that the management of all fublunary concerns is com¬
mitted to certain fubordinate or tutelary agents, whofe
wrath they deprecate by every mean in their power.
Thefe people feldom arrive at old age, being gray¬
headed and covered with wrinkles about 40, and few
reach the age of 60, although their difeafes are few,
being confined almoft to fevers, fluxes, elephantiafis,
and a leprofy of the worft kind, together with the
Guinea worm. Their feelings, on the death of a rela¬
tion, are manifefted by loud and difmal bowlings j and
the body is interred, when rolled up in white cotton
with a mat above it, on the day of its deceafe. The
men cultivate the ground, and the women manufa<fture
cotton cloth, viz. the fpinning and dyeing of it, for it
is wove by the men in looms of about four inches broad.
Here alfo there are raanufaftories of leather and iron.
They tan and drefs leather with great expedition, and
are faid to be acquainted with the fmelting of gold,
which they convert into a great variety of ornaments,
executed with much tafte and ingenuity.
Their notions of geography are rather puerile, as
they conceive the earth to be an extended plane, the
termination of which no eye has as yet difeovered, it
being, according to them, overhung with clouds and
darknefs. They fuppofe the fea to be a large river of
fait water, on the farther (bore of which is fituated a
country called Tobaubodoo, or the land of the white
people j at a diftance from which they deferibe another
country, which they believe to be inhabited by canni¬
bals of a gigantic fize, called Koomi.
As to their ideas of property, they confider the lands
in native woods to belong to government. When any
individual of free condition has the means of cultivating
more land than he aftually poffeffes, he applies to the
chief man of the diftriff, who allows him an extenfion
of territory, on condition of forfeiture, if the lands are
59 ] M A N
not brought into cultivation by a given period. The ■ Wand fog-
condition being fulfilled, the foil becomes vefttd in H
the poffeffor, and in all probability defeemis to his VI^n, Co¬
heirs.  
MANDRAGORA. See Atropa, Botaxy Index,
MANDRAKE. See Atropa and Musa, Botany
Index.
MANDREL, a kind of wooden pulley, making a
member of the turner’s lathe. Of thefe there are fe-
veral kinds j as Flat Mandrels, which have three or
more little pegs or points near the verge, and are ufed
for turning Hat boards on. Pm Mandrels, which have
a long wooden lhank to fit into a round hole made in
the work to be turned. Hollow Mandrels, which are
hollow of themfe'lves, and ufed for turning hollow
work. Screw Mandrels, for turning ferews, &c.
MANE, the hair hanging down from a horfe’s
neck 5 which Ihould be long, thin, and fine : and if
frizzled, fo much the better.
MANEGE, or Manage, the exercifeof riding the
great horie ; or the ground fet apart for that purpofe j
which is fomefimes covered, for continuing the exer-
ciie in bad weather j and fometimes open, in order to
give more liberty and freedom both to the horfeman
and horfe. Sre Horsemanship.
I he word is borrowed from the French manage, and
that from the Italian maneggio ; or, as fome will hav«
it, a manu agendo, “ afting with the hand.”
MANES, a poetical term, fignifying the ftiades or
fouls of the deceafed. The heathens ufed a variety
of ceremonies and facrifices to appeafe the manes of
thofe who were deprived of burial. See Lemures and
Lemuria.
Dii Manes, were the fame with inferi, or the infer¬
nal gods, who tormented men j and to thefe the hea¬
thens offered facrifices to affuage their indignation.
The heathen theology is a little obfeure with regard.
to thefe gods manes. Some hold, that they were the
fouls of the dead j others, that they were the genii of
men j which laft opinion fuits beft with the etymology
of the word.
The heathens, it is pretty evident, ufed the word
manes in feveral fenfes ; fo that it fometimes fignified
the ghofts of the departed, and fometimes the infernal
or fubterraneous deities, and in general all divinities
that prefided over tombs.
The invocation of the manes of the dead feems to
have been very frequent among the Theffalians ; but
it was exprefsly prohibited by the Romans. See
Lares.
Manes, the founder of the Manichean fyftem. See
Manichees.
MANETHO, an ancient Egyptian hiftorian, who
pretended to take all his accounts from the facred in-
feriptions on the pillars of Hermes Trifmegiftus. He
was high prieft of Heliopolis in the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, at whofe requeft he wrote his hiftory in
Greek; beginning from their gods, and continu¬
ing it down to near the time of Darius Codoman-
nus who was conquered by Alexander the Great. His
hiftory of Egypt is a celebrated work, that is often
quoted by Jolephus and other ancient authors. Ju¬
lius Africanus gave an abridgement of it in his Chro¬
nology. Manetho’s work is however loft ) and there
only
MAN [ 560 ] M A N
Manctho only remain fume fragments extracted from Julius
I! Africanus, which are to be found in Eufebius’s Chro-
Manpeart.
^ nica.
MANFREDONIA, a port town of Naples, on
the gulf of Venice, which arofe on the ruins of the an¬
cient Sipontum (fee the article Sipontum). It re¬
ceived its name from its founder Manfred; who tranf-
planted hither the few inhabitants that remained at Si¬
pontum, and attrafted other fettlers to it by various
privileges and exemptions. In order to found it under
the moll favourable aufpices, he called together all the
famous profeffors of attrology (a fcience in which both
he and his father placed great confidence), and caufed
them to calculate the happieft hour and minute for lay¬
ing the firll ftone. He himfelf drew the plans, traced
the walls and ftreets, fuperintended the works, and by
his prefence and largeffes animated the workmen to fi-
-nifh them in a very fhort fpace of time. The port was
fecured from ftorms by a pier $ the ramparts were built
of the moll folid materials j and in the great tow er was
placed a bell of fo confiderable a volume as to be heard
over all the plain of Capitanata, in order to alarm the
country in cafe of an invafion. Charles of Anjou af¬
terwards removed the bell to Barri, and offered it at
the fhrine of St Nicholas, as a thankfgiving for the re¬
covery of one of his children. In fpite of all the pre¬
cautions taken by Manfred to fecure a brilliant deftiny
to his new city, neither his pains, nor the horofcopes of
his wizards, have been able to render it opulent or
powerful. At prefent, Mr Swinburne informs us, it
fcarce mufters 6000 inhabitants, though moft of the
corn exported from the province is fhipped off here, and
a direft trade carried on with Venice and Greece, for
which reafon there is a lazaretto eftablifhed; but from
fome late inftances we may gather, that if the kingdom
of Naples has for many years paft remained free from
the plague, it is more owing to good luck, and the
very trifling communication with Turkey, than to the
-Vigilance or incorruptibility of the officers of this port.
In 1620, the Turks landed and pillaged Manfredo-
nia. All forts of vegetables abound here, for flavcmr
and fucculency infinitely fuperior to thofe railed by
continual waterings in the cineritious foil of Naples.
Lettuce in particular is delicious, and fifh plentiful and
cheap. E. Long. 15. 56. N. Lat. 41. 42.
MANGANESE, or Magnesia Nigra, a metal¬
lic lubftance, the oxide of which has been long known
by the name of glais-m ikers foap, from its property of
rendering glafs colourlefs. See Chemistry and Mi¬
neralogy Index.
M ANGE, in dogs. See Farriery Index.
Mange. See Farriery, N° 333.
MANGE ART, Dom Ihomas, a Benedi£line of
the congregation of St Vanne and St Hidulphe, whofe
knowledge was an ornament to his order. It gained
him alfo the titles of antiquarian, librarian, and coun-
fellor to Charles duke of Lorrain. He was prepar¬
ing^ a very confiderable work when he died, A. D.
•*7V3> before he had put his Jail hand to his book,
which vTas publifhed by Abbe Jacquin. This produc¬
tion appeared in 1763, in folio, with this title : In-
troduRion a la fcience des Medail/es, pour fervir a la con-
noifjance des Dieux, de la Religion, des Sciences, des
Slrts, et de tout ge qui appartient a I Hi/loir e ancienne,
pvec lespreuves tirees des Medailles. The elementary
treat! fes on the numifmatic fcience were not fufficiently Mannar
extenlive, and the particular differtations were by far if
too tedious and prolix. This learned Benedidtine has Mania.
colledled into a Angle volume all the principles contain-
ed in the former, and all the ideas of any confequence
which are to be found fcattered through the latter.
His work may ferve as a fupplement to Montfaucon’s
Antiquity explained. From Mangeart we likewife have
a volume of fermons ; and a treatife on Purgatory j
Nancy, 17^9, 2 vols 1 2mo.
MANGEL-wurzel. See Beta, Botany Index;
and Agriculture Index.
MANGER, is a raifed trough under the rack in the
Hall, made for receiving the grain or corn that a horfe
eats.
Manger, a fmall apartment, extending athwart the
lower deck of a Ihip of war, immediately within the
haufe-holes, and fenced on the after part by a partition,
which feparatcs it from the other part of the deck be¬
hind it. This partition ferves as a fence to interrupt
the paffage of the water, which occafionally gulhes in
at the haufe-holes, or falls from the wet cable whilft
it is heaved in by the capftern. The water, thus pre¬
vented from running aft, is immediately returned into
the fea by feveral fmall channels, called fcuppers, cut
through the Ihip’s fide within the manger. The man¬
ger is therefore particularly ufeful in giving a con¬
trary diredlion to the water that enters at the haufe-
holes, which would otherwife run aft in great ftreams
upon the lower deck, and render it extremely wet
and uncomfortable, particularly in tempeftuous wea¬
ther, to the men who mefs and fleep in different parts
thereof.
MANGET, John-James, an eminent phyfician,
born at Geneva in 1652. The ele&or of Brandenburg
made him his firft phyfician in 1699 5 in which poll he
continued till his death, which happened at Geneva in
1742. He wrote many works 5 the moft known of
which are, 1. A colleftion of feveral Pharmacopoeias,
in folio. 2. Bibliotheca Pharmaceutico-medica. 3. Bib¬
liotheca Anatomica. 4. Bibliotheca Chemica. 5. Bib¬
liotheca Chirurgica. 6. A Bibliotheca of all the authors
who have written on medicine, in 4 vols folio. All
thefe works are in Latin. Daniel le Clerc, the au¬
thor of a Hiftory of Phyfic, aflifted him in writing
them.
MANGIFERA, the Mango-tree j a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria clafs j and in the
natural method ranking with thofe of which the order
is doubtful. See Botany Index.
MANGLE, a machine for fmoothing linen. See
Mechanics Index.
MANGOSTAN, or Mangosteen. See Garci-
nia, Botany Index.
MANGROVE. See Rhizophora, Botany Index
MANHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Lower
Palatinate, with a very ftrong citadel, and a palace,
where the eleflor Palatine often refides. It is feated
at the confluence of the rivers Neckar and Rhine, in
E. Long. 8. 33. N. Lat. 49. 25. It furrendertd to
the French in September 1795 ; but it was retaken by
the Andrians in November following.
MANHOOD, that ftage of life which fucceeds pu¬
berty or adolefcence. See Man.
MANIA, or Madness. See Medicine Index.
MANICHEES,
MAN [5
klwichres. ^ MANICHEES, or Manicheans {ManicLei), a
^ -*e£t of ancient heretics, who afferted two principles j
fo called from their author Manes or Maniclueus, a
Perfian by nation, and educated among the Magi, be-
ing himfelf one of that number before he embraced
Chriftianity.
This herefy had its firft rife about the year 277, and
fpread itfelf principally in Arabia, Egypt, and Africa.
St Epiphanius, who treats of it at large, obferves that
the true name of this herefiarch wasCubricusj and
that he changed it for Manes, which in the Perfian or
Babylonifh language fignifies vejj'e/. A rich widow,
whofe fervant he had been, dying without iflue, left him
ftore of wealth ; after which he affumed the title of the
apofile or envoy of Jefus Chrifl.
Manes was not contented with the quality of apofile
6f Jefus Chrilt, but he alfo affumed that of the Para¬
clete, whom Chrifi had promifed to fend : which Au-
gufiine explains, by faying that Manes endeavoured to
perfuade men, that the Holy Ghoft did perfonally
dwell in him with full authority. He left feveral dif-
ciples, and among others, Addas, Thomas, and Her¬
nias. Thefe he fent in his lifetime into feveral provin¬
ces to preach his doftrine. Manes, having undertaken
to cure the king ot Perfia’s Ion, and not fucceeding,
was put in prilon upon the young prince’s death, whence
he made his efcape j but he was apprehended foon af¬
ter, and flayed alive.
However, the oriental writers, cited by D’Herbelot
and Hyde, tell us, that Manes, after having been pro¬
tected in a Angular manner by Hormizdas, who fuc-
ceeded oapor in the Perlian throne, but who was not
able lo defend him, at length, againft the united ha¬
tred 01 the Chriftians, the Magi, the Jews., and the
Pagans, was fliut up in a ftrong eaftle, to ferve him as
a refuge againft thofe who perfecuted him on account
of his do&rine. They add, that after the death of
Hormizdas, Varanes I. his fueceflbr, firft protected
Manes, but afterwards gave him up to the fury of the
Magi, whofe refentment againft him was due to his
having adopted the Sadducean principles, as fome fay j
while others attribute it to his having mingled the te¬
nets of the Magi with the doctrines of Chriftianity.
However, it is certain that the Manicheans celebrated
the day of their mafier’s death. It has been a fubjetfl
of much controverfy whether Manes was an impoftor.
Ihe learned Dr Lardner has examined the arguments
on both fides ; and though he does not choofe lo deny
that he was an impoftor, he does not difeern evident
proofs of it. He acknowledges, that he was an arro¬
gant philofopher and a great fchemift j but whether he
was an impoftor, he cannot certainly fay. He was
much too fond of philofophical notions, which he en¬
deavoured to bring into religion, for which he is to be
biaraed : neverthelefs, he obferves, that every bold dog-
matizer is not an impoitor.
Ihe doftrine of Manes was a motley mixture of the
tenet- of Chriftianity with the ancient phiiofophy of
the Perfians, in which he had been inftrudled during
his youth. He combined thefe two fyftems, and ap¬
plied and accommodated to Jefus Chrift the characters
and actions which the Perfians attributed to the god
Mithras. 6
He eftabhlhed two principles, viz. a good and an
evil one ; the firft a moft pure and fubtle matter,
Vol. XII. Part II.
Si ] M A N
which he called light, did nothing but good j and tlie Mam'chtfes.
fecond, a grofs and corrupt fubftance, which he called v  
darknefs, nothing but evil. This phiiofophy is very
ancient 5 and Plutarch treats of it at large in his Ifis
and Ofiris.
Manes borrowed many things from the ancient
Gnoftics; on which account many authors confider the
Manicheans as a branch of the Gnoftics.
In truth, the Manichean doctrine was a fyftem of
phiiofophy rather than of religion. They made ufe
of amulets, in imitation of the Bafilidians ; and are
faid to have made profeflion of aftronomy and aftro-
logy. Ihey denied that Jefus Chrift, who was pnly
God, affumed a true human body, and maintained it
was, only imaginary j and therefore they denied his
incarnation, death, &c. They pretended that the law
of Mofes did not come from God, or the good princi¬
ple, but from the evil one ; and that for this reafon it
was abrogated. They rejefted alrnoft all the lacred
books Tn which Chriftians look for the fublime truths
of their holy religion. They affirmed, that the Old
f eftament was not the work of God, but of the prince
of darknefs, who was fubftituted by the Jews in the
place of the true God. They abftained entirely from
eating the flefti of any animal; following herein the.
do<ftrine of the ancient Pythagoreans j they alfo con¬
demned marriage. The reft of their errors may be
feen in St Epipbanius and St Auguftine ; which laft,
having been of their feft, may be prefumed to have
been thoroughly acquainted with them.
1 hough the Manichees profeffed to receive the books
of the New’ Teftament, yet in effeift they only took fo
much of them as fuited with their own opinions. They
firft formed to themfelves a certain idea or fcheme of
Chriftianity j and to this adjufted the writings of the
apoftles, pretending that whatever was inconfiftent
with this had been foifted into the New Teftament by
later writers, who were half Jews. On the other
hand, they made fables and apocryphal books pafs for
apoftolical writings j and even are fufpe&ed to have
forged feveral others, the better to maintain their er¬
rors. St Epiphanius gives a catalogue of feveral pieces
publiffied by Manes, and adds extrafts out of fome of
them. Thefe are the Myfteries, Chapters, Gofpel, and'
Trealury.
Ihe rule of life and manners which Manes preferib-
ed to his followers was moft extravagantly rigorous
and fevere. However, he divided his difciples into
two claffes; one of which comprehended the perfedt
Chriftians, under the name of the eleB; and the other
the imperfe£t and feeble, under the title of auditors or
hearers. . The cleft were obliged to a rigorous and en¬
tire abftinence. from flefli, eggs, milk, fiih, wine, all
intoxicating drink, wedlock, and all amoious gratifica¬
tions; and to live in a ftate of the fevereft penury, nou-
riffiing their emaciated bodies with bread, herbs, pulfe,
and melons, and depriving themfelves of all the com¬
forts that arife from the moderate indulgence of natural
paffions, and alfo from a variety of innocent and agree¬
able purfuits. The auditors were allowed to poffefs
houfes, lands, and wealth, to feed on flefli, to enter in¬
to the bonds of conjugal tendernefs ; but this liberty
was granted them with many limitations, and under the
ftrifteft conditions of moderation and temperance. The
general affembly of the Manicheans was headed by a
4 B prefident*
M AN [5
Manichees prefident, who reprefented Jefus Chrift. There were
M '’ l! i ioined to 12 ru^ers or: rafters, who were deligned
. ■ ^ • {0 reprefent the 12 apoftles, and thefe were followed by
72 bifhops, the images of the 72 difciples of our Lord.
Thefe biihops had prefbyters or deacons under them,
and all the members of thefe religious orders were cho-
fen out of the clafs of the cleft. Their worfhip was
limple and plain ", and confided of prayers, reading the
fcriptures, and hearing public difcourfes, at which both
the auditors and eleft were allowed to be prefent. They
alfo obferved the Chriitian appointment of baptifm and
the eucharift. They kept the Lord’s day, obferving
it as a fad ; and they likewife kept Eader and Pente-
cod.
Towards the 4th century, the Manicheans concealed
themfelves under various names, which they fucceffive-
ly adopted, and changed in proportion as they were
difcovered by them. Thus they affumed the names of
Encratites, Apotaftics, Saccophori, Hydroparadates,
Solitaries, and feveral others, under which they lay
concealed for a certain time, but could not however
long efcape the vigilance of their enemies. About the
clofe of the 6th century, this feft gained a very confi-
derable influence, particularly among the Perfians.
Toward the middle of the I2th century, the feft of
Manichees took a new face, on occafion of one Con-
dantine, an Armenian, and an adherer to it; w'ho took
upon him to fupprefs the reading of all other books be-
fides the Evangelids and the epidles of St Paul, which
he explained in fuch a manner as to make them contain
a new fydem of Manicheifm. He entirely difcarded
all the writings of h’.s predecedbrs ; rejefting the chi¬
meras of the Valentinians, and their 30 aeons ; the fa¬
ble of Manes, with regard to the origin of rain, and
other dreams ; but dill retained the impurities of Bafi-
lides. In this manner he reformed Manicheifm, info-
much that his followers made no fcruple of anathema¬
tizing Scythian, Buddas, called alfo and Tere¬
binth, the contemporaries and difciples, as fome fay,
and, according to others, the predeceffors and maders
of Manes, and even Manes himfelf; Condantine being
now their great apodle. After he had feduced an
infinite number of people, he was at lad doned by or¬
der of the emperor.
This feft prevailed in Bofnia and the adjacent pro¬
vinces about the clofe of the 15th century •, propagated
their doftrines with confidence, and held their religious
affemblies with impunity.
MANICORDON, or Manichord, a mufical in-
drument in form of a fpinet •, the firings of which, like
thofe of the clarichord, are covered with little pieces of
cloth, to deaden as well as to foften their found, whence
it is alfo called the dumb fpinet.
MANIFESTO; a public declaration made by a
prince in writing, (bowing his intentions to begin a
war or other enterprife, with the motives that induce
him to it, and the reafons on which he founds his rights
and pretenfions.
MANIHOT, or Manioc. See Jatropha, Bota¬
ny Index.
MANILLA, Luconia, or Lwzon, the name of the
larged of the Philippine illands in the Ead Indies, fub-
jeft to Spain. It had the name of Lu%on from a cuf-
tom that prevailed among the natives of beating or
bxuifing their rice in wooden mortars, before they ei-
3
62 ] M A N
ther boiled or baked it; lu%on in their language fig- Manilla,
nifying “ a mortar.” ^
As to lituation, it is remarkably happy, lying be¬
tween the eadern and wedern continents, and having
China on the north, at the didance of about 60
leagues ; the idands of Japan on the north-ead, at the
didance of about 250 leagues from the neared of them ;
the ocean on the ead ; the other iflands on the fouth;
and on the wed Malacca, Patana, Siam, Cambodia,
Cochin-China, and other provinces of India, the near¬
ed at the didance of 300 leagues.
The middle of this ifland is in latitude 150 north ;
the ead point in 130 38', and the mod northern point
in 190. The (hape of it is faid to refemble that of an
arm bent ; the whole length being about 160 Spanidi
leagues, the greated breadth between 30 and 40, and
the circumference about 350. As to the longitude the
charts differ, fome making the middle of the illand to
lie Ii3°ead from London, and others 1060. The
climate is hot and moid. One thing is held very extra¬
ordinary, that in dormy weather there is much light¬
ning and rain, and that thunder is feldom heard till this
is over. During the months of June, July, Augud,
and part of September, the wed and fouth winds blow,
which they call vendavales, bringing fuch rains and
dorms, that the fields are all overdowed, and they are
forced to have little boats to go from one place to an¬
other. From Oftober till the middle of December,
the north wind prevails; and from that time till May,
the ead and fouth ead ; which winds are there called
breezes. Thus there are two feafons in thole feas, by
the Portuguefe called man •zeens; w hence our word
monfoons, that is, the breezes half the year, with a fe-
rene dry air ; and the vendavales the other half, wet
and dormy. It is further to be obferved, that in this
climate no vermin breed upon Europeans, though they
wear dirty hurts, whereas it is otherw ife with the In¬
dians. The days here being always of an equal length,
and the weather never cold, neither their clothes, nor
the hour of dining, dipping, doing bufinefs, dudying,
or praying, are ever changed ; nor is cloth wTorn, but
only againd the rain.
The air here being, as has been obferved, very hot
and moid, is not wholefome, but is worfe for young
men that come from Europe than for the old. As
for the natives, without ufing many precautions, they
live very commonly to fourfcore or 100. The foil is
fo rich, that rice grows even on the tops of the moun¬
tains without being watered ; and this makes it fo plen¬
tiful, that the Indians value gold fo little as not to pick
it up, though it lies almod everywhere under their
feet.
Among the difadvantages of the idand, befides fre¬
quent and terrible earthquakes, here are feveral burn¬
ing mountains. The face of the ifiand, however, is far
from being disfigured by them, or by the confequences
of their explofions.
The mountaineers, called Tingiani, have no particu¬
lar place of abode, but always live under the (belter of
trees, which ferve them indead of houfes, and furnidi
them with food ; and when the fruit is eaten up, they
remove where there is a fredi fort.
Here are 40 different forts of palm-trees, the mod
excellent cocoas, wild cinnamon, wild nutmegs, and
fome fay wild cloves alfo} ebony 3 fandal w'ood 3 th©
bed
M A N
Manilla, bed caffia, and in fuch plenty, that they feed their
*"“V—hogs with its fruit; all kinds of cattle, and prodigious
quantities of gold, amber, and ambergris.
There are feveral forts of people in this ifland befides
' the Spaniards, as the Tagalians or Tagaleze, the Pin-
tadoes or painted negroes^ the Ilayas or Tingiianos,
and the Negrellos. The Tagalians, who are thought
to be Malayans by defcent, are a modeft, traflable,
and well-difpofed people. The Pintadoes, or painted
negroes, are tall, ftraight, rtrong, a£tive, and of an ex¬
cellent difpofjtion. The Tingiianos, whom fome fup-
pofe to be defcended from the Japanefe, are very brave,
yet very courteous and humane. They live entirely
on the gifts of nature 5 and never deep under any other
fhade than that of the trees or a cave. The Negrellos,
who are held to be the aborigines of the ifland, are bar-
bai-ous and brutal to the lafl: degree. When they kill
a Spaniard, they make a cup of his Ikull, and drink
out of it.
This ifland is divided into feveral provinces, con¬
taining divers towns, the chief of which are Manilla,
Caceres, New Segovia, Bondo, Paflacao, Ibalon, Bu-
law, Serfocon or Bagatao, Lampon, Fernandina, Bo-
iinao, Playahonda, Cavite, Mindora, Caleleya, and Ba¬
layan.
Manilla, the capital of an ifland of the fame name
in the Eaft Indies, on the fouth-eaft fide of the ifland,
where a large river falls into the fea, and forms a noble
bay 30 leagues in compafs, to which the Spaniards
have given the name of Bahia, becaufe the river runs
out of the great lake Bahi, which lies at the diflance
of fix leagues behind it. In compafs it is two miles,
in length one-third of a mile ; the Ihape irregular, be¬
ing narrow at both ends, and wide in the middle. On
the fouth it is waflied by the fea, and on the north and
eaft by the river •, being alfo ilrongly fortified with
walls, bafllons, forts, and batteries.—-Manilla contains
about 30,000 fouls, who are a very motley race, diftin-
guithed by feveral flrange names, and produced by the
conjumflion of Spaniards, Chinefe, Malabars, Blacks,
and others inhabiting the city and iflands depending
on it. Without the walls are large fuburbs, particu¬
larly that inhabited by the Chinefe merchants, called
Sangleyu In proportion to the fize of the place, the
number of churches and religious houfes is very great.
Only fmall veflels can come up to Manilla ; but three
leagues fouth of it is the town and port of Cavite, de¬
fended by the caftle of St Philip, and capable of re¬
ceiving the large!! fliips. Here Hands the arfenal
where the galleons are built, for which there are from
300 to 600 or 800 men conftantly employed, who are
relieved every month, and while upon duty are main¬
tained at the king’s expence. By an earthquake which
happened here in 1645, a third part of the city of
Manilla was deftroyed, and no lefs than 3000 people
periftied in the ruins.
Spain having entered into engagements with France,
in confequence of the family-compadt of the houfe of
Bourbon, it was found expedient by Britain to declare
war alfo again!! Spain. Whereupon a force was fent
out from our Eaft India fettlements, particularly Ma¬
dras, for theconqueft of the Philippine iflands, under
General Draper and Admiral Cornifti : who, after a
^ege of 12 days, took Manilla on the 6th of Offober
M A N
1762 by ftorm ; but to fave fo fine a city from deflruc- Manilla,
tion, agreed to accept a ranfom, amounting to a million Mamlms.
flerling, a part of which, it is faid, was never paid. v '
The Spanilh viceroy refides in this city, and lives like
a fovereign prince. The government is faid to be one
of the be!! in the gift of the king of Spain. When the
city was taken, as above, the archbifhop, who is a kind
of pope in this part of the world, w.as alfo viceroy.
Five large fhips, loaded with the riches of the Eafl, as
diamonds from Golconda, cinnamon from Ceylon, pep¬
per from Sumatra and Java, cloves and nutmegs from
the Moluccas and Banda iflands, camphire from Bor¬
neo, benjamin and ivory from Cambodia, fiiks, tea, and
china-ware from China, &c. fail yearly from hence to
Acapulco in Mexico, and return freighted with filver,
making 400 per cent, profit.
The city of Manilla is governed by two alcaides : the
reft of the cities and great towns have each an alcaide 5
and in every village there is a corregidore. Appeals
from their fentences are made to the royal court at
Manilla, in which there are four judges, and a fifcal
or attorney-general 5 each of thefe judges has a falary
of 3300 pieces of eight per annum. The viceroy is
prefident ; and in that quality has an income of 4000
pieces of eight, but he has no vote ; yet if the judges
are equally divided, the prefident names a dodlor of
the civil law, who, in virtue of his appointment, has
a decifive vote. The attorney-general, in right of
his office, is proteflor of the Chinefe, in confideration
of which he receives 600 pieces of eight every year.
As for the Indians that are in fubjection, they pay tri¬
bute in the following proportions: Young men from
18, and from thence, if they continue Angle, to the
age of 60, pay five rials of plate by way of capita¬
tion j as Angle women likewife do from 24 to jo :
married men pay ten rials. It is computed that there
are within the compafs of this government 250,000
Indians fubjed! to his Catholic majefty, of whom two-
fifths hold immediately from the king, and the reft
from lords or proprietors, who pay two rials each for
maintenance of the forces, and the like fum for the
parifh-prieft. The royal revenue is computed at about
hall a million of pieces of eight, exclufive of cafualties.
In regard to the military eftabiifliment, the garrifon of
Manilla confifts of about 800 or 1000 men, and there
are about 3000 more in the Philippines. The viceroy
is by his office captain-general, with a falary of about
4000 pieces of eight.
MANILIUS, Marcus, a Latin poet, whofe poem
had the ill luck to lie buried in fome German libraries,
and was not heard of in the w orld, until Poggius, about
two centuries ago, publiflied him from fome old ma-
nufcripts he found there. There is no account to be
found of him but what can be drawn from his poem,
which is called AJlronotnicon ; and contains a fyftem of
the ancient aftronomy and aftrology, together with the
philofophy of the Stoics. It confifts of five books ;
though there was a fixth, which has not been recover¬
ed. From the ftyle, and no mention of the author
being found in ancient writers, it is probable he died
young. It is collefted, however, that he was a Roman
of illuftrious extradlion, and lived under the reign of
Auguftus, whom he invokes, though not by name,
yet by circumftances and chara&er that fuit no other
4B 2 emperor.
[ 563 1
MAN [ 564 '] M A N
Manillas
emperor. The beft editions of Manilius are, that of
Jofeph Scaliger, in 1600, and that of Bentley at Lon¬
don in 1738.
MANILLE, in commerce, a large brafs ring in the
form of a bracelet, either plain or engraven, flat or
round.
Manilles are the principal commodities which the
Europeans carry to the coait of Africa, and exchange
with the natives for flaves. Thefe people wear them
as ornaments on the fmall of the leg, and on the thick
part of the arm above the elbow. The great men wear
manilles of gold and filver } but theie are made in the
country by the natives themfelves.
MANIOC, or Manihot. See Jatropha, Bo¬
tany Index.
MANIPULUS, Manipule, among the Romans,
was a little bpdy of infantry, which in the tune of Ro¬
mulus confifted of 100 men ; and in the time of the
confuls, and firlt Cedars, of 200.
The word properly fignifies “ a handful and, ac¬
cording to fome authors, was firft given to the hand¬
ful of hay which they bore at the end of a pole, to
diftinguifh themfelves by, before the cuftom was in¬
troduced of bearing an eagle for their enfign j and
hence alfo the phrafe, a handful of men. But Vege-
tius, Modeftus, and Varro, give other etymologies of
the word : the lait derives it from manus, a little body
of men following the fame ftandard. According to
the former, this corps was called mampulus, becauie
they fought hand in hand or all together : Contubernium
autem mampulus vocabatur ab eo, quod conjunciis manir
bus pariter dimicabant.
Each manipule had two centurions, or captains,
called manipulant, to command it 5 one whereof was
lieutenant to the other. Each cohort w’as divided
into three manipules, and each manipule into two cen¬
turies.
Aulus Gellius quotes an old author, one Cincius,
■who lived in the time of Hannibal (whofe prifoner he
was), and who, writing on the art of w'ar, obferves,
that then each legion confided of 60 centuries, of 30
manipules, and of ten cohorts. And again, Varro
and Vegetius mention it as the lead divifion in the
army, only confiding of the tenth part of a century ;
and Spartian adds, that it contained no more than ten
men. This (hows that the manipulus was not always
the fame thing.
Manipulus is alfo an ecclefiadieal ornament, worn
by the prieds, deacons, and fubdeacons in the Romidi
church. It confids of a little fillet in form of a dole,
three or four inches broad, and made of the fame duff
with the chafuble j fignifying and reprefenting an
handkerchief which the prieds in the primitive church
wore on the arm to wipe off the tears they were con¬
tinually (bedding for the fins of the people. There dill
remains a mark of this ufage in a prayer rehearfed by
thofe who wear it j Merear, Domine, portare manipulum
fetus et dolons.—The Greeks and Maronites wear two
manipules, one on each arm.
Manipulus, among phyficians, is ufed to fignify a
handful of herbs or leaves, or fo much as a man can
graip in his hand at once : which quantity is frequent¬
ly denoted by the abbreviature, M, or m..
MANIS, the Scaly Lizard, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of bruta. See Mammalia Mania
bid ex.
MANLEY, Mrs, the celebrated writer of the ^anni'
xita/antis, was the daughter of Sir Roger Manley, the
reputed author of the fird volume of the Turkidi Spy..
She led her parents very early ; and after having been
deluded into a falfe marriage by her guardian, who was
her coufin, and afterwards deferted her, die was pa¬
tronized by the duchefs of Cleveland, midrefs of
Charles II. But the duchels, being a woman of a
very fickle temper, grew tired of Mrs Manley in fix
months time ; and difeharged her upon a pretence,
whether groundlefs or not is uncertain, that die in¬
trigued with her Ion. After this die wrote her firft
tragedy, called Royal Mifchief, which was a&ed with
great applaufe in 1696 \ and her apartment being fre¬
quented by men of wit and gaiety, (he foon engaged
in amours, and was taken into keeping. Her pen now
grew as licentious as her conduft : for, in her retired
hours, die wrote four volumes, called Memoirs of the
New Atalantis 5 in which (he was not only very free
in her wanton tales of love adventures, but fatirized
the characters of many didinguidied perfonages, efpe-
cially thofe who had a principal concern in the Revo¬
lution A profecution was commenced againd her for
this work \ but whether thole in power were adiamed
to bring a woman to trial for a few amorous trides,
or whether the laws could not reach her difguifed fa-
tire, die was difeharged 5 and a total change of the
minidry enfuing, Mrs Manley lived in high reputation
and gaiety, amufing herfelf with the converfation of
wits, and writing plays, poems, and letters. She died
in 1724.
MANLIUS Capitolinus, the renowned Roman
conful and general, who faved the capitol when it was
attacked by the Gauls in the night : he was alarmed
by the cries of geefe, which were ever after held fa-
cred. But being afterwards accufed of afpiring at the
fovereignty, he was thrown from the Tarpeian rock.
See Gaul and Rome.
Manlius Torquatust a celebrated conful and Ro¬
man captain ; had great wit, but a difficulty in expref-
fing himfelf, which induced Manlius Imperiofus, his
father, to keep him almod by force in the country.
Pompey, tribune of the people, enraged at this in¬
dance of feverity, formed a dtfign of accufing Man¬
lius the father before the judges ; but Torquatu- be¬
ing informed of it, went to that tribune, and, with a
poniard in his hand, made him fwear, that he would
not proceed in that accufation againd him to whom he
owed his life. At length Torquatus was made mili¬
tary tribune, and killed a foldier of the Gauls in (ingle
combat, from whom he took a gold chain that he
wore about his neck. From (his aCtion he obtained
the name of Torquatus. He was conful in the war
againd the Latins 5 when he ordered his own fon to
be beheaded for fighting contrary to his orders, though
he had gained the viftory. He conquered the enemies
of the republic, and was feveral times made conful
but at lad refufed the conful (hip, faying, That it was
no more poflible for him to bear with the vices of the
people, than it was for the people to bear with his fe¬
verity.
MANNA, in the Materia Me die a, the juice of cer-
’ ' • tain.
MAN
Manna, tain trees of the afti kind, either naturally concreted on
--Y—the plants, or exficcated and purified by art. See Ma¬
teria Medica Index.
Manna, is alfo a Scripture term, fignifying a mira¬
culous kind of food which fell from heaven for the fup-
port of the Ifraelites in their paffage through the wil-
dernefs, being in form of coriander feeds, its colour like
that of bdellium, and its tafte like honey.-
The Scripture gives to manna the name of the bread
of heaven, and the food of angels, Pfalm Ixxviii. 25.
whether it would infmuate to us, that the angels fent
and prepared this food, or that angels themfelves, if
they had need of any food, could not have any that
was more agreeable than fnanna was. The author of
the Book-of Wifdom fays, xvi. 20, 21. that manna fo
accommodated itfelf to every one’s tafte, that every
one found it pleafing to him 5 and that it included every
thing that was agreeable to the palate and fit for good
nourilhment j which exprefiions fome have taken in
the literal fenfe, though others underftand them figu¬
ratively.
The critics are divided about the original of the
word manna. Some think that man is put inftead of
the Hebrew word tnah, which fignifies “ What is
this ?” and that the Hebrews, then firft feeing that
new food which God had fent them, cried to one ano¬
ther, Nirrp, man-hu, initead of mah-hu,l" What is this ?”
Others maintain, that the Hebrews very well knew
before what manna was ; and that, feeing it in great
abundance about their camp, they {aid one to another,
Man-hu, “ This is manna.” Mr Saumaife and fome
other moderns are of this laft opinion. They imagine,
that the manna which God lent the Ifraelites was no¬
thing elfe but that fat and thick dew which flilf falls
in Arabia, which prefently condenfed, and ferved for
food to the people j that this is the fame thing as the
wild honey, mentioned Matth. iii. 4. wherewith John
the Baptill was fed ; and that the miracle of Mofes
did not confift in the produ£Hon of any new fubftance,
but in the exa£t and uniform manner in which the
manna was difpenfed by Providence for the mainte¬
nance of fuch a great multitude.
On the contrary, the Hebrews and Orientals believe,
that the fall of the manna was wholly miraculous. The
Arabians call it the fugar plums of the Almighty ; and
the Jews are fo jealous of this miracle, that they pro¬
nounce a curfe againft all fuch as prefume to deny the
interpofition of a miraculous power.
Our tranflation, and fome others, make Mofes fall’
into a plain contradi&ion in relating this (lory of the
manna, which they render thus : “ And when the
children of Ifrael law it, they faid one to another. It
is manna ; for they wift not what it was.” Exo¬
dus xvi. 15. Whereas the Septuagint, and feveral au¬
thors both ancient and modern, have tranflated the
text according to the original, “ The Ifraelites fee¬
ing this, faid one to another, What is this ? for they
knew not what it was.” For we muft obferve, that
the word by which they afked, vohat is this? was in
their language man. which fignifies likewife meat rea¬
dy provided ; and therefore it was always afterwards
called man or manna.
Whether this manna had thofe extraordinary qua¬
lities in it or not, which fome imagine, it muft be al¬
lowed to be truly miraculous, upon the following ac-
[ 565 ]
MAN
counts. r. That it fell but fix days in the week.
2. That it fell in fuch a prodigious quantity, as fuf-
tained almoft three millions of fouls. 3. That there
fell a double quantity every Friday, to lerve them for
the next day, w'hich was their Sabbath. 4. That
what was gathered on the firft five days flunk and
bred w'orms if kept above one day j. but that which
was gathered on Friday kept fweet for two days.
And, laftly, That it continued falling while the If¬
raelites abode in the wildernels, but ceafed as foon as
they came out of it and had got corn to eat in the land
of Canaan.
MANNA-Tree, is a fpecies of the afh, and a native
of Calabria in Italy. See Fraxinus, Botany Index,
and Materia Medica Index.
MANNER, in painting, a habitude that a man ac¬
quires in the three principal parts of painting, the ma¬
nagement of colours, lights, and fhadows j which is ei¬
ther good or bad according as the painter has pra61ifed
more or lefs after the truth, with judgment and ftudy.
But the beft painter is he who has no manner at all.
The good or bad choice he makes is called goute.
MANNERS, the plural noun, has various fignifi-
cations; as the general way of life, the morals, or the
habits, of any perfon or people j alfo ceremonious be¬
haviour, or ftudied civility. See the next article.
Good MANNERS, according to Swdft, is the art of
making thofe people eafy with whom we converfe.
Whoever makes the feweft perfons uneafy, is the
beft bred in the company.
As the beft law is founded upon reafon, fo are the
beft manners. And as fome lawyers have introduced
unreafonable things into common law •, fo likewife
many teachers have introduced abfurd things into com¬
mon good manners.
One principal point of this art is to fuit our beha¬
viour to the three feveral degrees of men y our fupe-
riors, our equals, and thofe below us.
For inftance, to prefs either of the two former to eat
or drink is a breach of manners; but a tradefman or a
farmer muft be thus treated, or elfe it will be difficult
to perfuade them that they are welcome.
Pride, ill nature, and want of fenfe, are the three
great fources of ill manners j without fome one of thefe
defeats, no man will behave himfelf ill for want of ex¬
perience j or of what, in the language of fools, is called
knowing the world.
“ I defy (proceeds our author), any one to affign
an incident w herein realon will not dirt £1 us what we
are to fay or to do in company, if we are not milled by
pride or ill nature. Therefore, I infill that good fenfe
is the principal foundation of good manners j but be-
caufe the former is a gift which very few among man¬
kind are poffi lied of, therefore all the civilized nations
of the world have agreed upon fixing fome rules for
common behaviour, bell fuited to their general cuf-
toms, or fancies, as a kind of artificial good fenfe to
fupply the defedls of reafon. Without which, the gen¬
tlemanly part of dunces would be perpetually at cuffs,
as they leldom fail when they happen to be drunk, or
engaged in fquabbles about women or play. And,
God be thanked, there hardly happeneth a duel in a
year, which may not be imputed to one of thofe three
motives. Upon which account, I ihould be exceed¬
ingly forry to find the legiilature make any new laws
, againft:,
Manna
Manners,
MAN [ 566 ] MAN
Manners, againft tire pra£lice of duelling •, becaufe the methods
are eafy, and many, for a wife man to avoid a quarrel
-with honour, or engage in it with innocence. And I
can difcover no political evil, in fuffering bullies, {harp¬
ers, and rakes, to rid the world of each other by a me¬
thod of their own, where the law hath not been able
to find an expedient.
“ As the common forms of good manners were in¬
tended for regulating the conduct of thofe who have
weak underftandings •, fo they have been corrupted by
the perfons for whofe ufe they were contrived. For
thefe people have fallen into a needlefs and endlefs way
of multiplying ceremonies, which have been extremely
troublefome to thofe who praftife them, and infup-
portable to every body elfe $ infomuch that wife men
are often more uneafy at the over civility of thefe re¬
finers, than they could poflibly be in the converfations
of peafants or mechanics.
“ The impertinences of this ceremonial behaviour,
are nowhere better feen than at thofe tables, where
ladies prefide who value themfelves upon account of
their good breeding 5 where a mas muft reckon upon
pafling an hour without doing any one thing he hath a
mind to, unlefs he will be fo hardy as to break through
all the fettled decorum of the family. She determines
what he loveth beft, and how much he fhall eat 5 and
if the mailer of the houfe happeneth to be of the fame
difpofition, he proceedeth in the fame tyrannical man¬
ner to prefcribe in the drinking part: at the fame time
you are under the neceffity of anfwering a thoufand
apologies for your entertainment. And although a
good deal of this humour is pretty well worn off among
many people of the beft falhion, yet too much of it
ftill remaineth, efpecially in the country ; where an ho-
neft gentleman allured me, that having been kept four
days againft his will at a friend’s houfe, with all the
circumftances of hiding his boots, locking up the liable,
and other contrivances of the like nature, he could not
remember, from the moment he came into the houfe
to the moment he left it, any one thing wherein his
inclination was not direftly contradidled j as if the
whole family had entered into a combination to tor¬
ment him.
“ But, befides all this, it would be endlefs to re¬
count the many foolifti and ridiculous accidents I have
obferved among thefe unfortunate profelytes to cere¬
mony. I have feen a duchefs fairly knocked down by
the precipitancy of an officious coxcomb running to
iave her the trouble of opening a door. I remember,
upon a birth-day at court, a great lady was rendered
utterly difconfolate, by a diffi of fauce let fall by a page
directly upon her head-drefs and brocade, while ffie
gave a hidden turn to her elbow upon fome point of
ceremony with the perfon who fat next her. Monfieur
Buys, the Dutch envoy, whofe politics and manners
were much of a fize, brought a fon with him about 13
years old to a great table at court. The boy and his
father, whatever they put on their plates, they firft of¬
fered round in order, to every perfon in the company j
fo that we could not get a minute’s quiet during the
whole dinner. At laft their two plates happened to
encounter, and with fo much violence, that, being
china, they broke in twenty pieces, and ftained half
the company wfith wet fweetmeats and cream.
There is a pedantry in manners as in all arts and
fciences, and fometimes in trades. Pedantry is pro- Manners,
perly the overrating any kind of knowledge we pre-
tend to. And if that kind of knowledge be a trifle in
itfelf, the pedantry is the greater. For which reafon
I look upon fiddlers, dancing-mafters, heralds, mailers
of the ceremony, &c. to be greater pedants than Lip-
fius, or the elder Scaliger. With thele kinds of pedants
the court, while I knew it, was always plentifully
llocked : I mean from the gentleman-ufher (at leaft)
inclufive, dowmward to the gentleman-porter j who are,
generally fpeaking, the moft infignificant race of peo¬
ple that this ifland can afford, and with the fmalltft
tin&ure of good manners, which is the only trade they
profefs. For being wholly illiterate, converfing chieflv
with each other, they reduce the whole fyftem of
breeding within the forms and circles of their feveral
offices : and as they are below the notice of miniiters,
they live and die in court under all revolutions, with
great obfequioufnefs to thofe who are in any degree of
credit or favour, and with rudenefs and infolence to
every body elfe. From whence I have long concluded,
that good manners are not a plant of the court growth :
for if they were, thofe people who have underftand¬
ings direflly of a level for fuch acquirements, and who
have ferved fuch long apprenticeftiips to nothing elfe,
w’ould certainly have picked them up. For as to the
great officers who attend the prince’s perfon or coun¬
cils, or prefide in his family, they are a tranfient body,
who have no better a title to good manners than their
neighbours, nor will probably have recourfe to gentle-
men-ulhers for inftrudlion. So that I know little to
be learned at court on this head, except in the material
circumftance of drefs ; wherein the authority of the
maids of honour muft indeed be allowed to be almoft
equal to that of a favourite aflrefs.
“ I remember a paffage my Lord Bolingbroke told
me : That going to receive Prince Eugene of Savoy at
his landing, in order to conduct him immediately to
the queen, the prince faid he was much concerned that
he could not fee her majefty that night 5 for Monfieur
Hoffman (who was then by) had affured his highnefs,
that he could not be admitted into her prefence with
a tied-up periwig ; that his equipage was not arrived ;
and that he had endeavoured in vain to borrow a long
one among all his valets and pages. My lord turned
the matter to a jell, and brought the prince to her ma¬
jefty : for which he wras highly cenfured by the whole
tribe of gentlemen uffiers; among whom Monfieur
Hoffman, an old dull refident of the emperor’s, had
picked up this material point of ceremony j and w hich,
I believe, was the beft leffon he had learned in 25 years
refidence.
“ I make a difference between good manners and
good breeding ; although, in order to vary my expref-
fion, I am fometimes forced to confound them. By
the firft, I only underftand the art of remembering,
and applying, certain fettled forms of general behavi¬
our. But good breeding is of a much larger extent:
for befides an uncommon degree of literature fufficient
to qualify a gentleman for reading a play, or a poli¬
tical pamphlet, it taketh in a great compafs of know¬
ledge j no lefs than that of dancing, fighting, gaming,
making the circle of Italy, riding the great horfe, and
fpeaking French ; not to mention feme other fecond-
ary or fubaltern accompliffiments, which are more ea-
fily
MAN [ 5^7 ] MAN
ird, lord
igh trea.
irer to
|ueen
.nne.
Manners, {{\y acquired. So that the difference between good
Mannary- bieeding and good manners lieth in this, That the for-
mer cannot be attained to by the beft underftandings
without ftudy and labour whereas a tolerable degree
of reafon will inflrudb us in every part of good man¬
ners without other afliftance.
“ I can think of nothing more ufeful upon this fub-
je£l, than to point out fome particulars wherein the
very eilentials of good manners are concerned, the ne-
gle£l or perverting of which doth very much difturb the
good commerce of the world, by introducing a traffic
of a mutual uneafinefs in moft companies.
“ Firft, A necelfary part of good manners is a punc¬
tual obfervance of time at our own dwellings or thofe
of others, or at third places 5 whether upon matters of
civility, bufinefs, or diverfion ; which rule, though it
be a plain di&ate of common reafon, yet the greateft
Harley minifler * I ever knew, was the greateft trefpaffer againft
arJf°s- it j by which all his bufinefs doubled upon him, and
placed him in a continual arrear. Upon which I often
ufed to rally him as deficient in point of good manners.
I have knowm more than one ambaffador, and fecretary
of ftate, with a very moderate portion of intelledtuals,
execute their offices with great fuccefs and applaufe,
by the mere force of exaftnefs and regularity. If you
duly obferve time for the fervice of another, it doubles
the obligation •, if upon your own account, it would
be manifeft: folly, as well as ingratitude, to negleft
it ; if both are concerned, to make your equal or in¬
ferior attend on you to his own difadvantage, is pride
and injuftice.
“ Ignorance of forms cannot properly be ftyled i//
manners : becaufe forms are fubjedt to frequent changes ;
and confequently, being not founded upon reafon, are
beneath a wife man’s regard. Befides, they vary in
every country \ and after a ffiort period of time vary
frequently in the fame : fo that a man who travelleth
mull needs be at firft a ftranger to them in every court
through which he paffeth *, and, perhaps, at his return,
as much a ftranger in his own j and, after all, they are
eafier to be remembered or forgotten than faces or
names.
“ Indeed, among the many impertinencies that fu-
perficial young men bring w ith them from abroad, this
bigotry of forms is one of the principal, and more pre¬
dominant than the reft : who look upon them not only
as if they were matters capable of admitting of choice,
but even as points of importance ; and therefore ave
zealous upon all occafions to introduce and propagate
the new forms and falhions they have brought back
with them : fo that, ufually fpeaking, the worft bred
perfon in the company is a young traveller juft arrived
from abroad.”
MANNORY, Lewis, advocate of the parliament
of Paris, where he was born in 1696, and died in
1777. From him we have 18 vols. i2mo. of Pleadings
and Memoirs. A great number of Angular cafes occur
in this colleftion : and the author has the talent of
rendering them more ftriking by the agreeable manner
in which they are ftated. He was Travenol’s counfel
in his procefs againft Voltaire, and was very fatirical
againft that poet. The latter took revenge by defcrib-
ing him as a mercenary babbler, who fold his pen and
his abufe to the higheft bidder. Whatever may be the
cafe, Mannory would certainly have been more efteem-
ed, both as an advocate and as a writer, if he had paid Mannory
more attention to his ftyle, and had been lefs prolix ‘7
if he had thought more deeply, and been more fparing ^oome-
of his pleafantry in cafes where nothing was required ■
but knowledge and found reafoning. He publiffied
alfo a tranflation into French of Father Paree’s funeral
Oration on Louis XIV. and very judicious Obferva-
tions on the Semiramis of Voltaire.
MANOEUVRE, in a military fenfe, confifts folely
in diftributing equal motion to every part of a body of
troops, to enable the whole to form, or change their
pofition, in the moft expeditious and beft method, to
anfw’er the purpofes required of a battalion, brigade,
or line of cavalry, artillery, or infantry. It has al¬
ways been lamented, that men have been brought on
fervice without being informed of the ufes of the dif¬
ferent manoeuvres they have been praftifing j and,
having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of the
parade, inftantly fall into diforder and confufion when
they lofe the ftep, or fee a deviation from the ftraight
lines they have been accuftomed to at exercife. It is
a pity to fee fo much attention given to fliow, and fo
little to inftruft the troops in what may be of ufe to
them in real fervice. No manoeuvre ftiould be exe¬
cuted in prefence of the enemy, unlefs protefted by fome
divifion of the troops.
MANOMETER, or Manoscope, an inftrument
to ffiow or meafure the alterations in the rarity or
denfity of the air. The manometer differs from the
barometer in this, That the latter only ferves to mea¬
fure the weight of the atmofphere, or of the column
of air over it; but the former, the denfity of the air
in which it is found ; which denfity depends not only
on the weight of the atmofphere, but alfo on the
a&ion of heat and cold, &c. Authors, however, ge¬
nerally confound the tw>o together ; and Mr Boyle
himfelf gives us a very good manometer of his contriv¬
ance, under the name of a Jlatical barometer, confifting
of a bubble of thin glafs, about the fize of an orange,
which, being counterpoifed when the air was in a
mean ftate of denfity, by means of a nice pair of fcales,
funk when the atmofphere became lighter, and rofe as
it grew heavier.
Other kinds of manometers wrere made ufe of by Co¬
lonel Roy, in his attempts to correct the errors of the
barometer. “ They were (fays he) of various lengths,
from four to upwards of eight feet : they confifted of
ftraight tubes, whofe bores wrere commonly from -fj-th
t° Yrth °f inch in diameter. The capacity of the
tube was carefully meafured, by making a column of
quickfilver, about three or four inches in length, move
along it from one end to the other. Thefe fpaces were
feverally marked with a fine edged file, on the tubes ;
and transferred from them to long flips of pafteboard,
for the fubfequent conftruflion of the fcales refpeftive-
ly belonging to each. The bulb, attached to one end
of the manometer at the glafs-houfe, was of the form
of a pear, whofe point being occafionally opened,
dry or moift air could be readily admitted, and the
bulb fealed again, without any fenfible alteration in its
capacity.
‘‘ -The air was confined by means of a column of
quickfilver, long or ffiort, and with the bulb down¬
ward or upwards, according to the nature of the pro-
pofed experiment. Here it muft be obferved, that,
from
MAN [ 568 ] M A N
Manome- from tlie adliefion of the quickfilver to the tube, the
te" inftrument will not aft truly, except it be in a vertical
pofition 5 and even then it is necedary to give it a
fmall degree of motion, to bring the quickfilver into
its true place; where it will remain in equilibrio, be¬
tween the exterior prefTure of the atmofphere on one
fide, and the interior elaflic force of the confined air on
the other.
“ Pounded ice and water were ufed to fix a freez¬
ing point on the tube ; and by means of fait and ice,
the air was farther condenfed, generally four, and
fometimes five or fix degrees below zero. The ther¬
mometer and manometer were then placed in a tin
veffel among water, which was brought into violent
ebullition ; where, having remained a fufficient time,
and motion being given to the manometer, a boiling
point was marked thereon. After this the fire was re¬
moved, and the gradual defcents of the piece of quick¬
filver, correfponding to every 20 degrees of tempera¬
ture in the thermometer, were fucceflively marked
on a deal rod applied to the manometer. It is to
be obferved, that both inftruments, while in the wa¬
ter, were in circumftances perfeftly fimilar ; that is
to fay, the ball and bulb were at the bottom of the
veffel.
“ In order to be certain that no air had efcaped by
the fide of the quickfilver during the operation, the
manometer was frequently placed a fecond time in melt¬
ing ice. If the barometer had not altered between the
beginning and end of the experiment, the quickfilver
always became ftationary at or near the firft mark. If
any fudden change had taken place in tjie weight of
the atmofphere during that interval, the fame was no¬
ted, and allowance made for it in afterwards proportion¬
ing the fpaces.
“ Long tubes, with bores truly cylindrical, or of any
uniform figure, are fcarcely ever met with. Such how¬
ever as were ufed in thefe experiments, generally ta¬
pered in a pretty regular manner from one end to the
other. When the bulb was dowmvards, and the tube
narrowed that way, the column of quickfilver confi¬
ning the air lengthened in the lower half of the fcale,
and augmented the preffure above the mean. In the
upper half, the column being fhortened, the preffure
was diminifhed below the mean. In this cafe, the ob¬
ferved fpaces both ways from the centre were diminifh¬
ed in the inverfe ratio of the heights of the barometer
at each fpace, compared with its mean height. If the
bore widened towards the bulb when downwards, the
obferved fpaces, each way from the centre, were aug¬
mented in the fame, inverfe ratio; but in the expel i-
ments on air lefs denfe than the atmofphere, the bulb
being upwards, the fame equation was applied wfith con¬
trary figns:; and if any extraordinary irregularity took
place in the tube, the correfponding fpaces were pro¬
portioned both ways from that point, whether high or
low’, that anfwered to the mean.
“ l he obferved and equated manometrical fpaces
being thus laid down on the palieboard containing
the meafures of the tube the 212° of the thermo¬
meter, in exaft proportion to the feftions of the bore,
were confirufted alongfide of them : hence the co¬
incidences with ach other were eafily feen ; and the
number of thermometrical degrees anfwering to each
manometrical fpace readily transf&red into a table pre- Manome-
pared for the purpofe ter,
Manometer, for the air pump. This is a fmall Manor-
glafs tube about two or three inches high, hermetically * pj^j :
fealed at one end, and open at the other, being divided Ti-anf.iviii
regularly into inches and lines. It is ufed for afcertain-6SS>-
ing the rarefaftion of the air produced by working an
air pump. The tube previoufly filled with mercury, is
placed in the receiver of an an- pump. As the piilon
is worked, the mercury gradually finks in the tube, and
the expanfion is ellimated by its height; for the ftnall-
er the height at which the mercury in the tube Hands
above the mercury in the bafon, the greater is the ex¬
panfion.
MANOR, Manerium manendo^ becaufe the
ufual refidence of the owner), feems to have been a
diftrift of ground held by lords or great perfonages;
who kept in their own hands fo much land as was
neceffary for the ufe of their families, which were Blarkjt.
called ter me dominicales, or demefne lands ; being oc- Comment.
cupied by the lord, as dominus manerii, and his fer-
vants. The other, or tenemental lands, they diftri-
buted among their tenants ; which, from the different
modes of tenure, were called and diftinguiflied by
two different names.—Firft, book-land, or charter land,
which was held by deed under certain rents and free
fervices, and in effeft differed nothing from free focage
lands : and from hence have arifen moft of the free¬
hold tenants who hold of particular manors, and owe
fuit and fervice to the fame. The other ipecies was
called folk-land, which was held by no affurance in
writing, but diftributed among the common folk, or
people at the pleafure of the lord, and refumed at his
difcretion ; being indeed land held in villenage. See
VlLLENAGE.
The refidue of the manor, being uncultivated, was
termed the lord's wajle, and ferved for public roads,
and for common of 'pafture to the lord and his te- -
nants. Manors were formerly called baronies, as they
ftill are lordjhips ; and each lord or baron was em¬
powered to hold a domeftic court, called the court ba¬
ron, for redreffing mifdemefnors and nufances within
the manor, and for fettling difputes of property among
the tenants. This court is an infeparable ingredient
of every manor; and if the number of fuitors fhould
fo fail, as not to leave fufficient to make a jury or ho¬
mage, that is, two tenants at the leaft, the manor itfelf
is loft.
In the early times of our legal cbnftitution, the
king’s greater barons, w ho had a large extent of terri¬
tory held under the crown, granted out frequently
fmaller manors to inferior perfons to be held of them-
felves ; which do therefore now continue to be held
under a fuperior lord, who is called in fuch cafes the
lord paramount over all thefe manors ; and his feignory
is frequently termed an honour, not a manor; efpecial-
ly if it hath belonged to an ancient feodal baron, or
bath been at any time in the hands of the crown. In
imitation whereof, thefe inferior lords began to carve
out and grant to others ftill more minute eftates to be
held as of themfelves, and were fo proceeding down¬
wards tn infinitum, till the fuperior lords obferved,
that, by this method of fubinfeudation, they loft all
their feodal profits of wardftnps, marriages, and ef-
cheats,
MAN t 569 ] MAN
Manor cheats, which fell into the hands of thefe mefne or gratitude, the States caufed the following infcriotion Mansfeld.
Mansfdd. Tn‘cl^le l°rds, who were the immediate fuperiors of to be placed on the gate of the hotel de ville : In Bel- —^—~
u—y~"“' tj^ teJ"re tenant, ox him who occupied the land j and gio omnia dumvaftat civile helium, MANSFELDUShello et
alfo that the mefne lords themfelves were fo nnpover-
ilhed thereby, that they were difabled from perform¬
ing their fervices to their own fuperiors. This occa-
fioned, firft, that provifion in the 33d chapter of magna
charta, 9 Hen. III. (which is not to be found in the
firft chapter granted by that prince, nor in the great
charter of King John), that no man ftiould either
give or fell his land without referving fufficient to
anfwer the demands of his lord ; and, afterwards,
the ftatute of Weftm. 3. or quia empiores, 18 Edw. I.
c. I. which directs, that, upon all Tales, or feoffments
of land, the feoffee ftiall hold the fame, not of his im¬
mediate feoffor, but of the chief lord of the fee, of
whom fuch feoffor himfelf held it. But thefe provifions
not extending to the king’s own tenants in capite, the
like law concerning them is declared by the ftatutes
of praerogativa regis, 17 Edward II. c. 6. and of
34 Edw. III. c. 15. by which laft all fubinfeudations,
previous to the teign of King Edward I. were con¬
firmed j but all fubfequent to that period were left
open to the king’s prerogative. And from hence it
is clear, that all manors exifting at this day, muft
have exifted as early as King Edward the Firft : for
it is effentiai to a manor, that there be tenants who
hold of the lord j and, by the operation of thefe fta¬
tutes, no tenant in capite fince the acceflion of that
prince, and no tenant of a common lord fince the fta¬
tute of quia empfores, could create any new tenant to
hold of himfelf. See Villenage.
MANS, a town of France, formerly capital of the
county of Maine, with a bifhop’s fee, and 17,000 inha¬
bitants. Its wax and fluffs are famous. It is feated
on a high hill near the river Sarte, in E. Loner, o. 17.
N. Lat. 48. 7
^ MANSE. Mansus, Manfa, or Manfum; in an¬
cient law-books, denotes a houfe, or habitation, either
with or without land. See House and Mansion.
'1 he word is formed a manendo, “ abiding j” as being
the place of dwelling or refidence.
Capital MANSE., (Manfum Capitalef denotes the ma-
nor-houfe, or lord’s court. See Manor.
MANSUS Prejbyteri, is a parfonage or vicarage
houfe for the incumbent to refide in. This was ori¬
ginally, and ftill remains, an effentiai part of the en¬
dowment of a parifti church, together with the glebe
and tythes. It is fometimes called Prcjbyterium. See
Presbytery.
MANSFELD, a city of Germany, and capital of
a county of the fame name, in the circle of Upper
Saxony. E. Long. ix. 41. N. Lat. 51. 38.
Mansfeld, Peter Urnejl, Count of, was defeend-
ed from one of the moft illuftrious families in Ger¬
many, and which has produced the greateft num¬
ber of diftinguilhed characters. In 1352, he was ta¬
ken prifoner at Ivry, where he commanded ; and he
was afterwards of great fervJee to the Catholics at the
battle of Montcontour. In confequence of his great
talents, he was employed in affairs of the utmoft de¬
licacy and importance. Being made governor of
Luxemburg, he maintained tranquillity in that pro¬
vince, while the refi of the Low Countries was a prey
to the horrors of civil war. In Leftimony of their
Vol. XII. Part II.
pace fdus, hanc provinciam in fide continet fervatque ilLr-
fam, cum fummo populi confcnfu et hilari jucunditate. He
was afterwards appointed to the command of the Low-
Countries j and died at Luxetnburg, March 21. 1604,
at the age of 87, with the title of Prince of the Holq
Empire. His maufoleum, in bronze, which is to be
feen in the chapel bearing his name, and adjoining to
the church of the Recollects at Luxemburg, is an ad¬
mirable work. Four highly finiftied weepers, with
which this monument was ornamented, were carried
off by Louis XIV. when he took this city in 1684.
To a love of war, Mansfeld united a tafte for the
fciences j and he was a lover and encourager of the
arts : he poffeffed a great and elevated mind ; but, like
many heroes ancient and modern, he was greedy of
gain and lavifti of blood. Abbe Schannat has written
the hiftory of the count of Mansfeld in Latin ; print¬
ed at Luxemburg, 1707. Charles prince of Mans¬
feld, his lawful fon, fignalized himfelf in the wars of
Flanders and Hungary $ and died without iffue in
I595>_ after having beaten the Turks who attempted
to relieve the city of Gran (Strigonia), which he was
befieging.
Mansfeld, Emefi de, the illegitimate fon of
Peter Erneft by a lady of Malines, was educated at
Bruffels, in the principles of the Roman Catholic re-
ligion, by his godfather Erneft archduke of Auftria.
He was employed in the fervice of the king of Spain
in the Low Countries, and in that of the emperor in
Hungary, together with his brother Charles, count of
'Mansfeld. He was legitimated on account of his
bravery by the emperor Rodolphus II. ; but his fa¬
ther’s pofts and poffeflions in the Spanilh Netherlands
having been refuied him, contrary to promifes which,
he had received, he, in 1610, joined the party of the
Proteftant princes. Being now become one of the
moft dangerous enemies of the houfe of Auftria, who
called him the Attila of Chrifiianity, he fet himfelf, in
1618, at the head of the rebels in Bohemia, and got
poffeffion of Pilfen in 1619. Though his troops
were defeated in feveral battles, he was able to pene¬
trate into the palatinate. He there took feveral placesj
ravaged Aliace, made himfelf mafter of Haguenau,
and defeated the Bavarians. At length he was to¬
tally defeated by Walftein, at the battle of Daffou,
which happened in the month of April 1626. He
gave over his remaining troops to the duke of Wei¬
mar, and intended to pafs into the Venetian Hates j
but fell fick in a village between Zaro and Spalatro,
and there expired, A. D. 1626, aged 46. The pro¬
curator Nani thus deferibes him : “ He was bold, in¬
trepid in danger, and the moil Ikilful negotiator of
the age in which he lived. He poffeffed a natural elo¬
quence, and well knew how to infinuate himfelf into
the hearts of thofe whom he wiihed to gain. He Was
greedy of others wealth, and prodigal of his own. 
He was full of vaft projefts and great hopes, and' yet
poffeffed neither lands nor money at his death.” He
did not wifh to die in his bed ; but dreffed himfelf in
his fineft robes, put on his fword, fat upf leaning up-
tm two domeftics, and in this pofitkm, highly be¬
coming a warrior, breathed his lafL But of all the
4 C actions
MAN [ 570 ] MAN
Marsfe'd anions of this great captain and fingular man, the
| j following is without doubt the mold extraordinary :
' a'tt‘!U8 ’Having got the moft certain information that Cazel,
i in whom of all his officers he placed the greateft con¬
fidence, had communicated his plans to the Auftrian
chief, he fliowed neither paffion nor refentment at his
treachery, but gave him 300 rix-dollars, and fent him
to Count Buquoy, with a letter expreffed in thefe words :
“ Cazel being attached to you and not to me, I fend him
to you, that you may have the benefit of his fervices.”
The opinions of men were divided about this aftion,
and it was as much cenfured as applauded. Be this
as it may, Erneft is defervedly eiteemed one of the
greateft generals of his age. There never was a leader
more patient, more indefatigable, more inured to toil
and hardihip, to watchings, to colds and to hunger.
He raifed armies, and ravaged the enemy’s territories
with an incredible celerity. The Hollanders faid of
him, that he was bonus in auxi/io, car us in pretio ; that
is, that he rendered great fervices to thofe who em¬
ployed him, but that he made them pay well for it.
MANSFIELD, a town of Nottinghamlhire, in
England, feated in the foreft of Sherwood, 140 miles
from London. It was anciently a royal demefne. It
has a market on Thurfdays, and two fairs. By an an¬
cient cuftom of this manor, the heirs were declared of
age as foon as born. It is a well-built town, and
has a great trade in malt. Its market is well Hock¬
ed with corn, cattle, &c. Here is a charity fchool
for 36 boys.
MANSIO, a term often mentioned in itineraries,
denoting inns on the public roads to lodge in, at
the diftance of eighteen miles from each other j
(Laflantius). Alfo, in the lower ages, it came to
denote “ an encampment for one night,” (Lampri-
dius).
Mansio, or Manjius, was fometimes alfo ufed in
the fame fenfe with hide ; that is, for as much land as
one plough could till in a year. See Hide.
MANSION, Mansio, a dwelling houfe, or habi¬
tation, efpecially in the country. See Manse.
Mansion is more particularly ufed for the lord’s
chief dwelling houfe within his fee ; otherwife called
the capital mejjuage or manfe, or chief manor-place. See
Manor.
MANSLAUGHTER, the unlawful killing of
another, without malice either exprefs or implied:
Which may be either voluntary, upon a fiudden
heat *, or involuntary, but in the commiffion of fome
unlawful aft. Thefe were called, in the Gothic
conftitutions, homiadia Bulgaria; quee out cafu, aut
etiam fponte committuntur, fed in fubitaneo quodatn ira-
cundice calore et impetu. And hence it follows, that
in manflaughter there can be no acceflbries before
the faft j becaufe it muft be done without premedita¬
tion.
1. As to the firft, or voluntary branch: If upon a
fudden quarrel two perfons fight, and one of them kills
the other, this is manflaughter : and fo it is, if they
upon fuch an occafion go out and fight in a field j for
this is one continued aft of paffion } and the law pays
that regard to human frailty, as not to put a hally
and deliberate aft upon the fame footing with regard
to guilt. So alfo if a man be greatly provoked, as by
pulling his nofe, or other great indignity, and imme-
4
diately kills the nggreffor ; though this is not excuf-Marflaugh-
able fe defendendo, lince there is no abfolute neceffity ter*
for doing it to preferve himfelf j yet neither is it mur- J
der, for there is no previous malice ; but it is man-
flaughttr. But in this, and in every other cafe of ho¬
micide upon provocation j if there be a fufficient
cooling-time for paffion to fubfide and reafon to inter-
pofe, and the perfon fo provoked afterwards kills the
other, this is deliberate revenge, and not heat of blood j
and accordingly amounts to murder. So if a man
takes another in the aft of adultery with his wife, and
kills him direftly upon the ipot; though this was al¬
lowed by the law of Solon, as likewife by the Roman
civil law (if the adulterer was found in the hulband’s
own houfe), and alfo among the ancient Goths j yet
in England it is not abfoluttly ranked in the clafs of
juftifiable homicide, as in cafe of a forcible rape, but
it is manflaughter. It is, however, the loweft degree
of it j and therefore in fuch a cafe the court direfted
the burning in the hand to be gently inflifted, becaufe
there could not be a greater provocation. Manflaugh¬
ter, therefore, on a fudden provocation, differs from ex-
cufable homicide fe defendendo in this : That in the one
cafe there is apparent neceffity, for felf-prefervatioh,
to kill the aggreflor j in the other no neceffity at all,
being only a fudden aft of revenge.
2. The fecond branch, or involuntary manflaughter,
differs alfo from homicide excufable by mifadventure,
in this: That mifadventure always happens in confe-
quence of a lawful aft, but this fpecies of manflaugh¬
ter in confequence of an unlawful one. As if trvo
perfons play at fword and buckler, unlefs by the king’s
command, and one of them kills the other ; this is
manflaughter, becaufe the original aft was unlawful j
but it is not murder, for the one had no intent to do
the other any perfonal mifehief. So where a perfon
does an aft, lawful in itfelf, but in an unlawful man¬
ner, and without due caution and circumlpeftion 5 as
when a workman flings down a Hone or piece of tim¬
ber into the ftreet, and kills a man ; this may be ei¬
ther mifadventure, manflaughter, or murder accord¬
ing to the eircumftances under which the original aft
was done. If it were in a country village, where few
paffengers are, and he calls out to all people to have
a care, it is mifadventure only : but if it were in Lon¬
don, or other populous towns, where people are con¬
tinually paffing, it is manflaughter, though he gives
loud warning j and murder, if he knows of their paf¬
fing and gives no warning at all, for then it is malice
againfl: all mankind. And, in general, when an in¬
voluntary killing happens in confequence of an unlaw¬
ful aft, it will be either murder or manflaughter ac¬
cording to the nature of the aft which occafioned it.
If it be in profecution of a felonious, intent, or in its
confequences naturally tending to bloodflied, it will
be murder *, but if no more was intended than a mere
civil trefpafs, it will only amount to manflaughter.
3. As to the punifhment of this degree of homi¬
cide : The crime of manflaughter amounts to felony,
but within the benefit of clergy ; and the offender
ftiall be burnt in the hand, and forfeit all his goods
and chattels.
But there is one fpecies of manflaughter, which is
puniflied as murder, the benefit of clergy being taken
away from it by ftatute j namely, the offence of mor¬
tally
M A N [ 57i 1 M A N
J&anflaugh-tally ftabbing another, though done upon fudden pro-
vocation. See Stabbing.
Manticho- MANTA, in Ichthyology ; a flat fifh mentioned by
ra, Ulloa and others, as exceedingly hurtful to the pearl-
(^-Y— fifliers, and which feems to be the fame with that which
Pliny has defcribed under the name of nubes ox nebula:
Ipji ferunt (Urinatores) et nubem quondam crcjjefcere
Juper capita, planorutn pifcium Jimilem, prementem eost
arcentemque a, reciprocando, ct ob flilos precacutos lineis
annexos habere fefe ; quia niji perfoj/le it a, non refedant
caliginis et pavsri*, ut arbitror, opere. Nubem enirn five
nebulam {cujus nomine id malum appellant) inter anima-
lia haud ullam reperit quifquam. (Plin. Hift. lib. ix.
cap. 46.). The account given of this cloud by thofe
divers is much the fame with that which the divers in
the American feas give of the manta j and the name of
the cloud is perfectly applicable to it, as it really fcems
to be a cloud to thofe who are in the water below' it :
the fwimmers likewife carry long knives, or fharp
flicks, for the purpofe of difperfing this animal. It
is not improbable, that this fhh has made its way
into thofe feas from thofe of the old world, in the fame
manner as fome others appear to have done. The
ftrength of this fifh is fo great, that it will not only
ftrangle a man whom it embraces or winds itfelf about,
but it has even been feen to take the cable of an an¬
chor and move it from the place where it had been
caft. It has been called manta, becaufe, when it lies
flretched upon the fea, as it frequently does, it feems
like a fleece of Wool floating upon the water.
MAN PE, a confiderable town of France, capital
of the Mantois, feated on the river Seine, in E. Long.
1. 45. N. Lat. 48. 58.
MAN FEGAR, or Man-Tiger, as it is fumetimes
written, is the tufted ape, a fpecies of fimia. See
Mammalia Index.
MANTEGNA, Andrew, was born in a village
near Padua in 1451, and at firft employed in keeping
fheep. It was obferved, that inftead of watching over
his flock, he amufcd himfelf with drawing ; and he was
placed with a painter who, being delighted with his
eafe and tafle in work, and with his gentle and agree¬
able condnfl in fociety, adopted him for his fon, and
made him his heir. At the age of 17, Mantegna was
employed to paint the altar of St Sophia in Padua,
and the four evangelifts. . James Bellini, who admired
his talents, gave him his daughter in marriage. Man¬
tegna painted, for the duke of Mantua, the Triumph
t>f Ctffar, which is the chief d’oeuvre of this painter,
and has been engraved in claro-obfcuro, in nine plates.
From refpedl to his extraordinary merit, the duke made
him knight of his order. The invention of engraving
prints with the graver is commonly afcribed to Man¬
tegna, who died at Mantua in 1517.
MANTELETS, in the art of war, a kind of
moveable parapets, made of planks about three inches
thick, nailed one over another, to the height of almoft
fix feet, generally cafed with tin, and fet upon little
wheels, fo that in a fiege they may be driven before
the pioneers, and ferve as blinds to ftielter them from
the enemv’s fmall (hot.
M ANT I CHOU A, a name given by the Roman
authors to a fierce and terrible creature, which they
deferibe from the Greeks, who call it fometimes alfo
mo. nt ichor a, martichora, and martiora. We have form¬
ed the name man-tiger on the found of the Roman Mantichora
name, though exprt-flang a very different fenfe *, and
our authors of the hiftories of animals, figure to us un- " >
der this name a terrible creature, partly from the ac¬
counts of Pliny exaggerated, and partly from their
own imagination, with three rows of teeth, and with
fuch a fhape as no animal ever poffeffed. See Man-
TEGAR.
MANTINEA, in Ancient Geography, a towm fitu-
ated in the fouth of Arcadia, on the confines of Laco¬
nia (Ptolemy) ; called afterwards Antigonea, in honour
of King Antigonus. It is memorable for a battle
fought in its neighbourhood between the Thebans and
Spartans, in which fell the celebrated commander Epa-
minondas. See Thebes.
MANTIS, a genus of infedls belonging to the order
of hemiptera. See Entomology Index.
MANTLE, or MANTLE Tree, in Archite£lure,\}\s
lower part of the chimney, or that piece of timber
which is laid acrofs the jambs, and fuftains the com¬
partments of the chimney-piece.
Mantle, or Mantling, in Heraldry, that appearance
of folding of cloth, flourilhing, or drapery, which in
any achievement is drawn about a coat of arms. See
Heraldry, fedl. v.
MANTO, in poetic hiftory, the daughter of
Tirefias, and like her father ftrongly infpired with
prophecy. She was in fo great efteem, that when the
Argives pillaged Thebes, they thought they could
not acquit their vowr to Apollo, of confecrating to him
the moil precious thing in their plunder, without
offering him this young woman. She was therefore
fent to the temple of Delphi. But this did not engage
her in any vow of continency ; or, if it did, (he obferved
it very ill: for (lie bore a fon called Amphilqc/ius to
Alcmeon, who had been generaliflime of the army
which took Thebes *, and a daughter to the fame,
named Tijiphone. Thefe children were the fruits of an
amour carried on during the madnefs which had feized
Alcmeon, after he had put his mother to death. Virgil
tranfports her into Italy, not for the fake of fecuring
her virginity, but to produce a fon of her who built
Mantua.
MANTUA, anciently a town of the Tranfpadana
in Italy, fituated on the Mincio, a river running from
the Lacus Benacus. It is faid to have been founded
about 300 years before Rome by Bianor or Ocnus,
the fon of Manto; and w'as the ancient capital of
Etruria. When Cremona, which had followed the in-
tereft of Brutus, was given to the foldiers of Octavius,
Mantua alfo, which was in the neighbourhood, (hared
the common calamity, and many of the inhabitants
w'ere tyrannically deprived of their poffeflions. Virgil,
who was among them, and a native of the town, ap¬
plied for redrefs to Auguftus, and obtained it by means
of his poetical talents.
It is ft ill called Mantua, and is the capital of the
duchy of that name. It is now' a large place, having
eight gates and about 16,000 inhabitants. The ftreets
are broad and ftraight, and the houfes well built. It
is very ftrong by fituation as well as by art j lying in
the middle of a lake, or rather morafs, forimd by the
river Mincio. There is no accefs to the city but by
two caufeways which crofs this morafs, and which are
ftrongly fortified : fo that the city is looked upon t#
4 C 2 be
M A N
Man*ua be one of tlie mraft conilderable jfortrefies of Europe ;
H , and the allies in 1745, though their army \v;j.s in the
" ‘ ‘ , duchy, durft not undertake the fiege. it was greatly
noted for its filk manufaftures, which are now much
decayed. The air in th'e Tummer time is very un-
wholefome. The celebrated poet Virgil was born at a
village near this city. It was befieged by the French
for above fix months, in 1796, and furrendered to them
on February 2. 1797. On the recommencement of the
war, it was attacked by the Auftrian and Ruffian array,
to which it furrendered on the 30th of July, 1799, af¬
ter a fhort fiege •, and finally, not only this city, but
the whole country, w'as fubdued by the arms of Bona¬
parte, one of whofe brothers is now ftyled king of Italy.
E. Long. 10. 46. N. Lat. 45. 8.
Mantua, the duchy of, a country of Italy, lying
along the river Po, which divides it into two parts. It
is bounded on the north by the Veronefe ; on the fouth
by the duchies of Reggio, Modena, and Mirandola ;
on the eaft by the Ferrarefe 5' and on the weft by the
Cremonefe. It is about 30 miles in length, and 25 in
breadth •, is fruitful in corn, paftures, flax, fruits, and
excellent wine. Charles IV. the laft duke of Mantua,,
being a Vaffal of the empire, took part with the French
in the difpute relating to the fucceffion of Spain ; for
which reafon he was put under the ban of the em¬
pire, aqd died at Venice in 1708. He having no heirs,
the emperor kept the Mantuan in his own hands, and
the duke of Savoy had Montferrat, which were con¬
firmed to them by fubfequent treaties. After the
death of the emperor in 1740, his eldeft daughter,
the emprefs queen, kept poffeffion of the Mantuan ;
and the governor of the Milanefe had the adminiftra-
tion of affairs. The Mantuan comprehends the du¬
chies of Mantua, Guaftalla, and Sabioneta j the prin¬
cipalities of Caftiglione, Solforino, and Boiolo 5 like-
wife the county of Novellara. The principal rivers are
the Po, the Oglio, and the Minteio j and the principal
town is Mantua.
MANUAL, a word fignifying any thing performed
by the band.
Manual (mamtalis'), in Law, fignifies what is em¬
ployed or ufed by the hand, and whereof a prefent
profit may be made j as fuch a thing in the manual
occupation of one, is where it is adlually ufed or em¬
ployed by him.
Manual is the name of a fervice book ufed in the
church of Rome, containing the rites, dire&ions to the
priefts, and prayers ufed in the adminiftration of bap-
tifm and other facraments j the form of bleffing holy
water, and the whole fervice ufed in proceffions.
MANUAL Exercife, in the army, confifts in the ob-
fervance of certain words of command appointed for
this purpofe. When a regiment is drawn up, or parad¬
ed for exercife, the men are placed three deep, either
by companies, or divided into platoons, with the gre¬
nadiers on the right. When foldiers are drawn up for
exercife, the ranks and files fliould be exa£fly even 5 and
each foldier fhould be inftrutfted to carry his arms well,
to keep his firelock fteady and even upon his fhoulder,
with the right hand hanging down, and the whole body
without conftraint. The diftances between the files
muft be equal, and the ranks eight feet diftant from
each other. Every motion fhould be performed with
life, and the greateft exadlnefs obferved in all firings,
5
MAN
wheelings, and marching •, and therefore a regi- Manual
merit fhould never be under arms longer than two —-y*"n
hours.
The following is an abftracl of the, words of com¬
mand at the manual exercife, with their explanations.
1. Poi%e your firelock: i. e. Seize the firelock with your
right hand, and turn the lock outwards, keeping the
firelock perpendicular j then bring up the firelock w ilh
a quick motion from the fhoulder, and feize it with
the left hand, juft above the lock, fo that the fingers
may lie upon the flock, with the elbows down, and
the thumb upon the flock j the firelock muft not be*
held too far from the body, and the left hand muft be.
of an equal height with the eyes,. 2. Cock your jire-
lock: i. e. Turn the barrel oppofite to your face, and
place your thumb upon the cock, railing your elbow
fquare at this motion ; then cock your firelock, by
drawing your elbow down, placing your right thumb
on the breech-pin, and the fingers under the guard,.
3. Prefent: i. e. Step back about fix inches to the
rear with the right foot, bringing the left toe to the
front j at the fame time the butt end of the firelock
muft be brought to an equal height with the fhoulder,
placing the left hand on the fwell, and the fore finger
of the right hand before the trigger, finking th©
muzzle a little. 4. Eire: i. e. Pull the trigger brifk-
ly, and immediately after, bringing up the right foot
to the infide of the left, come to the priming poli-
tion, with the lock oppofite to the right bread, the
muzzle to the height of the hat, keeping it firm and
fteady j and at the fame time feize the cock with the
fore finger and thumb of the right hand, the back of
the hand being turned up. 5, Half-cock.yourfrclock *
i. e. Half-bend the cock brifkly with a draw-back of
the right elbow, bringing it clofe to the butt of the
firelock. 6. Handle your cartridge: i. e. Bring your
right hand with a fhort round to your pomch, flap¬
ping it hard 5 feize the cartridge, and bring it with a
quick motion to your mouth j bite the top well off,
and bring the hand as low as the chin, with the elbow
down. 7.. Prime: e. Shake the powder into the
pan, placing the three laft fingers behind tire rammer,
with the elbow up.. 8. Shut your pan: i, e. Shut
your pan brifkly, drawing your right arm at this
motion towards your body, holding the cartridge faft:
in your har d as before ; then turn the piece nimbly
round to the loading pofition, with the lock to the
front, and the muzzle to the height of the chin, bring¬
ing the right hand behind the muzzle, with both feet
kept faft in this motion. 9. Charge with cartridge :
i. e. Turn up your hand, and put the cartridge into the
muzzle, fhaking the powder into the barrel ; place
your hand, clofed, with a quick and flrong motion,
upon the rammer, ic. Draw your rammer: i.e. Draw
the rammer with a quick motion half out, feizing it at
the muzzle back handed ; draw it quite out, turn it,
and enter it into the muzzle. 11. Ram doivn your
charge : i. e. Ram the cartridge well down in the bar¬
rel, inftantly recovering and feizing the rammer back-
handed at the centre, turning it, and entering it as '
far as the lower pipe, placing at the fame time the
edge of the hand on the butt end of the rammer, w ith
fingers extended. 12. Return your rammer : i.e. Re¬
turn the rammer, bringing up the piece with the left
hand to the fhoulder, feizing it with the right hand
under
[ 572 .1
MAN
Kftfluaf. under tlie cock, keeping the left hand faft at the fwell,
turning the body fquare to the front. 13. Shoulder
your firelock : i. e. Quit the left hand, and place it
ftrong upon the butt •, quit the right hand, and throw
it down the right iide. 14. Refl your firelock ; i. e.
Seize the firelock with the right hand, turning the
lock outwards j raile the firelock from the Ihoulder,
and place your left hand with a quick motion above
the lock, holding the piece right up and down in both
hands before you, and your left hand even with your
eyes; tlep briikly back with your right foot, placing
it a hand’s breadth diftance from your left heel, and
at the fame time bring down your firelock as quick
as poifible to the reft, finking it as far down before
your left hand as your right hand will permit without
eonftraint; your left hand being at the feather fpring,
and your right, with fingers extended, held under the
guard, taking care to draw' in the muzzle well towards
your body, and to drefs in a line with the butt end.
15. Order your firelock: i. e. Place your firelock nimb¬
ly with your left hand againft your right (boulder ;
quit the firelock with the right hand, finking it at
the fame time with your left ; feize it at the muzzle,
which nuift be of an equal height with your chin, and
hold it clofe againft your right fide ; lift up your right
foot, and place it by your left ; at the fame time throw
back your left hand by your left fide, and with your
rignt bring down the butt-end ftrong upon the ground,
placing it even with the toe of your right foot ; the
thumb of your right hand lying along the barrel, and
the muzzle kept at a little diftance from your body.
16. Ground your firelock : i. e. Half face to the right
upon your heels, and at the fame time turn the fire-
L’ck, fo that the lock may point to the rear, and the
fiat of the butt-end he againft the infide of your foot y
at the fame time flipping the right foot behind the
butt of the firelock, the right toe pointing to the
right, and the left to the front : ftep direflly forward
with your left foot, about as far as the (well of the
firelock, and lay it upon the ground, your left hand
hanging down by your left leg, and your right kept
fall, with the butt end againft it; raile yourfelf up
again nimbly, bringing back your left foot to its for¬
mer polition, keeping your body faced to the right ;
face again to the left upon your heels, and come to
your proper front, letting your hands hang down
without motion, ij. Take up your firelock : i. e. Face
to the right upon both heels ; fink your body down,
and come to the pofition deferibed in the (econd mo¬
tion of grounding ; raife yourfelf and firelock, bringing
it clofe to your right fide ; come to your proper front,
feizing your firelock at the muzzle, as in explana¬
tion 15. 18, Re/l your firelock: i e. Bring your right
nand as far as the (well ; raife the firelock high up in
a perpendicular line from the ground with your right
hand, and feize it with your left above the fpring, the
cock being at the height of the waiif-belt; ftep back
with your right foot, placing it behind your left heel,
and come to the reft. 19. Shoulder your firelock : i. e.
Lift up your right foot, and place it by your left; bring
the firelock at the fame time to your left (boulder, and
feize the butt-end with the left hand, keeping it in the
fame pofition as above deferibed ; throw your right
hand brilkly back. 20. Secure your firelock : i. e. Bring
the right hand briikly up, and place it under the cock,
M A M’
keeping the firelock Heady in the fame pofition ; quit Manual,
the butt with the left hand, and feize the'firelock w ith ■■■ v ■"
it at the fwell, bringing the elbow clofe down upon
the lock; the right hand being kept fait in this mo¬
tion, and the piece ftill upright ; quit the right hand,
and bring it down your right fide, bringing the fire¬
lock nimbly down to the fecure ; the left hand in a
line w ith the waift-belt. 21. Shoulder your firelock t-
i.e. Brjng the firelock up to a perpendicular line, feiz-
ing it with the right hand under the cock: quit the
left hand, and place it ftrong upon the butt, quit the
right hand, and bring it fmartly down the right fide.
22. Fix your bayonet 1 i. e. Firft and (econd motions,
as in the two firft of the fecure ; quit the right hand,
and bring the firelock fmartly down to the left fide
with the left hand, as far as it will admit without con-
ftraint, feizing the bayonet at the fame time with the
right hand, and fixing it, placing that hand juft be¬
low the brafs, with the piece kept clofe to the hollow
of the fhoulder. 23. Shoulder your firelock : i. e. Quit
the right hand, and bring up the firelock with the left;
feize it again under the cock with your right, as in the
fecond motion of the fecure ; quit the left hand, and
place it ftrong upon the butt ; quit the right hand,
and bring it down the right fide, 24. Frcfient your
arms : i. c. as explained in the three motions of the 14th
word of command. 25. To the right fiace : i.e. Bring
up the firelock with a quick motion high before you,
till your left hand comes even with your eyes, both
the-fingers of that hand extended along the itoek, juft
above the feather-fpring, the right foot to be brought
dole up to the left heel in this motion ; face to the
right, taking osre in facing to hold the firelock right
up and down, and Heady in your hands ; ilep back
with your right foot, and come down to your prefient^
as in the foregoing explanation. 26. To the right
fiace: i.e. as in the foregoing explanation, facing to
the right. 27. lo the right about face: i. e. as in the
25th explanation, only coming to the right about in-
ftead of to the right. 28. To the lej't face : i. e. Bring
the right foot brilkly to the hollow of your left, with
the firelock in the lame pofition as in the firft motion
of facing to the right: fate to the left; come down to
the prejent, as before. 2.9. To the left face: i. e. as
in the foregoing explanation. 30. 'lathe left about
face,: i. e. as before, coming to the left-about inftead
of to the left. 31. Shoulder your firelock : i. e. as in
the two motions of the 19th explanation. 32. Charge
your bayonets : i. e. as in the firft explanation : bring
the fwell of the firelock dowm ftrong upon the palm
of the hand, grafping the piece at the (mail, behind the
lock, and as high as the waift-belt ; the firelock upon
a level with the barrel upwards. 33. Shoulder your
firelock : i. e. Bring up the firelock to the (boulder,
place the left hand upon the butt, bringing the feet
fquare to the front ; quit the right hand, and throw
it down the right fide. 34. Advance your arms : i. e.
firft and (econd motions, as in the firft explanation $
bring the firelock down the right fide, with the right
hand as low as it will admit without conftraint, flip¬
ping up the left hand at the fame time to the fwell,
the guard between the thumb and forefinger of the
right hand, the three laft fingers under the cock, with
the barrel to the rear ; quit the left hand. 35. Shoul-
der your firelock: i. e. Bring up the left hand, and feize
it
r 573 ]
M AN [ 574 ] MAN
Manual. ^ ft at the (Veil ; come fmartly up to the poize j tlioul-
der. 36. I'rwic and load: i. e. Come fmartly to the
recover, by fpringing the firelock ftraight up with the
left hand, turning the barrel inwards to the proper
height of the recover : at the fame time that the left
hand fprings the firelock, the right hand is raifed brifk-
ly from the right fide, and feizes the firelock acrofs the
brealt: as it rifes below the cock, the left hand comes
with a quick motion from the butt, and feizes the
firelock ftrong above the lock, the little finger of the
left hand at the fpring of the lock, the left hand at an
equal height with the face, the butt clofe to the bo¬
dy, but not preffed, the firelock, perpendicular oppo-
fite the left fide of the face : bring the firelock down
with a brilk motion to the priming pofition, the left
hand holding the firelock, as in priming j the thumb
of the right hand placed againft the face of the tteel,
the fingers clinched, and the elbow a little turned out,
that the wrift may be clear of the cock : open the pan,
by throwing up the flee] with a ftrong motion of the
right arm, turning the elbow in, and keeping the fire¬
lock fteady in the left hand ; handle your cartridge,
prime, fliut your pan, call about, load, draw ram¬
mers, ram down the cartridge, return the rammers,
fhoulder. N. B. The motion of recover, and coming
down to the priming pofition and opening pans, are to
be done in the ufual time. The motions of handling
cartridge to (hutting the pans, are to be done as quick
as poflible : when the pans are (hut, a fmall paufe
is to be made, and then cad about together j then
the loading motions are to be done as quick as
poffible ; but before the rammer is returned, another
fmall paufe is to be made, counting 1, 2, between each
motion, till the firelock is (houldered.—Front rank
make ready : i. e. Spring the firelock brilkly to the
recover, keeping the left foot faft in this motion: as
foon as the firelock is at the recover, without any flop,
fink the body brilkly without (looping forward, with a
quick motion down upon the right knee ; the butt-
end of the firelock at the fame time falls upon the
ground, the front part of the butt being in a line with
the heel of the left foot. As foon as the butt comes to
the ground, the firelock is to be cocked, immediate¬
ly feizing the cock and (leel in the right hand j the
firelock to be held firm in the left hand, about the
middle of that part of the firelock between the lock
and the fwell of the (lock *, the point of the left thumb
to be clofe to the fwell, pointing upwards. As the
body is finking, the right knee is to be thrown as far
back as the left leg may be right up and down ; the
right foot to be thrown a little to the right ; the body
to be kept (Iraight \ the head up, looking to the right
along the rank, the fame as if (houldered $ the firelock
to be upright, and the butt about four inches to the
right of the infide of the left foot. Pre/ent: i. e.
Bring the firelock brilkly down to the prefent, by ex¬
tending the left arm to the full length with a flrong
motion 5 at the fame time fpring up the butt by the
cock with the right hand, and raife the butt fo high
upon the right (houlder, that you may not be obliged Manual.
to (loop too much with the head ; the right cheek to  v—-
be clofe to the butt, and the left eye (hut, and look
along the barrel with the right eye from the breech-
pin to the muzzle ; keep the left elbow down in an
eafy pofition, and (land as fteady as poffible 5 the thumb
of the right hand to remain in the pofition as defcri-
bed in the third explanation of the manual. Fire : i. e.
Pull the trigger as directed in the manual ; and as
foon as the piece is fired, give yourfelf a flrong
fpring upon your left leg, raifing your body brilk¬
ly, and ftraight up, keeping your left foot fad, and
bringing the right heel to the infide of the left; at
the fame time the firelock is to be brought up to
the priming pofition, and half-cocked immediately : a
(liort paufe is to be made ; then handle cartridge, and
go on vith the loading motions defcribcd in the expla¬
nation of prime and load.—Centre rank, make ready:
i. e. Spring the firelock brilkly to the recover 5 fo
foon as the left hand (eizes the firelock above the lock,
the right elbow is to be nimbly raifed a little, placing
the thumb of that hand upon the cock ; the fingers
open by the plate of the lock, and as quick as poffible
force the piece to the cock, by dropping the elbow,
and forcing down the cock with the thumb, ftepping
at the fame time a moderate pace to the right, keeping
the left foot faft ; as the firelock is cocked, the thumb
is to fall below the cock, the right hand feizing the
firelock dole under the cock firmly, the fore finger
not to be before the trigger ; the piece to be held in
this pofition perpendicular, oppofite the left fide of the
face, the butt clofe to the left bread, but not preffed )
the body to be ftraight, and as full to the front as pof¬
fible ; the head kept up, looking to the right of the
rank, that the body and the firelock may not (loop for¬
ward, nor lean much out of the rank. Prejent: i. e.
Spring the firelock from the body to the arm’s length
with a quick motion, preffing down the muzzle with
the left hand, and fpring up the butt with the right
hand, as in the foregoing explanation of the front rank.
Fire : As in explanation 4, in the manual, w ith this
difterence, that the left foot is to be brought up to
the right, at the fame time that the firelock is brought
down to the priming pofition. The loading motions
as in the explanations of priming and loading j and at
the laft motion of (houldering, to fpring to the left
again, and cover the file-leaders.—Pear rank, make
ready: i. e. Recover the firelock, and cock as before di¬
rected for the centre rank ; as the firelock is recovered
and cocked, ftep brilkly ftraight to the right, with the
right foot, a full pace 5 bring the left heel about fix
inches before the right foot ; the body ftraight, and as
fquare to the front as poffible, as in the explanation of
the centre rank. Prefent: As in explanation- prefent,
before. Fire: As in explanation of the centre rank
and as the firelock is coming down to the priming pofi¬
tion, the left is to be brought back to the right; and
at the laft motion of (houldering, to fpring to the left
again, and cover the file-leader (a).
There
• JAJ -rJle manUal exerci('e n°w defcribed is not precifely the fame thatitis at prefent (1807). The difference
*iu lS n<i>j^reaVi^rt c^ePenc^rig partly on the peculiar views of commanding officers, it is fo fubjetl to change
that it would be ufelefs to detail it in its prefent form. J
MAN
m
[ 575 1
MAO
Manual There are forae peculiar words of command at the
!1 manual exercife of the grenadiers, when apart from the
Manumif- battalion . an(] alf0 for the cavalry and artillery.
, MANUDUCTOR, a name given to an ancient
officer in the church ; who, from the middle of the
choir, where he was placed, gave the fignal for the
chorilters to ling, and marked the meafure, beat lime,
and regulated the mufic. The Greeks called him me-
fachoros, betaufe feated in the middle of the choir :
but in the Latin church he was called manuduBor;
from mantis and duco, “ I lead becaufe he led and
guided the choir by the motions and geliure of the
hand.
MANUFACTURE, a commodity produced from
raw or natural materials, either by the work of the
hand or by machinery.
MANUFACTURER, one who works up a natural
produdt into an artificial commodity.
M ANUMISSION, an aft whereby a Have or vil-
. lain is fet at liberty, or let out of bondage. The
■word comes from the Latin manus, “ hand 5” and
rnittere, “ to fend quia fervus mittebatur extra manuin
feu potefatem domini fui. Some authors define manu-
miffion an aft by which a lord enfranchifes his tenants,
who till that time had been his vaffals, and in a Rate
of llavery inconfiltent with the fanftity of the Chrittian
faith.
Among the Romans, the manumiffion of Haves was
performed three feveral ways. 1. When, with his
mailer’s confent, a (lave had his name entered in the
cenfus or public regilter of the citizens. 2. When
the (lave was led before the praetor, and that magi-
Rrate laid his wand called xnndiBa on his head.
3. When the mailer gave the Have his freedom by his
tellament. Servius Tullius is faid to have fet on foot
the firll manner ; and P. Valerius Publicola the fe-
cond, A particular account is given of the third in
the Inllitutes of Jultinian. It wras not neceffary that
the praetor Ihould be on his tribunal to perform the
ceremony of manumiffion : he did it anyuffiere indif¬
ferently, in his houfe, in the llreet, in going to bathe,
&c. He laid the rod on the Have’s head, pronouncing
thefe words, Dico eum liberum effe more Quiritum, “ I
declare him a freeman, after the manner of the Ro¬
mans.” This done, he gave the rod to the liflor,
who llruck the Have with it on the head,, and after¬
wards w'ith his hand on his face and back ; and the
notary or fcribe entered the name of the new freed-
man in the regiller, with the reafons of his manumiffion.
The Have had likewife his head lhaved, and a cap
given him by his mailer as a token of freedom. Ter-
tullian adds, that he had then alfo a third name given
him : if this were fo, three names were not a token of
nobility, but of freedom. The emperor Conftantine
ordered the manumiffions at Rome to be performed in
the churches.
Of manumiffion there have alfo been various forms
in England. In the time of the Conqueror, villains
were manumitted, by the mailer’s delivering them by
the right hand to the vifcount, in full court, ffiowing
them the door, giving them a lance and a fword, and
proclaiming them free. Others were manumitted by
charter. There was alfo an implicit manumiffion : as
when the lord made an obligation for payment of
money to the bondman at a certain day, or fued him Mat umif-
where he might enter without fuit, and the like.
MANURE, any thing ufed for fattening and im- Ma(‘'una
proving land. See Agriculture Index. > V - ‘'«
MANUSCRIPT, a book or paper written with the
hand; by which it Hands oppofed to z printed book or
paper. A manufcript is ufually denoted by the two
letters MS. and in the plural by MSS. What makes
public libraries valuable, is the number of ancient
manufcripts repofited in them fee Alexandrian,
Cambridge, Clermont, Cottonian, Harleian,
Vatican, &c.
MANUTIUS, Aldus, the firil of thofe cele¬
brated Venetian printers who were as illuHrious for
their learning as for uncommon Ikill in their profef-
fion. He was born at Baffano in Italy about the mid¬
dle of the 15th century 5 and hence is fometimes
called BaJJianus, though generally better known by
the name of Aldus. He was the firfl who printed
Greek neatly and corredlly ; and acquired fo much
reputation by it, that whatever was finely printed was
proverbially faid to have “ come from the prefs of
Aldus.” We have a kind of Greek grammar of his j
with notes upon Homer, Horace, &c. He died at
Venice, where he exercifed his profeffion, in 1516.
Manutius, Paulus, fon of the former, was brought
up to-his father’s profeffion. He was more learned
than he j and he acquired, by continual reading
of Tully, fuch a purity in writing Latin, as even Sca-
liger allows a Roman could not exceed. Pope Pius
IV. placed him at the head ol the apoHolical prefs,
and gave him the charge of the Vatican library.
His Epiflles are infinitely laboured, and very cor-
red ; but, as may be faid of moil of the Ciceroni-
ans, they contain fcarcely any thing but mere words.
This conflant reading of Tully, however, together
with his profound knowledge of antiquity, qualified
him extremely well for an editor of Tully ; whofe
works he accordingly publifhed, with Commentaries
on them, in 4 vols. folio, at Venice in 1523. He
died in 1574.
Manutius, Aldus, the Younger, the fon of Pau*
lus, and the grandfon of Aldus, was eReemed one of
the greatefl geniufes and moR learned men of his time.
Clement VIII. gave him the diredion of the Vatican
printing houfe : but probably the profits of that place
were very fmall, fince Manutius was obliged, for his
fubfiflence, to accept of a profeffor of rhetoric’s chair,
and to fell the excellent library that was in his family,
which his father, his uncle, and his great uncle, had
colleded with extraordinary care, and which it is faid
contained 80,000 volumes. He died at Rome in 1597,
without any other recompenfe than the praifes due to
his merit. He wrote, 1. Commentaries on Cicero.
2. A Treatife on Orthography. 3. Three books of
EpiRles ; and other works in Latin and Italian, which
are efleemed.
MAON, in Ancient Geography, a town of the tribe
of Judah, to the fouth eaR, towards the Dead Sea. It
gave name to the wildernefs of Maon, 1 Sam. xxii.
MAOUNA, one of the Navigator’s iflands in the
fouth Pacific ocean. Here M. de la Peroufe, comman¬
der of the French ffiips the Bouffole and Aftrolabe,.
met with his firfl; fatal accident in 1787; M. de
Langle,,
MAR [ 576 ] MAR
Maouna Langle, captain of the Aftrolabe, with II officers and
Marina ^a^ors» were rnaffacred by the. natives. W. Long. 169.
. _ S. Lat. 14. 19.
MAP, a plane figure, .reprefenting the furface of
the earth, or a part thereof, according to the laws of
perfpe&ive. See Geography Index.
MAPLE. See Acer, Botany Index.
Maple-Sugar. See Sugar, Chemistry Index.
MAPPA, in the public games of the Roman cir¬
cus, was a napkin hung out at the praetor’s or other
great magiftrate’s feat, as a fignal for the race or other
diverfions to begin. The mappa was received by the
mapparius, or perfon who held it, from the conful,
praetor, or other great officer. Notice was anciently
given by found of trumpet •, but Nero is faid to have
introduced the mappa, by throwing his napkin out of
the window to fatisfy the people, who grew noify at the
delav of the fports while he was at dinner.
MAPPARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the officer
who gave the fignal to the gladiators to begin fight-
•
M A-RACANDA, in Ancient Geography, capital of
the Sogdiana. Now thought to be Samarcand, a city
of Ufbec Tartary in Afia, the country and royal refi-
dence of Tamerlane. See Samarcand.
MARA CAYBO, a province of South America
furrounding the lake of the fame name, bounded on the
north by the Caribbean fea, and containing 100,000
inhabitants.
Maracaybo, a town of South America, and capi¬
tal of the province of Venezuela, feated near a lake of
the fame name. It carries on a great trade in ikins and
chocolate, and they have likewife very fine tobacco.
The population is eftimated at 22,000. It was taken
by the French bucamers in 1666 and 1678. W. Long.
70. 56. N. Lat. 10, 10.
Maracaybo, a lake in South America, 2C0 miles
long and IOC broad, which difcharges itfelf by a river
into the North fea. It is well defended by ftrong
forts; which, however, did not hinder Sir Henry Mor¬
gan, a bucanier, from plundering feveral towns on the
coaft.
MARAGNAN, a province of Brazil in South A-
merica, which comprehends a fertile populous iflarsd,
112 miles in circumference. The French fettled here
in 1612, and built a fhiall town ; but they were driven
from it by the Portuguefe, who have poff lkd it ever
fince. The climate is pleafant, and the foil fertile. W.
Long. 54. 35. S. Lat. 2. o.
MARALDI, James-Philip, a learned mathema¬
tician and aftronomer, of the. Academy of Sciences at
Paris, was born in 1665. He was the fon of Francis
Maraldi and Angela Catharine Caffini, the filler of the '
famous aftronomer of that name. His uncle fent him
to France in 16S7, where he acquired great repu¬
tation on account of his learning and obfervations.
He made a catalogue of the fixed ffars, which is
more particular and exacl than Bayer’s ; and has
given a great number of curious and interefting ob-
fervations in the memoirs of the academy. He died
in 1729.
MARANA, John Paul, an ingenious writer of
the 17th century, was of a diltinguilhed family, and
Born at Genoa ; where he received an education fuit-
able to his birth, and made great progrefs in the
ftudy of polite literature and the fciences. Having
been engaged in the confpiracy of Raphael della
Terra, to deliver up Genoa to the duke of Savoy,
he was in 1670, when 28 years of age, imprifoned
in the tower of that city, and remained there four
years. Being at length fet at liberty, he was or¬
dered to write the hiftory of that confpiracy j but,
when finiflied, it was feized and prevented from being
publilhed. When the republic of Genoa was at va¬
riance with the court of France, Marana, who had
always an inclination for that court, wTas afraid of
being imprifoned a fecond time j and retired to Mo¬
naco, where he again wrote the hiftory of the con¬
fpiracy in Italian ; and, in 1682, went to Lyons to
get it printed. From Lyons he went to Paris, where
his merit foon acquired him powerful proteftors. He
fpent the reft of his life in a happy and tranquil
mediocrity, devoted to ftudy and the fociety of men
of learning ; and died in 1693. His hiftory of the
eonfpiracy contains many curious and interefting anec¬
dotes. He alfo wrote 1’everal other works 5 the molt
known of which is the Turkilh Spy, in fix volumes
i2mo, which was in 1742 augmented toTeven. Of
this ingenious work we have an excellent Engliih
tranfiation.
MARANO, a town of Friuli in Italy, with a
ftrong citadel 5 feated in a marfh at the bottom of
the gulf of Venice. It contains about 1000 inhabi¬
tants.
MARANS, a rich town of France, in the territory
of Aunis and diocete of Rochelle, feated among fait
mavfhes, near the river Sevre, three miles from the fea.
It carries on a very great trade in corn j and is feated
in W, Long. o. 54. N. Lat. 46. 18.
MARANTA, Indian Arrow root, a genus of
plants belonging to the monandria clafs ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the eighth order Scitaminees*
See Botany Index.
MARASMUS, among phyficians, denotes an a-
trophy or confumption in its laft and moft deplorable
ft age.
MARATHON, in Ancient Geography, one of the
demi or hamlets of Attica; about 10 miles to the north-
eaft of Athens, towards Bcfiotia, near the fea. It ftill
retains its ancient name (Dr Chandler informs us) 5
but is very inconfiderable, coniifting only of a few
houfes and gardens. The plain of Marathon, famous
for Miltiades’s vkftory over the Perfian®, by which
the liberties of Athens and other cities of Greece were
laved, is long and narrow, but confifting chiefly of
level ground, and therefore admitting the operations
of cavalry, which formed the main ffrength of the
barbarian army, and with which the Greeks were very
poorly provided. Here the Perfians, under the com¬
mand of Dalis, pitched their camp, by the advice of
Hippias the baniihed king of Athens, whofe felicita¬
tions and intrigues had promoted the expedition, and
whofe perfect knowledge of the country, and inti¬
mate acquaintance with the affairs of Greece, ren¬
dered his opinion oh all occafions refpeftable. The
Perfian army is faid to have confifted of 100.000
infantry, and 10,000 horfe.**-*-Athens was in the ut-
moft confternation and difmay. She had, upon the
firft
Maranr, su
II
Marathon tj
M A R ^ j
faraiKor. appearance of the Perikn fleet, fent to implore
v afliftance from the other nations of Greece : but fome
had fuomitted to Darius, and others trembled at the
very name of the Medes and Perfians. The Laceda?-
monians alone promifed troops •, but various obftacles
did not allow them immediately to form a junftion
with thole of Athens. This city therefore could only
rely on its own ftrength ; and happily at this moment
there appeared three men deftined to give new energy
to the date. Ihefe were Aiilttades, Ariltides, and
Themiftocles ; whofe example and harangues kindled
the flame of the nobleft heroifm in the minds of the
Athenians. Levies were immediately made. Each
of the ten tribes furnifiied 1000 foot foldieu with a
commander at their head. 1 o complete this number
it was neceffary to enrol the Haves (a}. Nofoonerwere
the troops affembled than they marched out of the
city into the plain of Marathon, where the inhabitants
ot: Piatteain Eoeotia lent them a reinforcement of 1000
infantry.
Scarcely were the two armies in fight of each other,
before Miltiades propofed to attack the enemy. Arif-
tides and feveral of the commanders warmly fupported
this meafure : but the reft, terrified at the exceflive
di{proportion of the armies, were defirous of waiting
for toe luecours from Lacedsesnon. Opinions beinw
divided, they had recourfe to that of the polemarch,
or chief of the militia, who was confulted on fuch oc-
eaftons, to put an end to the equality of fuffrages.
Miltiades addreffed hhnfelf to him, with the ardour of
a man deeply impreffed with the importance of pre-
ient circumftances : “ Athens (fald he to him) is on
the point of experiencing the grealeft of viciffitudes.
neady to beceme the firft power of Greece, or the
theatre of the tyranny and fury of Hippias, from you
alone, Callimachus, ftie now awaits her deftiny. ^ If
we fuffer the ardour of the troops to cool, they will
ihameluily bow beneath the Perfian yoke; but if we
lead tnem bn to battle, the gods and viflory will fa-
vour us. A word from your mouth muft now preci¬
pitate your country into flavery or preferve her liber¬
ty.” Callimachus gave his fuflfrage, and the battle
was refolved. To enlure fuccefs, Ariftides, and the
other generals after his example, yielded to Miltiades
the honour of the command which belonged to them
in rotation : but, to fecure them from every hazard,
he preferred waiting for the day which of right placed
him at the head of the army.
When that day arrived, Miltiades drew up his troops
at the foot of a mountain, on a fpot of ground fcat-
tered over with trees to impede the Perfian cavalry.
The Platseans were placed on the left wing ; Calli¬
machus commanded the right; Ariftides and Themi¬
ftocles were in the centre of the battle, and Mil¬
tiades everywhere. An interval of nearly a mile fe-
parated the Grecian army from that of the Perfians.
At the firft lignal the Greeks advanced over this fpace
- unning. The Perfians, aftonilhed at a mode of at¬
tack fo novel to both nations, for a moment remained
Vol. XII. Part II.
M A II
motionlefs j but to the impetuous fury of the enemy Marathon.
they foon oppofed a more fedate and not lefs formida-  
ble fury. After an obftinate conflift of fome hours,
victory began to declare herfldf in the two wings of
the Grecian army. The right difperfed the enemy
m the plain, while the left drove them back on a mo«.
rafs that had the appearance of a meadow, in which
they ftuck fait and were loft. Both thefe bodies of
troops now flew to the fuccour of Ariftides and The¬
miftocles, ready to give way before the flower of the
Perfian troops placed by Datis in the centre of his
battle. From this moment the rout became general.
1 he Perfians, repulfed on all fides, found their only
afylum in the fleet which had approached the Ihore.
ihe conquerors purlued them with fire and fw'ord, and
took, burnt, or funk the greater part of their veflels :
the reft efcaped by dint of rowing.
The Perfian army loft about 6400 men : that of the
Ath< nians ip2. IVIiltiades was wounded 5 Idippias was
left dead on the field, as were Stefileus and Callimachus,
two of the Athenian generals. Scarcely was the battle*
over, when a foldier, worn out with fatigue forms the
project of carrying the firft news of fo fignal a fuccefs
to the magiftrates of Athens, and without quitting his
arms, he runs, flies, arrives, announces the vidlory, and
falls dead at their feet.
. his baMe was fought on the 6th of Boedromion
in the third year of the 72d Olympiad (or 29th Sem
tember anno 490 B. C.). The next day 2000 Spar¬
tans arrived. In three days and nights they had marnb-
td 120c ftadia. Though informed of the defeat of
the Perfians, they continued their march to Marathon,
nor did they envioufty Ihun to behold to of- fields where
a rival nation had fignalized itfelf by fo heroic an ac¬
tion : they there beheld the tents of the Perfians ftili /
Handing, the plain ttrewed over with dead, and covered
with coftly fpoils : they there found Ariftides, who with
his tribe was guarding the prifonerS and booty j and
did not retire until they had bellowed juft applaufes on
the vidors. “
The Athenians negle&ed nothing to eternize the
memory of thofe who fell in the battle. It had been
ufual to inter the citizens who perilhed in war at the
public expence, in the Ceramieus without the city ;
but the death of thefe wras deemed uncommonly meri¬
torious. Ihey were buried, and a barrow was made
for them, where their bravery had been manifefted.
1 heir names were engraven on half columns eroded
on the plain of Marathon. Thefe monuments, not
excepting thofe of the generals Callimachus and Ste¬
fileus, were in a ftyle of the greateft fimplicity. In
the intervals between them w'ere ereded trophies bear¬
ing the arms of the Perfians. An artift of eminence
had painted all the circumftances of the battle in one
of the moft frequented porticoes of the city: Miltiades
was there reprefented at the head of the generals, and
m the ad of exhorting the troops to fight for their
country.
rauianias examined the field of battle about 60
4 ^ yeai
werelrtlndudldlrthe^o mo!11!"?’ ?9’, ^“1 Dr GilIieS feems lo think that ll>e
centre of the battle. ’ ’ b amounted of themfelves to a greater number, and which formed th<
MAR [ 578 ] MAR
Marathon years after this event. His account of it is as follows :
I! “ The barrow of the Athenians is in the plain, and
, Mal-attl- on ;t are pillars containing the names of the dead un-
"* der thofe of the tribes to which they belonged ; and
there is another for the Platseans and flaves ; and
a diftin£t monument of Miltiades the commander, who
furvived this exploit. I here may be perceived nightly
the neighing of horfes and the clalhing of arms. No
perfon has derived any good from waiting on purpofe
to behold the fpe&res j but their anger does not fall
on any one who happens to fee them without defign.
The Marathonians wodhip thofe who were flain in the
battle, ftyling them heroes.—A trophy alio of white
marble has been eredted. ’I he Athenians fay the
Medes were buried, religion requiring that the corpfe
of a man be covered with earth •, though I was not able
to find any place of fepulture, for there is no barrow or
other fign vifible ; but they threw them promifcuoufly
into a pit.—Above the lake are the marble mangers of
the horfes of Artaphernes, with marks of a tent on the
rocks.”
Many centuries have elapfed fince the age of Paufa-
nias j but the principal barrow, it is likely that of the
gallant Athenians, ftill towers above the level of the
plain. It is of light fine earth, and has a buih or two
growing on it. Dr Chandler informs us, that he en¬
joyed a pleafant and fatisfa&ory view from the fummit;
and looked, but in vain, for the pillars on which the
names were recorded, lamenting that fuch memorials
fliould ever be removed. At a fmall diftance northward
is a fquare bafement of white marble, perhaps part of
the trophy. A Greek church has flood near it j and
fome ftones and rubbifh, difpofed fo as to form an open
place of worfhip, remain.
MARATTA. See Marhattas.
MARATTI, Carlo, a celebrated painter, was
born at Camorano, near Ancona, in 1625. He came
a poor boy to Rome, when only 11 years old 5 and
at 12 recommended himfelf fo effedlually to Andrea
Saechi, by his drawings after Raphael in the \ atican,
that he took him into his fchool, where he continued
25 years till his mafter’s death. His graceful and
beautiful ideas occafioned his being generally employ¬
ed in painting madonas and female faints. No man
ever performed in a better ftyle, or with a greater
elegance. From the finefl llatues and pidlures, he
made himfelf mafler of the moft perfedl forms, and the
moft charming airs of heads, which he fketched with
equal eafe and grace. He has produced a noble va¬
riety of draperies, more artfully managed, more richly
ornamented, and with greater propriety, than even the
beft of the moderns. He was inimitable in adorning
the heads, in the difpofal of the hair, and the elegance
of his hands and feet, which are equal to thofe of Ra¬
phael 5 and he particularly excelled in gracefulnefs. In
his younger days he etched a few prints, as well of his
own invention as after others, with equal fpirit and
correftnefs. It would be endlefs to recount the cele¬
brated paintings done by this great man. Yet he exe¬
cuted nothing flightly, often changed his defigns, and
almoft always for the better, whence his pi&ures were
long in hand. By the example of his mailer, he made
feveral admirable portraits of popes, cardinals, and
other people of diftindtion, from whom he received the
higheft teftimonies of efteem, as he likewife did from
almoft all the monarchs and princes of Europe. Inno- Maratti
cent XI. appointed him keeper of the paintings in his ||
chapel and the Vatican. Maratti erefted two noble Marble-
monuments for Raphael and A. Caracci, at his own ex-
pence, in the Pantheon. How well he maintained the
dignity of his profefiion, appears by his anfwer to a
Roman prince, who complaining of the exceflive price
of his pictures, he told them there was a valt debt due
from the world to the famous artifts his predeceffors,
and that he, as their rightful fuccelfor, was come to
claim thofe arrears. His abilities in painting were ac¬
companied with many virtues, and particularly with an
extenfive charity. This great painter died at Rome in
1713, in the 88th year of his age.
MARAUDING, in a military fenfe, means a party
of foldiers, who, without any order, go into the neigh¬
bouring houfes and villages, when the army is either in
camp or garrifon, to plunder and deftroy, &c. Ma¬
rauders are a difgrace to the camp, to the military pro-
feffion, and deferve no better quarter from their officers
than they give to poor peafants, &c.
MARAVEDI, a little Spaniffi copper coin, worth
fomewhat more than a French denier, or half a farthing
Engliffi.
The Spaniards always count by maravedis, both in
commerce and in their finances, though the coin itfelf
is no longer current amoqg them. Sixty-three marave¬
dis are equivalent to a rial of filver j fo that the piafter,
or piece of eight rials, contains 504 5 and the piftole of
four pieces of eight, 2016 maravedis.
This fmallnefs of the coin produces vaft numbers in the
Spaniffi accounts and calculations j infomuch that a ftran-
ger correfpondent would think himfelf indebted feveral
millions for a commodity that coft but a few pounds.
In the laws of Spain, we meet with feveral kinds
of maravedis ; Alphonfine maravedis^ white maravedis,
maravedis of good money, maravedis Combrenos, black
maravedis, and old maravedis. When we find marave¬
dis alone, and without any addition, it is to be under-
ftood of thofe mentioned above. The reft are different
in value, finenefs of metal, time, &c. Mariana afferts,
that this coin is older than the Moors; that it came
from the Goths ; that it was anciently equal to a third
part of the rial, and confequently of 12 times the value
of the prefent maravedi. Under Alphonfus XI. the ma-
ravedi was 17 times, under Henry II. ten times, under
Henry III. five times, and under John II. two times and
a half, the value of the prefent maravedi.
MARBELLA, a town of Grenada in Spain, fituat-
ed at the mouth of the Rio Verde, 30 miles north-eaft
of Gibraltar, and 28 fouth-weft of Malaga. W. Long.
4. 59. N. Lat. 36. 31.
MARBLE, a calcareous ftone, of which there are
many beautiful varieties. The word comes from the
French marbre, and from the Latin marmor, of the
Greek to “ ffiine or glitter.” See Minera¬
logy Index.
Elajiic MARBLE, an extraordinary fpecies of foffil
which has furprifed all the naturalifts who have feen
it. There are feveral tables of it preferved in the
houfe of Prince Borghefe at Rome, and ffiown to the
curious. F. Jacquer, a celebrated mathematician, has
given a defcription in the Literary Gazette of Paris,
but the naturalifts cannot be contented with it. If
permiffion was given to make the renuifite experi¬
ments.,
M A R
Marble, ments, this curious phenomenon might be better illu-
“T-"* ftrated. There are five or fix tables of that marble j
their length is about two feet and a half, the breadth
about ten inches, and the thicknefs a little lefs than
three.. They were dug up, as the Abbe Fortis was
told, in the feod of Mondragone ; the grain is of Car-
rarefe marble, or perhaps of the fineft Greek. They
feem to have fuflfered fome attack of fire j though the
firfi: degree of pulverization obferveable in the angles,
can, perhaps, fcarcely be called that of imperfeft cal¬
cination. They are very dry, do not yield to exter¬
nal impreflion, refound to the hammer, Fke other con¬
generous marble, and are perhaps fufcepuble of a po-
lilh. Being fet on end, they bend ofcillating back¬
ward and forward ; when laid horizontally, and railed
at one end, they form a curve, beginriing towards the
middle.; if placed on a table, and a piece of wood or
any thing elfe is laid under them, they make a falient
curve, and touch the table with both ends. Notwith-
fianding this flexibility, they are liable to be broken
if indifcreetly handled ; and therefore one table only,
and that not the beft, is fhown to the curious. For¬
merly they were altogether in the prince’s apartment
on the ground floor.
Colouring of MARBLE. This is a nice art; and in
order to fucceed in it, the pieces of marble on which
the experiments are tried, muft be well polifhed, and
free from the leaft fpot or vein. The harder the mar¬
ble is, the better will it bear the heat neceflary in the
operation ; therefore alabafter and the common foft
white marble are very improper for performing thefe
operations upon.
Heat is always neceflary for opening the pores of
marble, fo as to render it fit to receive the colours ;
but the marble muft never be made red hot; for then
the texture of it is injured, and the colours are burnt,
and lofe their beauty. Too fmall a degree of heat is
as bad as one too great ; for, in this cafe, though the
marble receives the colour, it will not be fixed in it,
nor ftrike deep enough. Some colours will ftrike even
cold ; but they are never fo well funk in as when a
juft, degree of heat is ufed. The proper degree is that
which, without making the marble red, will make the
liquor boil upon its furface. The menftruums ufed to
ftrike in the colours muft be varied according to the
nature of the colour to be ufed. A lixivium made
with horfes or dogs urine, with four parts of quick¬
lime and one of potafhes, is excellent for fome co¬
lours ; common ley of wood-alhes is very good for
ethers ; for fome, fpirit of wine is beft ; and laftly, for
ethers, oily liquors, or common white wine.
The colours which have been found to fucceed beft
with the peculiar menftruums, are thefe : Stone-blue
diflolved in fix times the quantity of fpirit of wine, or
of the urinous lixivium, and that colour which the
painters call litmus, diflblved in common ley of wood-
aflres. An extraft of faffron, and that colour made of
buckthorn berries, and called by painters fop-green,
both fucceed well when diflblved in urine and quick¬
lime ; and tolerably well when diflblved in fpirit of
wine. Vermilion, and a very fine powder of cochi¬
neal, alfo fucceed very well in the fame liquors. Dra¬
gon’s blood fucceeds in fpirit of wine, as does alfo a
tinaure of logwood in the fame fpirit. Alkanet-root
gives a fine colour: but the only menftruum to be ufed
C 579 1
MAR
for it is oil of turpentine ; for neither fpirit of wine,
nor any lixivium, will do with it. There is another
kind oi fonguis draconis, corcvaxavily caWed dragon's blood
in tears, which, mixed with urine, gives a very elegant
colour.
Befides thefe mixtures* of colours and menftruum®,
there are other colours which muft be laid on dry and
unmixed. Thefe are, dragon’s blood of the pureft kind,
for a red ; gamboge, for a yellow ; green wax, for a
green ; common brimftone, pitch, and turpentine, for
a brown colour. Ihe marble for thefe experiments
muft be made confiderably hot, and then the colours
are to be rubbed on dry in the lump. Some of thefe
colours, when once given, remain immutable, others
are eafily changed or deftroyed. Thus, the red colour
given by dragon’s blood, or by a decoftion of log¬
wood, will be wholly taken away by oil of tartar, and
the polifti of the marble not hurt by it.
A fine gold colour is given in the following man¬
ner : Take crude fal ammoniac, vitriol, and verdi-
gns, of each equal quantities. White vitriol fuc¬
ceeds beft : and all muft be thoroughly mixed in fine
powder.
The ftaining of marble to all the degrees of red or
yellow, by folutions of dragon’s blood or gamboge,
may be done by reducing thefe gums to powder, and
grinding them with the fpirit of wine in a glafs mor¬
tar. But,, for fmaller attempts, no method is fo good
as the mixing a little of either of thofe powders with
fpirit. of wine in a filver fpoon, and holding it over
burning charcaol. By this means a fine tinfture will
be extracted; and with a pencil dipt in this, the
fineft traces may be made on the marble while cold;
which, on the heating of it afterwards, either on fand’
or in a baker’s, oven, will all fink very deep, and re¬
main perfectly dittinft on the ftone. It is very eafy
to make the ground colour of the marble red or yel¬
low by this means, and leave white veins in it. This
is to .be done by covering the places where the white-
nefs is to remain with fome white paint, or even with
two or three doubles only of paper; either of which
will prevent the colour from penetrating. AH the de¬
grees of red are to be given to marble by this gum
alone ; a flight tindure of it, without the afliftance of
heat to the marble, gives only a pale flelh colour : but
the ftronger tin&ures give it yet deeper; to this the
afliftance of heat adds greatly ; and finally, the addi¬
tion of a little pitch to the tin<fture, gives it a tenden¬
cy to blacknefc, or any degree of deep red that may
be defired. 1
A blue colour may be given alfo to marble by dif-
folving turnfole in lixivium, in lime and urine, or in
the volatile fpirit of urine ; but this has always a ten¬
dency to purple, whether made by the one or the
other of thele ways. A better blue, and ufed in an
eafier manner, is furnifhed by the Canary turnfole
a fubftance well known among the dyers. This needs
only to be diffolved in water, and drawn on the place
with a pencil: it penetrates very deeply into the
marble ; and the colour may be increafed, by drawino-
the pencil wetted afrefli feveral times over the fame
lines. This colour is fubjeft to fpread and diffufe it-
Idf irregularly : but it may be kept in regular bounds,
by circumfcnbing its lines with beds of wax, or any
luch fubftance. It is alfo to be obferved, that this
4-^2 colour
Marble.
MAR [5
Maible colour fliould always be laid on cold, and no heat
i! given even afterwards to the marble : and one great
Mar )lcs. ajvan^age 0f colour is, that it is therefore ealily
added to marbles already ftained with other colours,
is a very beautiful tinge, and lafts a long time.
MARBLED, fomething veined or clouded, re-
fembling marble. S^e Marbling.
MARBLED China-ware, a name given by many to a
fpecies of porcelain or china-ware, which feems to be
full of cemented flaws. It is called by the Chinefe,
who are very fond of it, tfou tchi. It is generally
plain white, fometimes blue, and has exadlly the ap¬
pearance of a piece of china w hich had been firft bro¬
ken, and then had all the pieces cemented in their pla¬
ces again, and covered with the original varniflr. The
manner of preparing it is eafy, and might be imitated
with us. Inftead of the common varnifh of the chi¬
na-ware, which is made of what they call oil of Jlone
and oil of fern mixed together, they cover this with a
fimple thing made only of a fort of coarfe agates, cal¬
cined to a white powder, and feparated from the grof-
fer parts by means of water, after long grinding in
mortars. When the powder has been thus prepared,
it is left moift, or in form of a fort of cream, with
the iait water that is fuffered to remain in it, and this
is ufed as the varnifh. Our cryftal would ferve full as
well as thofe coarfe agates, and the method of prepa¬
ration is perfeitly eafy. The occafion of the fingular
appearance of this fort ef porcelain is, that the varnifh
never fpreads evenly, but runs into ridges and veins.
Thefe often run naturally into a fort of mofaic work
which can fcarce be taken for the effedt of chance.
If the marbled china be defired blue, they firft give
it a general coat of this colour, by dipping the veffel
into a blue varnifh ; and when this is thoroughly dry,
they add another coat of this agate oil.
Artificial MARBLES. The ftucco, of which flatues,
bafts, baffo-relievos, and other ornaments of architec¬
ture are made, ought to be marble pulverized, mixed
in a certain proportion with plafter j the whole well
lifted, worked up with water, and ufed like common
plafter. See Stucco.
There is alfo a kind of artificial marble made of the
fhky felenites, or a trantparent it one refembling plafter j
which becomes very hard, receives a tolerable polifh, and
may deceive a good eye. This kind of felenite refem-
bles Mufcovy talc.
There is another fort of artificial marble formed by
corrofive tindtures, which, penetrating into white mar¬
ble to the depth of a line or more, imitate the various
colours of other dearer marbles.
There is alfo a preparation of brimftone in imitation
of marble.
To do this, you mull provide yourfelf with a flat
and fmooth piece of marble : on this make a border
or wall, to encompafs either a fquare or oval table,
which may be done either with wax or clay. Then
having feveral forts of colours, as white lead, vermi¬
lion, lakp, orpiment, mafticot, fmalt, Pruflxan blue,
&c. ; melt on a flow fire fome brimffone in feveral
glazed pipkins \ put one particular fort of colour into
each, and ftir it well together : then having before
oiled the marble all over within the wall, with one co¬
lour quickly drop fpots upon it of larger and lefs fize j
after this, take another colour and do as before, and
O ] MAR
fo on till the flone is covered with fpots of all the co- Marble?,
lours you defign to ufe. When this is done, you are Marbling,
next to confider what colour the mafs or ground of'“"“"V"
your table is to be ; if of a gray colour, then take fine
lifted allies, and mix it up with melted brimffone j or
if red, with Engiifh red ochre j if white, with white
lead j if black, with lamp or ivory black. Ybur brim¬
ftone for the ground muff be pretty hot, that the co¬
lour dropt on the ftone may unite and incorporate w ith
it. When the ground is poured even all over, you
are next, if judged neceffary, to put a thin wainfcoat
board upon it*: this muft be done while the brimftone
is hot, making alfo the board hot, which ought to be
thoroughly dry, in order to caufe the brimftone to ftick
the better to it. When the whole is cold, take it up,
and polifh it wdth a cloth and oil, and it will look very
beautiful.
Arundel MARBLES, marbles with a chronicle of the
city of Athens, infcribed on them (as was fuppofed)
many years before our Saviour’s birth j prefented to
the univerfity of Oxford by Thomas earl of Arundel,
whence the name. See ARUNDELIAN Marbles.
Playing MARBLES, are moftly imported from Hol¬
land $ where it is faid they are made by breaking the
ftone alabafter, or other fubftance, into pieces or chips,
of a fuitable fize ; thefe are put into an iron mill
which turns by water : there are feveral partitions with
rafps within, cut float-wife, not with teeth, which
turn conftantly round with great fwiftnefs 5 the fric¬
tion againft the rafps makes them round, and as they
are formed, they fall out of different holes, into w hich
fize or chance throws them. They are brought from
Nuremberg to Rotterdam, down the Rhine, and from
thence difperfed over Europe.
MARBLING, the method of preparing and co¬
louring the marbled paper.
There are feveral kinds of marbled paper j but the
principal difference of them lies in the forms in which
the colours are laid on the ground : fome being dif-
pofed in whirls or circumvolutions j fome in jagged
lengths; and others only in fpots of a roundifn or
oval figure. The general manner of managing each
kind is, neverthelefs, the fame; being the dipping
the paper, in a folution of gum-tragacanth, or, as it
is commonly called, gum-dragon; over which the co¬
lours, previoufly prepared with ox-gall and fpirit of
wine, are firft fpread.
The peculiar apparatus necefl'ary for this purpofe,
is a trough for containing the gum tragacanth and
the colours ; a comb for difpofing them in the figure
ufually chofen j and a burniftiing ftone for polifhing
the paper. The trough may be of any kind of wood j
and muft be fomewhat larger than the (beets of paper
for marbling which it is to be employed j but the
(ides of it need only rife about two inches above the
bottom } for by making it thus (hallow*, the lefs
quantity of the folution of the gum will ferve to (ill it.
The comb may be alfo of wood, and five inches in
length •, but (hould have brafs teeth, which may be
about two inches long, and placed at about a quarter
of an inch diftance from each other. The burnilhing
ftone may be of jafper or agate-, but as thofe (tones
are very dear when of fufficient largenefs, marble or
glafs may be ufed, provided their furface be poliihed
to a greater degree of fmoothnefs,
Thefe
MAR [ 581 ] M A R
Rlarbliry. Tnefe implements being prepared, tlie folution of
gum-tragacanth inult be made, by putting a fufficient
proportion of the gum, which ihould be white and
clear from all foulnefs, into clean water, and letting it
remain there a day or two, frequently breaking the
lumps and itirring it till the whole {hall appear dif-
folved and equally mixed with the water. The con-
iiftence of the folution (hould be nearly that of ftrong
gum-water uied in miniature painting j and if it ap¬
pear thicker, water mult be added j or if thinner,
more of the gum. When the folution is thus brought
to a due irate, it muft be pafled through a linen cloth j
and being then put into the trough, it will be ready
to receive the colours.
The colours employed for red are carmine, lake,
rofe-pink, and vermilion j but the two laft are; too
hard and glaring, unlefs they be mixed with rofe-
pink or lake, to bring them to a fofter call; and
with refpeft to the carmine and lake, they are too
dear for common purpofes. For yellow, Dutch pink
and yellow ochre may be employed :—for blue, Pruf-
flan blue and verditer may be ufed :—for green, ver¬
digris, a mixture of Dutch pink and Pruflian blue
or verditer, in different proportions :—for orange, the
orange lake, or a mixture of vermilion, or red lead,
with Dutch pink : for purple, rofe-pink and Pruffian
blue.
Thefe feveral colours {hould be ground with fpirit
of wine till they be of a proper finenefs 5 and then, at
the time of ufing them, a little fifh-gall, or in default
©f it the gall of a beaft, {hould be added, by grinding
them over again with it. The proper proportion of the
gall muft be found by trying them : for there muft
be juft fo much as will fuffer the fpots of colour, w hen
fprinkled on the foliation of the gum-tragacanth, to
join together, without intermixing or running into each
other.
When every thing is thus prepared, the folution of
the gum-tragacanth muft be poured into the trough j
and the colours, being in a feparate pot, with a pencil
appropriated to each, muft be fprinkled on the furface
of the folution, by {baking the pencil, charged with
its proper colour over it; and this muft be done with
the feveral kinds of colour defired, till the furface be
wholly covered.
When the marbling is propofed to be in fpots of a
limple form, nothing more is neceflary ; but where
the whirls or fnail-fhell figures are wanted, they muft
be made by means of a quill ; which muft be put
among the fpots to turn them about, till the efTeft be
produced. The jagged lengths muft be made by
means of the comb above defcribed, which muft be
paffed through the coLours from one end of the trough
to the other j and wil give them that appearance : but
if they be defired to be pointed both ways, the comb
muft be again paffed through the trough in a contrary
direction 5 or if fome of the w hirls or fnail-lhell figures
be required to be added, they may be yet made by
the means before direfted.
The paper {hould be previoufiy prepared for receiv¬
ing the colours, by dipping it over-night in w ater;
and laying the {beets on each other with a weight
over them. The whole being thus ready, the paper
muft be held by two corners, and laid in the moft
gentle and even manner on the folution covered with
3
the colours j and there foftly preffed with the hand, Marbling
that it may bear everywhere on the folution. After ^ ..
which it muft be railed and taken off with the fame '
care, and then hung to dry acrofs a proper cord,
fubtended near at hand for that purpofe j and in that
ftate it muft continue till it be perfeftly dry. It
then remains only to give the paper a proper polifti:
in order to which, it is firft rubbed with a little foap j
and then muft be thoroughly fmoothed by the glafs
poliftiers, fuch as are ufed for linen, and called the
calendar glajfes. After which it {hould be again rubbed
by a burniftier of jafper or agate j or, in default of
them, of glafs ground to the higheft polifti j for on the
perfect polifti of the paper depends in a great meafure
its beauty and value.
Gold or filver powders may be ufed, where defired,
along with the colour; and require only the fame
treatment as them, except that they muft be firft tem¬
pered with gum-water.
Marbling of books or paper is performed thus :
Diffolve four ounces of gum-arabic in two quarts of
fair water; then provide feveral colours mixed with
w ater in pots or {hells j and, with pencils peculiar to
each colour, fprinkle them by way of intermixture
upon the gum-water, which muft be put into a
trough or fome broad veffel •, then with a ftick curl
them, or draw them out in ftreaks, to as much variety
as may be done. Having done this, hold your book
or books clofe together, and only dip the edges in, on
the top of the water and colours, very lightly j which
done, take them off, and the plain impreflion of the
colours in mixture wrill be upon the leaves j doing as
well the ends as the front of the book in the like
manner.
Marbling a book on the covers is performed by
forming clouds with ;aquafortis or fpirit of fvitriol
mixed with ink, and afterwards glazing the covers.
See Book-Binding.
MARC Antonio. See Raimondi.
MARCASITE, an old term in mineralogy, given
indifferently to ores, pyrites, and to femimetals. But
more lately confined to pyrites, and to fuch pyrites as
are regularly formed. See Pyrites, Mineralogy
Index.
MARCELLIANISM, the do&rines and opinions
of the Ptlarcellians, a feft of ancient heretics, towards
the clofe of the fecond eentury, fo called from Mar-
cellus of Ancyra, their leader, who was accufed of
reviving the errors of Sabellius. Some, however, are
of opinion that Marcellus was orthodox, and that
they were his enemies the Arians, who fathered their
errors upon him. St Epiphanius obferves, that there,
was a great deal of difpute with regard to the real te¬
nets of Marcellus ; but that, as to his followers, it is
evident they did not own the three hypoftales : for
Marcellus confidered the Son and Holy Ghoft as two
emanations from the divine nature, which, after per¬
forming their refpeftive offices, were to return again
into the fubftance of the Father; and this opinion is
altogether incompatible with the belief of three diftimft
perfons in the Godhead.
MARCEL LINUS, Ammianus. See Ammianus.
MARCELLUS, Marcus Claudius, a famous
Roman general, who, after the firft Punic war, had the
management of an expedition againft the Gauls, Here
he
MAR [ 5g
Marcel!us he obtained the ff>o!ia ofiima, by killing with his own
March. haFld Vli'id°njarus the king of the enemy. Such fuc-
cefs rendered him popular, and foon after he was in¬
truded to oppofe Hannibal in Italy. He was the firft
Roman who obtained iome advantage over this cele¬
brated Carthaginian, and fhowed his countrymen that
Hannibal was not invincible. The troubles which
were raifed in Sicily by the Carthaginians at the death
of Hieronymus, alarmed the Romans } and Marcellus,
in his third confullhip, was fent with a powerful force
againii Syracufe. He attacked it by fea and land j
but his operations proved long ineffeftual, and the in¬
vention and induftry of Archimedes were able to
baffle all the efforts, and to deftroy all the great and
ffupendous machines and military engines of the Ro¬
mans, during three fucceffive years. The perfeverance
of Marcellus at laft obtained the vidory. After this
conqueft, Marcellus was called upon by his country a
fecond time to oppofe Hannibal. In this campaign he
behaved with greater vigour than before; the groateft
part of the towns of the Samnites, which had re¬
volted, were recovered by force of arms, and 3000
°5 t^e foldiers of Hannibal made prifoners. Some
time after, in an engagement with the Carthaginian
general, Marcellus had the difadvantage : but on the
morrow a more fuccefsful Ikirmilh vindicated his mi¬
litary character and the honour of the Roman fol-
diers. Marcellus, however, was not fufficiently vigi¬
lant againft the fnares of his adverfary. He impru¬
dently feparated himfelf from his camp, and was killed
m an ambufcade in the 60th year of his age, in his cth
comulfflip, A. U. C. 544. His body was honoured
by the conqueror with a magnificent funeral, and his
alhes were conveyed in a filver urn te his fon. Mar-
cfllus claims our commendation for his private as well
as public virtues $ and the humanity of a general will
ever be remembered, who, at the furrender of Syra¬
cufe, wept on the thought that many were going to
be expofed to the avarice and rapacioufnefs of an in-
cenfed foldiery, which the policy of Rome and the laws
©r war rendered inevitable.
. MARCGRAVE, or Margrave, a kind of dig¬
nity m Germany, anfwering to our marquis : (Tee
Marquis). The word is derived from the German
Marche, or Marche, which fignifies “ a frontier and
(jraffe, “ count, governor j” Marcgraves being origi¬
nally governors of cities lying on the frontiers of a
country or ftate.
MARCH, {Martins'), the third month of the year,
according to the common way of computing-. See
Month and Year.
Among the Romans, March was the firft month 5
and m fome ecclefiaftical computations, that order is
itill preferved ; as particularly reckoning the number
ot years from the incarnation of our Saviour : that is.
from the 25th of March.
* WraSnRTU,1“S who dIvIded the year into months 1
to the firft of which he gave the name of his fuppof-
e ather Mars. Ovid, however, obferves, that the
people of Italy had the month of March before Ro-
mums s time ; but that they placed it very differently,
fome making it the third, fome the fourth, fome the
faith, and others the tenth month of the year
In this month it was that the Romans facrificed to
Anna Perenna 3 that they began their comitia j that
2 ]
M A R
they adjudged their public farms and leafes j that the
miftreffes ferved the (laves and fervants at table, as the 1
mailers did in the Saturnalia j and that the veftals re¬
newed the facred fire.
. month of March was always under the protec¬
tion of Minerva, and always confifted of 31 days —
The ancients held it an unhappy month for marriage
as well as the month of May.
March, in the military art, is the moving of a
body of men from one place to another, Nothing is
laid, down particularly concerning the marches of the
Jewilh armies; only this much we may colled!, that
they made ufe of trumpets, to the different founds of
which they prepared themfelves by packing up their
baggage, putting themfelves in readinefs, and attend¬
ing at the ftandards, to wait the fignal for marching.
We are told that the army of the Ifraelites marched in
general no more than one league in a day and a half;
but this appears to hold good only of their progrefs
through difficult roads: For Follard fays they might,
in an open country, hiarch four leagues in a day or
more. The Rabbins fuppofe that the Ifraelites march¬
ed in the fame order they were placed in their camp.
The Greeks, let the pofture of their affairs be what
it would, never marched againft their enemies till fa¬
vourable omens encouraged the enterprife. An eclipfe
of the moon, or any untoward accident, or the in¬
tervening of what they efteemed an unlucky day, en¬
tirely prevented their march. But of all the Greeks
the Lacedaemonians were the moft nice and fcru-
pulous. The heavenly bodies dire&ed all their mo¬
tions ; and it was an invariable maxim with them
never to march before the full moon. The Greeks
are particularly remarked by Homer for marching
in good order and profound filence ; whereas the Bart
barian foices were all noife, clamour, and confufion. It
is needlefs to fay any thing concerning the marches of
the Roman armies, more than that they were perform- 1
ed with the greateft order and defpatch, infomuch that
their unexpected prefence frequently damped the fpirits
of their enemies. I he Roman foldiers were inured to
the military pace, that is, to walk 20 miles in five
hours, though at the fame time they carried burdens of
60 pounds weight.
Of all the mechanical parts of war, in modern
times, none is more effential than that of marching.
It may be juftly called the % which leads to all fu-
blime motions and manoeuvres of an army ; for they
depend entirely on this point. A man can be attack¬
ed m four different ways ; in the front, on both flanks,
and in the rear : but he can defend himfelf, and an¬
noy the enemy, only when placed with his face to¬
wards him. Hence it follows, that the general ob-
je& of marching is reduced to three points only ; to
march forwards, and on both fides, becaufe it is im-
poflible to do it for any time backwards, and by that
means face the enemy wherever he prefents himfelf. 
*1 he different fteps to be made ule of are three 1 flow,
faff, and oblique. I he firft is proper in advancing,
when at a confiderable dittance from the enemy, and
when the ground is unequal, that the line may not be
broke, and a regular fire kept up without intermiffion.
Ihe foeond is chiefly neceffary when you w-ant to an¬
ticipate the enemy in occupying fome poft, in parting
a defile, and, above all, in attacking an intrenchment,
te
Marcli.
MAR [ 583 ] MAR
March, to avoid being a long while expofed to the fire of the
Marchand. artillery and fraall arms, &c. The third ftep is of in-
"v ~ finite confequence, both in the infantry and cavalry ;
columns may be opened and formed into lines, and
vice verfa, lines into columns, by this kind of ftep, in
a lelfer fpace, and confequently in lefs time, than by
any other method whatfoever. In coming out of a de¬
file, you may inftantly form the line without prefent-
iiig the flank to the enemy. The line may be formed,
though ever fo near to the enemy, with fafety j becaufe
you face him, andean with eafe and fafety proteft and
cover the motion of the troops, while they are coming
out of. the defiles, and forming. The fame thing
may be equally executed, when a column is to be
formed in order to advance or retreat ; which is a
point of infinite confequence, and ftiould be eftablilhed
as an axiom.
The order of march of the troops muft be fo dif-
pofed, that each fliould arrive at their rendezvous, if
poffible, on the fame day. The quarter-mafter-general,
or his deputy, with an able engineer, (hould fuffici-
ently reconnoitre the country, to obtain a perfect
knowledge of it and the enemy, before he forms his
routes.
Before a march, the army generally receives feveral
days bread. The quarter-mafters, camp-colour-men,
and pioneers, parade according to orders, and march
immediately after, commanded by the quarter-mafter-
general or his deputy. They are to clear the roads,
level the ways, make preparation for the march of
the army, &c. The general, for inftance, beats at twe,
the aJJ'embly at three, and the army to march in 20 mi¬
nutes after. Upon beating the general, the village,
and general officer’s guards, quarter and rear guards,
join their refpettive corps ; and the army pack up
their baggage. Upon beating the ajfembly, the tents
are to be ftruck, and fent with the baggage to the
place appointed, &c.
The companies draw up in their feveral ftreets, and
the rolls are called. At the time appointed, the drum¬
mers are to beat a march, and fifers play at the head of
the line, upon which the companies march out from
their feveral ftreets, form battalions, as they advance to
the head of the line, and then halt.
The feveral battalions will be formed into columns
by the adjutant-general, and the order of march, &c.
be given to the general officers who lead the columns.
The cavalry generally march by regiments or fqua-
drons.. The heavy artillery always keeps the great
roads in the centre of the columns, efcorted by a ftrong
party of infantry and cavalry. The field pieces march
with the columns.
Each foldier generally marches wdth 36 rounds of
powder and ball, and tw^o good flints ; one of which is
to be fixed in the cock of his firelock. The routes
muft oe formed fo that no columns crofs one another
on the march.
MARCH AND, Professor, was from his youth
brought up at Paris in the profeffion of a bookfeller, and
in the knowdedge of books. He kept a regular corre-
fpondence with feveral learned men, among whom was
Bernard the continuator of the Nouvelles de la Repu-
blique des Lettres, and furniffied this writer with the li¬
terary anecdotes of France. Marchand, having em¬
braced the Proteftant religion, went to join Bernard
in Holland, where he might be at liberty to profefs Marchand
his religious opinions. He continued the trade of H,
bookieiler for fome time j but afterw ards quitted it, “ej‘ ■
that he might dedicate himlelf wholly to the purfuits
of literature. The hiftory of France, together with
a knowledge of books and authors, was always his fa¬
vourite itudy. In the latter he was fo eminently di-
ftinguilhed, that he was confulted from all parts of
Europe. He was alfo one of the principal authors of
the Journal Lhteraire, one of the beft periodical works
which have appeared in Holland •, and he furnilhed ex¬
cellent extracts for the other journals. This valuable
and learned man died at an advanced age, the 14th of
June 1756 j and left the little fortune which he bad to
a fociety infti luted at the Hague, for the education
and inftru6Uon of a certain number of poor people.
His library, which was excellently chofen for literary
hiftory, together with his manuferipts, was left by his
will to the univerfity of Leyden. From him we have,
I. The Hiftory of Printing, a new edition of which has
been promifed by one of his friends. This work,
which is full of notes and critical difeuffions, appeared
in 1740 at the Hague, in 410. There is fuch a pro¬
digious difplay of erudition, and remarks and quota¬
tions are heaped together in fuch confufion, that when
you get to the end of the chaos, you know not what
conelufion to form concerning the points which have
been difeuffed. Abbe Mercier, abbot of Saint Leger
de Soiflons, gave in 1775, 4to> a Supplement to this
hiftory, which is equally curious and accurate. 2. An
Hiftorical Di&ionary, or Memoirs Critical and Lite¬
rary, printed at the Hague in 1758, in two fmall vo¬
lumes, folio. In this work we meet with hiftorical
fingularities, literary anecdotes, and a difeuffion of
points of bibliography j but too great minutenefs pre¬
vails in it, the ftyle is deficient in point of purity, and
the author is too much carried away by the heat and
eagernefs of his charafter. More erudition could not
well be colledted j efpecially upon fubjefls which, at
leaft to the generality of readers, are fo uninterefting.
3. A new' edition of Bayle’s Diftionary, and Letters of
the Cymbalum mundi, &c.
MARCHANTIA, a genus of the natural order of
algae, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
See Botany Index.
MARCHE, before the revolution, a province of
France, bounded on the north by Berry, on the ealt
by Auvergne, on the weft by Angoumois, and on the
fouth by Limofinj about 55 miles in length, and 25 in
breadth, and fertile in corn and wine.
MARCHENA, a handfome, ancient, and confi-
derable town of Spain, in Andalufia, with the title of
a duchy, and a fuburb as large as the town, feated in
the middle of a plain, particularly fertile in olives,
though very deftitute of water, W. Long. 5. 20.
N. Lat. 37. 20.
MARCHERS, or Lords-Marchers, were thofe
noblemen that lived on the marches of Wales or Scot¬
land ; who, in times paft, according to Camden, had
their laws, and potejlatem vitee, &c. like petty kings,
which are aboliffied by the ftat. 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26,
and 1 Edw. VI. c. 10. In old records the lords
marchers of Wales were ftyled Marcluanes de Marchia
Wall’ce. See 1 et 2 P. et M. c. 15.
MARCHES (marchia)) from the German march.
MAR [ 584 1 M A R
Man hes i. e. limes, or from the French marque, \iz. Jignutn
Marcianus ^ie notorious diftinftion between two countries
t - or territories), are the limits between England and
Wales, or between England and Scotland, which laft
are divided into weft and middle marches, 4 Hen. V.
c. 7. 22 Ed. IV. c. 8. 24 Hen. VIII. c. 9. And there
was formerly a court called the court of the marches of
Wales, where pleas of debt or damages, not above the
value of 50 pounds, were tried and determined ; and
if the council of the marches held plea for debts above
that fum, &c. a prohibition might be awarded. Hill.
14 Car. I. Cro. Car. 38.
MARCHET, or Marchetta, a pecuniary fine,
anciently paid by the tenant to his lord, for the mar¬
riage of one of the tenant’s daughters. This citftom
obtained, with fome difference, throughout all Eng¬
land and Wales, as alfo in Scotland ; and it ftill con¬
tinues to obtain in fome places. According to the eu-
ftom of the manor of Dinover in Caermarthenfhire,
every tenant at the marriage of his daughter pays ten
(hillings to the lord j which, in the Eritifh language, is
called gwabr-merched, i. e. maul's fee.
In Scotland, and the north parts of England, the
cuftom was, for the lord to lie the firft night with the
bride of his tenant j but this ufage was abrogated by
King Malcolm III. at the inftance ©f his queen j and,
inftead thereof, a mark was paid by the bridegroom
to the lord : whence it was called marchetta mulieris.
See Borough Englifh.
MARCIANA Silva, in Ancient Geography, a foreft
fituated between the Rauraei and the Danube, before
it comes to be navigable ; a part of the Hercynia.
Now Schwartzw aid, or Black Forejl, in the fouth-weft
of Suabia, near the rife of the Danube and Neckar.
MARCIANUS, a native of Thrace, born of an
obfcure family. After he had for fome time ferved in
the army as a common foldier, he was made private fe-
cretary to one of the ofiicers of Theodolius. His win¬
ning addrefs and uncommon talents raifed him to high¬
er ftations; and on the death of Theodofius II. A. D.
45°, he was invefted with the imperial purple in the
eaft. I he fubjefts of the Roman empire had reafon
to be fatisfied with their choice. Marcianus (howed
himfelf aftive and refolute; and when Attila, the
barbarous king of the Huns, afked of the emperor
the annual tribute, which the indolence and cowardice
of his predeceffors had regularly paid, the fucceffor of
Theodofius firmly faid, that he kept his gold for his
friends, but that iron was the metal which he had pre¬
pared for his enemies. In the midft of univerfal po¬
pularity, Marcianus died, after a reign of fix years, in
the 69th year of his age, as he was making warlike
preparations againft the barbarians that had invaded
Africa. His death was long lamented $ and indeed
hE merit was great, fince his reign has been diftin-
guifhed by the appellation of the Golden Age. Mar¬
cianus married Pulcheria the fifter of his predeceffor.
It is faid, that in the years of his obfcurity he found
a man who had been murdered, and that he had the
humanity to give him a private burial $ for which cir-
cumftance he was accufed of the homicide, and inapri-
joned. He was condemned to lofe his life j and the fen-
tence would have been executed, had not the real mur¬
derer been difcovered, and convinced the world of the
innocence of Marcianus.——Another emperor of the Mareianui
eaft, A. D. 479, &c. |j
MARCIONITES, or Marcionists, Marciontflce, MarCo'
a very ancient and popular fedt of heretics, who, in ■ ~
the time of St Epiphanius, were fpread over Italy, E-
gypt, Paleftine, Syria, Arabia, Perfia, and other coun¬
tries : they were thus denominated from their author
Marcion. Marcion w as of Pontus, the fon of a bifhop,
and at firft made profeffion of the monaftical life ; but
he was excommunicated by his own father, who would
never admit him again into the communion of the
church, not even on his repentance. On this he aban¬
doned his own country, and refired to Rome, where he
began to broach his doftrines.
Pie laid down two principles, the one good, the
other evil : between thefe he imagined an interme¬
diate kind of deity of a mixed nature, who was the
creator of this inferior world, and the god and legif-
lator of the Jewifh nation : the other nations, who wor-
fhipptd a variety of gods, were fuppofed to be under
the empire of the evil principle. Thefe two conflidling
powders exercife oppreflions upon rational and immortal
fouls; and therefore the fupreme God, to deliver them
from bondage, fent to the Jews a being more like unto
himfelf, even his for. Jefus Chrift, clothed with a cer¬
tain fhadowy refemblance of a body : this cekftial
mefft nger was attacked by the prince of darknefs, and
by the god of the Jews, but without effeft. Thofe
who follow the direftions of this celeftial conductor, '
mortify the body by faftings, and aufterities, and re¬
nounce the precepts of the god of the Jews and of the
prince of darknefs, (hall after death afeend to the man-
fions of felicity and perfeffion. The rule of manners
which Marcion preicribed to his followers was excef-
fively auftere, containing an exprefs prohibition of
wedlock, wine, flefh, and all the external comforts of
life.
Marcion denied the real birth, incarnation, and paf-
fion of Jefus Chrift, and held them to be all apparent
only. He denied the rt furrtflion of the body j and al¬
lowed none to be baptized but thofe-who preferved
their continence $ but thefe, he granted, might be bap¬
tized three times. In many things he follow ed the fen-
timents of the heretic Cerdon, and rejected the law and
the prophets. He pretended the gofpel had been cor¬
rupted by falfe prophets, and allowed none of the evan-
gelifts but St Luke, whom alfo he altered in many
places, as well as the epiftles of St Paul, a great many
things in which he threw out. In his own copy of St
Luke he threw out the two firft chapters entire.
MARCH ES, Marcit®, a fe£t of heretics in the
fecond century, who alfo called themfelves the perfe&i,
and made profeftion of doing every thing with a great
deal of liberty and without any fear. This do&rine
they borrowed from Simon Magus, who however was
not their chief j for they were called Marches from
one Marcus, who conferred the priefthood, and the ad-
miniftration of the facraments, on women
MARCO Polo, Paolo, or Paulo. See Paulo.
MARCOMANNI, an ancient people of Germany,
who feem to have taken their name from their fitua-
tion on the limits or marches, to the eaft of the High¬
er Rhine, and the north of the Danube. Cluverius
allots to them the duchy of Wurtemburg, a part of
MAR r 585 ] MAR
Mateo- the palatinate between the Rhine and the Necker, the
mamii Brifgau, and a part of Suabia, lying between the
Msrets. fprings °f the Danube and the river Eregentz : they
afterwards removed to the country of the Eoii, whom
they expelled and forced to withdraw more to the eaft,
occupying what is now called Bohemia. (Strabo, Vel¬
leius).
MARCOSIANS, or ColoBarsians, an ancient
feft in the church, making a branch of the Valenti-
nians.
St Irenaeus fpeaks at large of the leader of this fe&,
Marcus, who it feems was reputed a great magician*
The Marcofians had many apocryphal books which they
held for canonical, and out of which they picked feveral
idle fables touching the infancy of Jefus Chrift. Many
of thefe fables are Hill in ufe and credit among the
Greek monks.
MARCULUS, among the Romans, a knocker or
inftrument of iron to knock at doors with.
M ARCUS Aurelius Antoninus. See Antoninus.
MARDIKERS, or Topasses, a mixed breed of
Dutch, Portuguefe, Indians, and other nations, incor¬
porated with the Dutch at Batavia, in the Eaft Indies.
MARE, the female of the horfe kind. See Equus,
Mammalia Index, and Horse.
MARENGO, a village of France which has rifen to
diftinflion in confequence of the bloody battle between
the Auftrians and French, which was fought on the 14th
June 1800, in which the French fay, 15,000 of the form¬
er were killed, wounded, and made prifoners.—Ma-
rengo is alfo the name of a department of France, in¬
cluding part of Lombardy.
MAREOTIS, a lake in Egypt near Alexandria.
Its neighbourhood was famous for wine j though ac¬
cording to fome the Mareoticum vinum is the produce
of Epirus, or of a certain part of Libya, called alfo
Mareotis, near Egypt.
MARETS, Jean de, a Parifian, one of the fineft
geniufes of the 17th century, became at laft a vifionary
and a fanatic. He was a great favourite of Cardinal
Richelieu, who was greatly delighted with his facetious
converfation. He was a member of the French academy
from its firft ereiftion. Fie wrote feveral dramatic pieces,
which were well received. He attempted an epic poem 5
but after fpending feveral years about it, dropped the
defign to write books of devotion. He likewife wrote ro¬
mances, which are not very rigid for their morality.
He was a declared enemy of the JanfenifU, Hisvifions
are well deferibed by the Meffieurs de Port Royal.
He promifed the king of France, by the explication of
prophecies, the honour of overthrowing the Mahome¬
tan empire, and every fpecies of what he was pleafed
to denominate herefy, bringing the whole world to the
profeflion of the true faith. This he faid Louis XIV.
was to accomplifti at the head of 144,000 ele<R. Ex¬
travagant and abfurd as thefe declarations were, he
was, notwithftanding, admired and patronifed by fome
of the biftiops •, and though a layman, he was permit¬
ted to vent his reveries in religious houfes, and affume
the direftion of devotees of both fexes. He main¬
tained his credit with the great to the very laft, and
died in 1676, at the age of 81. In his laft years he
wrote fomething againft Boileau’s Satires.
, Marets, Samuel de, one of the moft celebrated
divines of the reformed church, was born in Picardy,
Vol. XII. Part II.
in 1599. In 1620, he was fettled in the church of Marets,
Laon ; but, in 1624, accepted a call to that of Sedan, Margaret.
to lucceed James Cappel in the office of paftor and pro- v '
feflfor of divinity. Having foon after obtained leave of
abfence from his flock, he vifited Holland, where he
was admitted to the degree of dodftor of divinity at
Leyden, in 1625. From Holland he took a voyage to
England, and after a fhort ftay in that country he re¬
turned to Sedan, where he commenced his labours in
the divinity chair. Thefe he continued for about
feven years with reputation to himfelf, but not without
being lometimes involved in troubles, which he bore
with a commendable refolution.
In 1631 he was made chaplain to the army of the
duke de Bouillon in Holland j but that nobleman hav¬
ing married a Roman Catholic lady, M. de Marets ad-
vifed him to adhere fteadily to the Proteftant faith, on
which account he incurred the difpleafure of the duchefs.
Thus circumftanced, he received in 1636, an invitation
to become paftor to the church of Boifleduc, with which
he complied, and in the following year he was appoint¬
ed profeffbr of thej/c/zo/tf tllujlris lame city. The
duties of this office he difeharged with fuch diligence
and fuccefs, that in 1640, the curators of the univerfity
of Franeker fent him the offer of a profeflbrfliip, which
he declined j but two years after he accepted a fimilar
offer from the univerfity of Groningen, to which his
fervices were devoted for upwards of thirty years. In
1652 he was made foie minifter of the Walloon church
at Groningen, where till that time he had gratuitoufly
preached once every Sunday, to aflift the paftor. In¬
fluenced by the fame of his extraordinary merits, the
magiftrates of Berne in 1661 offered him the chair of
profeffor of divinity at Laufanne, with confiderable emo¬
luments, but he declined this offer 5 and his death
happened before he took poffeffion of a fimilar charge at
Leyden, of w hich he had accepted. His Syftem of Di¬
vinity Avas found to be fo methodical, that it was
made ufe of at other academies j and at the end of it
may be found a chronological table of all his xvorks.
Their number is prodigious j and their variety ffiows the
extent of his genius. He Avas moreover engaged in
many difputes and controverfies, and died in 1673.
MARGARET, St, a celebrated virgin, who, as
is fuppofed, received the crown of martyrdom at An¬
tioch in the year 275 : the manner of her death is
not known. The ancient martyrologifts make no men¬
tion of her name, and (lie did not become famous till
the 1 ith century. There is no more foundation for
what is faid concerning her relics and girdles than
for the (lories which are told of her life. A feftival,
hoAvevcr, is ftill held in honour of her memory on the
2oth of July : See Bail let's Lives of the Saints, for that
day. “ Her actions (fays this authority) have been fo
falfified and altered, ^ in the opinion even of Meta-
phraftus, that the Roroiffi church have not thought
proper to infert any of them into their breviary.” The
Orientals pay reverence to her by the name of Saint
Pelagia or Saint Marina, and the weftern church by
that of Saint Geruma or Saint Margaret.
Margaret, the daughter and heirefs of Florent
count of Holland, who is famous on account of a ftory
repeated by a hundred compilers even of the 18th
century. Having refufed charity to a woman whom
(he at the fame time accufed of adultery, (he was, as
MAR [ 586 ] MAR
Margaret, a punishment from God, brought to bed (A. D. 12 76),
of 365 children, partly boys and partly girls. 1 he
boys, it is added, were all named John, and the girls
Elizabeth. This ftory i.-> reprefented in a large paint¬
ing in a village not far from the Hague ; and by the
fide of the painting are feen two large bafons of brafs,
on which it is pretended the 365 children were pre
tented to be baptized. But if a picture is a fufficient
authority for the truth of any thing, it is impoflible
to tell how many fables would be fully attefted. It has
been remarked, that the mod ancient annals are alto¬
gether filent concerning this foci ; and that it is rela¬
ted only by modern writers, who befides do not agree
■with one another concerning either the date of time,
or the life of the countefs, or the number of the chil¬
dren •, and, in fiiort, that Naffau, who was at that time
bifliop of Utrecht, was called John, and not Gm, as
the chronicles declare. Several learned mi n have en¬
deavoured to trace the caufe which could have given
rife to a relation fo extraordinary. M. Struik fixed
upon the epitaphs of the moth< r and fon, which appear¬
ed to him worthy of fume attention ; and, in conformi¬
ty to the dates which they bear, he fuppofed that the
countefs was brought to bed on Good Friday 1276,
which w'as the 26th of March. Now, as the year then
began on the 251b of the fame month, there w ere only
two days of the year elapfed when the counteis was
brought to bed, which circumffance caufed it to be
faid that Jhe haJ brought into the •world as ninny children
as there were day* m the year. In fa£f only two chil¬
dren are mentioned in hillory, John and Elizabeth.
The fable thus explained is only a common event,
wherein there is nothing of the marvellous, but in con-
fequence of a double meaning in the expreffion. Later
writers, who have not examined this circumftance, have
aferibed 365 children to the eountefs. Journal des
Spavans, February, 1758, on the General Hiitory of
the United Provinces.
Margaret, Conntefc of Richmond and Derby, the
learned and pious mother of Henry VII. was born at
Betihoe in Bedfordlbire, in 1441 ; and was the foie
heirefs of John Beaufort duke of Somerfet, grandfon
to John of Gaunt. Her mother was the heirefs of
Lord Beauchamp of Powick. Whilft yet very young,
the great duke of Suffolk, minifter to Henry VI. or
lather to Queen Margaret, fought her in marriage to
his fon ; and fire was at the fame time folicited by the
king for his half brother Edmund earl of Richmond.
To the latter fire gave her hand. Henry VII. was the
foie fruit of this marriage, his father dying when he
was but 15 weeks old. Her fecond hufband was Sir
Henry Stafford, knight, feeond fon to the duke of
Buckingham 5 by whom fhe had no iffue. Soon after
his death, which happened in the year 1482, Ihe
fought confolation in a third hufband, Thomas Lord
Stanley, who, in the firlt year of her foil’s reign,
was created earl of Derby. He died in the year 1504,
without iffue, being then high conftable of England.
She Survived her lord not quite five years, dying at
Weftmintter in June 1309, in the 69th year of her
age. She was buried in Henry VH.’s chapel ; on
the fouth fide of which was ere<5!ed to her memory
an altar tomb of black marble, with her liatue of
brafs.
From her funeral fermon preached by her confeffor Margaret
Bifhop Fifher, who, fays Ballard, knew the very fecrets Margarita,
of her foul, we learn, “ that fiie poffeffed almoft all  
things that were commendable in a woman, either in
mind or body.” She underftood the French language
perfeftly, and had fume knowledge of the Latin. She
was devout even to aufterity, in humility romantic,
profufe in the encouragement of learning, and fingu-
larly chafte j but this laft virtue became confpicuous
only towards the latter end of a third marriage. “ In
her laft hufband’s days (fays Baker), fhe obtained a
licence of him to live chafte, whereupon fhe took upon
her the vow of celibacy.” “ A boon (fays Mr Wal¬
pole), as feldom requefted, I believe of a third huf¬
band, as it probably would be eafily granted.” Her
life, from the turbulence of the times, and viciffitudc
of her fun’s fortune, muft neceffarily have been fubjedl
to infinite difquiet, which however Ihe is laid to have
fupported with lingular fortitude. She wrote, 1. The
Mirroure of Golde for the finful foul, tranflated from
a French tranfiation of a book called Speculum aureum
peccatorum. Emprynted at London, in Flete-flrete,
at the figne of St George, by Richard Pynfon, quarto,
w ith cut" on velium. 2. Tranflation of the fourth book
of Dr Gerfen’s T re a lift of the Imitation and following
the bleffed Life of our moil merciful Saviour Chrift,
Printed at the end of Dr William Atkinfon’s Englifh
tranflation of the three firft books, 15C4. 3. A letter
to the king : in Howard’s colleflion. 4. By her fon’s
order and authority, fhe alfo made the orders for great
eftates of ladies and noble women, for their precedence,
and wearing of barbes at funerals, over the chin and
under the lame.
Margaret, the daughter of Woldemar III. king'
of Denmark, Ifyled the Semiram.s oj ihe North; fhe
fuccteded her father in the throne of Denmark, her
huiband in that of Norway j and the crown of Sweden
was given her as a recompenfe for delivering the
Swedes from the tyranny of Albert their king. Thus
pofftfred of the three kingdoms, fhe formed the grand
politii al defign of a perpetual union, which Ihe ac-
complifhed, p'O tempore only, by the famous treaty
ftyled the union oj Calniar. She died in 1412, aged
59-
' MARGARET of Anjou, daughter of Rene d’Anjou,
king of Naples, and wife of Henry VI. king of Eng¬
land : an ambitious, enterprifing, courageous woman.
Intrepid in the field, fhe fignalized herfelf by heading
her troops in feveral battles againft the houfe of Yoik ^
and if flit had not been the aulhorefs of her hufband’s
misfortunes, by putting to death the duke of Gloucef-
ter his uncle, her name would have been immortalized
for the fortitude, activity, and policy, with which fhe
fupported the rights of her huiband and fon, till the fa¬
ta] defeat at Tewkfbury 5 which put an end to all her
enterprifes, the king being taken prifoner, and Prince
Edward their only Ion bafely murdered by Richard
duke of York. Margaret w as ranfomed by her father,
and died in Anjou in 1482. See ENGLAND, N° 201
-—226.
Margaret, Duchefs of Newccfle. See Caven¬
dish.
MARGARITA, or Pearl-island, an ifland of
South America, the middle of which is fituated in W.
Long,
MAR
Margarita Long. 64. 2. N. Lat. 11. 30.
hattas Columbus, and Is about 35 leagues in compafs. The
foil is very fertile in maize and fruits, and abounds in
pafture and verdant groves ; yet is totally deftitute of
frelh water, which the inhabitants are obliged to bring
from the continent. When the Spaniards firft landed
here, they found the natives bufy in filhing for oyfters.
Columbus ordered feme of the favages aboard his Ihip,
who were fo far from being terrified, that they very
foon became familiar with the Spaniards. The latter
at firft imagined that the oyfters ferved them for food $
but on opening the {hells, they found they contained
valuable pearls. Upon this difcovety they immediate¬
ly landed, and found the natives ready to part with
their pearls for the mereil trifles. In procefs of time
the Spaniards built a cattle, called Monpadre, and em¬
ployed prodigious numbers of Guinea and Angola ne¬
groes in the pearl fifirery j cruelly forcing them to tear
up the oyfters from the rocks to which they ftuck, du¬
ring which time many of them were deftroyed by the
(harks and other voracious fifties. In 1620, this ifland
was invaded by the Dutch, who demoliihed the cattle
upon it: fince which time it has been in a manner aban¬
doned by the Spaniards ; and is now principally inha¬
bited by the natives, to whom fome particular indul¬
gences were granted by the court of Spain, on account
of their ready fubmiflion to Columbus.
Margarita, the Pearl, in Natural Hi/lory. See
Pearl and Mya.
MARGARITINI, are glafs ornaments, made at
Venice, of fmall glafs tubes of different colours, which
are blown at Murano, and which the women of the
lower clafs wear about their arms and necks. The
largeft fort are ufed for making rofaries. This work
is performed with great difpatch, the artifan taking a
whole handful of thefe tubes at once, and breaking
them off one after another with an iron tool. Thefe
Ihort cylinders are mixed with a kind of allies, and put
over the fire in an iron pan ; and when the two ends
begin to melt, by ftirring them about with an iron
wire, they are brought to a round figure ; but care is
taken not to leave them too long over the fire, left the
hole through which they are to be ftrung fhould be en¬
tirely clofed by the melting of the glafs. There are
leveral ftreets at hrancefco de Vigna entirely inha¬
bited by people whofe foie occupation is to make and
firing thefe margaritini.
MARGATE, a fea-port town of Kent, on the
north fide of the ifle of Thanet, near the North Fore¬
land. It is noted for (hipping vaft quantities of corn
(moft, if not all, the product of that ifland) for Lon¬
don ; and has a fait-water bath at the poft-houfe,
which has performed great cures in nervous and para¬
lytic cafes, and numbnefs of the limbs. It lies in St
John’s parifli, which is a member of the port of Dover,
at the diftance of 14 miles, 12 from Canterbury, and
72 from London •, and in the fummer feafon is fre¬
quented for fea bathing, having become one of the
principal watering places for the idle, the opulent, and
the invalid, where they meet with every requifite ac¬
commodation •, and the adjacent country abounds with
moft extenfive profpefts and pleafant rides. E. Long.
I. 30. N. Lat. 51. 24.
MARHATTAS, Merhattahs, Marattas, or
[ 587 ] MAR
It was difcovered by Mahrattas ; a people of India, and by far the moft Marhattar
confiderable of all the Hindoo powers. The Marhat- ‘—'V—^
tas boaft a very high antiquity j they profefs the reli¬
gion of Brama ; fpeak a dialeft of the Sanfcrit lan-
guage, in which they have introduced all the techni¬
cal terms of Pnogul adrsnniftration r, ule a charatfter
of their own in writing, though not very different
from fome of the other tribes around them j and are
divided into four calls or claffes of people, with the
various fubdivifions of profeftional diftinition found
oyer the reft of Hindoftan \ but with this remarkable
difference, that among the Marhattas every individual
may, as in facl he occafionally does, follow the life of
a foldier.
As a nation inhabiting immemorially the country
properly denominated Marhat or Merhat, and com¬
prehending the greater part of the Pailhwa’s prefent
dominions in the Decan, they were completely fubjuga-
ted, and afterwards for many centuries deprelfed, firft
by the Patans, then by the Mogul conquerors of Del¬
hi. At length, towards the end of Alemgeer’s reign,
they united, rebelled, and under the famous Sewajee ox
Seeva jee, a leader of their own tribe, laid the founda¬
tions of their prefent vaft empire, which has rifen gra¬
dually on the ruins of the Mahomedan power, as relat¬
ed under the article Hindostan.
Seeva-jee was fucceeded by his fon Rajah Sahou, who
confiderably extended the Marhatta dominions. When
Rajah Sahou grew old and infirm, and the fatigues of
government began to prefs heavy upon him, he appoint¬
ed Biffbnat Balajee, a Brahman born at Gokum, and
leader of about 25,000 horfe, to the office of Pailhwa
or vicegerent.
Rajah Sahou died without iflue, but left nephews
by his brother. The courage and wildom of Balajee
had gained him, during the latter years of the old
rajah, the affeflion and efteem of all the nation. But,
under an appearance of modefty and felf-denial, hL
prevailing paffion was ambition ; and the fentiments
of gratitude and loyalty were abforbed in the defira
to command. He made uie of the influence he had
acquired under his benefaftor fo firmly to eftablilh his
own power, that he not only retained the high office
of Pailhwa during his life, but tranfmitted it to his
polledty. The Marhattas, gradually forgetting a
prince they knew nothing of, became accultumed to
obey his vicegerent only ; yet a certain refpe6l for the
royal race, or the dread of the confequences of vio¬
lating the ftrong prejudice which the nation ftill re¬
tains in favour of the family of its founder, have ferv¬
ed perhaps to preferve it ; and the defeendants of
Rajah Sahou’s nephews yet exift, but are kept in cap¬
tivity in the palace at Sattarah. The eldeft is ftyled
Ram Rajah, or fovereign; his name is on the feal and
coin of the Marhatta Hate 5 but his perfon is unknown,
except to thofe who immediately furround him. He
refides in his fplendid prifon, encompaffed with the
appendages of eaftern grandeur, but debarred of all
power, and kept totally ignorant of bufinefs. The
feat of government was transferred from the ancient
royal refidence of Sattarah to Poonah *, and the ufur-
per, as well as his fucceffors, feem ftill to have afted
under the fuppofed authority of the depofed prince,
by their affuming no other title or chara&er than that
4 L 2 of
MAR [ 588 ] M A R
Marhattas. of Paifhwa or prime minifter. From this change, the
empire of the Ram Rajah has been diftinguifhed only
by the appellation of the Pai/hwafhip, or otherwise
the Government of Poonah, from the name of its prelent
capi‘al.
Biffonat Balajee was fucceeded as Pailhwa by his
elded fon Baiajee Row (called alfo J^ann Sci/i b, or iS'a-
nah Row), who left three fons, the eldeft of whom.,
Balaj-e Pundit, fometimes called Nanah Pundit, fuc¬
ceeded him. The two others were Rogobah or Rago-
nat R vv, and Shamlheer Row.
Balajee Pundit left two fom ; Mahadava Row', who
was Piifhwa twelve years j and Narrain Row, who luc-
ceeded him.
During the latter part of the life of Mahadava Row,
his uncle Rogobah was confined to the palace at Poo-
nah, for reaions with which we are not acquainted.
Mahadava Row died without iffue •, and upon the ac-
ceffion of Narrain his brother, a youth of about 19
years of age, Rogobah in vain applied to be releafed
from his confinement. He is therefore fufpe&ed of
having entered into a confpiracy with two officers in
his nephew’s fervice, Somair Jing and Yufuph Gardie,
in order to procure that by force which he could not
obtain by entreaty. The correfpondence between the
confpirators was carried on with fo much fecrecy, that
the court had not the leaft intimation or fufpicion of
their defign, till every avenue leading to the palace
had been fecured, and the whole building furrounded
by the troops under the command of thole two offi¬
cers. It is faid. that on the firft alarm, Narrain Row,
fufpetting his uncle, ran to his apartment, threw him-
felf at his feet, and implored his protedlion : “ You
are my uncle (faid he), fpare the blood of your own
family, and take poffeflion of a government which I
am willing to refign to you.”
Somair and Yufuph entered the room whilft the
young Paiffiu'a was in this fuppliajit pefture. Rogo¬
bah, \vith apparent furprife and anger, ordered them
to withdraw ; but as they either knew' him not to be
fmcere, or thought they had proceeded too far to re¬
treat, they (tabbed Narrain with their poniards whilft
he clung to his uncle’s knees.
The office of Paiffiwa being now vacant, the chiefs
of the nation then at Poonah were affembled, and Ro¬
gobah being the only furvivor of the family of Biffo¬
nat Balajee, to whofe memory the Marhattas in thofe
parts are enthufialtically attached, he was named to
fill it. Being naturally of a warlike temper, he re-
folved to undertake fome foreign expedition ; for be-
fides gratifying his paffion for the field, he probably
hoped, by the fplendour of his exploits, to draw off
the attention of the public from inquiring into the late
cataffrophe.
A pretence for war w’as not difficult to be found.
He renewed the claim of his nation to the chout, and
marched his army towards Hydrabad, the capital of
the Nizam. The vigour of his meafures procured him
an accommodation of his demand ; and he w’as pro¬
ceeding to enforce a fimilar one upon the Carnatic,
when he received intelligence which obliged him to re¬
turn haftily to Poonah.
Although the Marhatta chiefs had acknowledged
Rogobah as Paiffiwa, yet they and the people in ge¬
neral were much diffatisfied with his conduct. The
4
murderers of Narrain Row had not only efcaped pu-Marhattas.
niffiment, but, as was reported, had been rewarded. r—1
The crime was unexampled, and the perpetrators were
beheld with uncommon horror and deteffation. The
Paiffiwa had hitherto fo fully poffeffed the love of the
people, that, till then, guards were confidered as un-
neceffary about the perlon of a man whofe character
rendered him inviolable. Every one therefore had
free accefs to his palace, and he relied with confidence
for his fafety upon the affections of thole who approach¬
ed him.
Thefe reflections operated powerfully upon the minds
of the Marhattas ; but perhaps no violent conftquences
would have enfued, had it not been dilcovered, loon
after the departure of Rogobah from Poonah, that the
widow of Narrain Row', Ganga Baee, was pregnant.
This determined their wavering relolutions. Frequent
confultations were held among the principal men then
in the capital j and it was finally relolved to abjure the
allegiance they had fworn to Rogobah, and declare the
child, yet unborn, to be the legal fucceffor of the late
paiffiwa.
A council of regency was immediately appointed to
govern the country until the child ffiould become of
age \ and it was agreed to referve their deliberations,
in cafe it ffiould prove a female or die, till the event
ffiould render them neceffary. They who principally
condufted thefe meafures, and whofe names will on
that account be remembered, were Sackharam Babou
and Balajee Pundit, called alfo Nanah Pher Nevees
from his having been long the principal fecretary of
the Marhatta ftate. Nine other Marhatta leaders ap¬
proved of thefe meafures, and fwore to maintain them.
As the firft ftep towards the execution of their plan,
the w idow of Narrain Row was conveyed to Poorend-
her, a fort of great ftrength, fituated on a high moun¬
tain, about 25 miles from Poonah. As foon as Rogo¬
bah received intimation of this revolution, he march¬
ed back towards the capital. But discontent had al¬
ready infedted his troops 5 fome of the chiefs retired
to their eftates, and others joined the ftandard of the
regents. He how-ever riflced a battle with an army of
the revolters commanded by Trimbee Row, in which
the latter was (lain •, but though he obtained a vic¬
tory, the ftrength of the confederates daily increafed,
while his own troops were diminiffied by continual de-
ferti'ms. He therefore found it neceffary to retire to
Ugein, and to folicit the aififtance of the Marhatta
chiefs Scindia and Holkar ; but meeting with a refu-
fal, he went to Surat, and applied for iuccour to the
Engliffi.
Rogobah’s fuccefs in this application was the caufe
of two wars with the Marhatta ftate j which, after
much wafte of blood and treafure, we w'ere obliged to
conclude byrelinquiftiing his claim, and acknow ledging
as legal paiffiwa the fon of Narrain Row, who was born
about feven months after the death of his father. See
India and Hindostan.
The Marhatta dominions, as already obferved, are
governed by a number of feparate chiefs, all of whom
acknowledge the Ram Rajah as their fovereign ; and
all except Moodajee Boonfalah, own the paiffiwa as
his vicegerent. The country immediately fubjeft to
the paiffiwa, including all the hereditary territories
that were left by the Rajah Sahou to the Ram Rajah,
MAR [ 589 ] MAR
Harhattas anj thofe that have been acquired and added to them
—  fince in his name, extends along the coait nearly from
Goa to Cambay j on the fouth it borders on the pof-
feffions of Tippoo Saib, eaftward on thofe of the Ni¬
zam and of the Marhatta rajah of Berar, and towards
the north on thole of the Marhatta chiefs Scindia and
Holkar.
Moodajee Boonfalah, rajah of Berar, pofleffed, be¬
tides Berar, the greateft part of Orixa. This prince
being defcended from the Ime of the Ram Rajah, eyes
the power of the pailhwa, by whom a branch of his
family is kept in ignominious confinement, with ill
will •, has often refuted to fupport his meafures ; and,
on fome occafions, has even leemed inclined to adt a-
gainft him.
Next to Moodajee, in point of importance, mull: be
ranked Madajee bcindia, a bold and afpiring chief, who
polTeffes the greateft part of the extenfive foubadary or
government of Malva, together with part of the pro¬
vince of Candeilh. The remainder is under the domi¬
nion of Holkar. Both he and Scindia pretend to be
defcended from the ancient kings of Malva. Scindia
refides chiefly at Ugein, near the city of Mundu, once
the capital of thefe kings ; and Holkar at Indoor, a
town little more than 30 miles weft of it. The domi¬
nions of thefe, and of fome chiefs of lefs confequence,
extend as far as the river Jumna.
The meafures purfued by the Marhattas for fome
years left little room to doubt that they afpired at the
fovereignty of all Hindoftan, or at leaft at the expul-
fion of the Mohamedan princes : And in this laft de-
AnHiflo-they appear to have fucceeded *, and to have
icaland gained a great acceffion of territory, through the arms
'ohtical 0f Scindia, both by the capture of the cities of Agra
kcan tke D'dhi, with their territorial dependencies, and the
confequent captivity of the unfortunate monarch who
ruled there as the laft imperial reprefentative of the
great Mogul race of Timur. “ The whole of the do¬
minion thus newly eftablilhed is of vaft extent, ftretch-
ing near 1200 miles aleng the frontiers of Tippoo and
the Nizam in a north-eaft direction, from Goa on the
Malabar coaft to Balafore in Oriffa adjoining to Ben¬
gal ; and from thence north-wefterly 1000 miles more,
touching the confines of the Britilh and allied ftates,
on the borders of the Ganges and Jumna, to the ter¬
ritory of the Seiks at Paniput, rendered famous in
1761 for the laft memorable defeat fuftained by the
Marhattas in their ambitious conteft for empire with
the united declining power of the Mohamedans. From
this place in a foutherly courfe, with great encroach¬
ment on the old eaftern boundary of the Rajepoot
country of Ajmere, it runs about 260 miles to the
little Hindoo principality of Kotta, and thence fouth-
wefterly 540 miles further to the extreme point of
the foubah of Gujerat at Duarka, including the whole
of that fertile province ; from whei^ce, along the fea-
coafts of Cambay and Malabar to Goa, the diftance
may be reckoned 800 miles. Thus the overgrown
empire of the Marhattas may be faid to extend eaft
19 degrees of longitude, near the parallel of 22 de¬
grees north latitude, from the mouths of the Indus
to thofe of the Ganges j and about 13 degrees of la¬
titude north, from the Kiftnah to Paniput j compre¬
hending at leaft an area of 400,000 fquare geogra¬
phical miles, being confiderably more than a third part
of Hindoftan, including the Decan, and equal per- Marhatta*
haps in dimenfions to all the Britilh and allied ftates T j!
in India, with thofe of Golconda and My fore, taken Mari‘l0ne-,
together.
Such w'as the ftate of affairs in India fo far as the
Marhattas were concerned a few years ago. By con-
fulting the hiftory of India, the reader will obferve,
that the power and dominion of thefe enterprifing chiefs
have been fince greatly abridged by the fuccefsful pro-
grels of the Britilh arms. Set India.
MARIA, or Sancta Maria, an ifland of the In¬
dian ocean, lying about five miles eaft from Madagaf-
car. It is about 27 miles long and five broad $ well
watered, and lurrounded by rocks. The air is ex¬
tremely moift, for it rains almoft every day. It is in¬
habited by 500 or 6oo negroes, but feldum vifited by
ftiips.
Maria, St, a confiderable town of South America,
in the audience of Panama, built by the Spaniards after
they had difcovered the gold mines near it, and loon
after taken by the Engiiih. It is feated at the bottom
of the gulf of St Michael, at the mouth of a river of
the fame name ; which is navigable, and the largeft
that falls into the gulf. The Spaniards come here
every year in the dry feafon, which continues three
months, to gather the gold dull out of the fands of the
neighbouring ftreams ■, and carry away great quantities.
W. Long. 148. 30. N. Lat. 7. o.
Maria, St, a handfome and confiderable town of
Spain, in Andalufia, wdth a fmall caftle. It was taken
by the Englilh and Dutch in 1702, for the archduke
of Auftria. It is feated on the Guadaleta, at the mouth
of which is a tower and a clofe battery. W. Long.
5. 33. N. Lat. 36. 35.
MARIAN islands. See LADRONE IJlamUi
MARIANA, John, a learned Spanilh hiftorian,.
born at Talavera in the diocefe of Toledo. He entered
among the Jefuitsin 1554, at 17 years of age j and be¬
came one of the moft learned men of his time. He
was a great divine, a good humanift, and profoundly
verfed in ecclefiaftical as well as profane hiftory. He
taught at Rome, in Sicily, at Paris, and in Spain 5 and
died at Toledo in 1624. His principal works are,
1. An excellent hiftory of Spain in 30 books: which
he himfelf tranftaled from the Latin into Spanilh, with¬
out lervilely following his own Latin edition. 2. Scho~
Ha, or ftiort notes on the Bible. 3. A treatife on the
changes the fpecie has undergone in Spain j for which
he was thrown into prifon by the duke of Lerma, the
Spanilh minifter. 4. A famous treatife De rege et re-
gis injlitutione, which made much noife, and was con¬
demned by the parliament of Paris to be burnt by the
hands of the common hangman, for his afferting in
that work, that it is lawful to murder tyrants. 5. A
work on the faults of the government of the fociety
of Jefuits, which has been tranflated into Spanilh, La¬
tin, Italian, French, &c.
MARIANUS scotus, an Irifh monk, was related
to the venerable Bede, and wrote a chronicle which
is efteemed. He died in the abbey of Fuld in io86„
aged 58.
MARIBONE, or St Mary le Bone, or rather
Borne, from the neighbouring brook, a parifii of Mid-
dlefex, on the north-weft fide of London. The manor
appears to have belonged anciently to the bilhop of;
London*.
♦ X
MAR [ 590 ] M A R
Miirifaone London. The houfes in this pariih are very numerous,
II. comprifing feveral extenfive Greets and fquares, which
i. every year increafing. The Paddington road from
Iflington paffes through this parifli, which gives it
communication with the eaftern part of London with¬
out paffing through the ftreets. Here were three con¬
duits erected about the year 1238, for fupplying the
city of London with water j but anno 1703, when it
was plentifully ferved by the New' River, the citizens
let them out at 700I. a-year for 43 years. There
were two for receiving its water at the north eaft cor¬
ner of the bridge on the river Tyburn, and over them
Rood the lord mayor’s banqueting houfe, to which (the
ufe of coaches being not then known) his lordlhip and
the aldermen ufed to ride on horfeback, as their ladies
did in waggons. This banqueting houfe, after being
many years neglefted, was taken down in 1737, and
the cifterns arched over. This village, if it may
be called by that name, is joined by new buildings to
London. The old church, wdiich was a mean edifice,
was pulled down, and a new one erected in 1741.
Befides which it has a great number of chapels of every
feft and perfuafion, and an extenfive workhoufe for the
poor.
MARIDUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Demet£e in Britain. Now Caer Mardin, or Caer-
marthen, the capital of Caermarthenlhire.
MARIGALANTE, an ifland of North America,
and one of the leaft of the Caribbees, lies in N. Lat.
16. 32. and W. Long. 61. 5. from London, at the di-
ftance of four leagues from Guadaloupe, to the fouth.
The foil, produce, and climate, are pretty much the
fame as the other Caribbees. Columbus difcovered it
in his fecond American voyage in 1483, and called it
by the name of his ftiip Maria Galanta, or Gallant
Mary. It is about fix leagues long, and between
three and four broad. Viewed at a diftance from on
board a (hip, it appears like a floating ifland, becaufe,
as it is for the moA part flat, the trees feem to fwim $
but a nearer profpeft (hows it to be interfered by
fome rifing grounds, which give a fine variety to the
landfcape. The French fettled here in 1648 j and it
was taken by the Englilh in 1691, but the French
foon got poffeflion of it again. It was again taken by
the Britifh in 1759, but afterwards reftored at the
peace in 1763.—This ifland was thought on its firft dif-
covery, to want w'ater; but a charming running ftream
has in time been difcovered, no lefs convenient than
refreftring and wholefome, on the banks of which are
fome wealthy planters, and excellent plantations of fu-
gar. A little village in a fmall bay is the capital of
the ifland, and here the commandant refides. The
whole ifland is very capable of improvement; the foil
being almofl equally good, and the land rifing no¬
where too high. The coart affords many little bays,
and fafe anchorage and {belter to (hips.
MARiNE, a general name for the navy of a king¬
dom or ftate ; as alfo the '.'hole economy of naval affairs ;
or whatever refpe&s the building, rigging, aiming,
equipping, navigating, and fighting (hips. It compre¬
hends alfo the government of naval armaments, and
the ftate of all the perfons employed therein, whether
civil or military.
I he hiftory of the marine affairs of any one ftate is
a very comprehenfive fubjeft, much more that of all
nations. Thofe w'ho would be informed of the marl- Marine,Jj rif
time affairs of Great Britain, and the figure it has . Marinef)
made at lea in all ages, may find abundance of curious r
matter in Selden’s Mare Claufum ; and from his time to
ours, we may trace a feries of fadls in Lediard’s and
Burchet’s Naval Hiftory; but above all in the Lives
of the Admirals, by the accurate and iudicious Dr
Campbell.
M AR1NES, or MARINE Forces, a body of foldiers
railed lor the fea fervice, and trained to fight either in
a naval engagement or in an ad ion allr.re.
The great fervice of this ufefu] corps was maniftfted
frequently in the courfe of the war before laft, particu¬
larly a: the liege of Belleifle, where they acquired a
great charafter, although lately raifed and hardly exer-
ciled in military difeipline. At fea they are incorpo¬
rated with the Ihip’s crew, of which they make a part:
and many of them learn in a fhort time to be excellent
feamen, to which their officers are ordered by the ad¬
miralty to encourage them, although no lea officer is
to order them to go aloft again!! their inclination. In
a fea fight their fmall arms are of very great advantage
in fcouring the decks of the enemy ; and when they
have been long enough at fea to ftand firm when the
ffiip rocks, they mull be infinitely preferable to feamen
if the enemy attempts to board, by raifing a battalion
with their fixed bayonets to oppefe him.
The foie diredion of the corps of marines is veiled
in the lords commiflioners of the admiralty; and in
the admiralty is a diftind apartment for this purpofe.
The fecretary to the admiralty is likewife fecretary to
the marines, for which he has a falary of 300I. a-year;
and he has under him feveral clerks for the manage¬
ment of this department.
The marine forces of Great Britain in the time of
peace are ftationed in three divifions ; one of which is
quartered at Chatham, one at Portfmouth, and another
at Plymouth. By a late regulation, they are ordered
to do duty at the feveral dock-yards of thofe ports, to
prevent embezzlement of the king’s ftores, for which
a captain’s guard mounts every day ; which certainly
requires great vigilance, as fo many abufes of this kind
have been committed, that tnany of the inhabitants,
who have been long ufed to an infamous traffic of this
kind, expedt thefe conveyances at certain periods as
their due, and of courfe refent this regulation in the
higheft degree as an infringement of their liberties as
Britiffi fubjeds.
The marine corps are under the command of their
own field officers, who difcipline them, and regulate
their different duties. His late majefty in 1760 form¬
ed a new eftablilhment of marine officers, entitled, the
general, lieutenant-general, and three colonels of marines
(one for each divifion), to be taken from officers in the
royal navy. The two firft are always enjoyed by flag
officers, the laft byipoft captains only. This eftablifli-
ment was formed to reward fuch officers who diftin-
guilhed themfelves in the fervice of their country.
MARINE Difcip/ine, is the training up foldiers for fea
fervice, in fuch exercifes as the various pofitions of the
firelock and body, and teaching them every manoeuvre
that can be performed on board ftiips of war at fea. See
Exercise.
MARINE Chair, a machine invented by Mr Irwin
for viewing the fatellites of Jupiter at fea, and of
courfe
MAH [ 591 J MAR
Marine courfe determining the longitude by their eclipfes. An
Marino accoun,; ^ *s given in the Journal Ejlranger for
, March I'760. An account of its accuracy was pub-
lifhed the year following by M. de I’lfle altronomer in
the Imperial academy of Peterfburgh : but notwith-
ftanding the encomiums bellowed upon it by this gen¬
tleman, it hath never come into general ufe ; and there¬
fore we may conclude, that it is much inferior to the
inventions of Mr Harrifon for the fame purpofe. See
Harrison and Longitude.
MARINE Surveyor, is the name of a machine con¬
trived by Mr H. de Saumarez for meafuring the way
of a (hip in the fea. This machine is in the form of
the letter Y, and is made of iron, or any other metal.
At each end of the lines which conftitute the angle or
upper part of that letter, are two pallets, not much
unlike the figure of the log 5 one of which falls in the
fame proportion as the other rifes. The falling or
pendent pallet meeting a refinance from the water, as
the Ihip moves, has by that means a circular motion
under water, which L fafter or flower according as the
veiTel moves. This motion is communicated to a dial
within the Ihip, by means of a rope faftened to the
tail of the Y, and carried to the dial. The motion
being thus communicated to the dial, which has a bell
in it, it ftrikes exadlly the number of geometrical
paces, miles, or leagues, which the fhip has run.
Thus the (hip’s diftance is afcertained ; and the forces
of tides and currents may alfo be di^covered by
this inftrument: which, however, has been very little
ufed.
MARINE Acid, an old name given to muriatic acid,
which fee in Chemistry Index.
M R1NER, the fame with a failor or feaman. See
thefe articles.
Method of preferving the health of MARINERS. See
Seamen.
Mariner's ComRafs. See Compass.
St MARINO, a fmall town and republic of Italy,
fituated in E. Long. 13. 44. N. Lat. 44. 21. This
fmall republic confills only of a mountain, and a few
hillocks, that lie fcattered about the bottom of it. The
number of the inhabitants is about 5000. The moun¬
tain yields good w ine, but they have no other than rain
or fnow water. The founder of the republic was a
Dalmatian, and a mafon, who upwards of 1300 years
ago turned hermit, and retired to this mountain. Here
his devotion and aufterity, and, in confequi nee of that,
his reputation f r fanftity, were fuch, that the prin¬
ces of the country made him a prefent of the moun¬
tain ; on which many, out of veneration for the faint,
foon after took up their abode. Thus wa^ tin founda¬
tion laid of the town and republic, which dill bears
the name of the faint. The tow n (lands on the top of
the mountain, and there is only one way by which it
can be come at. In the whole territory are only three
cafiles. three convents, and five churches. The largeft
of the churches is dedicated to the faint, and contains
his alhes and his ftatue. He i* looked upon as the
greatell faint, next to the bleffed Virgin ; and to fpeak
difrefpe£lfully of him is accounted bl fphemy, and pu-
nilhed as fuch. The republic is under the protection
of the pope. All that are capable of bearing arms are
exercifed, and ready at a minute’s call. In the ordi¬
nary courfe of government, the adminiftration is in the
2-
hands of the council of 60, which, notwithftanding its Marino
name, confifts only of 40 ; one-half of the members of 11.^
which are of the noble families, and the other of the
plebeian: on extraordinary occafions, however, the ■ ^
arengo, in which every houle has its reprefentative, is
called together. The two principal officers are the ca-
pitaneos, who are chofen every half year 5 and next to
them is the commiflary, who judges in civil and criminal
matters, and is joined in commiflion with the capitane-
os; both he and the phyfician muff be foreigners, and
both have their falaries out of the public (lock. When
any perfon, after due fummons, negleCts to afliff at the
council according to their ftatute book, he is to be
fined in about a penny Englifti ; and when an ambaf-
fador is to be fent to any foreign (late, he is to be al¬
lowed about is. a-day.
MARINO, John Baptif, a celebrated Italian poet,
born at Naples in 1569. His father, who was an
able civilian, obliged him to ftudy the law' ; at which
being difgufted, he left his parents, and retired to the
houfe of the Sieur Manzi, who was a friend to all per-
fons of wit. He at length became fecretary to Mat¬
thew of Capua, great admiral of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and contracted a friendflrip with Taflb. A (hort
time after, he went to Rome, and entered into the fer-
vice of Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew to Pope Cle¬
ment Vlll. who took him with him to Savoy. Ma¬
rino was in great favour w ith the court of Turin ; but
afterwards created himfelf many enemies there, the
molt furious of whom was the poet Gafpard Murtola,
who, attempting to (hoot him with a piftol, wounded
one of the duke of Savoy’s favourites. Marino being
obliged to leave Turin, went to Paris at the defire of
Queen Mary de Medicis, and publiflred there his poem
on Adonis. He afterwards went to Rome, where he
w’as made prince of the academy of the humorifti j
from thence to Naples, where he died while he was
preparing to return home. He had a very lively ima¬
gination, but little judgment j and, giving way to the
points and conceits then in vogue, his authority, far
from correcting the falfe tafte of the Italians, ftrved
rather to keep it farther from reformation. His works,
which are numerous, have been often printed.
MARINES, an engraver, who flourilhed about the
year 1630, and refided principally at Antwerp. His
plates, Mr Strutt obferves, are executed in a very lin¬
gular ftyle, w ith the graver only : The (trokes are very
fine and delicate, and croffed over each other in a lo¬
zenge-like form, which he filled up with thin long dots.
His prints, though generally very neat, want the ftyle
of the mailer in the determination of the folds of the
draperies and the outline of the human figure j
the extremities of which are heavy, and not marked
with precifion. Fine impreflions from his belt plates
are, however, much fought after by collectors ; thofe
efpecially after Rubens and Jordans are held in high
ellimation.
MAR I ON IS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Germany : now Hamburg, a famous trading city on
the Elbe, in Lower Saxony, in the duchy of Holftein.
Another Marionis (Ptolemy), thought to be Wifmar,
a town of Lower Saxony, in the duchy of Mecklen-
burgh.
MARJORAM, See Origanum, Botany Index.
MARI IAGIUM. In the feudal cultoms, marita-
gittm
MAR r 59^2 1 MAR
Marita- gium (as contradiftinguiihed from matrimomum) figni-
gium, ges p0Wer which the lord or guardian in chivalry
.v ‘11^tKTIf’' had of difpoling of his infant ward in matrimony. For
while the infant was in ward, the guardian had the
power of tendering him or her a fuitable match with¬
out difparagement or inequality : which if the infants
refufed, they forfeited the value of the marriage, va¬
lorem maritagii* to their guardian •, that is, fo much as
a jury would affefs, or any one would bona fide give to
the guardian for fuch an alliance : and if the infants
married themfelves without the guardian’s confent,
they forfeited double the value, duplicem valorem ma-
ritagii.
MARITIME, fomething relating to, or bounded
by the fea. Thus a maritime province or country is
one bounded by the fea •, and a maritime kingdom is
one that makes a confiderable figure, or that is ve-vy
powerful at fea. Hence, by maritime powers among
the European Hates, are underilood Great Britain and
formerly Holland.
MARITIME State, in Britith polity, one of the three
general divifions of the laity : (See Laity). This
Rate is nearly connected with the military j though
much more agreeable to the principles of our free
conftitution. The royal navy of England hath ever
been its greateft defence and ornament $ it is its an¬
cient and natural ftrength •, the floating bulwark of
the ifland ; an army from which, however ftrong and
powerful, no danger can ever be apprehended to li¬
berty and accordingly it has been afliduoufly culti¬
vated from earlieft ages. To fo much perfeftion was
our naval reputation arrived in the I2th century, that
the code of maritime laws, which are called the laws
of Oleron, and are received by all nations in Europe
as the ground and fubftruftion of all their marine
conftitutions, was confeffedly compiled by our king
Richard I. at the ifle of Oleron on the coaft of France,
then part of the pofleflions of the crown of England.
And yet fo vaftly inferior were our anceftors in this
point to the prefent age, that even in the maritime reign
of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Edward Coke thinks it mat¬
ter of boaft, that the royal navy of England then con¬
fided of three and thirty Jhips. The prefent condition
of our marine is in great meafure owing to the falu-
tary provifions of the datutes called the navigation
aBs ; whereby the condant increafe of Englilh (hip¬
ping and feamen was not only encouraged, but ren¬
dered unavoidably neceffary. By the datute 5 Rich¬
ard II. c. 3. in order to augment the navy of Eng¬
land, then greatly diminifhed, it was ordained, that
none of the king’s liege people fhould fliip any mer-
chandife out of or into the realm but only in drips of
the king’s ligeance, on pain of forfeiture. In the
next year, by datute 6 Rich. II. c. 8. this wife provi-
fion was enervated, by only obliging the merchants to
give Engliflr (hips (if able and fufficient) the pre¬
ference. But the mod beneficial datute for the trade
and commerce of thefe kingdoms is that navigation
a£t, the rudiments of which were fird framed in 1650,
with a narrow partial view ; being intended to mortify
our . own fugar iflands, which were difaffe&ed to the
parliament, and dill held out for Charles II. by Hop¬
ping the gainful trade which they then carried on
xvith the Dutch, and at the fame time to clip the
wings of thofe our opulent and afpiring neighbours.
This prohibited all drips of foreign nations from tra- Maritimj
ding with any Enghlh plantations, without licenfe """""V —
from the council of Hate. In 1651, the prohibition
was extended alio to the mother country : and no
goods were differed to be imported into England, or
any of its dependencies, in any other than Englilh
bottoms ; or in the (hips of that European nation of
which the merchandife imported was the genuine
growth or manufadture. At the Redoration, the,
former provifions were continued, by Hat. 12 Car. II.
c. 18. with this very material improvement, that the
mafler and three-fourths of the mariners lhall alfo be
Englidi fubjefts.
Many laws have been made for the fupply of the
royal navy with feamen *, for their regulation when on
board •, and to confer privileges and rewards on them
during and after their fervice.
1. For their fupply. The principal, but the moft
odious, though often neceffary method for this pur-
pofe, is by impreffing ; fee Impressing. But there
are other ways that tend to the increafe of feamen,
and manning the royal navy. Parilhes may bind out
poor boys apprentices to the maders of merchantmen,
who (hall be protected from imprefling for the firft
three years *, and if they are impreffed afterwards, the
maders lhall be allowed their wages: great advantage*
in point of wages are given to volunteer feamen, in or¬
der to induce them to enter into his majedy’s fervice :
and every foreign feaman, who, during a war, dial!
ferve two years in any man of war, merchantman, or
privateer, is naturalized ipfio faBo. About the middle
of King William’s reign, a fcheme was fet on foot for
a regider of feamen to the number of 30,000 for a
condant and regular fupply of the king’s fleet •, with
great privileges to the regiflered men } and, on the
other hand, heavy penalties in cafe of their non-appear¬
ance when called for ; but this regiflry,- being judged
to be rather a badge of llavery, was abolilhed by flat.
9 Ann. c. 21.
2. The method of ordering feamen in the royal
fleet, and keeping up a regular difcipline there, is di¬
rected by certain exprefs rules, articles, and orders,
fird enaCted by the authority of parliament foon after
the Redoration ; but lince new modelled and altered,
after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, to remedy fome
defeCts which were of fatal confrquences in conducting
the preceding war. In thefe articles of the navy al-
mofl every poflible offence is fet down, and the pu-
nilhment thereof annexed : in which refpeCt the fea¬
men have much the advantage over their brethren in
the land fervice j whofe articles of war are not enaCt-
ed by parliament, but framed from time to time at the
pleafure of the crown. Yet from whence this diflinc-
tion arofe, and why the executive power, which is li¬
mited fo properly with regard to the navy, fliould be
fo extenfive with regard to the army, it is hard to
aflign a reafon : unlefs it proceeded from the perpetual
edablifliment of the navy, which rendered a permanent
law for their regulation expedient, and the temporary
duration of the army, which fubfided only from year
to year, and might therefore with lefs danger be fub-
jefted to difcretionary government. But, whatever
was apprehended at the fird formation of the mutiny
aft, the regular renewal of our Handing force at the
entrance of every year has made this didinftion idle.
For,
M A R [ 593 ] MAR
Maritime, por> Jf fram experience part, we may judge of future
_Marm~’ events, the army is now laftingly ingrafted into the
Britiflx conftitution j with this Angularly fortunate cir-
cumllance, that any branch of the legiflature may an¬
nually put an end to its legal exiftence, by refufing to
concur in its continuance.
3. The privileges conferred on failors, are pretty
much the fame with thofe conferred on foldiers, with
regard to relief, when maimed, or wounded, or fu-
perannuated, either by county-rates, or the royal hof-
pital at Greenwich •, with regard alfo to the exercife
of trades, and the power of making nuncupative teila-
znents; and farther, no feaman on board his majefty’s
ftiips can be arretted for any debt, unlefs the fame be
fworn to amount atleaft to twenty pounds ; though, by
the annual mutiny a£ts, a foldier may be arrefted for a
debt which exends to half that value, but not to a lefs
amount.
MARIUS, the famous Roman general, and feven
times conful, who fullied his great military reputation
by favage barbarities. He was born at Arpinum, of
obfcure and illiterate parents. He forfook the meaner
occupations of the country for the camp ; and ligna-
lized himfelf under Scipio, at the liege of Numantia.
The Roman general faw the courage and intrepidity
of young Marius, and foretold the era of his future
greatnefs. By his feditions and intrigues at Rome,
while he exercifed the inferior offices of the ftate, he
rendered himfelf known ; and his marriage with Julia,
who was ©f the family of the Csefars, contributed in
fome manner to raife him to confequence. He paired
into Africa as lieutenant to the conful Metellus againfl
Jugurtha ; and after he had there ingratiated himfelf
with the foldiers, and raifed enemies to his friend and
benefadlor, he returned to Rome and canvafled for
the confulffiip. The extravagant promifes he made to
the people, and his malevolent infinuations about the
conduft of Metellus, proved fuccefsful. He was ele£U
ed and appointed to finiffi the war againft Jugurtha.
He ffiowed himfelf capable in every degree to fucqeed
to Metellus. Jugurtha was defeated, and afterwards
betrayed into the hands of the Romans by the perfi¬
dy of Bocchus. No fooner was Jugurtha conquered,
than new honours and frelh trophies awaited IjJlarius.
The provinces of Rome were fuddenly invaded by an
army of 300,000 barbarians, and Marius was the on¬
ly man whofe adlivity and boldnefs could refill fo
powerful an enemy. He was eledted conful, and fent
againft the Teutones. The war was prolonged, and
Marius w as a third and fourth time inyelled with the
confulffiip. At laft two engagements were fought,
and not lefs than 200,000 of the barbarian forces of
the Am brunts and Teutones were flain in the field of
battle, and 90,000 made prifoners. The following
year, A. U. C. 651, was alfo marked by a total over¬
throw outlie Cimbri, another horde of barbarians j in
which 140.000 were flaughtered by the Romans, and
60,000 taken prifoners. After fuch honourable vic¬
tories, Marius with his colleague Catullus entered
Rome in triumph ; and for his eminent fervices he re¬
ceived the appellation of the third founder of Rome.
He was eledled conful a fixth time j and as his intre¬
pidity had delivered his country from its foreign ene¬
mies, he fought employment at home, and his reftlefs
ambition began to raife fedition?, and to oppofe the
VOL. XII. Part II.
power of Sylla. This was the foundation of a ci- Marius,
vil war. Sylla refufed to deliver up the command of
his forces, with which he was empowered to profe-
cute the Mithridatic war j and he refolved to oppofe
in perfon the authors of a demand w'hich he confidered
as arbitrary and improper. He advanced to Rome,
and Marius was obliged to fave his life by flight.
The unfavourable w inds prevented him from feeking
a fafer retreat in Africa, and he was left on the coaft
of Campania, where the emiflaries of his enemy foon
difcovered him in a marffi, wffiere he had plunged
himfelf in the mud, and left only his mouth above
the furface for refpiration. He was violently drag¬
ged to the neighbouring towrn of Minturnae ; and the
magiftrates, all devoted to the intereft of Sylia, paf-
fed fentence of immediate death on their magnani¬
mous prifoner. A Gaul was commanded to cut off
his head in the dungeon j but the ftern countenance of
Marius difarmed the courage of the executioner : and
when he heard the exclamation of Tune, homo, audex
occidere Caium Mariurn ? the dagger dropped from his
hand. Such an uncommon adventure moved the com •
paffion of the inhabitants of Minturnae. They releafed
Marius from prifon j and favoured his efcape to Afri¬
ca, where he joined his fon Marius, who had been
arming the princes of that country in his caufe. Ma¬
rius landed near the walls of Carthage, and he receiv¬
ed no fmall confolation at the fight of the venerable
ruins of a once pow erful city, which like himftlf had
been expofed to calamity, and felt the cruel viciffitude
of fortune. This place of his retreat was foon known ;
and the governor of Africa, to conciliate the favour of
Sylla, compelled Marius to fly to a neighbouring iiland.
He foon after learned that Cinfia had embraced his
caufe at Rome, when the Roman fenate had ftripped
him of his confular dignity, and beftowed it upon one
of his enemies. This intelligence animated Marius;
he fet fail to affift his friend only at the head of 1000
men. His army, however, was foon increafed, and
he entered Rome like a conqueror. His enemies were
inhumanly facrificed to his fury j Rome was filled
with blood ; and he, who once had been called the fa¬
ther of his country, marched through the ftreets of
the city, attended by a number of affaffins, who im¬
mediately flaughtered all thofe whofe falutations were
not anfwered by their leader. Such were the fignals
for bloodffied. When Marius and Cinna had fuffici-
ently gratified their refentment, they made themfelves
confuls ; but Marius, already worn out with old age
and infirmities, died fixteen days after he had been
honoured with the confular dignity for the feventh
time, A. U. C. 666. Such was the end of Marius,
who rendered himfelf confpicuous by his viftories and
by his cruelty. As he was brought up in poverty and
among pealants, it will not appear wonderful that he
always betrayed rufticity in his behaviour, and dtfpifed
in others thofe poliftied manners and that ftudied ad-
drefs, which education had denied him. He hated the
converfation of the learned only becaufe he was illite¬
rate-^and if he appeared an example of fobriety and
temperance, he owed thefe advantages to the years of
obfcurity which he paffed at Arpinum. His counte¬
nance was ftern, his voice firm and imperious, and his
difpofition untradable. He was in the 70th year of
his age when Jie died 5 and Rome feemed t© rejoice at
4 F the
M A R
Marius the fall of a man whofe ambition had proved fo fatal
Mark t° niany °f her citizens. His only qualifications were
.. -/ . thofe of a great general ; and with thefe he rendered
htmfelf the moll: illuftrious and powerful of the Romans,
becaufe he was the only one whofe ferocity feemed ca¬
pable to oppofe the barbarians of the north.
Ma RIUS, C. the fon of the great Marius, was as
cruel as his father, and lhared his good and his adverfe
fortune. He made himfelf conful in the 25th year of
his age, and murdered all the lenators who oppofed his
ambitious views. He was defeated by Sylla, and fled
to Praenefte, where he killed himfelf.
Marius, M. Aurelius^ a native of Gaul ; who,
from the mean employment of a blackfmith, became
One of the generals of Gallienus, and at laft caufed
himfelf to be faluted emperor. Three days after this
elevation, a man who had fhared his poverty without
partaking of his more prdfperous fortune, publicly af-
faflinated him, and he was killed by a fword which he
himfelf had made in the time of his obfcurity. Ma-
tius has been often celebrated for his great ftrength j
and it is confidently reported, that he could flop, with
one of his fingers only, the wheel of a chariot in its
moft rapid eourfe.
Marius, Maximus, a Latin writer, who published
an account of the Roman emperors from Trajan to
Alexander, now loft. His compofitions were enter¬
taining, and executed with great exa&nefs and fideli¬
ty. Some have accufed him of inattention, and com¬
plain that his writings abounded with many fabulous
and infignificant ftories.
MARIVAUX, Peter Carlet de, a French
writer in the dramatic way and in romance, was born of
a good family at Paris in 1688. A fine underftanding,
well improved by education, diftinguifhed him early.
H is firft objeiR was the theatre, where he met with
the higheft fuccefs in comic productions ; and thefe,
with the merit of his other works, procured him a place
in the French academy. The great charafteriftic of
both his comedies and romance was, to convey an ufe-
ful moral under the veil of wit and fentiment: “ My
only objeft (lays he) is to make men more juft: and
more humane and he was as amiable in his life and
converfation as he was in his writings. He died at Paris
in 1763, aged 75. His works confift of, 1. Pieces de
2heatre, 4 vols 12mo. 2. Homere travc/fi, 12mo *, which
is not fuppofed to have done much honour to his tafte.
3. Le Speclateur Franpois, 2 vols izmo. 4. Le Phi-
tofophe Indegent, 12mo. 5. Vie de Marianne, 2 vols.
12mo ; one of the heft romances in the French lan¬
guage. 6. Le Paysan Parvenu, i2mo. 7. Pkarfamon ;
inferior to the former.
MARK, St, was by birth a Jew, and defcended of
the tribe of Levi. He was converted by fome of the
apoftles, probably by St Peter ; to whom he was a con-
ilant companion in all his travels, fupplying the place
of an amanuenfis and interpreter. He was by St Pe¬
ter fent into Egypt, fixing his chief reiidence at A-
lexandria, and the places thereabout : where he was
fo fuccefiful in his miniftry, that he converted multi¬
tudes both of men and women. He afterwards remov¬
ed weftwards, towards the parts of Libya, going
through the countries of Marmorica, Pentapolis, and
Sifters thereabouts; where, notwithftanding the bar-
M A R
barity and idolatry of the inhabitants, he planted the
gofpeL . Upon his return to Alexandria, he ordered
the affairs of that church, and there fuffered martyr¬
dom in the following manner. About Eafter, at the
time the lolemnities of Serapis were celebrated, the
idolatrous people, being excited to vindicate the ho¬
nour of their deity, broke iri upon St Mark, while he
was performing divine fervice, and binding him with
cords, dragged him through the ftreets, ai d thruft him
into prifon, where in the night he had the comfort of
a divine vifion. Next day the enraged multitude ufed
him in the fame manner, till, his fpirits failing, he ex¬
pired under their hands. Some add, that they burnt
his body, and that the Chriftians decently interred his
bones and allies near the place where he ufed to preach.
This happened in the year of Chrift 68. Some wri¬
ters affert, that the remains of St Mark were after¬
wards, with great pomp, tranflated from Alexandria to
Venice. Hbwever, he is the tutelar faint and patron
of that republic, and has a very rich and {lately church
erefted to his memory. This apoltle is author of one
of the four gofpels infcribed with his name. See the
following article.
St MARK'S Gofpel, a canonical book of the New Tef-
tament, being one of the four gofpels.
St Mark wrote his gofpel at Rome, where he ac¬
companied St Peter in the year of Chrift 44. Ter-
tullian and others pretend, that St Mark was no more
than an amanuenfis to St Peter, who diftated this gof¬
pel to him ; others affirm, that he wrote it after St
Peter’s death. Nor are the learned lefs divided as to
the language it was written in $ fome affirming that it
was compoied in Greek, others in Latin. Several of
the ancient heretics received only the gofpel of St Mark :
others, among the Catholics, rtje&ed the 1 2 laft verfes
of this gofpel. The gofpel of St Mark is properly an
abridgement of that of St Matthew.
St MARK the Evangehji's Day, a feftival of the Chrif-
tian church, obferved April 25.
Canons of St Mark, a congregation of regular ca¬
nons founded at Mantua, by Albert Spinola, a prieft,
towards the end of the 12th century. Spinola made
a rule for them, which was approved, correfted, and
confirmed by feveral fucceeding popes. About the
year 1450 they were reformed, and followed only the
rule of St Auguftine. This congregation having flou-
riffied for the fpace of 400 years, declined by little and
little, and is now become extinft.
Knights of St MARK, an order of knighthood in
the republic of Venice, under the proteftien of St
Mark the evangelift. The arms of the order are,
gules, a lion winged or ; with this device, Pax tibi
Marce Evangelista. This order is never conferred
but on thole who have done fignal fervice to the com-
ftidnWealth.
Mark, or Marc, in commerce, denotes a weight ufed
in feveral ftates of Europe, and for feveral commodities,
efpecially gold and filver. In France, the mark is di¬
vided into eight otmees, 64 drachms, 192 deniers or
penny-weights, 160 efterlins, 300 mails, 640 felins, or
4608 grains. In Holland, the mark weight is alfo
called Iroy-vseight, and is equal to that of France.
When gold and filver are fold by the mark, it is divid¬
ed into 25 carats.
[ 594 I
Mark
MAR [ 595 ] MAR
SCarJc Mark is alfo ufed among us for a money of account,
II and in fome other countries for a coin. See MoNET-
Maribo- Tab^
m ^ ' - The Englifli mark is two-thirds of a pound fterling,
or 13s. 4d. ; and the Scotch mark is of equal value in
Scots money of account, viz. 13-fd.
MARKET, a public place in a city or town, in
which live cattle, provifions, or other goods, are fet
to fale ; and alfo a privilege, either by grant or pre-
fcription, by which a town is enabled to keep a
market.
Court of the Clerk of the MARKET, is incident to
every fair and market in the kingdom, to punifh mif-
demeanors therein j and a court of pie poudre is to de¬
termine all difputes relating to private or civil pro¬
perty. The objeft of this jurifdidion (fee flat. 17
Car. II. cap. 10. 22 Car. II. cap. 8. 23 Car. II. cap.
12). is principally the cognizance of weights and mea-
fures to try whether they be according to the true
ftandard thereof or not $ which ftandard was anciently
committed to the cuftody of the bithop, who appoint¬
ed fome clerk under him to infpedt the abufe of them
more narrowly ; and hence this officer, though now
ufually a layman, is called the clerk of the market.—
If they be not according to the ftandard, then, be-
fide the punifhment of the party by fine, the weights
and meafures themfelves ought to be burnt. This
is the loweft court of criminal jurifdiftion in the king¬
dom.
MARKLAND, Jeremiah, one of the moft learn¬
ed fcholars and acute critics of the age, was born in
1692, and received his education in Chrift’s hofpital.
He became firft publicly known by his Epijiola Critica,
addrefled to Rifhop Hare. In this be gave many
proofs of extenfive erudition and critical fagat" 5. He
afterwards publifhed an edition of Statius, and fome
plays of Euripides j and affifted Dr Taylor in his
editions of Lyfias and Demofthenes, by the notes which
he communicated to him. He has alfo very happily
elucidated fome paflages in the New Teftament, which
may be found in Mr Bowyer’s pdition of it ; and was
author of a very valuable volume of remarks on the
epiftles of Cicero to Brutus, and of an excellent little
treatife under the title of ^uejlio Grammatica. He
died in 1775, at Milton near Dorking in Surry ; and
was a man not more valued for his univerfal reading,
than beloved for the excellency of his heart and pri¬
mitive fimplicity of his manners.
MARLBOROUGH, a town of Wiltlhire in Eng¬
land, fituated near the fource of the Kennet, at the
foot of a chalky hill, 75 mdes from London. It has
its name from the chalky foil, which was formerly
called marl. It was a Roman ftation. In the year
1627 a parliament was held in the caftle here, which
made thofe laws called Marlborough ftatutes. There
are dill fome fmall remains ©f its walls and ditch.
I he town, which is an ancient borough by preferip-
tion, fends two members to parliament. It contained,
in 1801, 2367 inhabitants 5 and is governed by a
mayor, two juft ices, twelve aldermen, &c. It con-
fifts chiefly of one broad ftreet, with piazzas all along
one fide of.it, two parilh churches, and feveral com¬
modious inns, it being the grand thoroughfare from
London to Bath and Briftol. To the fouth are fome
relicks of a priory, particularly the Gatehoufe j and
the file of a Roman caftrum, the foundations of which Marlba,
have been difeovered there, with Roman coins. The r°ugh
ditch is ftill in fome parts 20 feet wide j and towards jytar ow
the river, without the garden walls, one angle of the y
caftrum is very vifible with the rampart and ditch en¬
tire. The mount at the weft end of the town, which
was the keep or main guard of the caftle, is converted
into a pretty fpiral walk j at the top of which is an oc¬
tagon fummer houfe. This town has often fuffered
by fire, particularly in 1690, whereupon the parlia¬
ment palled an aft to prevent its houfes from being
thatched.
Marlborough, Duke of See Churchill.
MARLBOROUGH-Fort, an Englilh taftory on the weft
coaft of the illand of Sumatra in Alia ; feated three
miles weft of the town of Bencoolen. E. Long. 101.
12. S. Lat. 4. 21.
MARLE, a mixture of calcareous with filiceous and
argillaceous earth, very much ufed in agriculture as a
manure. See Agriculture and Mineralogy In¬
dex.
MARLINE, in fea affairs, are tarred white Ikains,
or long wreaths or lines of untwifted hemp, dipped in
pitch or tar, with which cables or other ropes are
wrapped round, to prevent their fretting or rubbing in
the blocks or pulleys through which they pafs. The
fame ferves in artillery upon ropes ufed for rigging
gins, ufually put up in fmall parcels called Jlains.
MARLOE, Christopher, an Englith dramatic
author, was a ftudent in the univerlity of Cambridge ;
but afterwards turning player, he trode the fame ftage
with the inimitable Shakefpeare. He was accounted
an excellent poet even by Ben Johnfon himfelf. He
wrote fix tragedies, one of which called Luff’s Domi¬
nion, or the Lafcivious Queen, has been altered by Mrs
Behn, and afted under the title of Abdelazar, or the
Moor’s Revenge. Some time before his death, he had
made a confiderable progrefs in an excellent poem en¬
titled Hero and Leander : which was afterwards finifh-
ed by George Chapman, who is faid to have fallen
Ihort of the fpirit and invention difeovered by Marloe.
Mr Anthony Wood reprefents him as a freethinker,
in the worft fenfe of the word j and gives the following
account of his death. Falling deeply in love with a
low girl, and having for his rival a fellow in livery,
Marloe, imagining that his millrefs granted him fa¬
vours, was fired with jealoufy, and rulhed upon him
in order to ftab him with his dagger : but the foot¬
man avoided the ftroke, and, feizing his wrift, ftabbed
him with his own weapon j of which wound he died,
in the year 1593.
MARLOW, a town of Buckinghamlhire, in Eng¬
land, 31 miles from London, lies under the Chiltern
lulls, in a marly foil. It is a pretty large borough,
though not incorporated, with a bridge over the
Thames, not far from its conflux with Wycomb, and
has a handfome church and town-hall. It firft fent
members to parliament in the reign of Edward II.
Bone lace is its chief nianufafture. The Thames
brings goods hither from the neighbouring towns, efpe-
cially great quantities of meal and malt from High
Wycomb, and beech from feveral parts of the county,
which abounds with this wood more than any ifi Eng¬
land. In the neighbourhood are frequent horfe-racesj
and here are fcveral corn and paper-mills, particularly
4-F 2 on
M A R [ 59<5 1 MAR
Marlow, on the river Loddon, between this town and High
Mariy' Wycomb. There are, befides, the Temple-mills for
making thimbles, and another for preffing oil from rape
and Bax feeds. The population in 1801 exceeded 3000.
At Great Marlow there is an inftitution fupported
by government for the education of young men deftined
for the army. The pupils are entirely under military
difcipline, and are inftru&ed by able profeffbrs in the
various branches of education connected with mili¬
tary taftics.
MARLY, a palace belonging to the king of France,
between Verfailles and St Germain ; feated in a valley,
near a village and foreft of the fame name. It is
noted for its fine gardens and water-works, there be¬
ing a curious machine on the river Seine, which not
only fupplies them with water, but alfo thofe of Ver¬
failles. It is 10 miles north-weft of Paris. E. Long.
2. 11. N. Lat. 48. 52.
MARLY, Machine at. When Lewis the Great had
fixed upon a favourite fituation in the foreft of Marly,
where he intended to ereft a fplendid caftle, he found
that it wanted nothing either in point of beauty or con¬
venience but a fountain of water j and he immediately
determined to fupply by the afliftance of art what na¬
ture had denied it. An ingenious and felf-taught car¬
penter from Liege, named Rannequin, undertook to
conduct from the Seine a copious fupply of water, and
for this purpofe contrived and erefted the celebrated
and complicated machine which we are now to defcribe.
The machinery is driven by 14 underftiot water
wheels of 36 feet diameter, reckoning from the ends of
the floatboards, difpofed in three rows. In the firft row
there are feven wheels, in the fecond fix, and in the
third only one. By thefe wheels the water is railed
through pumps into the firft refervoir about 160 feet
above the level of the river, then to a fecond refervoir
346 feet high, and from this to the fummit of a tower
about 533 feet above the Seine.
The two extremities of the axle of each wheel extend
beyond the gudgeons on which they reft, and are bent
into a crank fo as to form a lever two feet long. The
crank which is towards the mountain drives the water
of the river into the firft refervoir, and the other crank
gives motion to the balances.
An engine of eight pumps is wrought by one of the
cranks of each of the fix wheels in the firft row.
Thefe engines confift of a balance, at each end of which
hangs a fquare piece of wood that fupports and direfts
four piftons. This balance is moved by a beam in the
form of a T, the horizontal part of which is connefled
at one end with the balance by the intervention of a
vertical regulator or beam, and at the other with the
crank of the wheel by means of a horizontal iron rod.
One of the cranks of each of the Jix wheels of the
firft row, (excepting that which is next the mountain),
and two of the cranks of the 14th wheel, or that in
the laft roAv, give motion to the pumps in the river,
and carry the water into the firft refervoir. This mo¬
tion is communicated from the cranks by means of an
iron rod which is fixed to the lower end of a vertical
balance. A horizontal regulator or beam is fixed to
each end of this balance, and to thefe regulators are
faftened chains which follow the declivity of the moun¬
tain till they reach the fuperior refervoirs. When the
1
wheel is revolving, therefore, one of thefe chains will Marly,
be dragged towards the river, and the other towards —v—
the mountain. In order to produce this alternate mo¬
tion, the chains are fupported and kept at equal diftances
by a number of vertical balances, placed along the
mountain at every three toifes, and moving upon a cen¬
tre fupported by a frame lying between the two chains
and equidiftant from them. When thefe chains reach
the firft refervoir they are fixed to vertical regulators,
which carry frames, to which are adapted the piftons of
the fucking pumps. Thefe regulators therefore will
be drawn one after another by their correfponding
chains; and when one regulator is drawn by its chain,
the pifton of the pumps which it carries will be raifed,
and the water will follow them : At the fame time the
piftons of the other regulator are defcending to form a
vacuum j and thefe in their turn afcend with their load
of water when the others are in the a£t of defcending.
In the pumps formerly mentioned which work in the
river, an effed is produced upon the piftons both when
they afcend and defcend, becaufe they are moved by
ftiff iron rods j but in the prefent cafe the piftons de¬
fcend merely by their own weight, as the motion is
tranfmitted only by a chain. By thefe pumps the wa¬
ter is conveyed to the upper refervoir by two conduit
pipes of eight inches, and three others of fix inches dia¬
meter.
r£\\e fixth wheel of the firft row, which is the firft to¬
wards the dam, moves a long chain which works the
pumps of one of the wells of the upper refervoir. The
feventh wheel gives motion to a chain which goes t«
the firft ciftern.
By means fimilar to thefe already deferibed, the fix
wheels of the fecond row move by each of their cranks
a chain that goes to the fecond refervoir, and eight of
thefe chains work 16 pumps behind it, to bring back
into the refervoir the water which is loft out of the fix
pipes th::t go to the tower. Thefe chains go over one
of the firft cifterns, and five of them at the fame time
give motion to the piftons of thirty pumps, whilft the
other chains go on ftraight to the great refervoir.
Thefe 30 pumps convey their water through two pipes
of 8 inches diameter into the upper refervoir. The
five chains, after working thefe 30 pumps, give motion
to the piftons of 82 pumps in the fecond refervoir which
raife the water from it to the tower.
The bafis of the towrer which receives the water raifed
from the river is 610 fathoms diftant from it; and the
water runs from this bafen along an aqueduft of36 arches
by its own weight. From this aquedudl the water is dif-
tributed into great refervoirs, from which it is conveyed
to the gardens and ftirubberies around the caftle.
The quantity of water raifed by this machine amounts
at a mean rate to 30,000 or 40,000 gallons per hour j
though in favourable circumftances it raifes more than
60,000 gallons per hour. But while the Seine either
overflows its banks, or is frozen, or when the water is
very low, the machine is fcarcely capable of performing
any work.
The yearly expence of the machine at Marly includ¬
ing the falariesof the fuperintendanls and the expences
of repairs, amounts to about 3300I. fterling, cr 9I. per
day, which makes the expence of 90 gallons of water
one farthing. But if we take into the account the
intereft
M A R [ 597 ] M A R
Marly intereft of 333,000!. the original expence of the ma-
i', chine, qo gallons will coil three halfpence, or 1 q gal-
Marebu- , ’ ^ r0., . r j j &
^un l«ns one larthing.
— y.i-i.' Notwithftanding the magnificence of this great ma¬
chine, and the ingenuity which is difplayed in its con-
ftruftion, every perfon who examines it with care, will
perceive innumerable defefts, whether he examines it
as a whole, or attends to the parts of which it is com-
pofed. In feveral pofitions the moving forces a£t with
great obliquity, and therefore occafion an immenfe
wafte of power 5 and in order to give an alternate mo¬
tion to a number of chains of balances extending to a
diflance of 3804 feet, more than nine-tenths of the
impelling power are deftroyed.
By a few changes upon the conftrudtion of the ma¬
chine, the water might have been railed from the
river to the tower without any intermediate refervoirs.
This appears from two experiments made upon the ma¬
chine in 1738 and 1775. In 1738 M. Camus attempt¬
ed to raife the water to the tower at once. He was
able, however, only to bring it to the bottom of the
tower which was confiderably higher than the fecond
refervoir. By this experiment the machine was fo
much itrained that feveral parts required chains to fecure
it. In 1775 the water was elevated to the fecond re¬
fervoir at one jet at different times, but from the age
and infirmity of the pipes feveral of them burft during
the experiment. Hence it is obvious that if the pipes
had been made ftronger, the firft refervoir and the ma¬
chinery connected with it might have been difpenfed
with ; and it is very probable that if the machine had
been conftrufled with more judgment, the water might
have been conducted at once from the river to the
tower.
MARMALADE, a confeflion of plums, apri¬
cots, quinces, &c. boiled up to a confiftence with fugar.
In Scotland, it is made of Seville oranges and fugar
only.
MARMANDE, a tow n of France, in the depart¬
ment of Lot and Garonne, containing about 4000 in¬
habitants. It carries on a great trade in corn and
wine, and is feated on the river Garonne, in E. Long,
o. 15. N. Lat. 44. 30.
MARMOR. See Marble.
MARMORA, the name of four iflands of Afia,
in the fea of the fame name. The largeft is about 30
miles in circumference 5 and the foil of them all pro¬
duces corn, wine, and fruits. The fea of Marmora
is a large gulf, which communicates both with the
Archipelago and the Black fea by that of Conftan-
tinople, being 1 20 miles in length and 50 in breadth ;
and all ihips muft pafs through it that fail to Conftanti-
nople from the Mediterranean. It was anciently the
Profionti?.
MARMOR1CA, a country of Africa anciently
inhabited by the Libyans. It was bounded on the
call by Egypt, on the weft by Cyrenaica, on the
fouth by Sahara, or the defert of Libya Interior, and
on the north by the Mediterranean ; and was reckoned
a part of Egypt.
MARNE, the name of two departments in France,
and alfo of a river which has its origin in one of them.
MAROBUDUN, in Ancient Geography, the royal
refidence of Marobuduus, king of the Marcomanni.
Now thought to be Prague, the capital of Bohemia.
MAROLLES, Michel DE, born in 1600, was Marolles,
the Ion of Claude de Marolles, whom French memoirs Maromte3‘
make a military hero. Michel, however, was of a v ”
different compofition. He entered early into the ec-
clefiaftical ftaie, and by the intereft of his father ob¬
tained two abbeys. He w-as formed with an extreme
ardour for ftudy, which never abated all his life long:
for, from 1619 when he publiihed a tranflation of Lu¬
can, to 1681, the year of his death, he was conftant-
ly employed in writing and printing. He attached
himfelf unfortunately to the tranflating of ancient La¬
tin writers : but, being devoid of all claflical tafte and
fpirit, they funk miferably under his hands, the poets
efpecially. He was certainly, however, a man of great
learning, and difcovered all his life a love for the arts.
He was one of the firft who paid any attention to prints;
and collected about 100,000, which make at this day
one of the ornaments of the French king’s cabinet. He
compofed memoirs of his own life, w hich w ere publilhed
by the abbe Goujet, 1755, in 3 vols.
MARONITES, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a feft of
eaftern Chriftians, who follow the Syrian rite, and are
fubjedt to the pope ; their principal habitation being on
Mount Libanus.
Molheim informs us, that the dodlrine of the Mo¬
nothelites, condemned and exploded by the council of
Conftantinople, found a place of refuge among the
Mardaites, a people who inhabited the mounts Liba¬
nus and Antilibanus, and who, about the conclufion
of the feventh century, were called Maronites, after
Maro their firft bilhop; a name which they ftil] retain.
None (he fays) of the ancient writers give any certain
account of the firft perfon who inftrudled thefe moun¬
taineers in the doctrine of the Monothelites : it is pro¬
bable, however, from feveral circumftances, that it
was John Maro, whofe name they had adopted ; and
that this ecclefiaftic received the name of Maro from
his having lived in the charadler of a monk in the fa¬
mous convent of St Maro, upon the borders of the
Orontes, before his fettlement among the Mardaites
of Mount Libanus. One thing is certain, from the
teftimony of Tyrius and other unexceptionable wit-
neffes, as alfo from the moft authentic records, viz.
that the Maronites retained the opinions of the Mo¬
nothelites until the 12th century, when, abandoning
and renouncing the dodlrine of one will in Chrift,
they were readmitted in the year 1182 to the com¬
munion of the R. man church. The moft learned of
the modern Maronites have left no method unemploy¬
ed to defend their church againft this accufaiion ; they
have laboured to prove, by a variety of teftimonies,
that their anceftors always perfevered in the Catholic
faith, in their attachment to the Roman pontiff, with¬
out ever adopting the doflrine of the Monophyfites,
or Monothelites. But all their efforts are infufficient
to prove the truth of thefe affertions to fuch as have
any acquaintance with the hiftory of the church and
the records of ancient times ; for to all fuch the tefti¬
monies they allege will appear abfolutely fidtkious and
deftitute of authority.
Fauftus Nairon, a Maronite fettled at Rome, has
pubFlhed an apology for Maro and the reft of his
nation. His tenet is, that they really took their name
from the Maro who lived about the year 400, and
of whom moatioa is mads in Chryfoftom, d hcodoret,
and
mar [ 598 ] MAR
IVUrobite-;, a-n;] the Menologium of the Greeks. He adds, that
. M'lrcqn. ' the difciples of this Maro fpread themfelves through-
• out all Syria j that they built feveral monafteiiee, and,
among others, one that bore the name of their leader j
that all the Syrians who were not tainted with herefy
took refuge among them ; and that for this reafon the
heretics of thole times called them Mamnites.
Molheim obferves, that the fubjebfion of the Ma-
ronites to the fpiritual jurifdibtion of the Roman pon¬
tiff was agreed to with this exprefs condition, that
neither the popes nor their emilfaries fhould pretend
to change or abolifh any thing that related to the an-
• cient rites, moral precepts, or religious opinions, of
this people, fo that in reality there is nothing to be
found among the Maronites that favours of popery, if
tve except their attachment to the Roman pontiff, who
is obliged to pay very dear for their friendfhip. For,
as the Maronites live in the utmoft diftrefs of poverty,
under the tyrannical yoke of the Mahometans, the
bifliop of Rome is under the neceflity of furniihing
them with fuch fubfidies as may appeafe their oppref-
fors, procure a fubfiftenee for their bifhop and clergy,
provide all things requifite for the fupport of their
churches, and the uninterrupted exercife of public
worfbip, and contribute in general to leffen their mi-
ftry. Itxis certain that there are Maronites in Syria
who ftill behold the church of Rome with the greateft
averfion and abhorrence j nay, what is ftill more* re¬
markable, great numbers of that nation refiding in
Italy, even under the eye of the pontiff, oppofed his
authority during the laft century, and threw the court
of Rome into great perplexity. One body of thefe
nonconforming Maronites retired into the valleys of
Piedmont, where they joined the Waldenfes j another
above 600 in number, with a bifhop and feveral eccle-
fiaftics at their head, fled into Corfica, and implored
the proteff ion of the republic of Genoa againfl the vio¬
lence of the inquifitors
The Maronites have a patriarch, who refides in the
monaftery of Cannubin, on Mount Libanus, and af-
fumes the title of patriarch of Antioch, and the name
of Peter, as if he feemed defirous of being confidered
as the fucceffor of that apoftle. He is elefted by the
clergy and the people, according to the ancient cu-
ftom ; but, fince their reunion with the church of
Rome, he is obliged to have a bull of confirmation
from the pope. He keeps a perpetual celibacy, as
well as the reft of the bifhops his fuffragans : as to the
reft of the ecclefiaftics, they are allowed to marry be¬
fore ordination ; and yet the monaftic life is in great
efteem among them. Their monks are of the order of
St Anthony, and live in the moft obfcure places in the
mountains, far from the commerce of the world.
As to their faith, they agree in the main with the
reft of the eaftern church. Their priefts do not fay
mafs fingly ; but all fay it together, ftanding round
the altar. ^ They communicate in unleavened bread ;
and the laity have hitherto partaken in both kinds,
though the practice of communicating in one has of
late been getting footing, having been introduced by
little and little. In Lent they eat nothing, unlefs it
be two or three hours before funrifing : their other
fallings are very numerous.
To MAROON, to put one or more failors afhore
upon a defolate ifland, under pretence of their having
5
committed feme great crime. This deteftable expedL MarcfiB
ent has been too often pra&ifed by fome inhuman eona- ^ li
manders of fhips. Marque.
MARO I, Clement, the beft French poet of his '
time, was born at Cahors in 1495 ; and was the fon
of John Marot, valet de chambre to Francis I. and
poet to (,tueen Anne of Brittany. He enjoyed his
father’s place of valet de chambre to Francis I. and
was page to Margaret of France wife to the duke
of Alen^on. In 1521 he followed that prince into
Italy, and was wounded and taken prifoner at the
battle of Pavia j but at his return to Paris was ac-
cufed of herefy, and thrown into prifon, from whence
he was delivered by the prote61ion of King Francis I.
He at length retired to the queen of Navarre, then
to the duchefs of Ferrara, and in *536 returned to
Paris : but declaring openly for the Calvinifts, he was
obliged to fly to Geneva j which he at length left,
and retiring to Piedmont, died at Turin in 1544,
aged 50. His verfes are agreeably filled with natural
beauties. La Fontaine acknowledged himfelf his dif-
ciple, and contributed greatly to rtftore to vogue
the works of this ancient poet. Marot, befides his
other works, has tranflated part of the Pfalms into
verfe, which was continued by Beza, and are ftill
fung in the Proteftant churches Michael
Marot, his fon, was alfo the author of fome verfes ;
but they are not comparable to thofe of John, and
much lefs to thofe of Clement Marot.——The works
of the three Marots were tollefted and printed toge¬
ther at the Hague in 1731, in 3 vols. 4to, and in
6 vols. l2mo.
MARPURG, a ftrong and confiderable town of
Germany, in the Upper Rhine, and in the landgra-
vate of Htffe Caffel, with an univerlity, a caftle, a
palace, a handfome fquare, and a magnificent town-
houfe. It is feated on the river Lohn, in a pleafant
country, 15 miles fouth of Waldeck, and 47 fouth-eaft
of Caflel. E. Long. 8. 53. N. Lat. 50. 42.
Marpurg, a town of Germany, in Lower Styria,
feated on the river Drave, 25 miles fouth-weft of Gratz,
and 60 north-eaft of Laubach. E. Long. 16. 10.
N. Lat. 46. 42.
MARQUARD, FreHER, an eminent German ci¬
vilian, born at Augfburg in 1565. He ftudied at
Bourges, under the learned Cujas , and acquired great
Ikill in polite literature, and in the laws. At his re¬
turn to Germany, he became counfellor to the eleflor
Palatine, and profeffor of law at Heidelberg j and was
afterwards fent by the eleiffor Frederic IV. as his mi-
nifter, into Poland, to Mentz, and feveral other courts.
He died at Heidelberg in 1614. He wrote many
works which are efieemed j the principal of which
are, 1. De re monetaria veterum Romanorum, et hodierni
apud Gertvanos imperii. 2. Rerum Bohemicarum fir ip-
tores. 3. Rerum Germanicarum Jcriptores. 4. Corpus
hiflorice Ffancier, isfe.
MARQUE, or Letters of MARQUE, in military af¬
fairs, are letters of reprifal, granting the fubje&s of one
prince or ftate liberty to make reprifals on thofe of
another.—They are fo called from the German marche
“limit, frontier-,” as being jus conceffum in alterius
pnncipis march as feu lunites tranfiundi, Jibique jus fa-
ciendi; as being a right of palling the limits or frontiers
of another prince, and doing one’s felf juftice.
Letters
MAR
* See Pre¬
rogative-
Marque, Letters of marque among us are extraordinary com-
Marqm.fas, niiflions granted by authority for reparation to mer-
chants taken and defpoiled by Grangers at fea 5 and re-
prifals is only the retaking, or taking of one thing for
another *. The form in thefe caies is, the fuft'erer
muft firft apply to the lord privy-feal, and he (hall
make out letters of requeft under the privy.feal j and
if, after fuch requelt of fatisfaftion made, the party
required, do not, within convenient time, make due fa-
tisfadfion or reftitution to the party grieved, the lord
chancellor fhall make him out letters of marque under
the great feal ; and by virtue of thefe he may attack
and feize the property of the aggreffor nation, without
hazard of being condemned as a robber or pirate.
MARQUESAS islands, the name of certain
iflands in the South fea, lying between 8 and 10
degrees of fouth latitude, and between 139 and 140
degrees of weft longitude. They are five in number,
viz. La Magdalena, St Pedro, La Dominica, Santa
Chriftina, and Hood ifland. All the natives of thefe
ifiands may be fuppofed to be of the fame tribe. Thole
fpots that are fit for culture are; very populous ; but as
every ifiand is very mountainous, and has many inac-
ceffible and barren rocks, it is to be doubted whether
the whole population of this group amounts to 50,000
perfons. The Spaniards, who firft vifited here, found
the manners of this people gentle and inoffenfive 5 but
thefe qualities did not prevent thofe who landed
from wantonly butchering feveral of the natives at
Magdalena.
The inhabitants of thefe iflands colle&ively, fays
Captain Cook, are, without exception, the fineft race
of people in the South fea. For fymmetry of fhape,
and regular features, they perhaps furpafs all other na¬
tions. Not a fingle deformed or ill-proportioned per-
fon was feen on the ifland ; all were ftrong, tall, well-
limbed, and remarkably a£tive. The men are about
five feet ten or fix feet high : their teeth are not fo
good, nor are their eyes fo full and lively, as thofe of
many other nations : their hair is of many colours, but
none red j fome have it long, but the moft general cu-
ftom is to wear it fhort, except a bunch on each fide of
the crown, which they tie in a knot : their countenan¬
ces are pleafing, open, and full of vivacity; they are of
a tawney complexion, which is rendered almoft black
by punftures over trie whole body. They were entirely
naked, except a fmall piece of cloth round their waift
and loins. The pun&ures were difpofed with the ut-
moft regularity, fo that the marks on each leg, arm,
and cheek, w-ere exaftly fimilar. The women, in two
days time, began to appear in confiderable numbers,
and the failors found them not lefs kind than thofe of
the other iflands which they had vifited : they were
inferior to the men in ftature, but well proportioned :
their general colour was brown ; no punttures were
obferved upon them j they wore a fingle piece of
cloth made of the mulberry bark, which covered them
from the fhoulders to the knees.
The principal head drefs ufed in the iflands, and what
appears to be their chief ornament, is a fort of broad fillet,
curioufly made of the fibr es of the hulks of cocoa nuts ;
in the front is fixed a mother-of-pearl fhell, wrought
round to the fize of a tea-faucer j before that another
fmallefr, of very fine tortoifefhell, perforated into cu¬
rious figures j alio before, and in the centre of that, is
[ 599 1
M A R
another round piece of mother-of-pearl, about the fizeMarquefas.
of half a crown j and before this another piece of per- V
forated tortoifefhell, the fize of a fhilling. Etlides
this decoration in front, fome have it alfo on each
fide, but in Imall pieces j and all have fixed to them
the tail feathers of cocks, or tropic birds, which, when
the fillet is tied on, ftand upright, fo that the whole
together makes a very Iprightly ornament. They
wear round the neck a kind of ruff or necklace made
of light wood, the outward and upper fides covered
with fmall peafe, which are fixed on with gum j they .
alfo wear fome bunches of human hair faftened to a
firing, and tied round the legs and arms. But all the
above ornaments are feldom feen on the fame perfon.
All thefe ornaments, except the laft, they freely part¬
ed with for a trifling confideration j but the human
hair they valued very highly, though thefe bunches
were the ufual refidence of many vermine. It is pro¬
bable, that thefe were worn in remembrance of their
decealed relations, and therefore were looked upon
with fome veneration ; or they may be the fpoils of
their .enemies, worn as the honourable teftimonies of
victory. However, a large nail, or iomething which
ftruck their eyes, commonly got the better of their
fcruples. The king, or chief of the ifland, came to
vifit Captain Cook : he was the only one feen com¬
pletely dreffed in this manner. Their ordinary orna¬
ments are necklaces, and amulets made of ftiells, &c.
All of them had their ears pierced, though none were
feen with ear-rings. The king had not much refpe£t
paid him by his attendants : he prefented Captain Cook
with fome fruit and hogs j and acquainted him that his
name was Honoo, and that he was he-ka-ai, which title
feems to correfpond with the arce of Otaheite, and
arekee of the Friendly Hies. Their dwellings are in
the valleys, and on the fides of the hills near their plan*
tations. They are built in the fame manner as thofe
at Otaheite, which will be particularly deferibed when
wre fpeak of that ifland ; but they are much meaner,
and are only covered with the leaves of the bread¬
fruit tree 5 in general, they are built on a fquare or
oblong pavement of iione, raifed fome height above
the level of the ground j they like wife have iuch pave¬
ment near their houfes, on which they fit to eat and
amufe themlelves. Along the uppetynoft edge of the
mountain a row of flakes or palifadoes, clofely con*
nedfed together, were feen like a fortification, in which,
by the help of glaffes, appeared fome thing like huts,
which feeraed to bear a great refemblance to the hip*
pas of New7 Zealand, which will be deferibed in fpeak-
ing of that country. Their canoes referable thofe of
Otaheite, but not fo large ; their heads had commonly
fome flat upright piece, on which the human face was
coarlely carved ; and their fails were made of mats,
triangular in fhape, and very broad at the top : the
paddles which they ufed were of heavy hard wood 5
fhort, but (harp-painted, and with a knob at the upper
end ; they were from 10 to 22 feet long, and about
15 inches broad.
Their weapons were all made of the club wood, or
ca!uarina \ and were either plain fpears about S or 10
feet long, or clubs which commonly had a knob at
one end. They have alfo flings with which they throw
ft ones with great velocity, and to a great diftance, but'
not with a good aim.
The
M A K [ 6‘
Marguefai. j'he language of thefe people is nmeh nearer to
W "v that of Otaheite than any other dialed't in the South
fea, except that they could not pronounce the letter 7\
ihe only quadrupeds feen here were hogs, except
rats ; here were fowls, and feveral fmall birds in the
woods, whofe notes were very melodious. The chief
difference between the inhabitants of the Marquefas
and thofe of the Society iflands feems to conlift in
their different degrees of cleanlinefs: the former do not
bathe two or three times a-day, nor wafh their hands
and face before and after every meal, as the latter do •,
and they are befides very flovenly in the manner of
preparing their meals. Their diet is chiefly vegetable j
though they have hogs and fowls, and catch abundance
of filh at certain times. Their drink is pure water, co¬
coa nuts being fcarce here.
It was not long before the propenfity of the natives
was difcovered to be rather to receive than give ; for
when they had taken a nail as the price of a bread¬
fruit, the article fo purchafed could not be obtained
from them. To remove this difhoneft difpofition. Cap¬
tain Cook ordered a muflcet to be fired over their heads,
which terrified them into fair dealing. *
Soon after the natives had gathered courage enough
to venture on board the fhip, one of them unfortu¬
nately ftole an iron ftancheon from the gangway, with
which he fprang into the fea, and, notwithftanding
its weight, fwam with it to his canoe, and was making
to the fhore with all fpeed. A mufket was fired over
his head to frighten him back, but to no effeft, he flill
continued to make off with his booty ; the w'hiftling of
another ball over his head was as ineffe&ual j an of¬
ficer, lefs patient of fuch an injury than reafon and hu¬
manity fhould have taught him to be, levelled a mufket
at the poor fellow, and fhot him through the head.
Captain Cook had given orders to fire ever the canoe,
but not to kill any one j he was in a boat, and came
up with the canoe foon after. There were two men in
her : one fat bailing out the blood and water in a kind
of hyfteric laugh 5 the other, a youth of about 14 or
15 years of age, who afterwards proved to be the fon
of the deceafed, fixed his eyes on the dead body
with a ierious and dejf<Fted countenance. This adt of
feyerity, however, did not eftrange the iflanders to the
Ihip, and a traffic was carried on to the fatisfaftion
of both parties j bread-fruit, bananas, plantains, and
fome hogs, were given in exchange for fmall nails,
knives, and pieces of Amfterdam cloth 5 red feathers
of the Amfterdam iftand were greatly efteemed here.
Captain Cook, accompanied by the gentlemen of the
fliip, in their walks about the country, lighted on
the houfe which had been the habitation of the man
who had been (hot j there they found his fon, who fled
at their approach; they inquired for hss female rela¬
tions, and were told that they remained at the top
of the mountain to weep and mourn for the dead.
Notwithftanding they were then among the relations
of a man who had been killed by them, not the leaft
tokens of animofity or revenge were difcernible amono
the natives.
The weather being extremely hot, the inhabitants
made ufe of large fans to cool themfelves, of which
great numbers were purchafed : the fins were for¬
med of a kind of tough bark, or gnfs, very firm¬
ly and curioufty plaited, and frequently whitened with
O ] MAR
fhell-lime. Some had large feathered leaves of a Marquefal
kind of palm, which anfwered the purpofe of an um- Marqueti
brella. —
Ihe natives at length became fo familiar as to
mount the fides of the ihip in great numbers. They
frequently danced upon the decks for the diverfion of
the failors : their dances very much refembled thofe
of Otaheite ; their mufic too was very much the
fame.
A failor having been inattentive to his duty, receiv¬
ed feveral blows from Captain Cook; on feeing which,
the natives exclaimed tape-a hei-te-tina, “ he beats his
brother.” From other inftances that had occurred,
it was clear that they knew the difference between the
commander and his people, but at the fame time they
conceived them all brethren $ and, fays Mr Forfter,
“ to me the moft natural inference is, that they only
applied an idea to us in this cafe, which really exifted
with regard to themfelves; they probably look on
themfelves as one family, of which the eldeft born is the
chief or king.”
MARQUETRY, Inlaid Work ; a curious kind
of work, compofed of pieces of hard fine wood of dif¬
ferent colours, faftened, in thin fiices, on a ground, and
fometimes enriched with other matters, as tortoife-fhell,
ivory, tin, and brals.
There is another kind of marquetry made, inftead of
wood, of glaffes of various colours ; and a third, where
nothing but precious ftones and the richeft marbles are
ufed : but thefe are more properly called mojaic work.
See Mosaic.
The art of inlaying is very ancient; and is fuppofed
to have paifed from the eaft to the weft, as one of the
fpoils brought to the Romans from Afia. Indeed it
was then but a Ample thing ; nor did it arrive at any
tolerable perfeftion till the 15th century among the Ita¬
lians : it feems, however, to have arrived at its height
in the 17th century among the French.
Till John of Verona, a cotemporary with Raphael,
the fineft wmrks ef this kind were only black and white,
which are what we now call Morefcos; but that reli¬
gious, who had a genius for painting, ftained his
woods with dyes or boiled oils, which penetrated them.
But he went no farther than the reprefentirg buildings
and perfpeftives, which requires no great variety of co¬
lours. fhofe who fucceeded him, not only improved
on the invention,of dyeing the woods, by a fecret which
they found of burning them without confuming, which
ferved exceedingly well for the ftiadows ; but had alfo
the advantage of a number of fine new woods of na¬
turally bright colours, by the difcovery of America.
With thefe afliftances the art is now capable of imita¬
ting any thing; whence fome call it the art of painting
in wood.
The ground whereon the pieces are to he ranged
and glued, is ordinarily of oak or fir well dried j and
to prevent warping, is compofed of feveral pieces glued
together. The wood to be ufed, being reduced into
leaves, of 'he thicknefs of a line, is either ftained w ith
foroe colour or made black for ftiadow ; which fome
effect by putting it in fand extremely heated over the
fire, others by fleeping it in lime water and fublimate,
and others in oil of fulphur.—Thus coloured, the con¬
tours of the piece are formed according to the parts of
the defign they are toreprefent.
This
MAR [ 6oi
Marquetry, This lafl is the moft difficult part of marquetry,
M^rqms. an(^ where;n moft patience and attention are re-
quired. The two clrief inftruments ufed herein are
the law and the vice ; the one to hold the matters to
be formed ; the other, to take off from the extremes,
according to occafion. The vice is of wood, having
one of its chaps fixed ; the Other moveable, and is open¬
ed and f.mt by the foot, by means of a cord faftened to
a treadfe, its ftrudture is very ingenious, yet fimple
enough.
The leaves to be formed (for there are frequently
three or four of the fame kind formed together) are
put within the chaps of the vice, after being glued on
the outermoft part of the defign whofe profile they are
to follow 5 then the workman pr'effing the treadle, and
thus holding-faff the piece, with his faw runs-over all
the outlines of the defign.—By thus joining and form¬
ing three or four pieces together, they not only gain
time, but the matter is likewife the better enabled to
fuftain the efforts of the faw •, which, how delicate
Soever it may be, and how lightly foever the work¬
man may conduft it, without fuch a precaution would
be apt to raife fplinters, to the ruin of the beauty of
the work.
When the work is to confifl: of one fingle kind of
^food, or of tortoife-fhell, on a copper or tin ground, or
vice verfa, they only form two leaves on one another,
i. e. a leaf of metal, and a leaf of wood or fhell: this they
call faxoing in counter parts ; for by filling the vacui¬
ties of one of the leaves by the pieces coming out of the
other, the metal may ferve as a ground to the wood,
tmd the wood to the metal.
All the pieces thus formed with the faw, and marked
to know them again, and the fhadow given in the man¬
ner already mentioned \ they veneer or fallen each in
its place on the common ground 5 ufing for that pur-
pofe the befl Englifh glue.
The whole is put in a prefs to dry, planed over, and
poliflied with the fkin of the fea-dog, wax, and fhave-
grafs, as in fimple veneering; with this difference, how¬
ever, that in marquetry the fine branches, and feveral of
the more'delicate parts of the figures, are touched up
and finifhed with the graver.
It is the cabinetmakers, joiners, and toymen, among
us who work in marquetry ; it is the enamellers and
flone-cutters who deal in mofaic works : the inftruments
ufed in the former are moflly the fame with thofe ufed
by the ebonifts.
MARQUIS, a title of honour, next in dignity to
that of duke. His office is to guard the frontiers and
limits of the kingdom, which were called the marches,
from the Teutonic word marche, a “ limit as, in
particular, were the marches of Wales and Scotland
while they continued hoftile to England. The perfons
who had command there, were called lordi marchers,
or marqueffes; whofe authority was aboliftied by flatute
27 Hen. VIII. c. 27. though the title had long before
been made a mere defign of honour, Robert Vere, earl
©f Oxford, being created marquis of Dublin by Rich¬
ard II. in the eighth year of his reign. A marquis is
created by patent ; his mantle is double ermine, three
doublings and a half; his title is moH honourable $ and
his coronet has pearls and ftrawberry leaves intermixed
round, o^equal height.
VOL. XII. Part II.
] MAH
M ARR, that part of Aberdeenfhire fituated between
the rivers Dee and Don.
M ARR AC Cl, Lewis, a learned Italian, was born
at Lucca in Tufcany in 1612. After having finifhed
his juvenile ftudies, he entered into the congregation
of regular clerks of the mother of God, and diftin-
guifhed himfelf early by his learning and merit. He
taught rhetoric feven years, and paffed through feveral
offices of bis order. He applied himfelf principally
to the ftudy of languages, and attained of himfelf the
knowledge of the Greek, the Hebrew, the Syriac, the
Chaldee, and Arabic ; which laft he taught lome time
at Rome, by the order of Pope Alexander VII.
Pope Innocent XI. chofe him for his conieffor, and
placed great confidence in him. He would have
advanced him to ecclefiaftical dignities, if Marracci
had not oppofed him.—Marracci died at Rome in
1700, aged 87.—He was the author of feveral pieces
in Italian ; but the grand work, which has made him
defervedly famous all over Europe, is his edition of
the Alkoran, in the original Arabic, with a Latin ver-
fion, notes, and confutation of his own. It was beau¬
tifully printed in two vols. folio at Padua in 1698. The
Latin verfion of the Alkoran, by Marracci, with notes
and obfervations from him and others, and a fynopfis
of the Mahometan religion, by way of introduction,
was publifhed by Heineccius at Leipfic, 1721, in
8vo. Marracci had alfo a hand in the “ Biblia facra
Arabica, facrae congregation is de propaganda fide julTu
edita, ad ufum ecclefiarum orientalium,” Romce, 1671,
in 3 vols. folio.
MARRIAGE, a contract, both civil and religious,
between a man and a woman, by which they engage to
live together in mutual love and friendlhip for the ends
of procreation, &c. See MORAL Philofophy,
Marriage is part of the law of nations, and is in
ufe among all people. The Romanilts account it %
Marr
Marriage.
facrament.—The woman, with all her moveable goods,
immediately upon marriage, paffes wholly in poicjla-
tem vin, into the power and difpofal of the huf-
band.”
The firft inhabitants of Greece lived together with¬
out marriage. Cecrops, king of Athens, is faid to
have been the firft author of this honourable inftitu-
tion among that people. After the commonwealths
of Greece were fettled, marriage was very much en¬
couraged by their laws, and the abftaining from it was
difcountenanced and in many places puniffied. The
Lacedaemonians were very remarkable for their feveri-
ty towards thofe who deferred marriage beyond a li¬
mited time, as well as to thofe who wholly abftained
from it. The Athenians had an exprefs law, that all
commanders, orators, and perfons intruded with any
public affair, fliouid be married men. Polygamy was
not commonly tolerated in Greece. The time of mar¬
riage was not the fame in all places. The. Spartans
were not permitted to marry till they arrived at their
full ftrength ; the reafon affigned for which cuftom by
Lycurgus was, that the Spartan children might be
ftrong and vigorous : and the Athenian laws are faid
to have once ordered, that men fhould not marry till
35 years of age. The feafon of the year which they
preferred for this purpofe was the winter, and particular¬
ly the month of January, called Gamelion. The Greeks
4 ^ thought
M A !’ r 602 ] MAR
Marriage, thought it fcandalous to contract marriage within cer-
tajn Agrees of confanguinity j whilft moft of the bar¬
barous nations allowed inceftuous mixtures.
Moft of the Grecian ftates, efpecially luch as made
any figure, required their citizens fhould match with
none but citizens, and the children were not allowed
to marry without the confent of their parents. The
ufual ceremony in promifing fidelity waskifting each
other, or giving their right hands, which was a gene¬
ral form of ratifying all agreements. Before the mar¬
riage could be folenmized, the gods were to be con-
fulted, and their afliftance implored by prayers and fa-
crifices, which were offered to fome of the deities that
fuperintended thefe affairs, by the "parents or neareft
relations of the perfons to be married. When the
vidlim was opened, the gall w'as taken out and thrown
behind the altar, as being the feat of anger and ma¬
lice, and therefore the aveifion of all the deities
who had the care of love, as well as thole who be¬
came their votaries. For the particularities relating
to the bride and bridegroom, fee Bride and Bride¬
groom.
The Romans as well as the Greeks, difallowed of
polygamy. A Roman might not marry any woman
■who was not a Roman. Among the Romans, the ka¬
lends, nones, and ides of every month were deemed un¬
lucky for the celebration of marriage, as was alfo the
feaft of the parentalia, and the whole month of May.
The moft happy feafon in every refpeft was that which
followed the ides of June.
The Roman laws (peak of fecond marriages in very
hard and odious terms : Mntre jam fecundis miptiis ft-
nejlata, L. iii. C. de fee. nuptih. By thefe laws it was
enadled, that the effetts of the hufband or wife de-
ceafed (hould pafs over to the children, if the furvi-
vor thould marry a fecond time. By the law Hac
ediB di (Cod. de fee. nupt.), the furvivor, upon mar-
rying a fecond time, could not give the perfon he mar¬
ried a portion more than equal to that of each of the
children. In the primitive church the refpeft to chafti-
ty was carried fo high, that a fecond marriage was ac¬
counted no other than a lawful whoredom, or a fpecies
cf bigamy ; and there are fome ancient canons which
forbid the ecclefiaftics from being prelent at fecond
marriages.
Marriage, by the Mofaic law, was fubjea to fe-
veral reftri&ions : thus by Levit. chap, xviii. ver. 16.
a man was forbid to marry his brother’s widow unlefs
he died without iffue \ in which cafe it became en¬
joined as a duty. So it was forbid to marry his wife’s
lifter, while Ihe was living, ver. 18.; which was not
forbidden before the law, as appears from the inftance
of Jacob.
The ancient Roman law is filent on this head ; and
Papinian is the firft who mentions it, on occafion of the
marriage of Caracalla. The lawyers w'ho came after
him ftretched the bonds of aftinity fo far, that they
placed adoption on the fame foot with nature.
Affinity, according to the modern canonifts, renders
marriage unlawful to the fourth generation, inclufive j
but this is to be underftood of dirt£l affinity, and not
of that which is fecond.ary or collateral. Affinis mei
affinii, non eft affinis mens. It is farther to be obferved,
that this impediment of marriage does not only follow
an affinity contra&ed by lawful matrimony, but alfo that
4
contracted by a criminal commerce; with the differ- M
cnee, that this laft does extend beyond the fecond ge¬
neration ; whereas the other, as has been obferved,
reaches to the fourth.
In Germany they have, a kind of marriage called
morganatic, wherein a man of quality contracting with
a woman of inferior rank, he gives her the left hand
in lieu of the right; and ftipulates in the contraCt that
the wife (hall continue in her former rank or condition ;
and that the children born of them (hall be of the
fame, fo that they become baltards as to matters of in¬
heritance, though they are legitimate in effeCt. They
cannot bear the name or arms of the family. None
but princes and great lords of Germany are allowed
this kind of marriage. The univerfities of Leiplic and
Jena have declared againft the validity of fuch con¬
tracts ; maintaining that they cannot prtjudiee the chil¬
dren, efpecially when the emperor’s confent intervenes
in the marriage.
The Turks have three kinds of marriages, and three
forts of wives ; legitimate, wives in kebin, and Jlaves,
ihey marry the firft, hire the fecond, and buy the
third.
Among all the favage nations, whether in Afia, A-
irica, or America, the wife is commonly bought by the
hufband from her father or thole other relations vvh®
have an authority over her ; and the conclufion of a
bargain for this purpole, together with the payment of
the price, has therefore become the ufual form or fo-
lemnity in the celebration of their marriages. The
Hebrews alfo purchafed their wives by paying down a
competent dowry for them ; and Ariftotle makes it one
argument to prove that the ancient Grecians were an
uncivilized people, becaufe they ufed to buy their
wives ; and in proportion as they laid afide their bar¬
barous manners they left off this praClice.
T he Engiith law confiders marriage in no other light
than as a civil contraft ; the holinefs of the matrimo¬
nial ftate being left entirely to the ecclefiaftical law', to
which it pertains, to punifti or annul inceftuous or other
unfcriptural marriages. The law allows marriage to
be good and valid, where the parties at the time of
making it were willing and able to contraCt, and ac¬
tually did contraCt, in the proper forms and folemni-
ties required by law. The difabilities for contracting
are of two forts : firft, fuch as are canonical, and there¬
fore fufficient by the ecclefiaftical laws to void the
marriage in the fpiritual court ; fuch as pre-contraCt,
confanguinity or relation by blood; and affinity, or re¬
lation by marriage, and fame particular corporal infir¬
mities. But thefe difabilities in our law do not make
the marriage ipjo faElo void, but voidable only by fen-
tence of feparation ; and marriages are efteemed valid to
all civil purpofes, unlefs fuch feparation isadually made
during the life of the parties. Thus when a man had
married his firft wife’s lifter, and after her death the
biffiop’s court was proceeding to annul the marriage
and baltardife the iffue, the court of king’s bench grant¬
ed a prohibition quoad hoc; but permitted them to pro¬
ceed to puniffi the hufband for inceft.
By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 38. it is declared, that all per¬
fons may lawfully marry but fuch as are prohibited
by God’s law, &c. And that nothing (God’s law
excepted) (hall impeach any marriage but within the
Levitical degrees: thefe are enumerated in the 18th
chapter
MAR [ 603 ] MAR
Marriage, chapter of Leviticus, and are illuftrated by Lord Coke
in this manner : a man may not marry his mother,
father’s fifter, mother’s fitter, filler, daughter, daugh¬
ter of his fon or daughter, father’s wife, uncle’s wife,
father’s wife’s daughter, brother’s wife, vvife’s fifter,
fon’s wife or wife’s daughter, and daughter of his
wife’s fon or daughter. And a woman may not marry
her father, father’s brother, mother’s brother, brother,
fon, ion of her hufband’s fon or daughter, mother’s
hufband, aunt’s hulhind, filler’s hutband, hufband’s
brother, and fon of her hufbind’s fon or daughter.
By the civil law firft coufins are allowed to marry j but
by the canon law both firft and fecund coufins are
prohibited. Therefore when it is vulgarly laid that
firil coufins may marry but fecond coufins cannot, this
probably arofe by confounding thefe two laws; for
firft coufins may marry by the civil law, and fecond
coufins cannot by the canon law. But by the fore-
faid flat. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 38. it is clear, that both
firfl and fecond coufins may marry. By the fame fla-
tute all impediments arifing from precontrafls to
other perfons were abolifhed, and declared of none
eflfecl unlefs they had been confummated with bodily
knowledge ; in which ca!e the canon law holds fuch
contrail to be a marriage de faflo. But this branch
of the flatute was repealed by 2 and 3 Ed. VI. c. 23.
How far the a£t of 26 Geo. II. e. 33. (which pro¬
hibits all fuits in ecclefiaftical courts to compel a mar¬
riage in confequence of any contract) may collaterally
expend to revive this claufe of Henry VIII.’s flatute,
and abolifh the impediment of precontract, Judge
Blackftone leaves to be confidered by the canoniils.
We fhall here obferve, that on a promife of marriage,
if it be mutual on both fides, damages may be reco¬
vered in cafe either party refufes to marry ; and though
no time for the marriage is agreed on, if the plaintiff
avers that he offered to marry the defendant who re-
fufed it, an aClion is maintainable for the damages ;
but no aClion fhali be brought upon any agreement
except it is in writing, and figned by the party to be
charged. The canonical hours for celebrating mar¬
riage are from 8 to 12 in the forenoon.
The other fort of difahilities are thofe which are
created, or at leaft enforced, by the municipal laws.
Tliefe civil.difabilities make the contra Cl void ab initio,
by rendering the parties incapable of formingany con-
traCl at all. The firft legal difability is a prior mar¬
riage, or having another hufband or wife living; in
w'hich cafe, befides the penalties confeqeent upon it as
a felony, the fecond marriage is to all intents and pur-
pofes void. See Bigamy and Polygamy.
The next legal difability is want of age : therefore
if a boy under 14, or a girl under 12 years of age,
marries, when either of them comes to the age of con-
fent, they may difagree and declare the marriage void,
without any divorce or f ntence in the fpiritual court.
However, in our law it is fo far a marriage, that if at
the age of confent they agree to continue together,
they need not be married again. Another incapacity
arifes from vrant of confent of parents or guardians.
By feveral flafutes, viz. 6 and 7 W. III. c. 6, 7, 8.
W. III. c, 35. 10 Ann. c. IQ. penalties of iccl. are
laid on every clergyman who marries a couple either
without publication of banns, which may give notice
to parents or guardians, or without a licenie, to ob¬
tain which the coi^fent of parents or guardians muff Marriage,
be fworn to. And by 4 and 5 Ph. and M c. 8. who- —"v—
foever marries any woman child under the age of 16
years, without confent of parents or guardians, fhall
be fubjeCl to fine or five years imprifonment ; and her
eftate during her hufband’s life fhall be enjoyed by
the next heir. Thus alio in France the funs cannot
marry without confent of parents till 30 y< ars of
age, nor the daughters till 25; and in Holland the
fims are at their own difpofal at 25, and the daugh¬
ters at 20. And by the marriage act, viz. 26 Geo.
II. c. 33. it is enaCled, that all marriages celebrated
by licenfe (for banns fuppofe notice), where either
of the parties is under 21, not being a widow or wi¬
dower, without the confent of the father, or if he
be not living, of the mother or guardians, fh 11 be ab-
folutely void. However, provifion is made where
the mother or guardian is non compos, beyond fea, or
unreafonably froward, to difpenfe with fuch confent
at the diferetion of the lord chancellor; but no pro¬
vifion is made in cafe the father fhould labour under
any mental or other incapacity. A fourth incapaci¬
ty is want of reafon. It is provided by 15 Geo. If.
c. 30. that the marriage of lunatics and fons under
phrenfies (if found lunatics under a commiffion or
committed to the care of truftees by any aft of par¬
liament) before they are declared of found mind by
the lord chancellor or the majority of fuch trullees,
{hall be totally void. Laflly, The parties mull not
only be willing and able to contra ft, but muft ac¬
tually contraft themfelves in due form of law, to
make it a good civil marriage. Any contraft made
per verba de preefenti, or in words of the prefent tenfe,
and in cafe of cohabitation per verba de futuro alfo
between perfons able to contraft, Was before the late
aft deemed a valid marriage to many purpofes, and
the parties might be compelled in the fpiritual courts
to celebrate it in facie eedefice. But thefe verbal con-
trafts are now of no force to compel a future marriage.
Nor is any marriage at prefent valid that is not cele¬
brated in fume parifh church or public chapel, unlefs
by difpenfation from the archbifhop of Canterbury.
It mull alio be preceded by publication of banns or
by licenfe from the fpiritual judge. A marriage in
purfuance of banns muft be folemnized in one of the
churches or chapels where the banns were publilhed.
No parfon, vicar, &c. (hall be obliged to publifh
banns of matrimony, unlefs the perfons to be married
{hall, feven days before the time required for the firft
publication, deliver to him a notice in writing of their
true names, and of the heufe or houfes of their re-
fpeftive abode w ithin fuch parifli, &c. and of the time
that they have dwelt in fuch houfe or houfes. And
the laid banns {hall be pubis Hied upon’three Sundays
preceding the folemnization of marriage during the
time of public fervice: in cafe the parents or guar¬
dians, or either of the parties who {hall be under the
age of 21 years, {hall openly and publicly declare, or
caufe to be declared, in the church or chapel where
the banns {hall be fo publithed, at the time of fuch pub¬
lication, their ciiiTent to luch marriage, inch publication
of banns' Hull be void. And when the. paries dwell
in divers parifiies, the curate of the one parifts Ih.dl not
folemnize matrimony betwixt then, without a certifi¬
cate of the banns being thrice alked Irom the curate
4 G 2 o£
MAR [ 604 ]
A marriage in purfuance of a of lividowlioocf.
MAR
Marriage, of the other parifli.
.-v— Jj'cenle (except a fpecial licenfej, muft be folemnized
in fuch church or chapel where the lieenfe is granted $
and no licenfe'of marriage {hall be granted by any
archbilhop, biihop, &c. to folemnize any marriage in
any other church, &c. than in the parifli church, &c.
within which the ufual place of abode of one of the
parties fhall have been for four weeks immediately be¬
fore the granting fuch licenfe. By the fame flatute
all marriages fhall be folemnized in the prefence of two
credible witneffes at the lead, befides the minifler, who
fhall fign their atteftation thereof; and immediately
after the celebration of every marriage, an entry there¬
of fhall be made in the parifh regifter, expreffing that
the faid marriage was celebrated by banns or licenfe ;
and if both or either of the parties be under age, with
confent of the parents or guardians, as the cafe fhall
be, figned by the minifter, and alfo by the parties
married, and attefted by the two witneffes prefent. It
is held to be alio eflential to a marriage, that it be
performed by a perfon in orders; though the inter¬
vention of a prieft to folemnize this contradl is merely
juris pofuivi and not juris naturalis autdivini; it being
faid that Pope Innocent III. was the fird who or¬
dained the celebration of marriage in the church, be¬
fore which it was totally a civil contra ft. And in the
times of the grand rebellion, all marriages were per¬
formed by the judices of the peace; and thefe marriages
were declared valid without any frefh folemnization, by
12 Car. II. c. 33. But as the law now Hands,, we may
upon the whole col left, that no marriage by. the tem¬
poral law is ipfo fatio void, that is celebrated by a per¬
fon in orders ; in a parifh church, a publie chapel, or
elfewh ere, by a fpecial difpenfation ; in purfuing of
banns or a licenfe between {ingle perfons ; confent-
ing ; of found mind ; and of the age of 21 years ;■ or
of the age of 14. in males and 12 in females, with
eonient of parents or guardians, or without it, in cafe
And no marriage is voidable by the Marriage,
ecclefiaftical law after the death of either of the par-   v—J
ties; nor during their lives, unlefs for the canonical
impediments of precontraft, if that indeed dill exids ;
of confanguinity ; and of affinity or corporal imbeci¬
lity fubfdling previous to the marriage.
By 26 Geo. II, c. 33. the fubdance of which has
been already recited, if any perfon ffiall folemnize ma¬
trimony in any other place than a church, &c. where
banns have been ufually publiffied,-unlefs by fpecial li¬
cenfe, or without publication of banns, unlefs licenfe
of marriage be fird obtained from fome perfon having
authority to grant the fame, every, fuch perfon know¬
ingly fo offending fhall be guilty of felony, and tranf-
ported for 14 years; the profeeution to be within
three years. By the fame datute, to make a falfe en¬
try into a marriage regider ; to alter it when made j
to forge or counterfeit fuch entry, or a marriage li¬
cenfe, or aid and abet fuch forgery ; to utter the fame
as true, knowing it to be counterfeit ; or to dedroy or
procure the dedruftion of any regider in order to va¬
cate any marriage, or fubjeft any perfon to the penal¬
ties of this aft ; all thefe offences, knowingly and wil¬
fully committed, fubjeft the party to the guilt of fe¬
lony without benefit of clergy. But this aft doth not
extend to the marriages of the royal family ; nor to
Scotland ; nor to any marriages among the people
called Quakers, or among perfons profeffing the'jeviffi
religion, where both the parties are Quakers or
Jews refpeftiyely ; nor to any marriages beyond the
feas.
In Scotland, the parties living together as hufband
and wife, or declaring themfelves fo before witneffes,
makes a valid though informal marriape. See Law,
Part III. N° 160.
For the proportions which marriages bear to births^
and births to burials, in feveral parts of F.urope, Mr
Derham gives us the following table.
Names of Places.
England in general - -
London - - _ _ _
Hantdiire, from 1569 to 1658 - - _
Tiverton in Devon dure from 1656 to 1664
Cranbrook in Kent, from 1560 to 1649
Aynho, in Northamptonfhire, for 118 years
Upminder in Effex, for 100 years
Franckfort on the Main, in 1695
Old, Middle, and Lower Marck, in 1698
Dominions of the eleftor of Brandenburg, in 1698
Breflaw in Silefia, from 1687 to 1691
Paris, in 1670, 1671, 1672 - - .
Marriages to
Births, as
to 4.63
to 4
to 4
to 3-7
to 3.9
to 6
to 4.6
to 3.7
to 3.7
to 3.7
to 4.7
Births to Bu
rials, as
1.12 to I
I. to 1.1
1.2 to I
I.26to I
1.6 to i
1.6 to 1
1.8 to I
1.2 to I
1.9 to 1
1.5 to 1
1.6 to 1
1.6 to I
Tfo
MAR
MAR [ 605 ]
Marriage. Marriage"
i—-y— J'JIC following TABLE, Jimilar to the preceding, is formed from the ohfervations collecled and referred to by Dr Price.v-^
Names of Places.
Marriages to
Births, as
Births to Burials, as
London, annual medium from 1716 to 1736
from 1759 to 1768
Northampton, ditto, from 1741 to 1770
Norwich, ditto, from 1740 to 1769
Shrewfbury, ditto, from 1762 to 1768
Manchefter and Salford, excluiive of diiTenters
Ditto, from 1755 to 1759
Ditto, ditto, including, diifenters, from 1768 to 1772
Gainfbomugh in Lincolnfhire,dittosfrom 17521:01771
Madeira, ditto, from 1759 to 1766
BolVm in New England, from 1731 to 1752
Chriftiana in Norway, in 1761
Paris, mean of iome of the laid years
Vienna, annual medium from 1757 to 1769
Vmlterdam, ditto, for fome of the laid years
Copenhagen, ditto
Berlin, ditto, for live years, ending at 1759
Breda w, ditto, from 1633 to 1734
■, ditto, from 1717 to 1725
Rome, ditto, from 17 >9 to 1761
Vaud in Switzerland, ditto, for 10 years before 1766
1 to 3.7
I to 4.68
1 to 4.3
1 to 1.9, &c.
i to 3.04, &c.
I to 3.9, &c
x to 3.9
i8,oco to 26,529, or 1 to 1.4, &c.
15,710 to 22,956, or 1 to 1.4, &.c.
155 to 191, or I to 1.2, &c.
I057 to 1206, or 1 to 1.1, &c.
301 to 329, or 1 to 1.09, &c.
756 to 743,.
1098 to 9,8, or 1.14, &c. to I.
1 26 to 105, or 1.2 to 1,
2 201 to 1293, or 1.7 to I.
538 to 608, or 1 to 1.13, &c.
11,024 to 6929, or 1,5 to I.
19,100 to 19,400, or I to x.oi, &c.
5800 to 6600, or 1 to 1.1, &e.
4600 to 8000, or I to 1.1, &c.
2700 to 3300, or 1 to 1.2, &c.
3855 to 5°54. or 1 to 1.3, &c.
1089 to 1256, or I to 1.15, &c.
1252 to 1507, or 1 to 1.2, &c.
5167 to 7153, or 1 to 1.3, &.C.
3155 to 2504, or 1.2, &c. to I.
For an account of the numbers of male and female
flillborn children and chryfoms, and of boys and girls
under ten, of married men and married women, and of
widows and widowers, who died for a courfe of years
at Vienna, Breflaw, Drefden, Leiplic, Ratifbon, and
fome other towns in Germany, fee Phil. Tranf. Abr.
vol. yii. part iv. p. 46, &c.
The reader may land many curious calculations and
remarks relating to this fubject in Dr Price’s excellent
work, entitled, Obfervations on Reverfionary Pay¬
ments. From the preceding table it appears, that
marriages, one with another, do each produce about
four births, both in England and other parts of Eu¬
rope. Dr Price obferves, thit the births at Paris, as
may be feeq in the table, are above four times the
weddings ; and therefore it may feem, that in the meft
healthy country fituations, every wedding produces
above four children ; and though this be the cafe in
Paris, for reafons which he has given, he has obferved
nothing like it in any other great town. He adds,
that from comparing the births and weddings in coun¬
tries and towns where regiders of them have been kept,
it appears, that in the former, marriages one with an¬
other feldom produce lefs than four children each 5
generally between four and five, and fometimes above
five } but in towns feldom above four, generally be¬
tween three and four, and fometimes under three. It
is neceffary to be obferved here, that though the pro¬
portion of annual births to weddings has been confi-
dered as giving the true number of children derived
from each marriage, taking all marriages one with an¬
other : yet this is only true, when, for many years, the
births and burials have kept nearly equal. Where
there is an excefs of the births occafioning an increafe,
the proportion of annual births to weddings jmift be
3’
lefs than the proportion of children derived from each
marriage ; and the contrary mull take place where
there is a decreafe : and by Mr K ng’s computation,
anout one in a hundred and four perfons marry ; the
number of people in England being eftimated at five
millions and a half, whereof about forty-one thoufand
annually marry.
In the dill riel of Vaud in Switzerland, the married
are very nearly a third part of the inhabitants.
Major Graunt and Mr King difagree in the pro¬
portions between males and females, the latter making
10 males to 13 females in London ; in other cities and
towns, and in the village- and hamlets, 100 males to
9.9 females : but Major Graunt, both from the Lon¬
don and country bills, computes, that there are in
England 14 males to 13 females •, whence he jullly in¬
fers, that the Chriltian religion, prohibiting polygamy,
is more agreeable to the law of nature than Mahome-
tanifm and others that allow it.
This proportion of males to females Mr Derham
thinks pretty juft, being agreeable to what he had ob¬
ferved himfelf. In the hundred years, for inftance, of
his own pariftr regifter of Upminfter, though the burials
of males and females were nearly equal, being 633
males and 623 females in all that time j yet there were
baptized 709 males and but 675 females, which is 13
females to 13.7 males.
From a regifter kept at Northampton for 28 years,
from 1741 to 1770, it appears, that the proportion of
males to females that were born in that period is 2361
to 2288, or nearly 13.4 to 13. However, though
more males are born than females, Dr Price has fuf-
ficiently fhown, that there is a confideranle difference
between the probabilities of life among males and fe¬
males in favour of the latter } fo that males are more
fixortlived;
MAR f 60S 1 MAR
Marriage, fhortllved than females; and as the greater mortality
W^V"T'“ ' of males takes place among children, as well as among
males at all ages, the faft cannot be accounted for
merely by their being more fubjedt to untimely deaths
by various accidents, and by their being addidted to
the exceflfes and irregularities which (horten life. Mr
Kerfleboom informs us, that, during the courfe of 125
years in Holland, females have in all accidents of age
lived about three or four years longer than the fame
number of males. In leveral towns of Germany, &c.
it appears that of 7270 married perfons who had died,
the proportion of married men who died to the
married women was 3 to 2 ; and in Breflaw for eight
years, a 5 to 3. In all Pomerania, during nine years
from 1748 to 1756, this proportion was nearly 15 to
11. Among the minifters and profeffors in Scotland,
20 married imm die to 12 married women at a me¬
dium of 27 years, or in the proportion of 5 to 3 ; fo
that there is the chance of 3 to 2, and in fome cir-
cumftances even a greater chance, that the woman
fhall be the furvivor of a marriage, and not the man ;
and this difference cannot be accounted for merely by
the difference of age between hufb mds and their wives,
without admitting the greater mortality of males. In
the diflrifl of Vaud in Switzerland, it appears, that
half the females do not die till the age of 46 and up¬
wards, though half the males die under 36. It is like-
wife an indifputable fa<ff, that in the beginning of life,
the rate of mortality among males is much greater than
among females.
From a table formed by Dr Price, from a regider
. kept for 20 years at Gainfborough, it appears, that of
thofe who lived to 80, the major part, in the proportion
of 49 to 32, are females. Mr -Deparcieux at Paris,
and Mr vVargentm in Sweden, have farther obferved,
that not only women live longer than men, but that
married women live longer than (ingle women. From
fome regifters examined by Mr Muret in Switzerland,
it appears, that of equal numbers of (ingle and married
women between 13 and 23, more of the former died
than of the latter, in the proportion of 2 to 1.
With refpe£t to the difference between the mortality
of males and females, it is found to be much lefs in
country pariihes and villages than in towns; and hence
.it is inferred, that human life in males is more brittle
than in females, only in confequence of adventitious
caufes, or of fome particular debility, that takes place
In poll (lied and luxurious focieties, and efpecially in
great towns.
Fiom the inequality above dated betw’een the males
and females that are born, it is reafonable to infer, that
one man ought to have but one wife ; and yet that
every woman without polygamy may have a hufband :
t-hi fur plulage of males above females being fpent in the
fupplies of war, the feas, &c. from which the women
are exempt.
^Perhaps, fays Dr Price, it might have been obferved
wiih more reafon, that this provifion had in view that
particular weaknefs or delicacy in the conftitution of
males, which makes them more fubjedl to mortality ;
and which confequently renders it neceffary that more
oi them tliould be produced, m order to preferve in the
world a due proportion between the two fexes.
T.hat this is a work of Providence, and not of
chance, is well made out by the very laws of chance
by Dr Arbuthnot; who fuppofes Thomas to lay againft Marriag
John, that for 82 years ru ning more males fhall be
born than females ; and giving all allowances in the
computation to Thomas’s fide, he makes the odds
againit Thomas, that it does not fo happen, to be near
five millions of millions of millions of millions to one;
but for ages of ages, according to the world’s age, to
be near an infinite number to one.
According to Mr Keiffe boom’s obfervations, there
are about 323 children born from ico marriages.
Mr Kerffeboom, from his obfervations, euimates the
duration of marriages one with another, as in the fol¬
lowing table.
Thofe whofe ages, taken together, make
40, live together between 24 and 23 years*
jo
60
70
80
90
100
22
23
*9
17
M
12
23
21
20
18
JJ
J3
Phil. Tranf. N° 468. fe«ff. iii. p. 319.
Dr Price has (hown, that on De Moivre’s hypothe-
fis, or that the probabilities of life decreafe uniformly
((ee COMPLEMENT of Life), the duration of furvivor-
fhip is equal to the duration of marriage, w'hen the ages
are equal; or, in other words, that the expectation of two
joint lives, the ages being equal, is the fame with the
expectation of furvivordiip ; and, confequently, the
number of furvivors, or (which is the fame, fuppofing
no fecond marriages) of widows and widowers, alive
together, which will arife from any given (et of fuch
marriages condantly kept up, wdll be equal to the
whole number of marriages, or half of them (the
number of widows in parti^ilar) equal to half the
number of marriages. Thus, the expectation of two
joint lives,'both 40, is thg third of 46 years, or their
complement, i. e. 13 years and 4 months ; and this is
alfo the expectation of the furvivor. That is, fuppqf-
ing a fet of marriages betw’een perfons all 40, they
will one with another lad jud this time, and the (ur-
vivors will lad the fame time. In adding together
the years which any great number of fuch marriages,
and their furvivordiips, have laded, the fums would
be found to be equal. ' It is obferved farther, that if
the number expreffing the expectation of fingle or
joint lives, multiplied by the number of fingle or joint
lives whofe expectation it is, be added annually to a
fociety or town, the fum gives the whole number living
together, to which fuch an annual addition would in
time grow : thus, iince 19, or the third of 37, is the
expectation of two joint lives whofe common age is
29, or common complement 37, 20 marriages every
year between perfons of this age would in 57 years
grow to 20 times 19, or 380 marriages always exiding
together. The number of furvivors alfo arifing from
thefe marriages, and always living together, would in
twice 37 years increafe to the fame number. More¬
over, the particular proportion that becomes ex inCl
ing together of fingle or joint lives, mud, wherever
this number undergoes no variation, be exaCtly the
fame with the expectation of thofe lives at the time
when their exiftence commenced. Thus, if it were
found
MAR [ 607 ] M - A R
Itfarrhge. found tiiat a 19th part of all the marriages among any
—v—— body of men whofe numbers do not vary, are diffolved
every year by the death of either the hufbanJ or wife,
it would appear, that 1,9 was at the time they were
contrafted, the expedition of thefe marriages. Dr
Price obferves, that the annual average of weddings
among the miniilers and profeflbrs in Scotland for the
lalt 27 years has been 31 ; and the average of married
perfons for 17 years ending in 1767, had been 667.
This number, divided by 31, gives 214-, the expedi¬
tion of marriage among them; which, he fays, is above
Zi years more than the expedition of marriage would
be, by Dr Halley’s table, on the fuppofition, that all
firtf, fecond, and third marriages, may be juftly conli-
dered as commencing one with another fo early as the
age of 30 ; and he has proved, that the expedition of
two equal joint lives is to the expedition of a finale
life of the fame age as 2 to 3 : confequently, the .ex¬
pedition of a fingle life at 30, among the mini fiefs in
Scotland, cannot be lefs than 32.25. If we fupppfe the
mean ages of all who marry annually to be 33 and 25,
the expedition of every marriage would be 19 years ;
or one with another they would be all extindf in 19
. years: the marriages which continue beyond this term,
though fewer in number, enjoying among them juft as
much more duration as thofe that fall ftiort of it enjoy
lefs. But it appears from the obfervatiom and tables
of Mr Muret, that, in the diftridl of Vaud (dividing
half the number of married perlons, viz. 38,328, by
the annual medium of weddings,’■"viz. 808), the expec
tation of marriage is only 23-J years : fo much higher
are the probabilities of life in the country than in towns,
or than they ought to be, according to De Moivre’s
hypothefis.
Marriage (Maritagwm), in Law, fignifies not on¬
ly the lawful joining of man and wife, but alfo the
right of bellowing a ward or a widow in marriage, as
well as the land given in marriage.
Dijfolution of Marriage. See Divorce.
Forcible MARRIAGE. See FORCIBLE Marriage.
Frank MARRIAGE. See Frank.
Ja&itation of MARRIAGE, in Law, is one of the firft
and principal matrimonial caufes, when one of the par1-
ties boafts or gives out, that he or fhe is married to the
other, whereby a common reputation of their matrimo¬
ny may enfue. On this ground the party injured may
libel the other in the fpin'tual court; and unlefs the de¬
fendant undertakes and makes out a proof of the a£lual
marriage, he or (lie is enjoined perpetual fi’ence on that
head ; which is the only remedy the eeelefiaftical courts
can give for this injury.
Marriage Settlement is a legal a6f, previous to mar-
riage, whereby a jointure is fecured to the wife after
the death of the hufiband. Thefe fettlements feem to
have been in ufe among the ancient Germans, and
their kindred nation the Gauls. Of the former Ta¬
citus give us this account : Dotem non uxor marito,
fed uxon maritus affert: interfunt parentes et propinqui,
et munera probant (De Mor. Germ. c. 18.). And Cse-
far (De Bell. Gallic, lib. vi. c. 18.) has given us the
terms of a marriage fettlement among the Gauls, as
nicely calculated as any modern jointure : Viri, quantas
pecumas ab uxoribus dotis nomine acceperunt, tantas ex
fuis bonis, cejhmatione fafla, cvm dotibus communicant.
Hujus omnis pecunice conjunblim ratio Labetur, frudufque
fervatur. liter eorum vita fiperavit, ad earn pars utri- Maniage
if quo cumfruBibus f/periorum temp arum pervemt. The H
dauphin’s commentator fuppofes that this Ganlilh cuf- fV1‘|rs' ,
tom was the ground of the new regulations made by
Jultinian, Nov. 97. with regard to the provifion for
widows among the Romans5 but lurely there is as much
reafon to fuppofe, lays Judge Blackftone, that- it gave
the hint for our ftatutable jointures. Comment, vol. ii.
p. 138.
See an excellent marriage fettlement by Blackftone
in the appendix to the fecond volume of his Commen¬
taries.
Duty of MARRIAGE, is a term ufed in feme ancient
cuftoms, fignifying an obligation on women to marry.
To underftand this, it muft be obferved, that old
maids and widows about fixty, who held fees in body,
or were charged with any perfonal or military fervices,
were anciently obliged to marry, to render thole fer¬
vices to the lord by their hufbands, or to indemnify
the lord for what they could not do in perfon. And
this was called duty or fcrvice of marriage.
Policy of encouraging MARRIAGE. Dr Halley ob¬
ferves, that the growth and increafe of mankind is
not fo much ftinted by any thing in the nature of the
fpecies, as it is from the cautious difficulty moft people
make to adventure on the ftate of marriage, from the
profpeft of the trouble and charge of providing for a
family ; nor are the poorer lort of people herein to be
blamed, who, befides themfelves and families, are
obliged to work for the proprietors of the lands that
feed them ; and of fuch does the greater part of man¬
kind confift. Were it not for the backwardnels to
marriage, there might be four times as many births as
we find ; for by computation from the table given
under the article Mortality, there are 15,00c per¬
fons above 16 and under 45, of which at lealt 7000
are women capable of bearing children ; yet there are
only 1238, or little more than a lixth part of thefe,
that breed yearly ; whereas, were they all married, it
is highly probable that four of fix fliould bring forth a
child every year, the political confequences of which
are evident. Therefore, as the ftrength and glory of
a kingdom or ftate confifts in the multitude of fub-
jedls, celibacy above all things ought to be difcoura-
ged, as by extraordinary taxing or military fervice j
and, bn the contrary, thofe who have numerous fami¬
lies ffiould be allowed certain privileges and immuni¬
ties, like thr jus trium liber or um among the Romans :
and efpecialiy, by efft&ually providing for the fublift-
ence of the poor.
MARROW, in Anatomy, a foft oleaginous fub-
ftance contained in the cavity of the bones. See Ana¬
tomy, N° 3.
MARRURIUM, White Horehound ; a genus of
plants belonging to the didynamia clafs j and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 42d order, Verticillatcc.
See Botany Index.
MARS, in Afronomy, one of the eleven planets,
fituated without the earth’s orbit, and remarkable for
the extent of its almofphere and the rednefs of its light.
See Astronomy Index.
The red colour of this planet, according to Mr * StlPPle-
Brewtter *, is owing to the fame caufe as the rednefs^chaptlls u
the morning and evening clouds. When a beam ofF^fifoAs
white light paffes through any medium^ its colour in- Ajtronomy,,
dinesVOi*1Ia •
M A II
[ 6c8 1 MAR
SJars, clines to red, in proportion to the fpace through which
Mariais. jt jias travelled, and the denfity of the medium. The
«momentum of the red or lead refrangible rays being
greater than that of the violet or moll refrangible rays,
the former will make their way through the refilling
medium, while the latter are either reflefted or abforb-
ed. The colour of the beam, therefore, when it reach¬
es the eye, mull partake of the colour of the lead re¬
frangible ray ; and the rednefs of this colour mud in-
creaie with the number of the violet rays that have been
ubdrudled. Hence we fee, that the fun, moon, and
dars appear red when in the horizon ; and that every
luminous objedl feen through a mid is oi a ruddy hue.
Now, the planet Mars is allowed to have an atmofphere
of great denlity and extent, as is manifed from the dim
appearance of the fixed dars that are placed at a con-
fiderable didance from his dilk. The fun’s light, there¬
fore, by which this planet is illuminated, having to pafs
twice through the atmofphere of Mars before it reaches
-the earth, mud be deprived of a great proportion of
the violet rays; and confequently the colour of the re-
fulting light by which Mars is vilible, mud be red.—
As there is a confiderable difference of colour among
the other planets, and likewife among the fixed dais,
are we not entitled to conclude, that thofe in which
the red colour predominates, have the greated or the
denfed atmofpheres ? According to this principle, Sa¬
turn mud have the next greated atmofphere to that of
Mars.
Mars, in Pagan worlhip, the god of war. He u-as,
according to feme, the fon of Jupiter and Juno; while
others fay that he was the fon of Juno alone, who be¬
ing difpleafed at Jupiter’s having produced Minerva
from his brain, without female aid, in revenge con-
. ceived without the afftdance of the other fex, by
touching a flower Ihnwn to her by Flora in the plains
of Oknus, and became the mother of this formidable
deity, '['he amours of Mars and Venus, and the man¬
ner in which Vulcan caught and expofed them to the
laughter of the other gods, have been deferibed by fe-
veral of the ancient poets. He is reprefented as hav¬
ing feveral wives and midreffes, and a confiderable
number of children. He was held in the highed vene¬
ration by the Romans, both from his being the father
of Romulus their founder, and from their inclination to
conqued j and had magnificent temples ere£tcd to him
at Rome.
Mars is ufually reprefented in a chariot, drawn by
furious horfes. He is completely armed j and ex¬
tends his fpear with the one hand, and grafps a
fword, imbrued in blood, with the other. He has a
fierce and favage afpe£l. Difcord is reprefented pre¬
ceding his car; and Clamour, Fear, and Terror, ap¬
pear in his train. The viftims facrificed to him were
the wolf, the horfe, the woodpecker, the vulture, and
the cock.
Mars, among the older chemids, denotes fron ; that
metal being fuppofed to be under the influence of the
planet Mars.
MARSAfS. Cesar Chesneau du, an eminent li¬
terary charafter, was born at Marfeilles 1676. He at¬
tached him fell at an early period of life to the order- of
the congregation of the oratory } but the fituation was
too nar- ow for his genius, and he loon left it. At Pa¬
ds he married, became advocate, and entered on this
new profeflion with great fuccefs and approbation. Dis¬
appointed, however, in his exp.stations of making a
fpeedy fortune, he abandoned the law alio. About this
time the peevifli humour oi his wile occafioned a repa¬
ration. We next find him as governor to the fon of
the prefident de Maifons ; and w hen the premature
death of the father deprived him of the fruits of his
indullry, he engaged with the famous Law in the fame
capacity. After the fall of this extraordinary pro¬
jector, he completed the education of the marquis de
JBeaufremont’s children, and reared pupils worthy of
his genius and indudry. Although he was accufed
of a tendency to Deifrn, and though there was good
reafon for the aecufation ; yet he never infufed into
the minds of his fcholars any principle inccnfident
with found morality, or with the Chridian religion.
When he left M. de Beaufremont’s family, he took a
boarding houfe, in which, after a method of his own,
he educated a certain number of young mm. Unex¬
pected circumdances obliged him to abandon this ufeful
undertaking. He was even condrained to give feme
occafional leffons for the bare neceffaries of life. With¬
out fortune, without hope, and almod without refource,
he was reduced to extreme indigence. In this fituation
he w'as found by the authors of the Encijclopeclie, and
made a partner in conducting that great work. Among
many other excellent pieces, the article Grammar
breathes the fpirit of found phildiophy. His principles
are clear and folid. He difeovers an extreme know¬
ledge of the fubjeCt, great accuracy in the rules, and
great propriety in the application. M. le Comte de
Lauraguais was fo much afbded with the didreffes,
and fo much convinced of the merit of Du Marfais,
that he procured him a penfion of ioco livres. Du
Marfais died at Paris on the nth of June 1736, in his
eightieth year, after having received the facrament.
The compliment which he paid to the pried on this
occafion has been confidered by fome as rather equivo¬
cal. But there is no neceflity to deprive religion of
this triumph, or philofophy of that honour which con¬
viction and penitence mud confer on it. “ The faith
of a great genius (fays Bayle, who is entitled to credit
on this fubjeCt), is not totally extingulfhed : It is like
a fpark under the adies. Reflection and the prolped of
danger call forth its exertions. There are certain fitu-
ations in which philofophers are as full of anxiety^and
remorfe as other men.” Whatever ware the lad lenti-
ments of Du Marfais, it cannot be denied that in the
vigour of health he furnidu-d ieveral examples of irreli-
gion, and to thefe have been added many abfurd dories.
The fuperiority of Du Marfais’s talents confided in ex-
fdnefs and perfpicuity. His ignorance of the world,
and of the cudoms of mankind, together with the
greated latitude in exprefiing whatever he thought,
gave him that frank and unguarded fimplieity which
is often the chief ingredient of genuine humour. Fon-
tcnelle ufed to fay of him, “ that he was the mod lively
fimpleton, and as a man of wit the mod fimple he ever
knew-.” He was the Fontaine of philofophers.
confequence of this character, he was a nice judge of
what wras natural in every production, and a great ene¬
my to all kind of affefiation. His principal works
are, 1. Expofition de la dcBrme de DEglije Gcllicane
par rapportuux pretenfions de la Lour de Rome, I 2mo.
This accurate work was begun at the defire of the pre¬
fident
Marfais
MAR [ ^09 ] MAR
Marfkis fident de Maifons, and did not appear till after the
Marfeilles author. 2. Expofition d'une methods rai-
foneepour apprendre la langue Latins, 12mo, 1722, rare.
This method appears conformable to the natural unfold¬
ing of the powers of the mind, and on that account ren¬
ders the acquifition of the language lefs difficult; but
it was liable to two great objeftions to vulgar and un¬
enlightened undertlandings, namely, its novelty, and
the ceniure which it conveyed againil the former me¬
thod. 3. Traite des tropes, 1730, 8vo 5 again printed
in 1771, 1 2mo. This work is intended to explain the
different fignifications of the fame word. It is a mafter-
piece of logic, of accuracy, of perfpicuity, and preci-
iion. The obfervations and the rules are illuftrated by
ftriking examples maculated to ffiow both the ufe and
the abufe of the rhetorical figures. It is wonderful at
the fame time that this excellent book had very little
fale, and is fcarcely known. A gentleman who want¬
ed to compliment the author on this extraordinary per-
formance, told him that he had heard a great deal of
his Hiftoire des Tropes, and begged to know in what
particular part of the world the nation flourithed. 4.
Les veritable Pnncipes de la Grammaire raifonec pour
apprendre la langue Latins, 1729, 4to. There was
only the preface of this work publiffied, in which he
introduced the greateft part of his methode raiforJe.
5. Labiege de la fable du Pere Jouvenci, arranged after
the manner of the original plan, 1731, i2mo. 6. Une
reponfe manufcrite a la Critique de PHiftoire des Oracles
par ie Pere Baltus. There are only imperfect frag¬
ments of thefe papers to be found. 7. Logique, ou re-
JleBions fur les operations de PE/prit. This is a ffiort
tradt, which neverthelefs contains every thing neceffary
to be known in the art of reafoning. It was reprinted
at Paris in two parts, together with the articles which
he had furni(lied for the F.ncyclopedie, 1762.
MARSAL, a town of France, in Lorrain, remark¬
able for its fait works j feated in a marffi on the river
Selle, of difficult accefs, which, together with the for¬
tifications, render it an important place. E. Lon?.
6. 43. N. Lat. 48. 46.
MARSALA, an ancient and ftrong town of Sicily,
in the valley of Mazara. It is well peopled, and built
on the ruins of the ancient Lilyboeum. E. Lon?. 12. 27.
N. Lat. 37. 52. 7
MARSAN, or Mount Marsan, a town of France,
in Gafcony, and capital of a fmall territory of the
fame name, fertile in wine ; feated on the river Midufe,
in W. Long. o. 39. N. Lat. 44. o.
MARSAQUIVER, or Marsalouiver, a ftrong
and ancient town of Africa, on the coaft of Barbary,
and in the province of Beni Arax, in the kingdom of
Iremelt-n, with one of the belt harbours in Africa. It
was taken by the Spaniards in 1732. It is feated on a
rock near a bay of the fea, in W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
35- 4°-
MARSEILLES, a ftrong fea port, and the richeft
town of Provence, in France. Here is a good har¬
bour, where the French galleys are ftationed ; for it
will not admit large men of war. The entrance of
the harbour, wliich is extremely narrow and furround-
ed by lofty mountains, protedls and {belters veffels dur¬
ing the moft violent ftorms The port itfelf forms a
delightful walk even in the middle of winter, as it is
cpen to the fouthern fun, and crowded with vaft num-
Vol. XII. Part II.
bers of people, not only of all the European nations, Marwilles
but of i urks, Greeks, and natives of the, coaft of Bar- i H
bary. "I he whole fcene is one of the moft agreeable . t
that can be imagined, if the chains of the galley Haves
heard among the hum of bulinefs did not tindture it
with the hateful idea of flavery. The galleys them-
felves, ufelefs and neglected, rot peaceably in their re-
fpective ftations: and it is laid that no others will ever
be conftructed to fupply their place, as they have long
ceafed to be of any utility to the ftate, and are fcarcely
even navigable in fevere weather. Marfeilles pretends
to the molt remote antiquity j a colony of Phocians, in
ages unknown, having given it birth. It is divided
into the Old Town and the New 5 which are feparated
by a ftreet, bordered with trees on each fide. The Old
Town is one of the worft built of any in Europe. The
New h as fprung up fince the commencement of the
18th century, and has all that regularity, elegance,
and convenience, which diftinguifli the prefent times.
It is faid to contain 100,000 inhabitants, and is one of
the moft trading towns in France. Without the walls
is the caftle of Notre-Dame, which is very well forti¬
fied. It is a biffiop’s fee, and there is a French aca¬
demy j it having been noted at all times for men of
learning. In 1660, Louis XIV. built the citadel and
Fort St John to keep the inhabitants in awe, becaufe
they pretended to be free. The Jefuits had a very fine
obfervatory here $ and in the arfenal, built not long
ago, there are arms for 40,000 men. In the Houfe of
Difcipline they weave gold, filver, and filk brocades.
The drugs are brought thither from all parts of the
world. It is feated on the north fhore of the Mediter¬
ranean, in E. Long. 4. 27. N. Lat. 43. 18. The
furrounding country is rocky and barren, but covered
for feveral miles on all tides with villas and fummer
houfes, which commerce has erected.
MARSH, Narcissus, a learned Iriffi prelate, was
born at Hannington in Wiltlhire in 1638. He was
made principal of St Alban’s hall, Oxford, in 1673,
but removed to the provoftftiip of Dublin college in
1678, promoted to the biftiopric of Leighlin and Ferns
in 1682, tranflated to the archbiffiopric of Caftiel in
1690, to Dublin in 1694, and to Armagh in 1703.
While he held the fee of Dublin, he built a noble li¬
brary for the ufe of the public, filled it with choice
books, and fettled a provifion for two librarians. Fie
repaired, at his own expence, feveral decayed churches,
befidcs buying in and reftoring many impropriations,
and prefenting a great number of oriental MSS. to he
Bodleian library. He was a very learned and accorn-
plilhed man 5 wras well verfed in facred and profane li¬
terature, in mathematics, natural philofophy, the learn¬
ed languages, efpecially the oriental, and in both the
theory and praftice of mufie. Fie publithed, 1. Inft-
tutiones logic#. 2. ManuduBio ad logic am, written bv
Philip de Trieu j to which he added the Greek text of
Ariftotle and fome tables and fchemes., 3. An intro-
duftory effay on the doftrine of founds, &c. He died
in 1713.
Marsh, fignifies a piece of ground flowed with
water, yet fo that the grafs and other vegetables rife
above the furface of the water, and, by their decaying,
give rife to putrid effluvia, which are very pernicious
to the human body.
MARSHAL, or Mareschal. pri-
4 FI marily
MAR
[ <5
Marflial. marlly denotes an officer who has the care or the com-
raand of horfes. Nicod derives the word from pole-
marchus, “ mafler of the camp $” Matthew Paris from
Mortisfenefcallus. In the old Gaulifh language, march
fignified “ horfe whence marefchal might fignify
“ him who commanded the cavalry.” Other deriva¬
tions have been given by different authors j and the
name itfelf has been applied to officers of very different
employments.
Marshal of France, the higheft dignity of prefer¬
ment in the French armies under the old government.
The dignity of marfhal came to be for life, though at
its firft inftitution it was otherwife. They were then
only the king’s firfl ecuyers under the conflable j but
in time they became the conflable’s lieutenants in the
command of the army, the conflable himfelf being then
become captain general. At firft they were but two
in number ; and their allowance was but 500 livres per
annum in time of war, and nothing in time of peace j
but in the reign of Francis I. a third was added 5 Hen¬
ry II. created a fourth. Since it has been various;
Louis XIV. increafed it to 20. Their office at firft
was, to marfhal the army under the conftable, and to
command in his abfence. They did then what the
marfhals de camp do now ; to w'hich laft they have gi¬
ven their title, and the leaft confiderable part of their
authority.
Farl MARSHAL of Scotland. His office was to com¬
mand the cavalry, whereas the Constable command¬
ed the whole army. They feem, hotvever, to have
had a fort of joint command, as of old all orders were
addreffed “ to our conftable and marifchal.” The of¬
fice of earl marifchal has never been out of the noble
family of Keith. It was referved at the Union ; and
when the heritable jurifdiflions were bought, it was
in the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of Geo.
Keith, earl marifchal, in 1715.
Farl MARSHAL of England, is the eighth great of¬
ficer of ftate. This office, until it was made heredi¬
tary, always paffed by grant from the king, and
never was held by tenure or fergeantry (by any fubieft),
as the offices of lord high fteward and lord high con¬
ftable were fometimes held. The title is perfonal,
the office honorary and officiary. They were for¬
merly ftyled lord marfhal only, until King Richard II.
June 20. 1397, granted letters patent to- Thomas
Mowbray, earl of Nottingham, and to the heirs male
of his body lawfully begotten, by the name and ftyle
of earl marfhal; and further, gave them powder to bear
in their hand a gold truncheon, enamelled with black
at each end ; having at the upper end of it the king’s
arms engraven thereon, and at the lower end his own
arms.
King James I. was pleafed, by letters patent, dated
Auguft 29th 1622, to conftitute Thomas Howard,
earl of Arundel and Surrey, earl marfhal for life ; and
the next year, the fame king granted (wu’th the ad¬
vice of the privy-council) letiers-patent, wherein it was
declared, that during the vacancy of the office of lord
high conftable of England, the earl marfhal had the
like jurifdi&ion in the court of chivalry, as both con¬
ftable and marfhal jointly ever exercifed. See CHI-
VALRT, Court of
On the 19th of O&ober 1672, King Charles II.
sm pleafed to grant to Henry Lord Howard', and the
10 j MAR
heirs male of his body lawfully begotten, the office MarfLa! h,
and dignity of earl marfhal of England, with power II
to execute the fame by deputy or deputies, in as full ^
and ample a manner as the fame was heretofore exe- - "
cuted by Henry Howard, Lord Maltravers, late earl
of Arundel, Surrey, and Norfolk, grandfather to the
faid Henry Lord Howard ; or by Thomas Howard
late duke of Norfolk, grandfather to the faid Thomas
Howard, late earl of Arundel, Surrey, and Norfolk ;
or by Thomas Howard duke of Norfolk, grandfather
of the faid Thomas Howard duke of Norfolk ; or by
John Mowbray duke of Norfolk, or any other earl
marfhal of England ; with a penfion of 20I. each
year, payable out of the hanaper office in chancery;
and on default of the iffue-male of the faid Henry Lord
Howard, with limitation to the heirs male lawfully be¬
gotten of the body of the faid Thomas Howard earl
of Arundel, &c.; and, on the default of fuch iffue male,
to defcend in like manner to the heirs male of Thomas
late earl of Suffolk ; and, on default of his iffue male,
to the heirs male of Lord William Howard, late of
Naworth in the county of Cumberland, youngeft fon
to Henry Howard late duke of Norfolk ; and, on de¬
fault of his iffue-male, to Charles Howard earl of Not¬
tingham, and the heirs male of his body lawfully be¬
gotten.
Field mAuSHAL, an officer of high rank in the Eu¬
ropean armies. It is now, however, difufed in the
Britifh army ; Lord Tyrawley was the laft, appointed
in 1763.
Knight-MARSHAL, or MARSHAL of the King's Houfe,
an Englifh officer, whofe bufinefs, according to Fleta,
is to execute the commands and decrees of the lord
fteward, and to have the cuftody of prifoners commit¬
ted by the court of verge. Under him are fix mar-
fhal’s men, who are properly the king’s bailiffs, and
arreft in the verge of the court, when a warrant is
backed by the board of green-cloth. The court where
caufes of this kind, between man and man, are tried,
is called the Marflsalfea, and is under the knight-mar-
flial. See Marshalsea.
This is alfo the name of the prifon in Southwark ;
the reafon of which may probably be, that the marfhal
of the king’s houfe was wont to fit there in judgment,
or keep his prifon.
MARSHAL of the King's Bench, an officer who has
cuftody of the prifon called the King's Bench in South¬
wark. He gives attendance upon the court, and
takes into his cuftody all prifoners committed by the
court; he is finable for his abfence, and non-attend¬
ance incurs a forfeiture of his office. The power of
appointing the marfhal of the king’s bench is in the
crown.
In Fleta, mention is alfo made of a marfhal of the
exchequer, to whom the court commits the cuftody of
the king’s debtors. Sic.
MARSHALLING a Coat, in Fleraldry, is the
difpofal of feveral coats of arms belonging to diftinft
families in one and the fame efcutcheon or fhield, toge¬
ther with theirornaments,parts,andappurtenances. See
Heraldry, chap. vi. p. 466.
MARSHALSEA, the Court of, and the Palace
Court at Weftminfter, though tw'o diftinfl courts, are
frequently confounded together. The former waa
originally holden before the fteward and marfhal of the
king’i^
M A R [ 61
Marflialfea king’s houfe, and was inftituted to adminifter juflice be¬
ll tween the king’s domeftic fervants, that they might not
ar ^ an be drawn into other courts, and thereby the king lofe
their fervice. It was formerly held in, though not a
part of, the aula regis; and, when that was iubdivid-
ed, remained a diftinit jurifdi&ion : holding plea of all
trefpaiTes committed within the verge of the court,
where only one of the parties is in the king’s domeftic
fervice (in which cafe the inqueft {ball be taken by a
jury of the country) j and of all debts, contra&s, and
covenants, where both of the contracting parties be¬
long to the royal houfehold ; and then the inqueft fhall
be compofed of men of the houfehold only. By the
llatute of 13 Rich. II. ftat. 1. c. 3. (in affirmance of
the common law), the verge of the court in this refpeCt
extends for 12 miles round the king’s place of refidence.
And, as this tribunal was never fubjeCt to the jurifdic-
tion of the chief judiciary, no writ of error lay from it
(though a court of record) to the king’s bench, but on¬
ly to parliament, till the ftatutes of 5 Edw. III. c. 2.
and 10 Edw. III. ftat. 2. c. 3. which allowed fuch writ
of error before the king in his place. But this court
being ambulatory, and obliged to follow the king in
all his progrefles, fo that by the removal of the houfe¬
hold aCIions were frequently difcontinued, and doubts
having arifen as to the extent of its jurifdiCtion, King
Charles I. in the lixth year of his reign, by his letters
patent, erefted a new court of record, called the curia
palatii, or palace court, to be held before the fteward
of the houfehold and knight-marffial, and the fteward
of the court, or his deputy ; with jurifdiCtion to hold
plea of all manner of perfonal aCtions whatfoever, which
{hall arife between any parties within 12 miles of his
majefty’s palace at Whitehall. The courtis now held
once a week, together with the ancient court of mar-
ftialfea, in the borough of Southwark : and a writ of
error lies from thence to the court of king’s bench. But
if the caufe is of any conliderable confequence, it is
ufually removed on its firlt commencement, together
with the cuftody of the defendant, either into the king’s
bench or common pleas, by a writ of habeas corpus cum
caufa : and the inferior bufinefs of the court hath of
late years been much reduced, by the new courts of
confcience ereCIed in the environs of London ; in con-
fideration of which the four counfel belonging to thefe
courts had falaries granted them for their lives by the
ftat. 23 Geo. II. c. 27.
MARSHFIELD, a town of Gloucefterftiire, fe-
ven miles from Bath, and 104 from London, on the
road to Briftol, and on the very borders of Wilts. It
is a confiderable clothing town, derives a good trade in
malt, and is famous for cakes. It confifts chiefly of
one ftreet of old buildings near a mile long ; and is
governed by a bailiff. The number of inhabitants in
1801 amounted to 1246. It has a large church, with
a well endowed alms houfe, and a charity fchool j and
it has a weekly market and two fairs.
MARSHLAND, a marlhy peninfula in the county
of Norfolk, oppofite to King’s Lynn, almoft furround-
ed with the Oufe and other navigable rivers, and an
■ arm of the fea. It feems formerly to have been reco¬
vered out of the ocean, from whofe inundations it could
never be altogether defended ; and in Sir Henry Spel-
man’s time it fuffered two general ones, viz. one from
Matiigli.
1 ] MAR
the fait water, the other from the frefhes j by the laft Marfldand
of which the inhabitants fuffered 42,000!. damage. It
contains about 30,000 acres, which turn to more profit
by grazing than ploughing. It is about 10 miles in
the wideft place, and has nolefs than in brick bridges.
The commonage of it belongs to feven villages that
furround it. The air is fo unhealthy, that an ague is
commonly called the Marjhland bailiff.
MARSHMALLOW. See Althea, Botany//z//av.
MARSI, a nation of Germany, who afterwards
came to fettle in Italy, where they occupied the ter¬
ritory in the environs of the Fucine lake. They at
firft proved very inimical to Rome, but in procefs
of time they became its firmeft fupporters. They
were allowed by the Romans to be the moft intrepid
foldiers of their legions when in friendlhip, and the
moft formidable of their enemies when at variance ,
and it was a common faying, that Rome could nei¬
ther triumph over the Marli norj without them.
They are particularly celebrated for the civil war in
which they were engaged, and which from them has
received the name of the Marjian war. The large
contributions they made to fupport the intereft of
Rome, and the number of men which they continu¬
ally fupplied to the republic, rendered them bold and
afpiring; and they claimed, with the reft of the Ita¬
lian ftates, a ffiare of the honour and privileges which
w^ere enjoyed by the citizens of Rome. This petition,
though fupported by the intereft, the eloquence, and
the integrity of the tribune Drufus, was received with
contempt by the Roman fenate ; upon which, in the
662ft year of Rome, the Marfi put themfelves at the
head of the Social war, one of the moft obftinate and
dangerous oppofitions ever made to the progrefs of the
Roman power. They obtained feveral vidtories : but
they were at laft defeated j though the war was not ter¬
minated but by a grant of thofe privileges for which
they contended.
MARSICO nuovo, a fmall, rich, and handfome
town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the
Hither Principato, with a biftiop’s fee. It is feated at
the foot of the Apennines, near the river Agri, in
E. Long. 15.49. N. Lat. 20.42.
MARSIGLI, Lewis Ferdinand, Count, an Ita¬
lian, famous for letters as well as arms, was defcended
from an ancient and noble family, and born at Bo¬
logna in 1658. He acquired a great knowledge in
the art of war and fortification ; ferved under the em¬
peror Leopold II. againft the Turks, by whom he
was taken prifoner in 1683, but redeemed, after a
year’s captivity. In the Spaniffi fucceffion war, Mar-
figli, then advanced to the rank of marffial, being in
the fortrefs of Brifac, which furrendered to the duke
of Burgundy in 1703, when the place was deemed
capable of holding out much longer, was ftripped of all
his commiffions, and had his fword broke over him; and
the count d’Arco who commanded w as beheaded. Mar-
figli now fought for confolation in the fciences; as,
amidft all the hurry and fatigue of war, he had made
all the advantages the meft phrlofophic man could do,
who had travelled purely in queft of knowledge. He
had a rich colledtion of every thing proper to the ad¬
vancement of natural knowledge, inftruments aftrono-
mical and chemical, plans of fortifications, models of
4 H 2 machines,
MAR [ 612 ] MAR
Maiftgli machines, &c. all which he prefented to the fenate of
Bologna by an authentic aft in 1712, forming at the
1 liitne time out of them what he called the InJUtute of
the arts and faiences at Bologna. He alio founded a
printing houfe,. and furnifhed it with the belt types
lor Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic, which he
prefented in 1728 to the Dominicans at Bologna, on
condition of their printing ail the writings of the In-
jhtute at prime coil : this was called the printing houfe
of St Thomas Aquinas. His writings on philoiophical
iubjefts are numerous and valuable, in Latin, Italian,
and French. He died in 1730.
MARSTON, John, an Lnglifh dramatic writer,
who lived in the time of Jamts I. Wood fays he was
a Iludent in Corpus Chr.lti college, Oxford ; but nei¬
ther his family ncfr the time of his birth is known.
He produced eight plays for the Rage, which were
all afted at Blackfriars with applaufe : and one of
them, called the Dutch Cowte%an, was once revived
fmce the Reftoration, under the title of the Revenge,
or a Match m Newgate. There is no account when
he died ; but, we find his works were publiftied after
his death by Shakefpeare, and may thence realonabty
conclude that it happened about the year 1614. He
was a chatie and pure writer ; avoiding all that ob-
feenity, ribaldry, and feurrility, which too many
of the playwrights of that time, and indeed much
more fo in fome periods iince, have, made the bafis
of their wit, to the great diigrace and icandal of the
Rage.
MARSYAS, in fabulous hifiory, a celebrated nm-
fician of Celaenas in Phrygia, fon of Olympus, or of
Hvagnis, or Oeagrus. He was fo Ikilful in playing on
the fiutt , that he is generally deemed the inventor of it.
According to the opinion of fome, he found it when
Minerva had thrown it afide on account of the diitor-
tion of her face when (lie played upon it. Mariyas
was enamoured of Cybele, and he travelled with her
as far as Nvla, where he had the imprudence to chal¬
lenge Apollo to a trial of his {kill as a mufician. The
god accepted the challenge, and it was mutually agreed
that he who was defeated Ihould be flayed alive by the
conqueror. The Mufes, or (according to Diodorus)
the inhabitants of Ns fa, were appointed umpires. Each
exerted his utmoft {kill, and the viftory, with much
difficulty, was adjudged to Apollo. 1 he god upon this
tied his antagonili to a tree, and flayed him alive : (See
Apollo) The death of Mariyas was univerfally la¬
mented j the Fauns, Satyrs, and Dryads, wept at his
fate •, and from their abundant tears arofe a river of
Phrygia, well known by the name of Marfyas. The
unfortunate Mariyas is'often reprefented on monu¬
ments, as tied with his hands behind his back to a tree,
while Apollo Hands before him with his lyre in his
hands. In independent cities, among the ancients, the
ftatue of Marfyas was generally erefted in the forum,
to reprefent the intimacy which fubfifted between
Bacchus and Marfyas as the emblems of liberty. At
Celaenae, the {kin of Marfyas was Ihown to travellers
for fome time. It was fufpended in the public place,
in the form of a bladder or a foot ball.
1 he fources of the Marfyas were near thofe of the
Maeand. i, and thofe two rivers had their confluence a
little below the town of CelgenEe.
MARI, a great fair held every yTear for buying
2
and felling goods. Public marts, or places of buying
and felling, fuch as markets and fairs, with the tolls
thereunto belonging, can only be let up by virtue of
the king’s grant, or by long and immemorial uiage and
prefeription, which prefuppofes fuch a grant. T he li¬
mitation of thefe public retorts, to fuch time and place
as may be moll convenient for the neighbourhood,
forms a part of economics, or domeftic polity j which,
confidering the kingdom as a large family, and the
king as the mailer of it, he has clearly a right to dif-
pofe and order as he pleafes.
MARI ABAN, a province of Afia, in the kingdom
of Pegu, lying on the gulf of Bengal. It is a country
that produces rice and all kinds of fruits proper to the
climate. It has mines of ieveral forts of metals, and
carries on a great trade. r4'he chiei town, which is of
the tame name, is rich, handlome, and very populous,
with a good harbour. E. Long. 97. 50. N. Eat.
I5- 35- ,
MARTEAU, the name given by French natural-
iiis to a peculiai ipecies of oy tiers, called alio malleus
by others, the hguie of which is that of a hammssr,
or rather of a pickaxe. See Ostrea, Conchology
Index.
MARTHA, St, a province of South America, on
the coati ot ierra Firma, bounded on the north by
the North lea, on the eaft by Rio de la Hache, on the
louth by New Granada, and on the welt by Carthage-
na. It is 300 miles in length and 2C0 in breadth, is
a mountainous country, and the land very high. Here
begins the famous ridge of mountains caned iht. Cordil¬
leras des los Andes, which run from north to louth the
whole length of the continent of South America. It
is extremely hot on the lea coall 5 but com in the in¬
ternal parts, on account of the mountains, it abounds
with the fruits proper to the climate j and there are
mines of gold and precious Hones, as alto fait works.
The Spaniards poffels but one part of this province, in
which they have built St Martha the capital. Tht air
about the town is wholelome ; and it is maud neai the
fea, having a harbour iurroundtd with high mountains.
It was formerly very confiderable when the galleons
were tent thither, but is now come almoll to nothing.
W. Long. 74. II. N. Lat. 11. 20.
Martha, isi, or Inert a Neveda, a very high moun¬
tain in New Spain. Some lay it is loo miles in cir¬
cumference at the bottom, and five miles in height.
The top is always covered with fnow in the hottefl:
weather •, and the French affirm, that they can per¬
ceive it from the illand of St Domingo, which is 370
miles diflant. \\ . Long. 74. 35. N. Lat. 8. o.
MARTnA'n Vineyntd, an illand ol North America,
near the coali of New Engianc, 80 miles (outli of Bof-
ton. The inhabitants apply themielvts chiefly to their
fifheries, in which they have great fuccefs. \\ . Long.
7C- 35* N- Bat. 41.0.
M A K j IAL, is fume times ufed to ixprefs prepara¬
tions of iron, or iuch as are impregnated therewith j as
the martial regnlus ot antimony, &c.
Martial Court. See Court Martial.
Martial Law, is the law of war that depends up¬
on the jult but arbitraiy will and pleature of the king,
or his lieutenant : tor though the king doih not make
any laws but by common confent in parliament, yet, in
time of war, by reafon of the neceflity of it to guard
againll
MAR [ 613 ] M
againfl dangers that often ariie, he ufeth abfolute power, naked wretch whom he met at
Smith de Repub. Ang. lib. ii.
fo that hii word is a law.
c- 4-
But the martial law (according to Chief Juftice
Hale), is in reality not a lawr, but fomething indul¬
ged rather than allowed as a law ; and it relates only to
members of the army, being never intended to be exe¬
cuted on others, who ought to be ordered and go¬
verned by the laws to which they are fubjedl, though
it be a time of war. And the exercife of martial law,
whereby any perfon might lofe his life, or member, or
liberty, may not be permitted in time of peace, when
the king’s courts are open for all perfons to receive
juftice.
MARTIALIS, Marcus Valerius, a famous
Latin poet, born at Bilbilis, now called Bub/era, in the
kingdom of Arragon in Spain, was of the order of
knights. He went to Rome at the age of 21, and
llaid there 35 years, under the reign of Galba and the
fucceeding emperors, till that of Trajan *, and having
acquired the efteem of Titus and Domitian, he was
created tribune. At length, finding that he was
neglected by Trajan, he returned to his own country
Biioilis, where he married a wife, and had the hap-
pinefs to live with her feveral years. He admires and
commends her much, telling her that {he alone was
fufficient to fupply the want of every thing he enjoyed
at Rome. “ Romam tu mihi fola facis?'' fays he, in
the 21ft epigram of the 12th book. She appears like-
wife to have been a lady of a very large fortune ; for,
in the 31ft epigram of the fame book, he extols the
magnificence of the houfe and gardens he had received
from her, and fays that ftie had made him a little kind
of monarch.
Munera funt domino : pqft feptima lujlra reverfot
Has Marcella domos, parvaque regna dedit.
There are {fill extant 14 books > f his epigrams, filled
with points, a play upon words, and obfeenities. The
ftyle is affeffed.- However, fome of his epigrams are
excellent; many of them are of the middling kind ;
but the greateft part of them are bad : fo that Martial
never fpoke a greater truth, than when he faid of his
ourn works,
Sunt bona, funt qua:dam mediocria, funt mala plura.
Th ere is alfo attributed to him a book on the fpec-
tacles of the amphitheatre ; but the mold learned cri¬
tics think that this laft work was not written by Mar¬
tial. The beft editions of Martial are, that in Ufum
Delphim, 410, Paris, 1617, and that cum Notts Vari¬
orum.
M ARTIGUES. a fea-port town of France, in Pro¬
vence, with the title of a principality; feattd near a
lake 12 miles long and five broad, which is navigable
th roughout, and from whence they get excellent fait.
E. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 43. 38.
MARTIN, St, was born at Sabaria in Pannonia,
(at prefent Stain in Lower Hungary), in the begin¬
ning of the fourth century. His father was a mili¬
tary tribune; and he himfelf was obliged to carry arms,
although peace and folitude were much more agree¬
able to his inclination. He was remarkable for every
virtue, in a profeflion w'hich is generally confidered to
give a fantflion to vice. He divided his coat with a
& R
the gate of Amiens-;
Martin.
and it is reported, that Jefus Chrift appeared to him '
on the night following, clothed in this half of his
coat. Martin was then a catechumen ; but he {bon
afterwards received baptifm, and renounced the mili¬
tary profeflion for the ecclefiaftical. After palling many
years in folitude, St Hilary bithop of Poidliers gave
him the power to caft out devils. On his return to
Pannonia, he perfuaded his mother to embrace Chrifti-
anity ; and with great zeal and adlivity oppofed the
Arians, who governed the church in Illyria. When
he was publicly whipt for giving teftimony to the di¬
vinity of Chrift, he bore the punifhment with the con-
ftancy and patience of the firft martyrs. This illu-
ftrious champion for Chriftianity, when he heard that
St Hilary was returned from banifhment, went and
fettled in the neighbourhood of Poidliers. In this
retirement, a great number of monks placed themfelves
under his diredtion. His virtues became every day
more fplendid and remarkable, till he was drawn from
his iolitude, and with the general approbation of the
clergy and people eledled bilhop of Tours in the-
year 374. To the zeal and charity of a bilhop, he
joined the humility and poverty of an anchorite.
I hat he might detach himfelf more from the world,
he built the celebrated monaftery of Marmoutier,
which ftill remains, and which is believed to be the
oldell abbey in France. It is fituated near the city
of ’l ours, betwixt the Loire and a fteep rock. In
this fituation, together with 80 monks, St Martin dif-
played the molt exemplary fandtity and mortification;
nor were there any monks better difeiplined than thofe
of Marmoutier. After he had converted his diocefe
to the Chriftian faith, he became the apoftle of all
Gaul. He ditTufed the dodlrines of Chriftianity among
the heathens, deftroyed their temples, and (accord¬
ing to the writers of his life), confirmed the truth
by an infinite number of miracles. The emperor Va-
lentinian, at that time in Gaul, received him with
every mark of refpedf and honour. The tyrant Maxi¬
mus, who had revolted againft the emperor Gra-
tian, and leized on Spain, England, and Gaul, receiv¬
ed him in a manner no lefs diftinguiftrtd. The holy
biftrop attended him at 'breves in the year 383, to fo-
licit fome favours. Maximus made him fit at his
table with the moft illuftrious perfons of his court,
and placed him at his right hand. In drinking, the
ufurper commanded his fervants to give him a cup,
that he might again receive it from him ; but this ex¬
traordinary prelate gave it to the prieft who accom¬
panied him on his journey. This holy boldnefs, far
from difpleafmg them, gained him the favour of the
emperor and of his court. Martin, who was an ene¬
my to herefy, but £
influence with this
1 friend of mankind, employed his
prince to preferve the Prifcilli-
anifts, who were prolecuted by Ithace and by Idace,
bifhops of Spain. The bifhop of Tours would hold
no communion with men whole principles of religion
inclined them to {bed the blood of mankind ; and
he obtained the life of thofe whofe death they had fo-
licited. On his return to Tours, he prepared himfelf
for the reward of his labours in another world. He
died at Candes the 8th of November 397, but accord¬
ing to others on the nth of November 400. His
name is given to a particular opinion concerning the
myftery
MAR [ 6
Martin, myftery of the holy Trinity. St Martin is the firft
of the faints confeffors to whom the Latin church of¬
fered public prayers. His life is written in elegant
Latin by Fortunatus, and Sulpicius Severus one of
his difciples. Paul of Perigueux and Fortunatus of
Poidtiers have given us Sulpicius’s life of Martin in
verfe ; but they have debafed the admirable profe of
the author by a wretched poetical imitation. Nico¬
las Gervais wrote alfo the life of St Martin, full of
many curious and entertaining fadls, publilhed at
Tours in 1699, in 410. The tradition at Amiens is,
that St Martin performed the aft of charity which
rendered him fo famous, near an ancient gate of the
city, of which the ruins are ftill vilible. The fol¬
lowing Latin verfes, which do more honour to the
. faint than to the poet, are infcribed on one of the
ilones :
Hie quondam vejlem Martinus demidiavit;
Ut faceremus idem, nobis exemphjicavit.
Martin, Benjamin, one of the moll eminent ar-
tifts and mathematicians of the age, was born in 1704.
After publilhing a variety of ingenious treatifes, and
particularly a Scientific Magazine under his own
name, and carrying on for many years a very exten-
five trade as an optician and globe-maker in Fleet-
fereet, the growing infirmities of age compelled him
to withdraw from the aftive part of bufinefs. Truft-
ing too fatally to what he thought the integrity of
others, he unfortunately, though with a capital more
than fufficient to pay all his debts, became a bank¬
rupt. The unhappy old man, in a moment of defpe-
ration from this unexpefted ftroke, attempted to de-
Itroy himfelf j and the wound, though not immediately
mortal, haftened his death, which happened February
9. 1782, in his 78th year. Fie had a valuable col-
leftion of foffils and curiofities of almoft every fpecies j
which, after his death, were almoft given away by'
public auftion. His principal publications, as far as
they have occurred to recolleftion, are, The Philofo-
phic Grammar ; being a view of the prefent ftate of
experimental phyfiology, or natural philofophy; 1735,
8vo. A new, complete, and univerfal Syftem or
Body of Decimal Arithmetic, 1735, 8vo. The young
Students Memorial Book, or Patent Library, 1735, 8vo.
Defcription and Ufe of both the Globes, the Armillary
Sphere and Orrery, 1736, 2 vols 8vo. Memoirs of
the Academy of Paris, 1740, 5 vols. Syftem of
the Newtonian Philofophy, 1759, 3 vols. New Ele¬
ments of Optics, 1759. Mathematical Inftitutions, viz.
' Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, and
Fluxions, 1759. Natural Hiftory of England, with
a Map of each County, 1759, 2 vo^s* Philology, and
Philofophical Geography, 1759. Mathematical In¬
ftitutions, 1764, 2 vols. Lives of Philofophers, their
Inventions, &c. 1764. Introduftion to the Newto¬
nian Philofophy, 1765. Inftitutions of Aftronomical
Calculations, 2 parts, 1765. Defcription and Ufe
of the Air Pump, 1766. Defcription of the Torricel¬
lian Barometer, 1766. Appendix to the Defcription
and Ufe of the Globes, 1766. Philofophia Britan-
nica, I77^» 3 Gentleman and Lady’s Philofo¬
phy, 3 vols. Mifcellaneous Correfpondence, 4 vols.
Syftem of Philology. Philofophical Geography. Ma¬
gazine complete, 14 vols. Principles of Pump-work.
3
14 ] . MAR
Theory of the Hydrometer. Doftrine of Loga- Martin
rithms. 0 ||
Martin, St,, a fmall but ftrong town of France Martlnif0”
in the ille of Rhee, with a harbour and a ftrong cita- -l'
del, fortified after the manner of Vauban. The ifland
lies near the coaft of Poitou. W. Long. 1. o. N. Lat.
45. 40.
Cape Martin, a promontory of Valencia in Spain,
near a town called Denia, feparating the gulf of Va¬
lencia from that of Alicant.
Martin, St, an ifland of America, and one of
the Caribbees, lying on the gulf of Mexico, to the
north-weft of St Bartholomew, and to the fouth-weft
of Anguilla. It is 42 miles in circumference j has nei¬
ther harbour nor river, but feveral fait pits. After va¬
rious revolutions, it is at length in pofieffion of the
French and Dutch, who poffefs it conjointly. W.
Long. 62. 35. N. Lat. 18. 15.
Martin. See Hirundo, Ornithology Index, and
Mustela, Mammalia Index.
Free MARTIN, in Zoology, is a name given in this
country to a cow calf caft at the fame time with a
bull calf, which is a kind of hermaphrodite that is
never known to breed nor to difeover the leaft inclina¬
tion for the bull, nor does the bull ever take the leaft:
notice of it. See Hermaphrodite.
MARTINGALE, in the manege, a thong of lea¬
ther, faftened to one end of the girths under a horfe’s
belly, and at the other end to the mufs-roll, to keep
him from rearing.
MARFINICO, the chief of the French Caribbee
iflands, the middle of which is fituated in W. Long.
61. o. N. Lat.* 14. 30.
This ifland was firft fettled by M. Defnambuc a
Frenchman, in the year 1635, with only 100 men from
St Chriftopher’s. He chofe rather to have it peopled
from thence than from Europe ; as he forefaw, that
men, tired with the fatigue of fuch a long voyage,
would moftly perilh foon after their arrival, either from
the climate, or from the hardlhips incident to moft
emigrations. They completed their firft fettlement
without any difficulty. The natives, intimidated by
their fire-arms, or feduced by promifes, gave up the
weftern and fouthern parts of the ifland to the new
comers. In a ffiort time, however, perceiving the
number of thefe enterprifing ftrangers daily increafing,
they refolved to extirpate them, and therefore called
in the favages of the neighbouring iflands to affift
them. They fell jointly upon a little fort that had
been haftily erefted *, but were, repulfed, with the lofs
of 700 or 800 of their beft warriors, who were left dead
on the fpot.
After this check, the favages for a long time difap-
peared entirely •, but at laft they returned, bringing
with them prefents to the French, and making ex-
cufes for what had happened. They were received in
a friendly manner, and the reconciliation fealed with
pots of brandy. This peaceable ftate of affairs, how¬
ever, was of no long continuance ; the French took
fuch undue advantages of their fuperiority over the fa¬
vages, that they foon rekindled in the others that ha¬
tred which had never been entirely fubdued. The fa¬
vages, whofe manner of life requires a vaft extent of
land, finding themfelves daily more and more ftrait-
ened, had recourfe to ftratagem, in order to deftroy
their
MAR [6
Martinico. their enemies. They feparated into fmall bands, and
-vway-laid the French as they came fingly out into the
■woods to hunt, and waiting till the fportfman had dif-
charged his piece, rulhed upon and killed him before
he could charge it again. Twenty men had been
thus afiaffinated before any reafon could be given for
their fudden difappearance : but as foon as the matter
was known, the French took a fevere and fatal re¬
venge j the favages were purfued and maffacred, with
their wives and children, and the few that efeaped
were driven out of Martinico, to which they never re-
turned.
The French being thus left foie mafters of the
ifland, lived quietly on thofe fpots which belt fuited
their inclinations. At this time they were divided
into two clafles. Fhe firft conftfted of thofe who had
paid their paffage to the ifland, and thefe were called
inhabitants; and to thefe the government diftributed
lands, which became their own, upon paying a year¬
ly tribute. Thefe inhabitants had under their com¬
mand a multitude of diforderly people brought over
from Europe at their expence, whom they called en¬
gages, or bondfmen. This engagement w^as a kind of
flavery for the term of three years : on the expiration
of which they were at liberty, and became the equals
of thofe whom they had ferved. They all confined
themfelves at firft to the culture of tobacco and cotton j
to which was foon added that of arnotto and indigo.
The culture of fugar alfo was begun about the year
1650. Ten years after, one Benjamin d’Acofta, a
Jew, planted fome cocoa trees ; but his example was
not followed till 1684, when chocolate was more com¬
monly ufed in France. Cocoa then became the prin¬
cipal fupport of the colonifts, who had not a fufhcient
fund to undertake fugar plantations ; but by the in¬
clemency of the feafon in 1718, all the cocoa trees
were deftroyed at once.—Coffee was then propofed as
a proper objefl: of culture. The French miniftry had
received, as a prefent from the Dutch, two of thefe
trees, which were carefully preferved in the king’s
botanical garden. Two young ftioots were taken from
thefe, put on board a Ihip for Martinico, and intrufted
to the care of one Mr Defclieux. The ftiip happened
to be ftraitened for W'ant of frefli water $ and the trees
would have periflied, had not that gentleman lhared
with them that quantity of w'ater which was allowed
for his own drinking. The culture of coffee was then
begun, and attended with the greatefi: and mofl: rapid
fuccefs. About the end of lafi: century, however, the
colony had made but fmall advances. In 1700, it had
only 6597 white inhabitants. The favages, mulattoes,
and free negroes, men, wmmen, and children, amounted
to no more than 5C)7• The number of flaves was but
14>566. All thefe together made a population of
21 >645 Perfons. The whole of the cattle amounted to
3668 horfes or mules, and 9217 head of horned cattle.
The ifland produced a great quantity of cocoa, tobac¬
co, and cotton ; had nine indigo houfes, and 183 fmall
fugar plantations.
After the peace of Utrecht, Martinico began to
emerge from that feeble ftate in which it had fo long
continued. 1 he ifland then became the mart for all
the windward French fettlements. In the ports of it
the neighbouring iflands fold their produce, and bought
the commodities of the mother country j and, in ftiort,
15 I MAR
Martinico became famous all over Europe. In 1736, Martinico.
there were on the ifland 447 fugar works $ 11,933,232^
coffee trees, 103,870. of cocoa : 2,068,480 plants of
cotton, 39,400 of tobacco, 6750 of arnotto. The
fupplies for provifions confifted of 4,806,142 banana
trees, 34,483,000 trenches of caffava j and 247 plots
of potatoes and yams. The number of blacks amount¬
ed to 72,000 men, women, and children. Their la¬
bour had improved the plantations as far as was con¬
fident with the confumption then made in Europe of
American produftions j and the annual exports from
the ifland amounted to about 700,000!.
The connexions of Martinico with the other iflands
entitled her to the profits of commiffion, and the
charges of tranfport j as die alone v’as in the poffef-
fion of carriages. This profit might be rated at the
tenth of the produce ; and the fum total muft have
amounted to near 765,000!. This Handing debt was
feldom called in, and left for the improvement of their
plantations. It was increafed by advances in money,
flaves, and other neceffary articles ; fo that Marti¬
nico became daily more and more a creditor to the
other iflands, and thus kept them in conftant depend¬
ence j while they all enriched themfelves by her af-
fiftance.
The connexions of this ifland with Cape Breton,
Canada, and Louifiana, procured a market for the or¬
dinary fugars, the inferior coffee, the molaffes, and rum,
which would not fell in France. In exchange the in¬
habitants received fait fifti, dried vegetables, deals, and
fome flour. In the clandeftine trade on the coafts of
Spanifh America, confifting W'holly of goods manu-
faftured by the nation, flie commonly made a profit of
90 per cent, on the value of about 175,000k fent year¬
ly to the Caraccas, or neighbouring colonies.
So many profperous engagements brought immenfe
fums into Martinico. Upwards of 787,000!. were
conftantly circulated in that ifland with great rapidi¬
ty ; and this is perhaps the only country in the world
where the fpecie has been fo confiderable as to make
it a matter of indifference to them whether they dealt
in gold, filver, or commodities. This extenfive trade
brought into the ports of Martinico annually 200 Ihips
from France j 14 or 15 fitted out by the mother
country for the coaft of Guinea, 60 from Canada, 10
or 12 from the iflands of Margaretta and Trinidad ;
befides the Englifti and Dutch fhips that came to carry
on a fmuggling trade. The private navigation from
the ifland to the northern colonies, to the Spaniih con¬
tinent, and to the windward iflands, employed 120 vef-
fels from 20 to 30 tons burden.
The war of 1744 put a flop to this profperity. Not
that the fault was in Martinico itfelf; its navy, con¬
ftantly exercifed, and accuftomed to frequent engage¬
ments, which the carrying on a contraband trade re¬
quired, was prepared for aftion. In lefs than fix
months, 40 privateers, fitted out at St Peter’s, fpread
themfelves about the latitude of the Caribbee iflands.
They fignalized themfelves in a manner worthy of the
ancient freebooters 5 returning conftantly in triumph,
and laden with an immenfe booty. Yet, in the midft
of thefe fuccefles, an entire ftop was put to the navi¬
gation of the colony, both to the Spanifti coaft and to
Canada, and they were conftantly difturbed even on
their own coafts. The few fhips that came from
France.
mar [ 616
■ France, in order to compenfate the hazards they were
expofed to hy the lofs of their commodities, fold them
at a very advanced price, and bought them at a very
low one. By this means the produce decreafed in va¬
lue, the lands were ill cultivated, the works negledled,
and the Haves perilhing for want.
When every thing thus feemed tending to decay,
the peace at laft reltored the freedom of trade, and with
it the hopes of recovering the ancient profperity of the
illand. The event, however, did not anfwer the pains
that were taken to attain it. Two years had not elapf-
ed after the ceffation of hoftilities, when the colony
loft the contraband trade ftie carried on with the Ame¬
rican Spaniards. This was owing to the fubftitution
of regifter (hips to the fleets ; and thus were the at¬
tempts of the fmugglers confined within very narrow
bounds. In the new fyftem, the number of (hips was
undetermined, and the time of their arrival uncertain :
which occafioned a variation in the price of commo¬
dities unknown before ; and from that time the fmug-
gkr, who only engaged in this trade from the cer¬
tainty of a fixed and conftant profit, would no longer
purfue it, when it did not fecure him an equivalent
to the rilks lie ran. But this lofs was not fo fenfibly
felt by the colony, as the hardlhips brought upon
them by the mother country. An unlkilful admini-
ftration clogged the reciprocal and neceffary connec¬
tion between the iflands and North America with fo
many formalities, that in 1755 Martinico fent but four
veflels to Canada. The direftion of the colonies, now
committed to the care of ignorant and avaricious
clerks, foon loft its importance, funk into contempt,
and was proftituted to venality. The debts which
had been contra&ed, during a feries of calamities, had
not yet been paid off, when the war broke out afrefh.
After a feries of misfortunes and defeats, the ifiand fell
into the hands of the Britifti. It was reftored, how¬
ever, in July 1763, 16 months after it had been con¬
quered j but deprived of all the neceffary means of pro-
iperity, that had made it of fo much importance. For
lome years part, the contraband trade carried on to
the Spanifti coafts was almoft entirely loft. The cef-
iion of Canada had precluded all hopes of opening
again a communication, which had only been inter¬
rupted by temporary miftakes. The produdfions of
the Grenades, St Vincent, and Dominica, which were
now become Britifti dominions, could no longer be
brought into their harbours j and a new regulation
of the mother country, which forbade her having any
intercourle with Guadaloupe, left her no hopes from
that quarter.
The colony, thus deprived of every thing as it were,
and deftitute, neverthelefs contained, at the laft fur-
vey, which was taken on the ift of January 1770, in
the compafs of 28 parifties, 12,450 white people of
all ages and of both fexes •, 1814 free blacks or mu-
lattoes ; 70,553 flayes, and 443 fugitive negroes. The
number of births in 1766, was in the proportion of
one in 30 among the white people, and of one in 25
among the blacks. From this obfervation, if it were
con it ant, it fhould ieem that the climate of America
is much more favourable to the propagation of the A-
fticans than of the Europeans: fince the former mul¬
tiply ft:ll more in the labours and hardfhips of flavery,
than the latter in the midft of plenty and freedom.
1 MAR
The confequence mutt be, that in prncefs of time the
increate of blacks in America will iurpafs that of the
white men 5 and, perhaps, at laft avenge this race of
vidhms on the descendants of the oppreffors.
I he cattle or the colony confifts of 8283 horfes or
mules j 12,376 bead of horned cattle; 975 h-gs ; and
13>544>fheep or goats.
Their provifions are, 1 7,930,596 trenches of caffava;
3i509>048 banana ti t es, and 406 fqcarts and a half of
yams and potatoes.
Their plantations contain 11,444 Squares of land,
planted with fugar ; 6,638,957 coffee trees; 871,043
cocoa trees ; 1,764,807 cotton plants; 59,966 trees
of caftia, and 61 oi arnotto.
I he meadows or iavannahs take up 10,072 fquares
of land; there are 11,966 in wood, and 8448 uncul¬
tivated or forfaken.
The plantations which produce coffee, cotton, co¬
coa, and other things of lefs importance, are 1515 in
number. There are but 286 for fugar. They employ
116 water-mills, 12 wind-mills, and 184 turned by
oxen. Before the hurricane of the 13th of Auguft;
1766, there were ^02 fmall habitations and 15 fugar-
works more.
In 1760, France imported from Martinico, upon
202 trading veffels, 177,116 quintals of fine fugar,
and 12,579 quintals of raw fugar; 68,518 quintals
of coffee ; 11,731 quintals of cocoa; 6048 quintals
of cotton ; 2518 quintals of caflia ; 783 calks of rum ;
307 hoglheads of molaffcs ; 150 pounds of indigo;
2147 pounds of preferved fruits ; 47 pounds of cho¬
colate ; 282 pounds of rafped tobacco; 494 pounds
of rope-yarn ; 334 chefts of liqueurs ; 234 hoglheads
of molaffes, &e. 451 quintals of wood for dyeing ^
and 12,108 hides in the hair. All thefe produdlions
together have been bought in the colony itfelf, for
536,63 il. 9s. lod. It is true, that the colony has
received from the mother country to the amount of
588,412!. 16s. 6d. of merchandife ; but part of this
has been fent away to the Spanifti coafts, and another
part has been conveyed to the Englifti fettlements.
Ihe ifland is 16 leagues in length and 45 in cir¬
cumference, leaving out the capes, feme of which ex¬
tend two or three leagues into the fea. It is very un¬
even, and interfered in all parts by a number of hil¬
locks ; which are moftly of a conical form. Three
mountains rife above thefe fmaller eminences. The
higheft bears the indelible marks of a volcano. The
woods with which it is covered continually attraft
the clouds, which occafions noxious damps, and con¬
tributes to make it horrid and inacceftible ; while the
two others are in moft parts cultivated. From thefe
mountains iffue the many fprings that water the ifland.
Thefe waters, which flow in gentle ftreams, are chan¬
ged into torrents on the flighteft ftorm. Their qualities
are derived from the foil over which they flow. In
fome places they are excellent ; in others fo bad, that
the inhabitants are obliged to drink the water they
have colle6led during the rainy feafon.
Ot all the French fettlements in the Weft Indies,
Martinico is the moft happily fituated with regard to
the winds which prevail in thofe feas. Its harbours
poffefs the ineilimable advantage of affording a certain
fhelter from the hurricanes which annoy thefe latitudes.
The harbour of Fort Royal is one of the belt in all
the
Martinir#
MAR
jlArtmlco the windward iflands ; and fo celebrated for its fafety,
Maltvr. that’ when lt was °Pen to the Cutch, their Qiipmafters
■ . 1 orders from the republic to take (belter there in
June, July, and Augult, the three months in which the
hurricanes are molt frequent. The lands of the La-
mentin, which are but a league diftant, are the richeft
and molt fertile in the whole iHand. X'he numerous
dreams which water this fruitful country, convey load¬
ed canoes to a confiderable didance from the fea. The
protection of the fortifications fecufed the peaceable
enjoyment of fo many advantages 5 which, however,
were balanced by a fwampy and unwholefome foil.
This capital of Martinico was alfo the rendezvous of
the men of war ; which branch of the navy has always
opprefled the merchantmen. On this account, Fort
Royal was an improper place to become the centre of
trade, which was therefore removed to St Peter’s. This
little town, notwithdanding the fires that have four
times reduced it to adies, dill contains 1700 houfes.
It is fituated on the wedern coad of the iiland, on a
bay, or inlet, which is almod circular. One part of it
is built on the drand along the fea fide, which is called
the anchorage ;^ and is the place dedined for (hips and
warehoufes. The other part of the town dands upon
a low hill; it is called the Fort, from a fmall fortifica¬
tion that was built there in 1665, to check the feditions
of the inhabitants againd the tyranny of monopoly j
but it now ferves to proteft the road from foreign ene¬
mies. Thefe two parts of the town are feparattd by a
rivulet.
The anchorage is at the back of a pretty high and
deep hill. Shut up as it were by this hill, which in¬
tercepts the eaderly winds, the mod condant and mod
falubrious in thefe parts ; expofed, without any re-
frefhing breezes, to the fcorching beams of the fun, re-
fle&ed from the hill, from the fea, and the black fand
on the beach $ this place is extremely hot, and always
unwholefome. Befides, there is no harbour $ and the
drips which cannot winter fafely upon this coad are
obliged to take (belter at Fort Royal. But thefe dif-
advantages are compenfated by the conveniency of the
road of St Peter’s, for loading and unloading of goods j
and by its fituation, which is fuch that (hips can freely
go in and out at all times, and with all winds.
Martinico again fell into the hands of the Britidi in
3 794 5 was redored to France by the treaty of peace in
1801 ; and has iince been retaken by the Britilh arms.
MAR PLETS, in Heraldry, little birds reprefented
without feet \ and ufed as a difference or mark of di-
ftinaion far younger brothers, to put them in mind
that they are to trud to the wings of virtue and merit
in order to raife themfelves, and"not to their feet, they
having little land to let their foot on. See Heraldry.
_ MARI YNIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs j and in the natural method ranking
under the 10th order, Perfonatce. See Botany Index.
MARTYR, is one who lays down his life, or differs
death, for the fake of his religion. The word is Greek
and properly dignifies “ a witnefs.” It is ap¬
plied, by w’ay of eminence, to thofe who differ in wit¬
nefs of the truth of the gofpel.
X he Chridian church has abounded in martyrs, and
hidory is filled with furprifing accounts of their lingu¬
lar condancy and fortitude under the cruelled torments
human nature was capable of differing. The primitive
Vol, XII. Part II.
[ 617 1
MAR
Chridians were accufed by their enemies of paying a Martyr.
fort of divine wordiip to the martyrs. Of this we have  ^
an indance in the anfwer of the church of Smyrna to
the fuggeltion of the Jews, who at the martyrdom of
Poly carp, defired the heathen judge not tofiffer the
Chridians to carry off his body, led they (hould leave
their crucified mailer, and wordiip him in his dead.
To which they anfwered, “ We can neither forfake
Chrid, nor wordiip any other: for we w-ordiip him as
the Son of God j but love the martyrs as the difciples
and followers of the Lord, for the great affedlion they
have diown to their King and Mader.” A like an¬
fwer was given at the martyrdom of Frudluofus in
Spain. For when the judge aiked Eulogius* his dea¬
con, Whether he would not wordiip Fru&uofus >. as
thinking, that, though he refufed to wordiip the heathen
idols, he might yet be inclined to wordiip a Chridian
martyr j Eulogius replied, “ I do not wordiip Fruc-
tuofus, but him whom Frufluofus wordiips.” The
primitive Chridians believed, that the martyrs enjoyed
very lingular privileges ; that upon their death they
were immediately admitted to the beatific vifion, while
other fouls waited for the completion of their happi-
nefs till the day of judgment j and that God would
grant chiefly to their prayers the hadening of his king¬
dom, and (hortening the times of perfecution.
The churches built over the graves of the martyrs,
and called by their names, in order to preferve the me¬
mory of their fufferings, were didinguidied by the title
tnartynum confej/io, or memoria.
Xhe fedivals of the martyrs are of very ancient date
in the Chridian church, and may be carried back at
lead till the time of Polycarp, who differed martyrdom
about the year of Chrid 168. On thefe days the Chri¬
dians met at the graves of the martyrs, and offered
prayers and thanklgivings to God for the examples
they had afforded them : they celebrated the eucha-
rift, and gave alms to the poor j which, together with
a panegyrical oration or fermon, and reading the ads
of the martyrs, were the fpiritual exercifes of thefe an-
niverfaries.
Of the fayings, fufferings, and deaths of the mar¬
tyrs, though preferred with great care for the above
purpofe, and to lerve as models to future ages, we
have but very little left, the greated part of them ha¬
ving been dedroyed during that dreadful perl’ecution
which Dioclefian carried on for 10 years with frelh
fury againd the Chridians ; for a mod diligent fearch
was then made after all their books and papers ; and
all of them that were found were committed to the
flames. Eufebius, indeed, compofed a martyrology,
but it never reached down to us 5 and thofe (nice com¬
piled are extremely fufpefted. From the eighth century
downwards, feveral Greek and Latin writers endea¬
voured to make up the lofs, by compiling, with vaft
labour, accounts of the lives and a&ions of the ancient
martyrs, but which confiff of little elfe than a (cries of
fables: Nor are thofe records that pafs under the name
of Martyrology worthy of fuperior credit, fince they
bear the mod evident marks both of ignorance and
falfehood.
MAri yr, Peter, a famous divine, born at Florence
in 1500. He dudied philofophy and the languages
at Padua and Bononia, was a regular Augudine in
the monaftery of Fifcoli, and was counted one of the
4 I belt
MAR [ 61
Martyr, beft preachers in Italy. Zuinglius and Bucer’s writ-
Mirtyro- jngS gave bim a good opinion of the Proteftants, and
his converfation with Valdes confirmed it. He preach¬
ed that doftrine at Rome in private ; but, being im¬
peached, tied to Naples, and thence to Lucca, where
he brought over to the Proteilant iotdrell: Emanuel
Tremellius, Celfus, Martinengas, Paul Laticius, and
Jeremiah Zanchy. He was lent for to England by
King Edward VI. and made profellor of divinity at Ox¬
ford in 1549. In Q.ueen Mary’s reign he returned to
Stralburg, and was prefent at the conference of Poiffy.
His fentiments were not the fame with Calvin’s about
Chriit’s prefence in the eucharift. He wrote a great
number of works, and died in 1562.
MARTYROLOGY, a catalogue or lift of martyrs,
including the hiftory of their lives and fufferings for
the fake of religion. The term comes from
“ ivilnefs^ and Zuyof, “ difcourfe.'1'1
The martyrologies draw their materials from the
kalendars of particular churches, in which the feveral
feftivals dedicated to them are marked j and which
feetn to be derived from the pradlice of the ancient
Romans, who inferted the names of heroes and great
men in their fafti or public regifters.
The martyrologies are very numerous, and contain
many ridiculous and even con trad iftory narratives :
which is eafily accounted for, if we confider how many
forged and fpurious accounts of the lives of faints and
martyrs appeared in the firft ages of the church, which
the legendary writers afterwards adopted without ex¬
amining into the truth of them. How’ever, feme good
critics, of late years, have gone a great way towards
clearing the lives of the faints and martyrs from the
rnonftrous heap of fi&ion they laboured under. See
the article Legend.
The Martyrology of Eufebius of Caefarea was the
moft celebrated in the ancient church. It was tranflated
into Latin by St Jerome; but the learned agree that
it is not now extant. That attributed to Beda, in the
eighth century, is of very doubtful authority ; the
names of feveral faints being there found who did not
live till after the time of Beda. The ninth century
was very fertile in martyrologies •, then appeared that
of Florus, fubdeacon of the church at Lyons ; who,
however, only filled up the chafms in Beda. This
was publiftied about the year 830, and was followed by
that of Wajdenburtus, monk of the diocefe of Treves,
written in verfe about the year 844, and this by that
of Ufuard, a French monk, and written by the com¬
mand of Charles the Bald in 875, which laft is the
martyrology now ordinarily ufed in the Romifli church.
That of Rabanus Maurus is an improvement on Beda
and Florus, written about the year 845 ; that of Not*
ker, monk of St Gal, was written about the year 894.
The martyrology of Addo, monk of Ferrieres, in the
dioeefe of Treves, afterwards archbifliop of Vienne, is
a defcendant of the Roman, if w-e may fo call it ; for
Du Sollier gives its genealogy thus: The martyrology
of St Jerome is the great Roman martyrology ; from
this was made the little Roman one printed by Rof-
weyd ; of this little Roman martyrology was formed
that of Beda, au 'men ed by Florus. Ado compiled
his in the year 8 ,8. The martyrology of Nevelon,
monk of C'>rb’e, written about the year 1089, is little
more than an abridgement of that of Ado $ Father Kir-
8 ] MAR
cher alfo makes mention of a Coptic martyrology pre - Martyr*,
ferved by the Maronites at Rome. i°«y,
We have alfo ieveral Proteftant martyrologies, con- Marvell,
taining the fufFerings of the reformed under the Papifts,
viz. an Englifti martyrology, by J. Fox $ with others
by Clark, Bray, &.c.
Martyrology is alfo ufed, in the Romifti church,
for .a roll or regifter kept in the veftry of each church,
containing the navies of all the faints and martyrs, both
of the univerial church and of the particular ones of
that city or monaftery.
Martyrology is alfo applied to the painted or
written catalogues in the Romifh churches, containing
the foundations, obits, prayers, and mafl’es, to be faid
each day.
MARVELL, Andrew, an ingenious writer in the
17th century, was bred at Cambridge. He travelled
through the molt polite parts of Europe, and w as fecre-
tary to the embafl’y at Conftantinople. His firft appear¬
ance in public bulinefs at home was as afiiftant to Dr
John Milton, Latin fecretary to the protedfor. Alittle
before the reftoration, he was chofen by his native town,
Kingfton upon FIull, to fit in that parliament, which
began at Weftminfter April 25th 1 660 j and is record¬
ed as the laft member of parliament who received the
wages or allowance anciently paid to reprefentatives
by their conftituents. He feldom fpoke in parliament,
but he had great influence without doors upon the
members of both houfes $ and Prince Rupert had al¬
ways the greateft regard far his advice. He made
himfelf very obnoxious to the government by his ac¬
tions and writings j notwithftanding which, King
Charles II. took great delight in his converfation, and
tried all means to win him over to his fide, but in vain,
nothing being ever able to ftiake his refolution. There
were many inftantes of his firmnefs in refilling the of¬
fers of the court ; but he was proof againit ail temp¬
tations. The king having one night entertained him,
fent the lord treafurer Danby the next morning to
find out his lodgings j which were then up two pair
of ftairs in one of the little courts in the Strand. He
was bufy writing, when the treafurer opened the door
abruptly upon him. Surprifed at the fight of fo un-
expcdted a vifitor, Mr Marvell told his Lordfliip,
“ That he believed he had miltaken his way.” Lord
Danby replied, “ Not, now I have found Mr Mar¬
vell j” telling him he came from his majefty, to know
what he could do to ferve him. Coming to a ferious
explanation, he told the lord trealurer, that he knew
the nature of courts full well j that whoever is diftin-
guilhed by a prince’s favour, is certainly expelled to
vote in his imereft. The Lord Danby told him, that
his majefty had only a juft fenfe of his merits, in re¬
gard to which he only defired to know if there was
any place at court he could be pleafed with. 1 hefe
offers, though urged with the greateft earnednefs, had
no efted upon him. He told the lord treafurer, that
he could not accept of them with honour ; for he mull
be either ungratetul to the king in voting againft him,
or falie to his country in giving into the meafures of
the court. T he only favour therefore he had to re-
queft of his majefty was, that he would efteem him as
dutiful a lubjed as any he had, and more in his pro¬
per intereft by refufing his offers than if he had em¬
braced them. The Lord Danby finding no argu-
ment&
mar t 619 ] MAR
iMarveU, ments could prevail, told him, that the king had or-
Mary' dered a thoufand pounds for him, which he hoped he
would receive till he could think what farther to afk
of his majefty. The laft offer was rejefted with the
fame ftedfaftnefs of mind as the firft ; though, as foon
as the lord treafurer was gone, he was forced to fend
to a friend to borrow a guinea. He died, not without
ftrong fufpicions of his being poifoned, in 1678, in the
58th year of his age. In x688, the town of Kingfton
upon Hull contributed a fum of money to ere<5l a mo¬
nument over him in the church of St Giles in the Fields,
where he was interred, and an epitaph compofed by
an able hand j but the miniltry of that church forbade
both the infcription and monument to be placed there.
He wrote many ingenious pieces ; as, The Rehearfal
tranfprofed ; A Qrort Hiftorical Effay concerning Gen-
neral Councils, Creeds, and Importions in matters of
Religion, &c.; alfo Poems and Letters.
Marvel of Peru. See Mirabilis, Botany Index.
MARY, the mother of our Saviour Jefus Chrift,
and a virgin at the time that ihe conceived him;
daughter of Joachim and of Anna, of the tribe of Ju
dah, and married to Jofeph of the fame tribe. The
Scripture tells us nothing of her parents, not fo much
as their names, unlefs Heli mentioned by St Luke iii.
23. be the fame with Joachim. All that is faid con¬
cerning the birth of Mary and of her parents is only to
be found in fome apocryphal writings j which, how¬
ever, are very ancient.
Mary was of the royal race of David, as was alfo
her hulband ; ‘ A virgin, efpoufed to a man whofe
name was Jofeph, of the houle of David,’ fays our
tranflation o^ St Luke i. 27* which tranflation Mr
Whitby thinks might be better rendered thm : A
virgin of the houfe of David, efpoufed to a man whole
name was Jofeph, and the virgin’s name was Many ;
becaufe this agrees better with the words of the angel,
“ The Lord (hall give him the throne of his father
David,” ver. 3 2. For fince the angel had plainly told
the virgin, that Ihe (hould have this fon without the
knowledge of any man, it was not Jofeph’s but Mary’s
being of the houfe of David, that made David his fa¬
ther.
Mary was akin to the race of Aaron, fince Eliza¬
beth the wife of Zacharias was her coufin (ver. 36.)
Mary very early made a vow of chaftity, and enga¬
ged herfelf to perpetual virginity. The Proto-evan-
gelium of St James tells us, that (he was confecrated
to the Lord, and offered in the temple from her ear-
lieft youth ; and that the priefts gave her Jofeph for
a fpoufe, who was a holy and venerable old man,
whom Providemce appointed for his purpofe by a mi¬
racle, the rod which he commonly carried having
grown green and flourifhed as Aaron’s did formerly.
He efpoufed Mary, not to live with her in the ordinary
ufe of marriage, and to have children by her, but
only that he might be the guardian of her virginity.
Though thefe circumftances are not to be relied on as
certain, yet Mary’s refolution of continency, even in
a married (late, cannot be called in queftion, fince her
virginity is attefted by the gofpel, and that herfelf
(peaking to the angel, who declared to her that (he
(hould become the mother of a fon, told him that
“ die knew not a man,” (ver.) 34.), or that (he lived
ia continency with her hulband; for which reafon,
when Jofeph perceived her pregnancy, he was extreme- Mary,
ly furprifed at it, knowing the mutual refolution they v““
had agreed to of living in continency though in a Hate
of marriage.
When Mary was ready to lie in, an edict was pub-
liflied by Caffar Auguftus, which decreed, that all
the fubje&s of the empire (hould go to their own ci¬
ties, there to have their names regiftered according to
their families. Thus Jofeph and Mary, who were both
of the lineage of David, betook themfelves to the city
of Bethlehem, from whence was the original of their
family. But while they were in this place, the time
being fulfilled in which Mary was to be delivered, (he
brought forth her firft-born (on. She wrapped him in
fwaddling-clothes, and laid him in the manger of the
liable or cavern whither they had retired : for they
could find no place in the public inn, becaufe of the
great concourfe of people that were then at Bethlehem
on the fame occafion $ or they were forced to withdraw
into the liable of the inn, not being able to get a more
convenient lodging, becaufe of the multitude of people
then at Bethlehem.
At the fame time the angels made it known to
the (hepherds who wi re in the fields near Bethiehem,
and who came in the night to fee Mary and Jofeph
and the child lying in the manger, and to pay him
their tribute of adoration. Mary took notice of all
thefe things, and laid them up in her heart, (Luke ii.
19. Matth. ii. 8, 9, 10, 11, &c.). A few days after,
the magi or wife men came from the call, and brought
to Jefus the mylterious prefents of gold, frankincenfe,
and myrrh ; after which, being warned by an angel
that appeared to them in a dream, they returned in¬
to their own country by a way different from that
by which they came. But the time of Mary’s puri¬
fication being come, that is forty days after the btrth
of Jefus, Mary went to Jerufalem (Luke ii. 21.), there
to prefent her fon in the temple, and there to offer the
facrifice appointed by the law for the purification of
women after childbirth. There was then at Jerufa¬
lem an old man named Simeon, who was full of the
Holy Ghoft, and who had received a fecret affurance
that he (hould not die before he had ften Chrill the
Lord. He came then into the temple by the influence
of the fpirit of God, and taking the little Jefus with¬
in his arms, he bleffed the Lord : and afterwards ad¬
drefling himfelf to Mary, he told her, ‘That this
child (hould be for the rifing and falling of many in
Ifrael, and for a fign which (hould be fpoken againft ,
even fo far as that her own foul (hould be pierced as
with a fword, that the fecret thoughts in the hearts
°f many might be difcovered.’ Afterwards when Jo¬
feph and Mary were preparing to return to their own
country of Nazareth (Matth. ii. 13, 14.), Jofeph was
warned in a dream to retire into Egypt with Mary
and the child, becaule Herod had a delign to dellroy
Jefus. Jofeph obeys the admonition, and they con¬
tinued in Egypt till after the death of Herod , upon
which he and Mary returned to Nazareth, not daring
to go to Bethlehem becaufe it was in the jurifdiaioU
of Archelaus the fon and fucceffor of H'Tod the Great.
Here the holy family took up their refidence, and re-!
mained till Jefus began his public miniflry. We read
of Mary being prefent at the marriage of Cana in Ga¬
lilee, with her fon Jefus and his difciples (John ii.
MAR [ 620 ] M A R
Mary. it 2, &c.). On which occafion Jefus having turned
water into wine, being the firfx public miracle that he
performed, he went from thence to Capernaum with
his mother and his brethren, or his parents and dif-
ciples : and this feems to be the place w here the holy
virgin afterwards chiefly refi led. However, St Epi-
phanius thinks that (he followed him everywhere dur¬
ing the whole time of his preaching \ though we do
not find the evangelifts make any mention of her
among the holy women that followed him and mi-
niftered to his neceffities. The Virgin Mary was at
.Terufalem at the lafl: pafl'over that our Saviour cele¬
brated there ; Die faw all that was tranfa&ed againft
him, followed him to Calvary, and flood at the foot
of his crofs with a conftancy worthy of the mother of
God. There Jefus feeing his mother and his beloved
difciple near her, he Paid to his mother, “ Woman,
behold thy fon and to the difciple, “ Behold thy
mother.” And from that hour the difciple took her
home to his own houfe. It is not to be doubted, but
that our Saviour appeared to his mother immediately
after h is re fur reft ion ; and that (he was the firft, or at
leaft one of the firfl, to whom he vouchfafd thb great
confolati >n. She w-as with the apoflles at his afcenfion,
and continued with them at Jerufalem, expefting the
coming of the Holy Ghofl (Afts i. 14.). After this,
ftie dwelt in the houfe of St John the Evangelifl, who
took care of her as of his own mother. It is thought
that he took her along w ith him to Ephefus, where flie
died in an extreme old age. There is a letter of the
oecumenical council of Ephefus, importing, that in the
fifth century it was believed {he was buried there. Yet
this opinion was not fo univerfal, but that there are au¬
thors of the fame age who think (he died and was bu¬
ried at Jerufalem.
MART Mn^dr./en, who has been generally con¬
founded with Mary the fifler of Martha and Lazarus,
but very improperly, was probably that (inner men¬
tioned by St Li ke, chap. vii. 36, 37, &c. whofe name
lie does not tell us. There are fome circumftantes
fufficient to convince us, that !he is the fame whom
he calls Ma>y Magdalen in chap. viii. 2. and from
whom he lays Jefus drove out ieven devils. Jefus
having healed the widow’s fon of Nain, entered into
the city, and there was invited to eat by a Pharifee
named Simon. While he was at table, a woman of a
fcandalous life came into the houfe, having an alabafler
box full of perfumed oil, and {landing upright be¬
hind Jefus, and at his feet, for he was lying at table
on a couch after the manner of the ancients, flit pour¬
ed her perfume on his feet, kiffid them, watered them
with her tears, and wiped them with her hair. The
Pharifee obferving this, faid within himfelf. If this
man were a prophet, he would know who this woman
is that touches him, that (he is one of a wicked life.
Then Jefus, who knew the bottom of his heart, illu-
ftrated her cafe by a parable ; and concluded with an-
fwering the woman, that her fins were forgiven her.
In the following chapter, St Luke tells us, that Je¬
fus, in company with his apoliles, preached the go-
fpel from city to city : and that there were feveral wo¬
men whom he had delivered from evil fpirits, and had
cured of their infirmities, among w hom was Mary call¬
ed Magdalen, out of whom went feven devils. This,
2
it muft be owned, is no pofitive proof that the {inner Mary,
mentioned before was Mary Magdalen 5 however, it is "" v'"—"*1
all we have in fupport of this opinion : An opinion
which has been ably controverted by others. Mary
Magdalen had her furname, it is thought, from the town
of Magdalia in Galilee. Lightfoot believes that this
Mary is the fame with Mary the After of Lazarus.
Magdalen is mentioned by the evangelifts among the
women that followed our Saviour, to minifter to him
according to the cuftom of the Jews. St Luke viii. 2.
and St Mark xvi. 9. obierve, that this woman had been
delivered by JeJus Chrift from feven devils. This fome
underftand in the literal fenie ; but others take it figu¬
ratively, for the crimes and wickedneis of her paft life
(fuppofing her to be the (inner firft above mention¬
ed), from which Chrift had reicued her. Others
maintain, that (he had always lived in virginity -, and
confequently they make her a different perfon from
the finner mentioned by St Luke : and by the feven
devils of which (he was poffeffed, they underftand no
other than a real pofftflion, which is not inconliltent
with a holy life. This indeed is the molt probable opi.
nion, and that which has been belt lupported. In par¬
ticular, the author of a “ Letter to Jonas Han way”
on the fubjtft of Magdalen Houfe, publilhed in 1738,
has ftiown by a variety of learned remarks, and quo¬
tations both from the Scriptures and from the belt
commentators, that Mary Magdalen was not the fin¬
ner ipoken of by St Luke, but on the contrary that
(he “ was a woman of diftinftion, and very ea(y in her
worldly circumftances. For a while, (he had laboured
under lome bodily indifpofition, which our Lord mira-
culoufly healed, and for which benefit (he was ever
after very thankful. So far as we know, her conduct
was always regular and free from cenfure j and we
may reafonably believe, that after her acquaintance
with our Saviour rt was edifying and exemplary. I
conceive of her (continues our author) as a woman
of a fine undei(landing, and known virtue and diicre-
tion, with a dignity of behaviour becoming her age,
her tvifdom, and her high tiation : by all which, Ihe
was a credit to him whom (he followed as her ma-
fter and benefaftor.. She {bowed our Lord great re-
fpeft in his 1’fe, at his death, and after it , and fhe was
one of thofe to whom he firll {bowed himfelf after his
refurreftion.”
Mary Magdalen followed Chrift in the laft journey
that he made from Galilee to Jeruialem, and was at
the foot of the crofs with the holy virgin (John xix.
25. Mark xv. 47.). After which (he returned to Je-
rufalem to buy and prepare the perfumes, that ihs
might embalm him after the fabbath was over, which
was then about to begin. All the fabbath day (he re¬
mained in the city ; and the next day early in the
morning (he went to the lepulchre, along with Mary
the mother of James and Salome ( Mark xvi. 1, 2. Luke
xxiv. I, 2.). On the way, they inquired of one ano¬
ther, who ftiould take away the Hone from the mouth
of the (epulchre, and were fenfible of a great earth¬
quake. This was the token of our Saviour’s reiurrec-
tion. Being come to his tomb, they taw two angels,
who informed them that Joins was rifen. Upon this
Ma’y Magdalen urns immediately to Jerufalem, and
acquaints the apofties with this good new's, returning
hcrfelf
MAR [ 621 ] MAR
Mary, herfelf to the fepulchre. Peter and John came alfo,
~ i and were witneffes that the body was no longer there.
They returned : but Mary flayed, and (looping for¬
ward to examine the infide of the tomb, (he there faw
two angels fitting, one at the head and the other at the
foot of the tomb ; and immediately afterwards, upon
turning about, (he beheld the Lord himfelf. She
would have caft herfelf at his feet to kifs them. But
Jefus faid to her, “ Touch me not, for I am not yet
afcended to my Father.” As if he had faid, “ You
(hall have leifure to fee me hereafter $ go now to my
brethren, my apoftles, and tell them I am going to
afcend to my God and to their God, to my Father and
to their Father.” Thus had Mary the happinefs of firft
feeing our Saviour aftrr his refurredfion. (See Matth.
xxxviii. 5. &c. Mark xvi. 6. &c. John xx 11, 17 ).
She returned then to Jerufalem, and told the apoflles
that (he had feen the Lord, that (he had fpoken to him,
and told them what he had faid to her. But at firft
they did not believe her, till her report was confirmed
by many other teflimonies.—This is what the gofpel
informs us concerning Mary Magdalen, different from
Mary the fifter of Martha, though (he has been often
called by this name. For, as to the pretended Hiilory
of Mary Magdalen, which is faid to have been written
in Hebrew by Marcella fervant of Martha ; this can
only relate to Mary fifter of Martha, and befides is a
mere piece of impofture.
Mary, queen and tyrant of England, was eldeft
daughter of Henry VIII. by hh firft wife Catharine
of Spain, and born at Greenwich in February 1517.
Her mother was very careful of her education, and
provided her with tutors to teach her what was lif¬
ting. Her firft preceptor was the famous Linacre,
who drew up for her ufe the Rudiments of Gram¬
mar, and afterwards De emendata (IruBura Latinifer-
tnoms hbrifer. Linacre dying when (lie was but fix
years old, Ludovicus Vives, a very learned man of
Valenza in Spain, was her next tutor ; and he com-
pofed for her De ratione Jludiipuerilis. Under the di¬
rection of thefe excellent men, (lie became fo great a
miftrefs of Latin, that Eralmus commends her for her
epiltles in that language. Towards the end of her fa¬
ther’s reign, at the earned folicitation of Queen Ca¬
tharine Parr, (he undertook to tranflate Erafmus’s
Paraphrafe on the gofpel of St John *, but falling into
ill health, as Udall relates, partly by exceflive ftudy
in this work, after (lie had made lome progrefs there¬
in, (he left the red to be done by Dr Mallet her
chaplain. This tranflation is printed in the firft vo¬
lume of Erafmus’s Paraphrafe upon the New Tefta-
ment, London, 1548, folio ; and with it is a Pre¬
face, written by Udall, the famous matter of Eton
fchool, and addreffed to the queen dowager (a).—
Had (he been educated in Spain, however, and an in-
quifitor had been her precepxor, (he could not have
imbibed more ftrongly the bloody principles of Ro-
mifti perfecution j and to the eternal difgrace of the
Englilh prelacy, though tha reformation had taken
root in both univerfities, (he found Englifh biftiops
ready to carry her cruel defigns to fubvert it into ef¬
fectual execution. King Edward her brother dying
the 6th of July 155^, (he was proclaimed queen the
fame month, and crowned in October by Stephen
Gardiner bilhop of Winchefter. Upon her accef-
fion to the throne, (he declared, in her fpeech to the
council, that (lie would not perfi cute her Proteftant
fubjects : but in the following month, (lie prohibited
preaching without a fpecial licenfe ; and before the
expiration of three months, the Proteftant biftiops
were
(a) As this preface contains many reflections which may very much edify the females of this age, w-e
(hall for their fakes here tranferibe a part of it. Mr Udall takes occafion in it to obferve to her majefty,
“ The great number of noble women at that time in England, not onlv given to the ftudy of human fciences
and ftr&nge tongues, but alfo fo thoroughly expert in the Holy Scriptures, that they were able to compare
with the beft writers, as well in enditing and penning of godly and fruitful treatifes, to the inftrueftion and
edifying of realms in the knowledge of God, as alfo in tranflating good books out of Latin or Greek into
Englilh, for the ufe and commodity of fuch as are rude and ignorant of the faid tongues. It was now (he
faid) no news in England to fee young damiels in noble houfes, and in the courts of princes, inftead of cards
and other inftruments of idle trifling, to have continually in their hands'either pfalms, homilies, and other de¬
vout meditations, or elfe Paul’s epiftles, or fome book of holy feripture matters, and as familiarly both to read
or reafon thereof in Greek, Latin, French, or Italian, as in Englifh. It was now a common thing to fee
young virgins fo trained in the ftudy of good letters, that they willingly fet all other vain paftimes at nought
for learning’s fake. It was now no news at all to fee queens and ladies of mod high eftate and progeny, in¬
ftead of courtly dalliance, to embrace virtuous exercifes of reading and writing, and with moft earned ftudy,
both early and late, to apply them'elves to the acquiring of knowledge, as well in all other liberal arts and dif-
ciplines, as alfo moft especially of God and his holv word. And in this behalf (lays he), like as to your high-
nefs, as well as for compofing a- d etting forth many godly pfalms, and divers other contemplative meditations,
as alfo for caufing thefe paraphrafes to be tranflated into our vulgar tongue, England can never be able to render
thanks fufficient ; fo may it never be able, as her dHerts require, enough to praite and magnify the moft noble,
the moft virtuous, the moft witty, and the moft ftudious Lady Mary’s grace, for taking fuch pain and travail in
tranflating this Paraphrafe of Erafmus upon the gofpel of St John.—What could be a more plain declaration
of her moft conftant purpofe to promote God’s word, and the free grace of his gofpel ?” &c. Mr Udall was
miftaken •, (lie never meant any fuch thing ; for foon after her acceflion to the throne, a proclamation was iffued
for calling in and fupprefling this very book, and all others that had the leaft tendency towards furthering the
reformation. And Mr Walpole is of opinion, that the ficknefs which came upon her while (he was tranflating
St John, was all affefled ; “ for (fays he) (he would not fo eafily have been call into ficknefs, had (he been em*.
ployed on the Legends of St Terefa or St Catharine of Sienna.”
MAR [ 622 ] MAR
were excluded the houfe of lords, and all the ftatutes
of Edward VI. refpefting the Proteftant religion were
repealed. In July 1554 fhe wajj married to Philip
prince of Spain, eldeft fon of the emperor Charles V j
and now began that perfecution againlt the Prote-
ftants for which her reign is fojullly infamous. Some
have fuppofed, that the queen was herfelf of a compaf-
lionate and humane dilpofition ; and that molt of thole
barbarities were tranfadled by her bilhops without
her knowledge or privity. Without her knowledge
and privity they could not be : it would be a better
defence of her to fay, that a drift adherence to a falfe
religion, and a confcientious obfervance of its perni¬
cious and cruel didates, overruled and got the better
of that goodnefs of temper which was natural to her.
But neither can this plea be reafonably admitted by
any one who confiders her unkind and inhuman
treatment of her filter the Lady Elizabeth ; her ad¬
mitting a council for the taking up and burning of
her father’s body ; her molt ungrateful and perfidious
breach of promife with the Suffolk men j her unge¬
nerous and barbarous treatment of Judge Hales, who
had Itrenuoufly defended her right of lucceflion to the
crown j and of Archbilhop Cranmer, who in reality
had faved her life. Shall wt excufe all this by faying,
Tantum reltgio potuit fuadcre malorum ? Her obligations
to Cranmer deferve to be more particularly fet forth.
Burnet fays, “ that her firm adherence to her mother’s
caufe and interelt, and her backvvardnefs in fubmitting
to the king her father, were thought crimes of fuch
a nature by his majefty, that he came to a refolution
to put her openly to death : and that when all others
were unw'illing to run any rilk in faving her, Cran-
mer alone ventured upon it. In his gentle way he
told the king “ that Ihe was young and indifcreet, and
therefore it was no wmnder if Ihe obftinately adhered
to that which her mother and all about her had
been infufing into her for many years ; but that it
would appear ftrange, if he Ihould for this caufe fo
far forget the father, as to proceed to extremities
with his own child 5 that if Ihe was feparated from
her mother and her people, in a little time there might
be ground gained on her j but that to take away
her life, would laife horror through all Europe againft
him 5” by which means he preferved her.—Along
with Archbilhop Cranmer, who had thus faved her
life, the bilhops Ridley and Latimer were alfo con¬
demned for herefy at Oxford, and afterwards burnt.
In 1556, the perfecution became general; and Pro-
teftants of all ranks and ages, and of both fexes, fell
viftims to papal fury. It is obfervable, likewife, that
the fame perfidious violation of promifes and treaties
prevailed in the queen’s council, with refpeft to public
affairs. By the treaty of marriage concluded between
the queen and Philip, it was exprefsly llipulated that
England fhould not be engaged in any wars with
France on account of Spain; yet in 1557, Philip
who had brought iraroenfe fums of money into Eng¬
land, procured an offenfive and defenfive alliance
again 11 France, from the Englilh adminiftraticn, and
Sooo of the queen’s choice!! troops were lent over to
Ve °f t^e Spaniards in the Low Countries ;
the lofs of Calais to the French was the firft fruit of
this war ; and fome affert, that upon this fingle occa-
non the queen ftiowed a itrong attachment to her na¬
tive country, lamenting this ftroke fo deeply, that it Maty,
occafioned her death ; but it is better authenticated "’“V—
that Ihe was carried off by an epidemic fever, which
raged fo violently that it did not leave a fufficient num¬
ber of men in health to get in the harveit. She had
long, however, been a prey, if not to remorfe, yet to
difappointment and chagrin, arifing from various crofs
accidents, fuch as want of children, and the ablence
and unkirjdnefs of Philip conlequent thereupon. Her
death happened Nov. 7. 1558, in the 43d year of her
age, after a reign of five years, four months, and ele¬
ven days. There are fome things of her writings ftill
extant. Strype has preferved three prayers or medi¬
tations of hers : the firft, “ Againft the Affaults of
Vice ;” the fecond, “ A Meditation touching Adverfi-
ty the third, “ A Prayer to be read at the Hour of
Death.” In Fox’s “ A6ts and Monuments” are print¬
ed eight of her letters to King Edward and the lords
ot the council, on her nonconformity, and on the im-
prilonment of her chaplain Dr Mallet. In the 5///-
/oge eptjiolarum are feveral more of her letters, extreme¬
ly curious : one of her delicacy in never having writ¬
ten but to three men ; one of atfedtion for her fitter }
one after the death of Anne Boleyn ; and one very re¬
markable of Cromwell to her. In “ Playnes’s Slate
Papers,” are two in Spanilh to the emperor Charles V.
There is alfo a French letter, printed by Strype from
the Cottonian library, in anfwer to a haughty mandate
from Philip, when he had a mind to marry the Lady
Elizabeth to the duke of Savoy, againft the queen’s
and princefs’s inclination: it is written in a molt abjeft
manner, and a wretched ftyle.
MART of Medicis, wife of Henry IV. king of France*
was declared foie regent of the kingdom in 1610, dur¬
ing the confternation which the affaflination of that
beloved king had occafioned. By her ambitious in¬
trigues, the nation loft all its inftuence abroad, and
was torn to pieces at home by contending factions.
After feveral viciflitudes of fortune, Ihe was aban¬
doned by her fon Louis XIII. whole reign had been
conftantly difturbed by the civil commotions Ihe had
occafinned ; and died in indigence at Bruffels in 1642,
aged 68. She built the fuperb palace of Luxembourg
at Paris, and embellilhed that city with aqueducts and
other ornaments.
Mary queen of Scotland, daughter of James V.
was born in the royal pidace of Linlithgow on the 8th
of December 1542. Her mother was Mary, the eldeft
daughter of Claude duke of Guile, and widow of Louis
duke of Longueville. Her father dying a few days af¬
ter her birth, Ihe fcarcely exifted before Ihe was hailed
queen.
The government of a queen was unknown in Scot¬
land ; and the government of an infant queen could
not command much refpetft from martial and turbu¬
lent nobles, who exercifed a kind of fovereignty over
their own vaffals ; who looked upon the molt warlike
of their monarchs in hardly any other light than as
the chief of the ariftocracy ; and who, upon the
Ilighteft difgults, were ever ready to fly into rebellion,
and to carry their arms to the foot of the throne.
James had not even provided againft the diforders of
a minority, by committing to proper perfons the care
of his daughter’s education, and the adminiftration of
affairs in her name. The former of thefe objects,
however,
M A Pv [62
Mary, however, was not negledled, though the regency of
-'Y—~ the kingdom was intruded to very feeble hands. At
fix years of age Mary was conveyed to France, where
file received her education in the court of Henry If.
The opening powers of her mind, and her natural dif-
pofitions, afforded early hopes of capacity and merit.
After being taught to work with her needle and in
lapellry, ffe was inilrufted in the Latin tongue ; and
fire is faid to have underltood it with an accuracy,
which is in this age very u icommon in perfons of her
fex and elevated rank, but which was not then fur-
prifing, when it was the falhion among great ladies to
fludy the ancient languages. In the French, the Ita¬
lian, and the Spanifii tongues, her proficiency wasitill
greater, and fire fpoke them with equal eaie and pro¬
priety. She walked, danced, and rode with enchant-
ing gracefulnefs ; and (he was qualified by nature, as
well as by art, to attain to diitinition in painting, poe¬
try, and mufic. To accompinh the woman was not,
however, the foie obje£t of her edncation. Either (he
was taught, or (he very early difcovered, the neceflity
of acquiring fuch branches of knowledge as might en¬
able her to difcharge with dignity and prudence the
duties of a fovereign $ and much of her time w as de¬
voted to the ftudy of hiftory, in which (he delighted to
the end of her life.
Whilft Mary refided in the court of Henry II. her
perfonal charms made a deep impreffion on the mind
of the Dauphin. It was in vain that the conftable
Montmorency oppofed their marriage with all his in¬
fluence. The importance of her kingdom lo France,
and the power of her uncles the princes of Lorraine,
wrere more than fufficient to counteract his intrigues j
and the Dauphin obtained the molt beautiful princefs
in Chrittendom.
Though this alliance placed the queen of Scotland
m the molt confpicuous point of view, in the politelt
court of Europe, and drew to her thofe attentions which
are in the higheit degree pleafing to a female mind in
the gaiety of youth ; it may yet be confidered as hav¬
ing accidentally laid the foundation of thegreatelt part
of her future misfortunes. Elizabeth, who now fway-
ed the fceptre of England, had been declared illegiti¬
mate by an aft of parliament: and though the Engl
lifli Proteftants paid no regard to a declaration which
was compelled by the tyrannic violence of Henry VIII.
and which he hi nfelf had indeed rendered null by call¬
ing his daughter to the throne after her brother a id
elder filter j yet the papilts both at home and abroad
had objeftions to the legitimacy of Elizabeth’s birth,
founded on principles which with them had gr ater
weight than the aft» of any human legifliture. M iry
was unqueftionably the n. xt heir in regular iuceeflion
to the Englilh throne, if Elizabeth (hould die without
legitimate iffue 5 and up m her marriage to the Dau¬
phin, (he was induced oy the perfuafion of her uncles,
by the authority of the French king, and no doubt
partly by her own ambition, to aflame the title and
arms of queen of England and Ireland. Thefe, in¬
deed, the forebore as foon as (he became her own mi-
ftrefi,; but the having at all afifamed them was an of¬
fence which Elizabeth could never forgive, and which
rankling in her bofom made h< r many years afterwards
purfue the unhappy queen of Scans to the block.
Henry II. dying loon after the marriage of the
3 J M A R
Dauphin and Mary, they mounted the throne of
France. In that elevated ftation, the queen did not'
fail to diftinguilh heri'elf. The weaknefs of her hulhand
ferved to exhibit her accomplifiiments to the greateit
advantage; and in a court where gallantry to the (ex,
and the molt profound refpeft for the perfon of the
fovereign, were infeparable from the manners of a gen¬
tleman, the learned the firlt leflons of royalty. ±Jut
this icene of fuccel’sful grandeur and unmixed felicity
was of Ihort duration. Her hulband Francis died un¬
expectedly after a Ihort reign of lixteen months. Ke-
giet for his death, her own humiliation, the dif-
grace of her uncles tfie princes of Lorraine, which in-
itantly followed, and the coldnefs of Catharine of Me-
dicis the queen mother, who governed her fon Charles
IX. plunged Mary into inexp. edible forrow. She was
invited to return to her own kingdom, and Hie tried
to reconcile herlelf to her fate.
She was now to pals from a lifuation of elegance
and fplendour to the very reign of incivility and tur¬
bulence, where molt of her accomplilhments would be
utterly loft. Among the Scots of that period, ele¬
gance of tafte was little known. J. he generality of
them were funk in ignorance and barbariim j and what
they termed religion, diftated to all a petulant rudenefs
of fpeeeh and conduft to which the queen of France
was wholly unaccultomed. During her minority and
abfence, the Proteftant religion had gained akindof e-
ftabliihmentin Scotland j obtained, indeed, b) violence,
and therelore liable to be overturned by an act of the
fovereign and the three eftates in parliament. The
queen, too, was unhappily of a diftcrent opinion from
the great body of her lubjefts, upon that' one topic,
which among them actuated aimoit every heart, and
direfted almolt every tongue. Stic had beeneducaud
in the church of Rome, and was Itrongly attached to
that fuperftition . \ et ihe had either moderation enough
in her ipirit, or diferetion enough in her underltand-
ing, not to attempt any innovation in the prevailing
faith of Proteftantifm. She allowed her luojecis the
full and free exercife of their new religion, and only
challenged the fame indulgence for her own. She con¬
trived to attach to her, whether from his heart or on¬
ly in appearance, her natural brother, the prior of St
Andrew’s ; a man of ftrong and vigorous parts, who,
though he had taken the ufual oath ot obedience to
the pope, had thrown off his fpiritual allegiance, and
placed himfelf at the head of the reformers.' By his
means ihe crulhed an early and formidable rebellion j
and m reward tor his (ervices conferred upon him a
large eftate, and created him earl ot Murray. For
two or three years h<r reign was prolperous, and her
adminiftration applauded by all he r iubjefts except the
Proteftant preachers j and had (he eiiher remained un¬
married, or bellowed her affeftions up>>n a more worthy
Objeft, it is probable that her name would have defeend-
ed to pofterity among ihofe of the muft fortunate and
the moll deferving of Scottilh monarchs.
But a queen, young, beautiful, and accompliftred,
an ancient and hereditary kingdom, and the expec¬
tation of a mightier inheritance, were objects to excite
the love and ambition ot the moft illuftrmus perion-
ages. Mary, however, who kept her eye iteadily
fixed on the Englilh lueceflion, r. jnfted every offer of
a lureign alliance j and, Iwayed at firlt by prudential
motives,^
Mary.
MAR [ 624 ] MAR
Mary, motives, and afterwards by love the Ttloft excefllve,
1 (he gave her hand to PIrnry Stuart Lord Darnley, the
fon of the earl of Lenox. This nobleman was, af¬
ter herfelf, the neareft hpir to the crown of England
he was likewife the firfl. in fuccetlion after the earl
of Arran to the crown of Scotland ; and it is known
that James V. had intended to introduce into his
kingdom the Salique law, and to fettle the crown upon
Lenox in preference to his own daughter. Thefe con-
hderations made Mary felicitous for an interview with
Darnley ; and at that interview love ftole into her
heart, and effaced every favourable thought of all
her other fuitors. Nature had indeed been lavifh to
him of her kindnefs. He was tall of ftature j his
countenance and fhapes were beautiful and regular j
and, amidfl the mafks and dancing with which his ar¬
rival was celebrated, he (hone with uncommon luftre.
But the bounty of nature extended not to his mind.
His underftanding was narrow ; his ambition exceffive $
his obftinacy inflexible j and under the guidance of no
fixed principle, he was inconftant and capricious. He
knew neither how to enjoy his profperity nor how to
enfure it.
On the 29th of July 1565, this ill-fated pair were
married ; and though the queen gave her hufband
every poflible evidence of the moft extravagant love j
though (he infringed the principles of the conftitution
to confer upon him the title of king j and though (he
was willing to (hare with him all the offices, honours,
and dignities of royalty—he was not fatisfied with his
lot, but foon began to clamour for more power. He
had not been married feven months, when he entered
into a confpiracy to deprive Mary of the government,
and to feat'himfelf on her throne. With this view he
headed a band of factious nobles, who entered her
chamber at night $ and though (he was then far ad¬
vanced in her pregnancy, murdered her fecretary in
her prefence, whillt one of the ruffians held a cocked
piflol to her bread. Such an outrage, together with
his infidelity and frequent amours, could not fail to
alienate the affections of a high fpirited woman,
and to open her eyes to thofe defeCts in his character
which the ardours of love had hitherto prevented her
from feeing. She fighed and wept over the precipita¬
tion of her marriage : but though it was no longer
poffible to love him, (he (till treated him with attention
and refpeCt, and laboured to falhion him to the humour
of her people.
This was labour in vain. His prepofterous vanity
and afpiring pride roufed the refentment and the
fcorn of the nobles : his follies and want of dignity
made him little with the people.. He deferted the con-
fpirators with whom he had been leagued in the affaffi-
nation of the fecretary j and he had the extreme im¬
prudence to threaten publicly the earl of Murray,
who, from his talents and his followers, poffelfed the
greateft power of any man in the kingdom. The
confequence was, that a combination was formed for
the king’s deflruCtion ; and, on the 10th day of Febru-
ary 1567, the houfe in which he then refided was early
in the morning blown up with gunpowder, and his Mary,
dead and naked body, without any marks of violence, ’T—
was found in an adjoining field.
Such a daring and atrocious murder filled every
mind with horror and ationilfiment. The queen, who
had been in fome meafure reconciled to her hufband,
was overwhelmed with grief, and took every method
in her power to difeover the regicides j but for fom»
days nothing appeared which could lead to the difeo-
very. Papers indeed were pofttd on the molt confpi-
cuous places 111 Edinburgh, accufing the earl of Both-
Wtll ot the crime j and rumours were indufiriouily
circulated that his horrid enterprife was encouraged
by the queen. Conicious, it is to be prefumed, of her
own innocence, Mary was the lefs difpofed to believ#
the guilt of Bothweil, who was accufed of having only
aCted as her inftrument j but when he was charged
with the murder by the earl of Lenox, (he inftantly
ordered him on his trial. Through the management
of the earl of Morton and others, who were afterwards
difeovered to have been partners in his guilt, Both well
was acquitted of all (hare and knowledge of the king’s
murder ; and what is abfolutely aitoniihing, and (hows
the total want of honour at that time in Scotland, this
flagitious man procured, by means of the fame treach¬
erous friends, a paper ligned by the majority of the
nobles, recommending him as a fit hufband for the
queen !
Armed with this inftrument of mifehief, which he
weakly thought fufficient to defend him from danger,
Bothwell foon afterwards feized the perfon of his fove-
reign, and carried her a prifoner to his caftle at Dun¬
bar. It has indeed been alleged by the enemies of
the queen, that no force was employed on the occa-
fion ; that (he was feized with her own confent j and
that (he was even privy to the fubferibing of the '
bond by the nobles. But it has been well obferved
by one of her ableft vindicators (a), that “ her previous
knowledge of the bond, and her aequiefcence in the
feizure of her perfon, are two fads in apparent oppo-
fition to each other. Had the queen aded in concert
with Bothwell in obtaining the bond from the nobles,
nothing remained, but, under the fandion of their un¬
animous addrefs, to have proceeded diredly to the
marriage. Inftead of which, can we fuppofe her f©
weak as to rejeft that addrefs, and rather chooje that
Bothw'ell fhould attempt to feize and carry her off by
violence ?—an attempt which many accidents might
fruftrate, and which at all events could not fail to ren¬
der him or both of them odious to the Avhole nation.
Common fenfe, then, as well as candour, muft induce
us to believe, that the fcheme of feizing the queen
was folely the contrivance of Bothwell and his affo-
ciates, and that it was really by force that (he w as carried
to Dunbar.” Being there kept a clofe prifoner for
12 days \ having, as there is reafon to believe, adually
fuffered violence on her perfon 5 perceiving no ap¬
pearance of a refeue j and being fliown the infamous
bond of the nobles ; Mary promifed to receive her ra-
vifher for a hufband, as in her opinion the only refuge
for
(A) Tytler's Differ tot ion on the Marriage of ^ueen Mary with the earl of Bothwell 1 Tranfadions of the S»-
eiety of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. i.
M A R
Mary. f0r her injured honour. Without condemning with
v afperity this compliance of the queen, it is impoffible
not to recoiled the more dignified condud which
Richardfon attributes in fimilar circumftances to his
Clariffa ; and every man who feels for the fufferings,
and refpeds the memory of Mary, muft regret that
file had not fortitude to refill every attempt to force
upon her as a hulband the profligate and audacious
villain who had offered her fuch an infult as no virtu-
ous woman ought ever to forgive. This, however,
is only to regret that Ihe was not more than human j
that fire who poffeffed fo many perfedions, Ihould have
had them blended with one defed. “ In the irretriev¬
able fituation of her affairs, let the moll fevere of her
fex fay what courfe was left for her to follow ? Her firft
arid molt urgent concern was to regain her liberty.
Ihat probably Ihe attained by promiling to be direc¬
ted by the advice of her council, where Bothwell had
nothing to fear.” The marriage, thus inaufpicioully
contraded, was folemnized on the 15th of May 1567 ;
and it W'as the fignal for revolt to Morton, Lethington,
and many of the other nobles, by whofe wicked and
relentlefs policy it had been chiefly brought about,
and who had bound themfelves to employ their fwords
againff all perfons who Ihould prefume to dillurb fo de-
lirable an event.
As Bothwell was juftly and univerfally detelled,
and as the rebels pretended that it was only againlt
him and not againfl: their fovereign that they had
taken up arms, troops flocked to them from every
quarter. The progrefs and iffue of this rebellion will
be feen in our hillory of Scotland : fufhce it to fay
here, that upon the faith of promifes the molt folemn,
not only of perfonal fafety to herfelf, but of receiving
as much honour, fervice, and obedience, as ever in any
former period was paid by the nobility to the princes
her predeceflbrs, the unhappy queen delivered herfelf
into the hands of her rebels, and perfuaded her huf-
band to fly from the danger which in her apprehenfion
threatened his life. Thefe promifes wrere inftantly vio¬
lated. Ihe faithlefs nobles, after infulting their fove¬
reign in the cruelleft manner, hurried her as a prifoner
to a cafile within a lake, where Ihe was committed to
the care of that very woman who was the mother of
her baflard brother j who, with the natural infolence
of a whore’s meannefs, fays Mr Whitaker, afferted the
legitimacy of her own child and the illegitimacy of
Mary ; and who adlually carried the natural vulgarity
of a whore’s impudence fo far, as to llrip her of all her
royal ornaments, and to drefs her like a mere child of
fortune in a coarfe brown caffoc.
In this diflrefs the queen’s fortitude and prefence^of
mind did not forfake her : She contrived to make her
efcape from her prifon, and foon found herfelf at the
head of 6000 cembatants. Ihis army, hov'ever, Was
defeated j and, in oppofition to the advice and en¬
treaties of all her friends, Ihe haflily formed the re-
lolution of taking refuge in England. The archbi-
fliop of St Andrew’s in particular accompanied her to
the border ; and when (he was about to quit her own
[ 625 ]
MAR
kingdom, he laid hold of her horfe’s bridle, and on
his knees conjured her to return : but Mary proceed¬
ed, with the utmoft reliance on the friendlhip of Eliza¬
beth, which had been offered to her when Ihe was a
Vol. XII. Part II.
prifoner, and of the fincerity of which Ihe harboured not
a doubt.
I hat princefs, however, who had not yet forgotten
her affumption of the title and arms of queen of Eng¬
land, was now taught to dread her talents, and to be
envious of her charms. She therefore, under various
pretences, and in violation not only ef public faith, but
even of the common rights of hofpitality, kept her a
dole prifoner for 19 years : encouraged her rebellious
fubjeds to accufe her publicly of the murder of her
hulband : allowed her no opportunity of vindicating
her honour : and even employed venal fcribblers to
bkll her fame. Under this unparalleled load of com¬
plicated diftrefs, Mary preferved the magnanimity of
a queen, and pradifed with fincerity the duties of a
Chriftian. Her fufferings, her dignified affability, and
her gentlenefs of difpofition, gained her great popu¬
larity in England, efpecially among the Roman Catho¬
lics j and as Ihe made many attempts to procure her
liberty, and carried on a conftant correlpondence with
foreign powers, Elizabeth became at laft fo much
afraid of her intrigues, that {lie determined to cut her
off, at whatever hazard. With this view Ihe prevail¬
ed upon her fervile parliament to pafs an a£t which
might make Mary anfwerable for the crimes of all
who Ihould call themfelves her partizans j and upon
that flagitious llatute Ihe was tried as a traitor con¬
cerned in the confpiracy of Babington : (See Scot¬
land). Though the trial was conduced in a manner
which would have been illegal even if (he had been a
fubjedt of England, and though no certain proof ap¬
peared of her connexion with the confpirators, (he was,
to the amazement of Europe, condemned to fuffer
death.
The fair heroine received her fentence with great
compofure j faying to thofe by whom it was announ¬
ced, “ The news you bring cannot but be mod wel¬
come, lince they announce the termination of my mi-
feries. . Nor do I account that foul to be deferving of
the felicities of immortality, which can (brink under
the fufferings of the body, or fcruple the ftroke that
fets it free.” On the evening before her execution,
for which, on the fucceeding morn, (he prepared herfelf
with religious folemnity and perfedl refignation, (he
ordered all her fervants to appear before her, and drank
to them. She even condefccnded to beg their pardon
for her omiflions or negledls j and (he recommended it
to them to love charity, to avoid the unhappy paflions
of hatred and malice, and to preferve themfelves (led-
faft in the faith of Chrill. She then diftributed among
them her money, her jewels, and her clothes, accord¬
ing to their rank or merit. She wrote her will with
her own hand, conftituting the duke of Guife her prin¬
cipal executor j and to the king and queen of France
(he recommended her fon, provided he (hould prove
worthy of their efteem.—In the caftle of Fotheringay
(he was beheaded on the 8th ot February 1587, in the
45th year of her age j and her body, after being em¬
balmed and committed to a leaden coffin, was buried
with royal pomp and fplendour in the cathedral of Pe¬
terborough. Twenty years afterwards her bones were,
by order of her fon and only child King James I. re¬
moved to Weil minder, and depofited in their proper
place among the kings of England.
4 K The
J
Mary.
MAR
Mary.
[ 626 ]
M A R
Stuart's Hi-
/°n of
Scotland.
* Whita¬
ker's Vmdi-
mt ion-
The genera] charafter of Mary, which in the regular
order of biography ihould now be laid before the reader,
has furnithed matter of eontroverfy for 200 years.—-
She is univerfally allowed to have had confiderable ta¬
lents, and a mind highly cultivated. Ey one party
fhe is painted with more virtues and with fewer defers
than almoft any other woman of the age in which Are
lived. Ey another, Are is reprefented as guilty of the
groifeA crimes which a woman can commit—adultery
and the murder of her hufband. Ey all it is confefied,
that, previous to her connexion with the earl of Both-
W' 11, her life as a Chriftian w’as exemplary, and her
adminiftration as a queen equitable and mild j and it
has never been denied that th« bore her tedious fuffer-
ings with fuch reiignation and fortitude as are feidom
found united with confcious guilt. Thefe are Arong
prefumptions of her innocence. The moral charadfers
of men change by degrees ; and it feems hardly con¬
fident with the known principles of human nature, that
any perfon ihould at once plunge deliberately from the
fummit of virtue to the depths of vice j or, when funk
fo low, ihould by one effort recover his original ftale
of elevation. But in this controverfy prefumptions
muft go for nothing. The pofitive evidences which
were brought againft the queen of Scots are io con-
cluAve, that if they be genuine Aie muft have been
guilty ; and if they be fpurious there can be no doubt
of her innocence. They confifted of a box w ith let¬
ters, eontradts, and fonnets, faid to be written by her-
felf and fent to the earl of Bothwell. In addition to
thefe, the fuppoied confeffions of the criminals who
had fuifered for the king’s murder were originally
urged as proofs of her guilt : but thofe confeffions are
now admitted by all parties to be either wholly forged,
or fo grofsly interpolated, that no A refs whatever can
be laid upon them ; and during Mary’s life it was af¬
firmed by her friend-, and not fuAiciently contradidled
by her enemies, that the perfons who had accufed Both¬
well, and were doubtlefs his accomplices, inftead of
criminating the queen, had openly protefted her inno¬
cence in their dying moments.
This box then, with its contents, was the evidence
upon which her accufers had the chief and indeed the
only reliance; and it is upon this evidence, whatever
it be, that the guilt or innocence of the ScottiAi prin-
cefs muA finally be determined. It is uniformly af¬
firmed upon the part of the earl of Murray and his
fafUon, that the caficet with the letters and the fonnets
had been left by Bothwell in the cafile of Edinburgh ;
that this nobleman, before he fled from Scotland, fent
a meffenger to recover them *, and that they were found
in the poffeflion of this perfon. The 20th day of June
1 $67 is fixed as the date of this remarkable difeovery.
The governor of the caflle at that time was Sir James
Balfour. George DalgleiAi, a fervant of Bothwell’s,
is named as his meffenger upon this errand. He was
feized, it is faid, by the domefiics of the earl of Mor¬
ton ; and it was the earl of Morton himfelf who made
the aftual produftion of the cafeet and its^contents.
This ftpty is unfupported by vouchers, contains im¬
probabilities, and cannot be reconciled with hiAory
and events. There remains not any authentic or un-
fufpicious evidence that the queen had diAionoured the
bed of Lord Darnley ; and there is the moft fatisfac-
tory evidence *, that though Bothwell was intrufted
with the defence of the borders on account of his tried
courage and loyalty, he was privately diAiked by Mary '
for his uncommon zeal in the caufe of ProteAantifm.
At the very time when the queen is faid to have had
the moft violent love for that nobleman, and with him
to have been carrying on the moft criminal intercourfe
againft her hufband, we know both from Randolph
and from Knox, that Bothwell refuted to gratify her
by the fmalleft compliance with the ceremonies of her
religion, though many of the other Proteftant peers
fcrupled not to accompany her to the celebration of
the mafs. That the villain who could deliberately
commit murder, (hould be to fcrupuloufly confcientious
with refpeft to modes of faith and worftiip, as to ft and
forward with a peculiar ftrain of bravery to oppofe, in
a favourite meafure, the queen, who was then admit¬
ting him to her bed, and adfually forming plans for raif-
ing him to her throne, is furely, to lay the leaft of it,
extremely improbable.
But let us fuppofe this non-compliance on the part
of Bothwell to have been a meafure concerted between
the queen and him to conceal more tffeclually from
the eyes of the public the criminal intercourte in which
they were engaged ; is it not very furprifing, that of
fuch politician:-, the one Ihould have written thofe let¬
ters, and the other have left them in the power of
their enemies? The earl of Bothwell wTas expofed to
more than fulpicions of a concern in the murder of the
king. Thefe papers contained manifeft proofs of his
guilt. It evidently was not his intereft to preferve
them : or admitting, that till his marriage was folem-
nized with the queen he might look upon them as his
bell lecurity for the realizing of his ambitious hopes,
yet, after that event, when all his former friends had
deierted him, he muft have felt the ftrongeft induce¬
ments to deftroy fuch a criminal correfpondence ; and
Mary muft have been ardently animated with the
fame wifti. The caftle of Edinburgh, where the box
is faid to have been lodged, was at this time entirely
at their command ; and Sir James Balfour, their de¬
puty, was the creature of Both well. If his enemies,
who were now in arms againft him, ftiould poAefe
themfelves of this box and its contents, his deftrudfion
was inevitable. From his marriage till the 5th day of
June, ijt was in his power.to have deAroyed the fatal
papers ; and if they had exifted, it is not to be ima¬
gined that he w'ould have negledled a Aep fo expe¬
dient, not only for his own fecurily and reputation,
but alfo for thofe of the queen. During all this time,
however, he made no effort to recover his box and let¬
ters : he had lodged them in the caAle of Edinburgh j
and there he chofe to leave them in the cuAody of a
man in whom he could not have one particle of affi¬
ance. This was exceffively foolifh ; but his fubfe-
quent condudf was Aill more fo. Upon the 6th day
of June, it is evident that he had reafon to fufpedt
the fidelity of Sir James Balfour, fince he avoided to
take refuge in the caftle of Edinburgh and fled to
Dunbar. He returned, however, with an army in
order to fight the rebels. The balance of empire
might then teem to hang fufpended between himfelf and
his enemies : and in that ftate of thing®, a man of
fuch commodious principles as Balfour appears to have
been, might be inclined to do his old friend and pa¬
tron a fecret fervice, both to efface his former perfidy
and
Mary.
A
Mary.
1 Whita-
M
and to create himfelf a
he lliould be vidiortous over the rebels. Yet in thef’e
critical moments Both well neglefted to make any ap¬
plication to him for the calket and the letters! On
the 15th of June, all his towering imaginations were
at once dalhed to the ground. He had come to Car-
berry hill, followed by an army and accompanied by
a queen ; but he fled from it attended only by a fingle
fervant, and was glad to fhelter himfelf in the callle
of Dunbar, from the vengeance due to his crimes.
Yet in this extremity of dillrtfs he is reprefented as
trying a bold experiment, which he had not courage
to try when he was fortitied with the authority of his
fovereign, and when he was facing the rebels in the
field. In the very hour when almoft every friend
had deferted him, he t-xpedled a return of friendfhip
from a man who had deferted him at firft only be-
caufe \ia fufpeBed him to be in danger. At this period
he fent his fervant George Dalgleifh to wait upon
Balfour, the a&ing governor of the caftle of Edin¬
burgh, with a requifition for the box of letters, and
to bring back the important charge, through ten thou-
fand dangers, to Dunbar. Though this man was one
of his agents in the murder of the king, and might
therefore have been fafely intrufted with any fecret,
he did not order him, as common fenfe requires he
fhould have done, to deftroy the letters as foon as he
Ihould get them into his poffeflion. No ! he fent him
to fetch them from the cattle, as if there was no dan¬
ger in going thither, no doubt of receiving them
, yr. . l5iere, and no difficulty in carrying them back. * To
Ztim.ndl~3 travel]er in an eafy chair^ all roads are fmooth, and
all days are fine. Accordingly this fame Dalgleiffi,
though the well-known fervant of Bothwell, makes
good his entrance at the gates of the city, though
thei'e were guardedly 450 harquebufiers all hoftile to
his matter, finds his way to the cattle, and delivers
his meffage. But what is more aftonithing than all,
he actually receives the box of letters from Sir James
Balfour. This indeed, fays Mr Whitaker, “ is o’er-
doing Termagant j it out herods Herod.” Balfour
was the ductile Have of felfiffinefs. He had with in¬
finite perfidioufnefs turned againtt his friend, his pa¬
tron, and his queen, only becaufe he faw them oppof-
ed by a party which he thought would prove too ttrong
fbi them ; but now when they were both plunged
into the loweft ttate of dittrefs, and branded with the
appellation of regicides, his felfiffinefs was fuddenly
changed into generofity, his meannefs gave place to
exalted fentiments, and, at the peril of his own life,
he performed an heroical ad of kindnefs! “ In fuch
circumftances (alks a contemporary writer), is it to
be thought, either that the earl would fend to the
faid Sir James, or that the faid Sir James would fend
any thing to the earl ? Is it likely ? Is it credible V'
No matter: Bothwell is made to fend for his papers
at a time when his difficulties and his defpair render
it improbable that he could think of them, and when
it was abfolutely impojji le that he could recover them.
His meffenger accordingly is intercepted with the
calket; and the adverfaries of the queen, upon the
2oth day of June, became polTefTed of vouchers with
which they might operate her deftrudion. Thefe in-
confiltencies are glaring, and of a force not eafily to
be controuled; and the Itory is open to other objec-
ft [ 627 ] MAR
new interell with him in cafe tions, which are, if poffible, greater, and altogether in
fur mountable.
_ By comparing different proclamations of the rebels
with the feveral delpatches of Throgmorton, who was
then Elizabeth’s refident in Scotland, Mr Whitaker
has made it appear in the highelt degree probable, that
Dalgleiffi was not feized till the 17th of July ; that he
was then, in confequence of an order iffued by the
court of feffion, apprehended, together with Powrie,
another of Bothwell’s fervants, in that nobleman’s
lodgings in the palace of Holyroodhoufe; and that
therefore he could not be the bearer of the letters in¬
tercepted by the earl of Morton on the 20th of June,
What adds greatly to this probability is the account
which the rebels themfelves give of his examination,
A few days after he was taken, he was examined, fay
they, judicially, in a council where the earls of Mor¬
ton and Athol are marked as prefent. It was natu¬
ral upon this occafion to make inquiries about the
cafket and the papers. No quellions, however, were
put to him on that fubjed. He was not confronted
vitn Sir James Balfour, from whom he had received
the cafket ; nor with the domeftics of the earl of Mor¬
ton, by whom it was faid that he had been appre¬
hended. He was kept in prifon many months after
this examination ; and during a period when the rebels
were infinitely preffed to apologize for their violence
againlt the queen, there were opportunities without
number of bringing him to a confeffion. Thefe op¬
portunities, however, were avoided; and there exiits
not the flighteft evidence that the cafket and the pa¬
pers had ever been in his poffeffion. Is it then to be
fuppofed, that if the cafket and the papers had really
been difcovered with him, the effabhfhment of a fad
fo important would have been negleded by the adver¬
faries of the queen ? No ! they would have efiabliffied
it by the moft complete evidence ; which they were
fo far from attempting to do, that the earlieff account
which they give of their pretended feizure of the let¬
ters is fifteen months after the event itfelf, and
nearly nine months after the death of Dalgleiffi.’ To
have blazoned their difcovery at the time they pre¬
tend it was made, might have been attended with very
difagreeable confequences : for Dalgleiffi, who at his
execution, afferted the innocence of the queen, and
adually charged the earls of Murray and Morton as
the contrivers of the murder, might have found proof
that the cafket could not poffibly have been intercepted
in his cuflody.
. The 2°th of June 1567 is fixed as the eera of the
difcovery of the letters. If this difcovery had been
real, the triumph of the enemies of the queen would
have been infinite. They would not have delayed one
moment to proclaim their joy, and to reveal to her
indignant fubjefts the fulnefs and the infamy of her
guilt. They preferved, however, a long and a pro¬
found filence. It was not till the 4th of December
1567 that the papers received their firft mark of no¬
tice or diftimftion; nor till the 16th of September
1568, that the earl of Morton was faid to have inter¬
cepted them with Dalgleiffi. From the 20th day of
June to the 4th day of December, many tranfa&ions
and events of the higheft importance had taken place ;
and the moft powerful motives that have influence
with men had called upon them to publifh their dif-
4 K 2 coverv.
Mary.
MAR
[ 628 ]
MAR
Miry, covery. They yet made no production of the papers,
v and ventured not to appeal to them. In the procla¬
mation which they iflued for apprehending Bothwell,
they inveigh againft his guilt, and exprefs an anxious
defire to punilh the regicides : yet though this deed
was pofterior to the 20th of June, there is no nffer-
tion in it to the dilhonour of the queen ; and it con¬
tains no mention of the box and the letters. An am-
baffador arrived in this interval from France, to in¬
quire into the rebellion and the imprifonment of the
queen 5 yet they apologized not for their condudf by
communicating to him the contents of the calket.
To Throgmorton, who had inftruftions to a£l with
Mary as well as with her adverfaries, they denied the
liberty of waiting upon her at Lochleven, where flie
was detained a clofe prifoner 5 and they were earneft
to imprefs him with the idea that her love of Both¬
well was incurable. He preffed them on the fubjeCf
of their behaviour to her. At different times they
attempted formally to vindicate themfelves ; and they
were uniformly vehement on the topic of the love
which fhe bore to that nobleman. Yet they abllained
from producing the letters to him. “ They even fpoke
of her to him with re/peci and reverence s'1' which fure-
ly they could not pofiibly have, done had they been
then in pofTeflion of the letters. They were felicitous
to divide the faClion of the nobles who adhered to
the queen 5 and there could not have been a meafure
fo effeClual for this end as the production of the cafket
and its contents ; yet they called no convention of
her friends, to furprife and difunite them with this fa¬
tal difeovery. They flattered the Proteftant clergy,
attended affemblies of the church, inftilled into them
a belief of the queen’s being guilty of murder and
adultery, and incited Mr Knox to “ inveigh againft
her vehemently in his fermons, to perfuade extre¬
mities towards her, and (as Throgmorton continues)
to threaten the great plague of God againft the
whole country and nation if fhe fhould be fpared from
her condign punijhment ^ but they ventured not to ex¬
cite the fury of thefe ghoftly fathers by exhibiting to
them the box and the letters. They compelled the
queen to fubferibe a refignation of her crown 5 and
they had the ftrongeft reafon to be folicitous to juftify
this daring tranfaftion. The box and the letters
would have ferved as a complete vindication of them j
yet they negleCfed to take any notice of thefe import¬
ant vouchers •, and were contented with refting on the
wild and frivolous pretence that the queen, from fick-
nefs and fatigue, was difgufted with the care of her
kingdom.
To the irrefragable proof of the forgery of the
letters arifing from their having been fo long conceal¬
ed, it has been replied, that the rebels could not pro¬
duce them fooner with any regard to their own fafety.
* Robert- “ * ^ confiderable number of their fellow fubjefts,
/bn’sD///er-headed by fome of the moft powerful noblemen in the
kingdom, was combined againft them. This combi¬
nation they could not hope to break or to vanquifh
without aid either from France or England. In the
former kingdom, Mary’s uncles, the duke of Guife
and the cardinal of Lorrain, were at that period all-
powerful, and the king himfelf was devotedly attached
to her. The loading the queen, therefore, with the
imputation of being acceffory to the murder of her
tation,
tsth edit.
hufband, would be deemed fuch an inexpiable crime Mary,
by the court of France, as muft cut off every hope of
countenance or aid from that quarter. From Eng¬
land, with which the principal confederates had been
long and intimately connedted, they had many reafons
to expedt more effedtual fupport; but to their aftonilh-
ment, Elizabeth condemned their proceedings with
afperity. Her high notions of royal authority, and
of the fubmiffion due by fubjedls, induced her on this
occafion to exert herfelf in behalf of Mary, not. only
with fincerity but with zeal: (he negociated, Ihe fo-
licited, (lie threatened. From all theie eircumftances,
the confederates had every reafon to apprehend that
Mary would foon obtain her liberty, and by fome ac¬
commodation be reftored to the whole, or at leaft to a
confiderable portion, of her authority as fovereign 5 and
therefore they were afraid of the confequences of ac-
cufing her publicly of crimes fo atrocious as adultery
and murder.”
This apology for the rebels confifts of affertions for
which there is no evidence, and of arguments which are
wholly untenable. There is no evidence that Elizabeth
exerted herfelf in behalf of Mary w ith fincerity and w ith
zeal. If ftie had, fhe would have done more than
threaten. An Englifh army of 3000 men, aided by the
Scottifh combination which continued faithful to the
queen, would have overturned the rebel government in
the fpace of a month. It is inconceivable that the re¬
bels were prevented by any apprehenfion of the queen’s
reftoration from accufing her of the crimes of murder
and adultery 5 for we learn from a defpatch of Throg¬
morton’s dated the 19th of July 1567, that “ men of
good regard did then boldly and overtly by their
fpeech, utter great rigour and extremity againft their
fovereign j faying, it ftiall not be in the power of any
within this realm, neither without, to keep her from
condign punifhment for her notorious crimes.” From
another defpatch of the fame ambaffador’s, dated five
days after the former, we learn, that through him they
actually didaccufe her to Elizabeth of “ incontinency,
as well with the earl of Bothwell as with others, and
likewife of the murder of her hufband, of which, they
faid, they had as apparent proof againft her as might
be 5 as well by the tefiimony of her own hand writing,
which they had recovered, as alfo by fufficient witnef- ‘
fes.” This teftimony, however, was not produced till
more than four months afterwards •, a certain proof,
that though it was now in the hands of the manufac¬
turers, it was not yet ready for infpedlion.
But let us take the fadls of this ablett antagonift of
Mary as he has ftated them, and confider the , argu¬
ment which they are made to fupport. It is apparent,
from the laft quoted difpatch of Throgmorton*, that * JFM-
it could not be unknown, either to the court of France
or the court of England, that the rebels were at all
event* determined to crown the prince, and either to
put the queen to death or to keep her a dole prifon¬
er for life. Thefe defperate enterprifes, however,
could not, it feems, be carried into effedl without the
countenance and aid of Elizabeth or Charles : but
El zabeth’s notions of regal authority, and of the fub-
miflion due by fubje&s, were high j and the French
king was devotedly attached to the dethroned queen.
If this was fo, common fenfe fays, that the bufinefs of
the confederates, fince they expefted aid from thefe
princes.
M A R
Mary, princes, was to charge Mary at once with the murder
* u—y—— anci adultery, and fupport the charge with the moll
convincing evidence which they had to produce. No !
lays this apologift of theirs, Charles IX. would have
conlidered fuch conduct as a crime inexpiable, though
he might reafonabhj be expelled to give them his coun¬
tenance in putting to death, or keeping in perpetual
priion, for a comparatively venial offence, the queen
to whom he was devotedly attached ! This is Itrange
reafoning ; but it feems not to have occurred to the
rebels themfelves. The letters made their firll appear¬
ance in a fecret council affembled by the earl of Mur¬
ray on the 4th of December 1567; and the reafon
there afligned by the confederates for their unwilling-
nefs to produce them was, “ That luif they beare un¬
to hir perfon, wha fometime was theire fovereine, and
for the reverrance of his majeftie, whais moder Ihe is,
as alfua thay mony gude and excellent gifts and ver-
tues quherewith God fometimes indowit hir.” And
they proceed to fay, that they would not have produ¬
ced them at all, “ gif otherwife the linceritie of their
intentions and proceedings from the beginninge myht
be known to forrein nacions and the inhabitants of this
ile (of whome mony yet remains in fufpence in judge¬
ment) fatisfiet and refolvit of the richtnefnefs of theire
quarrel, and the fecuritie of them and their polleritie
be ony other meane might be providit and eftabliihed.”
So far were they from dreaming that the production
of the letters would injure their caufe in the court of
Trance, that we fee they frankly acknowledged that
the fincerity and reClitude of their proceedings could
not otherwife be manifefted to foreign nations. In this
inftance they think and talk like reafonable men j but
they do not long preferve the fame confiftency.
In this a£t of council the rebels difcover the great-
eft anxiety for their pardon and fecurity : And “ the
matter being largelie and with, gude deliberacion
reflbnit at great length, and upon fundry daies j at
laft all the faid lords, barrones, and others above ex-
premit, can find no other way or moyen how to find
or make the faid fecuritie but be °ppyngynge and re¬
veling of the truth and grunde of the hail matter fre the
beginti’nge, plainlie and uprightlie, &c. Therefore the
lords of fecrete council, &c. defires it to be found and
declaret be the eftates and haill body of the parlia¬
ment, that the caufe and occafion of the tacking of the
queen’s perfon upon the 15th daie of Junii, laft by part,
and holding and detaininge of the fame within the
hous and place of Lochlevin continewallie fenfyne,
prefentlie, and in all tymes comyng ; and generally all
other things inventit, fpoken, writtin, or donne be
them or onny of them, fen the tent daie of February
laft by pad unto the daie and date heirof towiching
the faied queen hir perfon : that caus, and all things
depending theiron or that onie wife maie apperteine
theirto, &c. was in the faid queen’s awin default, in
as far as be divers her privie letters written
AND SUBSCRIVIT WITH HIR AWIN HAND, and fent
by her to James Erl] Bothwell, &c.—and be her un-
godlie and dilhonourable proceedinge in a privait mar¬
riage, foddanlie and unprovifitly, it is moft certain,
that (he was previe, art and part, and of the aftual
devife and deid of the for-mencionit murther of the
king, her lawchful hufband, our fo.vereigne lord’s
MAR
father, committit be the faid James Erll Bothwell, Mary.
&c.”   v—“
Had the letters been really genuine, into the ab-
furdity of this declaration no man of common fenfe
could poffibly have fallen. Truth is always confiftent
with itfelf: but in a feries of forgeries contradictions
are fcarcely avoidable. The confederates rofe in re¬
bellion againft the queen on the 10th of June : they
faced her in rebellion at Carberry hill on the 15th 5
they fent her away into prifon on the 16th : yet they
afterwards juflified all that they had done fince the
tenth of February by letters, which, they faid, they had
not till the twentieth of June / “ This (lays Mr Whit¬
aker), if we confider it as folly, is one of the moft
ftriking and eminent ads of folly that the world has
ever beheld. But it ought to be confidered in a light
much more dilhonourable to the rebels j and as knavery,
it is one of the rankeft that has ever been attempted to
be impofed upon the fons of men.” On the 4th of De¬
cember, it mull be remembered that they had not fixed
any day for the difcovery of the letters. The ftory of
the feizure of Dalgleilh with the cafket was not thought
of till near a year afterwards; and when it was invent¬
ed, they had certainly forgotten the date of their aft
of council. In that aft, therefore, they were free to
rove at large \ but they roved very uncautioufly. By
grounding upon the letters, proceedings prior to the
loth of June, they plainly declare the difcovery of
thefe fatal papers to have been antecedent to the twentieth.
By grounding upon them their fecret meffages for fe-
dition, their private conventions for rebellion, and
“ every thing inventit, fpokin, written, or done, be
them, or anny of them, refpefting the queen, Both¬
well, or Darnley, len the tent daie of February laft by
paft,” they even intimate the difcovery to have been
previous to the murder of the king ; and yet by their
own accounts fome of the letters w ere then aBually ur.+
written. This is aftonidling 5 and (hows the extreme
difficulty of carrying to any length a confiftent feries
of falfehoods. Even Murray, Morton, and Lething-
ton, could not do it. They knocked down one nine*
pine in endeavouring to fet up another ; and they final¬
ly threw down all, by making them mutually and fuc-
ceffively to ftrike one another.
We have not yet done with this aft of council. It
was with a view to the approaching convention of the
eftates that it had been formed and managed. It was
a preparation for the parliament in which the confpira-
tors had fecured their fulleft fway, and where they pro-
pofed to effeftuate their pardon and fecunty, and to
eftablifh the letters as decifive vouchers againft the
queen. Accordingly, upon the 15th day of December
1567, the three eftates were affembled. The conlpira-
tors invited no candid or regular inveftigation. The
friends of the nation and of the queen were overawed.
Every thing proceeded in conformity to the aft of
council, the confpirators, by a parliamentary decree,
received a full approbation of all the feverities which
they had exercifed againft the queen. A pardon by
anticipation was even accorded to them for any future
cruelty they might be induced to inflift upon her. 
The letters were mentioned as the caufe of this Angu¬
lar law j and this new appeal to them may be termed
the fecond mark of their diftinftion. ' But, amidft the
plenitude
[ 620 ]
M A R
[ 6
t Mary, pieru'tude of their power, the confpirators called not
'“““Y""””" the eftates to a free and honeft examination of them.
This, indeed, had the letters been genuine, would
have annihilated for ever all the confequence of the
queen. Upon this meafure, however, they ventured
not. The letters were merely produced in parliament,
and an aft founded on them j but the queen was not
brought from her confinement to defend herfelf, nor
was any advocate permitted to fpeak for her. We
*" learn from a paper of unqueftionable authenticity *, that
^icatiM*1’ t( ^nc^e n°bilmen that was her Grace’s favouraris then
prefent, buir with all (the rebel proceedings in this
parliament), mail! principellie for fafety of hir Grace’s
lyfe, quhilk, or thair coming to parliament, was con-
cludit and fubfcryvit be ane greit part of hir takeris,
to be taken frae hir in meilt crewel manner, as is no-
tourlie known.” By the power of this magic, the
friends of Mary were bound fall. They durl! not
venture to quellion publicly the authenticity of the
letters, from their dread of expofing the queen to the
dagger of the affallin. The parliament, therefore,
fultained thefe forgeries as vouchers of her guilt,
without fcrutiny or debate of any kind. The confpi¬
rators, who were themielves the criminals, w^ere her
accufers and her judges, and paffed a law exaftly in
the terms in which the aft of fecret council had be¬
fore drawn it up.
It was neeeffary to defcribe the letters both in the
aft of council and in the ordination of parliament;
and thefe deeds having fortunately defcended to pofte-
rity, it is apparent, from a comparifon of them, that
between the 4th and the 15th days of December, the
letters mull have undergone very effential alterations
under the management of the confpirators. In the
aft of council the letters are defcribed exprefsly as
“ written and fubfcrivit with the queen’s awin hand
but in the aft of parliament they are faid to be only
M written heiilie with hir awin hand,” and there is no
intimation that they were fubfcribed by her. Whence
arifes this difference ? From a blunder in the clerk pen¬
ning the aft of council, fays one! From a habit con-
trafted by the fame clerk, which made him mechanical-
hj add fubfcribed to written, fays another : From the
careleffnefs of the writer who tranfcribed the copy of
the aft of council which has defcended to us, fays a
third. Thefe fubterfuges have been expofed in all
their weaknefs by Melfrs Tytler and Whitaker : but
in this abftraft it is fufficient to obferve, that they are
mere fuppofitions, fupported by no evidence ; and that
the copy of the aft of council which we have was
given to the minifters of Elizabeth by the leaders of the
fa ft ion, who were neither blundering clerks, nor under
the habit of mechanically adding fubfcribed to written.
Under one form, therefore, the letters were certainly,
exhibited before the council, and under another form
they were produced in parliament; but had they been
genuine, they would have appeared uniformly with the
fame face. The clerk of the council was Alexander
Hay, a notary public accufiomed to draw up writings
and to atteft them ; and what puts his accuracy with
refpeft to the letters beyond all poffibility of doubt,
his defcription of them is authenticated in the fulled
manner by the fignatures of Murray, Morton, and a
!o g train of others who formed the fecret council.
The letters, therefore, were aftually preferred to the
4
30 ] M A R
fecret council with the cuftomary appendage of fub- Mary,
fcription to them. But when thefe artificers of fraud —
came to refleft more clofely on the approach of parlia¬
ment, and to prepare their letters for the infpeftion
of the friends of Mary, they began to {brink at the
thoughts of what they had done. To fubiiantiate
the charge by letters under her own hand, they had
naturally annexed her ovn fubfcription, a letter unfub-
fcnbed being a folecifm in evidence. But mod unfor¬
tunately for the caufe of complete forgery, Mary was
dill in poffedion of her own feal, and he who fabri¬
cated the letters was not an engraver. For this rea-
fon, “ the allegit writings in form of midive letters
or epidles,” fays the bidiop ofRofs, in an addrefs to
Elizabeth, “ are not Jellit or fguetit” They were
neither atteded by her fubfcription at the bottom, nor
fecured by her leal on the outfide. In the fecret council
where all were equally embarked in rebellion, thefe
omillions were of no importance. But that letters con¬
taining intimations of adultery and of murder, diould
be fent by the queen to the earl of Both well, with her
fubfcription to them, and yet without any guard of a
feal upon them, fo far exceeds all the bounds of cre¬
dibility, that they could notexpeft it to gain the be¬
lief of parliament. They were druck with the ab-
furdity of their plan, and dreaded a deteftion. They
were under the necedity of altering it; but they could
not fupply the defeft of the feal. They, therefore,
wrote over the letters anew, and withheld the fub¬
fcription.
Thefe letters u'ere now as complete as the confpira¬
tors vvidled them ; yet in this date, while they were
unfubfcribed and unfealedj they wanted other forma¬
lities which are ufual in defpatches. They were with¬
out direftions, and they had no dates. They mud,
therefore, have been fent by the queen to Bothwell as
open wnA loofepapers ; yet they contained evidence againd
herfelf, and againd him, of the mod horrid wicked-
nefs ; and Nicholas Hubert, the perfon who is faid to
have carried mod of them, was of the lowed condi¬
tion, and, as Dr Robertfon charafterizes him, “ a
foolidi talkative fellow'.” He would, therefore, furely
read thofe papers, which are polluted from end to end
with open and uncovered adultery, and as furely report
their contents to others. Thele are mod incredible
circumftances, on the fuppofition that the letters are
authentic, unlefs the queen was, what none of her ene¬
mies ever reprefented her, an abfolute idiot.
The letters in their compofition bear no refemblance
to the other writings of the queen. They have a
vulgarity, an indelicacy, and a coarfenefs of exprtffion
and manner, that by no means apply to her. They
breathe nothing of the paflion of love befides the im-
pulfes of the fenfual appetite ; and they reprefent a
queen, highly accomplilhed, in love with one of her
fubjefts, as acting with all the fneaking humility of a
cottager to a peer*. A few indances will {how this. # See WV*'
“ The devilfnder nsf die is made to exclaim, “ and^er Via-
God knit us togidder {or ever for the maid faithful
coupill that ever he unitit; this is my feith ; / will die
in it.” “ I am,” die fays in another place, “ varrey
glad to write into zow quhen the red are deipand ;
fen I cannot fleip as they do, and as / wold defyre,
that is, in your arms, my dear lufe.” “ Seeing to
obey zow, my dear lufe, I {pare nouther honour^ confcience,
hofarde.
M A II [6
hafarde, nor greatnefs quhafumever ; tak it, I pray zoiv,
•V“”“ in gude part, as from the maift faithful luifer that ever
ze had, or ever fall have.” “ Se not hir (his wife),
quhais fenzeit teires fuld not be fa mikle preifit nor
eft emit as the trew and faithful trevellis quhilk I fuf-
tine for to merite her place." “ God give zow, my on-
ly lufe, the hap and profperitie quilk your humble and
faithful lufe defyres unto zou, who hopis to befchortly
another thing to you for the reward of my irkfome tra-
velles.” “ W hen I will put you out of dout, and cleir
tnyfelfe, refufe it not, my dear lufe 5 and fuffer me to
ftiak zou fotne prufe be my obedience, my faithfrJnes,
conitancie, and voluntary fnbje El ion, quhilk I tak for the
piefande/l gude that I might reff-if, if %e will eccept
it" “ Such (fays Mr Whitaker) was the coarfe kirt/e,
and the homely neckatie, in which thefe wretched re-
prefenters of Mary dreffed themfelves up, for the exhi¬
bition of a queen dignified, refined, and elegant; a
queen whom, according to their own account, “ God
had indowit with mony gude and excellent gifts and
virtues!”
1'he evidence which points to the forgery of the
letters is profufe and inftru&ive. In its feparate parts,
Stuart. it: is Powerful and fatisfa&ory *. When taken to¬
gether, and in the union of its parts, it is invincible.
But, amidfl all its cogency and ftrength, there is
a circumtlance moft peculiarly in its favour, and of
which it required no aid or affiftance. By this pecu¬
liarity, itis cafed completely in fteel, and armed at
every point. The letters have come down to us in
the French, the Scottifh, and the Latin languages.
N >w the confpirators affirmed, that they were written
by the queen in the French language. But by a cri¬
tical examination of them in thefe different languages,
Mr Goodall demonftrated, that the pretended French
originals are a tranflation from the Latin of Buchanan,
which is itfelf a verfion from the Scotch. This is
indeed acknowledged by Dr Robertfon, the ableft and
molt perfevering of all Mary’s enemies, who pretends,
that, fo far as he knows, it never was denied. Deter¬
mined, however, to fupport the authenticity of the let¬
ters at all events, the lame elegant and ingenious wri-
bitferta- ter ^uPP°^es f > that the French originals are now loft,
m. but that two or three fentences of each of thofe origi¬
nals were retained, and prefixed to the Scottiih tranf¬
lation 5 and that the french editor obfervmg this,
fooliffily concluded, that the letters had been written
partly in French and partly in Scottifli. In fupport
of this Angular hypothecs, he proceeds to affirm, that
“ if we carefully confider thofe few French fentences
of each letter which ftill remain, and apply to them that
fpecies of criiicifm by which Mr Goodall examined
the whole, a clear proof will arife, that there was a
French copy, not tranflated from the Latin, but which
was itfelf the original from which both the Latin and
Scottiffi have been tranftated.” He accordingly ap¬
plies this fpecies of criticifm, points out a few varia¬
tions of meaning between what he calls the remaining
fentences of the original French and the prefent La¬
tin ; and thinks, that in the former he has difcovered
a fpirit of elegance which neither the Latin nor the
Scottiffi have retained. His critical obfervations have
been examined by Mr Whitaker ; who makes it appa¬
rent as the noon-day fun, that the doftor has occa-
ffonally miftaken the fenfe of the Latin, the French,
31 ] MAR
and even the Scotch ; and that he has forgotten to point Mary,
out either the elegance or the fpirit of any particular v~—
claufes in his pretended originals. The fame maiterly
vindicator of Mary then turns his antagonift’s artil¬
lery againft himfelf; and demonftrates, that fuch vari¬
ations as he has thought fufficient to prove the exift-
ence of a former French copy, are not confined to the
firft fentence of each of the three firft letters, but are
extended to other fentences, and diffufed ovsr all the
letters. Hence he obferves, that this mode of pro¬
ving will demonftrate the prefent French, and every
fentence in it, to be that very original, which it pri¬
marily pretended to be, which Mr Goodall has fo
powerfully proved it not to be, and which even the
do&or himfelf dares not affert it is. Our limits will
not admit of our tranferibing the obfervations of thefe
two illuftrious critics ; nor is it neceffary that we Ihould
tranferibe them. By acknowledging that “ Bucha¬
nan made his tranflation, not from the French but
from the Scottifh copy (of which he juftly obferves,
that, were it necefiary, feveral critical proofs might
be brought),” Dr Robertfon, in effedl, gives up his
caufe. Had there been any other French letters than
the prefent f, what occafion had Buchanan for the f Tytler’f
Scotch, when he himfelf muft have had poffeffion Inquiry.
the originals'? It is evident from Mr Anderfon’s ac¬
count, that thofe letters were tranflated by Buchanan
at London during the time of the conferences. He
was one of the affiftants appointed to the rebel com-
miffioners, and intrufted with the whole condufl of
the procefs againft the queen. By him, with Leth-
ington, Macgill, and Wood, the original letters were
exhibited, and their contents explained to the Englifti
commiffioners; and we know from the authentic hif-
toyy of thofe papers, that they w-ere neither loft nor
miflaid for many years afterwards. It cannot be pre¬
tended that Buchanan did not underftand the French ;
for he pall moft of his life in that country, and taught
a fchool there. He was, indeed, a daring zealot of re¬
bellion ; but, with all its audacity, he muft have felt
the talk in whicli he was engaged a very ungracious
one. When he fat down to defame, in the eyes of all
Europe, a queen to whom he owed not only allegiance
but alfo perfonal gratitude, it is not conceivable that
he could have tranflated from a Scotch tr(inflation, had
he knowm any thing of a French original; and if the
rebel commiffioners, who were laid to produce them,
knew nothing of fuch originals, certainly no body elfe
ever did : if they exifted not with Buchanan, they ex-
ifted nowhere.
Dr Robertfon, however, has another argument a-
gainft Mr Goodall, which he thinks conclufive. Of
the eight letters “ the five remaining (he fays) never
appeared in Latin : nor is there any proof of their ever
being tranflated into that language. Four of them,
however, are publifhed in French. This entirely over¬
turns our author’s hypothefis concerning the neceffity
of a tranflation into Latin.”—An authentic fad will
indeed overturn any hypothefis ; but, moft unluckily
for this argument, the doftor advances the hypothe¬
fis, and the faifl refts with Mr Goodall. It is indeed
true that Buchanan publifhed only the three firft letters
in Latin at the end of his Di'te61ion ; but it does not
therefore follow, that the other five were never tranf¬
lated into that language. Indeed Mr Whitaker has
madeo
M A R *[ 632 ] MAR
Mary, made it as apparent as any thing can be, that the
v whole eight were turned into Latin for the ufe of
the French tranflator, who, by his own account, un-
derftood not the Scotch. He has made it in the
higheft degree probable, that this tranflator was one
Camux, a French refugee ; and he has demonftrated,
that the tranflation was made in London under the
eye of Buchanan himfelf. We do not quote his ar¬
guments, becaufe they confifl: of a great number of
obfervations which cannot be abridged 5 and becaufe
the tranflator himfelf confeffes every thing which is
of importance to the caufe maintained by Mr Goodall.
il Au refte (he tells us) epiftras mifas fur la fin,”
which were all but the eighth, “ avaient efte efcrites par
la Royne, partie en Francois, partie en Lfcoffois ; et
depuis traduidfes entierement en Latin : mais
n’ayant cognoiffance de la langue EfcolToife, j’ay
mieux aime exprimer tout ce, que j’ay trouve en
Latin, que, &c. “ This confeflion (fays Mr Whit¬
aker) takes a comprehenfive fweep. It makes all
the /even letters at leaft, and the whole of each, to have
been tranflated into Latin, and from thence to have
been rendered into French. It ftarts no piddling ob-
jedtions about fentences or half fentences, at the head
or at the tail of any. It embraces all within its wide-
fpread arms. And it proves the fancied exiftence of a
French copy at the time to be all a fairy vifion *, the
creation of minds that have fubjedfed their judgments
to their imaginations j the invited dreams of felf-delu-
fion.”
The letters, fo weak on every fide, and fo incapable
of fuftaining any fcrutiny, give the marks of fufpi-
cion and guilt in all the ftages of their progrefs. Even
with the parliamentary fandtion afforded to them by
the three eftates, which the earl of Murray affembled
upon the ijth day of December 1567, he felt the
delicacy and the danger of employing them openly to
the purpofes for which they were invented. For while
he was fcheming with Elizabeth his accufation of the
queen of Scots, he took the precaution to fubmit pri¬
vately the letters to that princefs by the agency of his
fecretary Mr Wood. The objedt of this fecret tranfac-
tion, which took place early in the month of June 1568,
was moft flagitious, and preffes not only againft the
integrity of Murray, but alfo againft that of the Eng-
lifli queen. Before he would advance with his charge,
be folicited from her an affurance that the judges to be
appointed in the trial of Mary would hold the letters
to be true and probative.
By the encouragement of Elizabeth, the earl of Mur-
* Stuart. ra7 was prevailed upon to prefer his accufation*. He
was foon to depart for England upon this bufinefs. A
privy council w as held by him at Edinburgh. He took
up in it with formality the letters of the queen from the
earl of Morton, and gave a receipt for them to that
nobleman. That receipt is remarkable and intereft-'
ing. It is dated upon the 16th of September 1568,
and contains the firft mention that appears in hiftory of
the difcovery of the letters as in the adtual pofleffion of
Dalgleifli upon the 20th of June 1567. This, as we
have already noticed, is a very fufpicious circumftance j
but it is not the only fulpicious circumftance which is
recorded in the receipt. In the adt of fecret council,
and in the ordination of parliament, in December 1 1567,
when the earl of Murray and his aflbciates were infinite¬
ly anxious to eflablifli the criminality of the queen, Mary,
the only vouchers of her guilt to which they appealed
were the letters; and at that time, doubtlefs, they had
prepared no other papers to which they could allude.
But in Murray’s receipt in September 1568 there is
mention of other vouchers befide the letters. He ac¬
knowledges, that he alfo received from the earl of Mor¬
ton contradfs or obligations, and fonnets or love verfes.
Thefe remarkable papers, though faid to have been
found upon the 20th of June 1567, appeared not till
September 1568; and this difficulty is not to be folved
by thofe who conceive them to be genuine. The gene¬
ral arguments which affedt the authenticity of the let¬
ters apply to them in full force j only it muff be obfer-
ved, that as the original letters were undoubtedly in
Scotch, the original fonnets w^ere as certainly written
in French. This has been completely proved by Dr
Robertfon, and is fully admitted by Mr Whitaker, who
has made it in the higheft degree probable that Lething-
ton forged the letters and Buchanan the fonnets. Be
this as it may, the fonnets have every external and in¬
ternal evidence of forgery in common w ith the letters,
and they have fome marks of this kind peculiar to
themfelves. In particular, they make the love of Mary
ftill more grovelling than the letters made it; and with
a degree of meannefs, of which the foul of Lethington
was probably incapable, the author of the fonnets
has made the queen confider it as “ na lytill honor to
be maiftres of her fubjedts gudis !” In this the dig¬
nified princefs is totally loft in “ the maid Marien” of
her pretended imitators $ and Buchanan, who in his
commerce with the fex wras a mere fenfualift, forgot
on this occafion that he was perfonating a lady and a
queen.
There is, however, in thefe fonnets, one paffage of
Angular importance, which we muft not pafs wholly un¬
noticed. The queen is made to fay,
Pour luy aujjij'ay jette mainte larnte
Premier qu'ilfujl de ce corps pojfejfeur,
Duquel alors il n'avoit pas le cceur.
Puis me donna un autre dur alarme,
Ipuand il verfa de fon fang mainte dragme.
For him alfo I powrit out mony teiris,
Firft quhen he made himfelf poffeffour of this body.
Of the quhilk then he had not the heart,
Efter he did give me an uther hard charge,
Quhen he bled of his blude great quantitie, &e.
If thefe fonnets could be fuppofed to be genuine,
this pafiage would overthrow at once all the letters
and both the contradls which were produced ; and
would prove, with the force of demonftration, that the
feizure of Mary by Bothwell was not with her own
confent j that he adlually committed a rape upon her j
that (he had for him no love: and that Are married him
merely as a refuge to her injured honour. The fonnets,
however, are undoubtedly fpurious j but, confidered
in this light, the verfes before us prove with equal
force the full convidHon in the minds of the rebels of
what in an unguarded moment they actually confeffed
to Throgmorton, and was manifeft to all the world j
viz. that “ the queen their fovereign was led captive,
and by FEAR, FORCE, and (as by many conje&ures
may be well fufpefted) others extraordinary and
more
M A R [ 633 ] MAR
Mary, more UNLAWFUL means COMPELLED to become bed-
'-■'V—-' fellow to another wife’s hulband.” They prove like-
wife, that after the rape, finding Mary highly indig¬
nant at the brutality done her, Bothwell adlually dab¬
bed himfelf j not, we may believe, with any intention
to take away his own life, but merely that by Ihedding
many a “ drachm” of blood he might mollify the heart
of the queen.
But we mean not to purfue the hiftory of the fen¬
nels any farther. Though they were undoubtedly in¬
vented in aid of the letters, to prove that fundamental
principle of the confpirators,—that the love of Mary
to Bothwell was inordinatej yet they are fo incom¬
patible with hiftory, and with one another, that they
demonftrate the fpurioufnefs of themfelves, and of the
evidence which they were intended to corroborate. By
thus endeavouring to give an air of nature and probabi¬
lity to their monftrous fiftions, the rebels at once betray¬
ed the fabrication of the whole. They have themfelves
fupplied us with a long and particular journal, to fliow
the true dates of fadts j and by that journal have their
letters and their fonnets been demonftrated tobe fpurious.
“ The makers of thefe papers (fays Mr Whitaker) have
broken through all the barrier of their own hijlory.
They have ftarted afide from the orbit of their oxvn chro¬
nology. They have taken a flight beyond the bounds
of their own creation, and have there placed themfelves
confpicuous in the paradise of fools.”
This mafs of forgery was clandeftinely fhown to
Elizabeth’s commiflioners during the conferences at
York: (See Scotland). It was (hown again to the
fame commiflioners and others during the conferences
at Weftminfter. But neither Mary nor her commif-
fioners could ever procure a fight of a Angle letter or
a Angle fonnet. By the biflaop of Rofs and the lord
Herries, Ihe repeatedly demanded to fee the papers
laid to be written by her •, but that requeft, in itfelf fo
reafonable, Elizabeth, with an audacity of ir.juftice of
which the hiftory of mankind can hardly furnilh a pa¬
rallel, thought fit to refufe. Mary then inftruefted
her commiflioners to demand copies of the letters and
bonnets j and offered even from thefe to demonftrate in
the prefence of the Englifti queen and parliament, and
the ambaffadors of foreign princes, that the pretended
originals were palpable forgeries. Even this demand
was denied her ; and there is undoubted evidence ftill
exifting, that neither fhe nor her commiflioners had fo
much as a copy of thefe criminal papers till after thofe
important conferences had for fome time been at an
end. This laft demand perplexed Elizabeth \ the con¬
ferences were fuddenly broken up-, Murray wasdifmif-
fed with his box to Scotland j and the letters were feen
no more !
But the letters, we are told, were at Weftminfter
compared with letters of the queen’s, and found to
be in the fame Roman hand. They were indeed com¬
pared with other writings ; but with what writings ?
This queftion let Elizabeth’s commiflioners themfelves
anfwer. They collated them, they fay, w with others
her letters, which were (howed yefternight, and avow¬
ed by them (the rebel commiflioners) to be written
by the laid queen.” This was fuch a collation as
Whit, muft have pronounced them to be idiots *, if we had
not known them to be otherwife $ and fuch as muft
pronounce them to be knaves, as we know them to
Vol. XII. Part II.
have been men of fenfe. Like perfons totally incom- Mary,
petent to the management of bufinefs, but in truth y*““
adting minifterially in theworkof profligacy, they com¬
pared the letters produced, not with letters furnilhed
by Mary’s commiflioners, not with letters furnilhed
even by indifferent perfons, but with letters prefent-
ed by the producers themfelves,—“ This (fays Mr Whit¬
aker) is fuch an inftance id impofition upon Mary
and the world, as can fcarcely be paralleled in the an¬
nals of knavery. Many inftances of impofition, in¬
deed, occur in the wretched hiftory of our race j but
we can hardly find one, in which the impofition was
fo grofs, fo formal, fo important, and fo clear. It
was very grofs, becaufe it has not a Hired of artifice
to cover its ugly nakednefs. It was very formal, be¬
caufe it was done by men fome of whom were of the
firft charadler in their country j and all were bound by
honour, and tied down by oaths, to a6t uprightly
in the bufinefs. It was very important, becaufe no
lefs than the reputation of a queen, and the continu¬
ance of an ufurpation, depended upon it. And it is
very clear, becaufe we have the fa<ft related to us by
the commiflioners themfelves, recorded to their lhame
in their own journal, and tranfmitted by their owm hands
to pofterity with everlafting infamy on their heads.”
When Tytier’s Inquiry into the Evidence produced
by the Earls of Murray and Morton againji Mary
^ueen of Scots was firft published, it w as reviewed in
the Gentleman’s Magazine by Dr Johnfon. The re¬
view, which confifts of a brief analyfis of the work,
wuth refle&ions interfperfed on the force of the evi¬
dence, concludes thus :—“ That the letters were for¬
ged is now made fo probable, that perhaps they will
never more be cited as teftimonies.” Subfequent ex¬
perience has fhown, that the great critic’s knowdedge
of human nature had not deferted him when he guard¬
ed his predidtion wuth the word perhaps. Few authors
poffhfs the magnaminity of Fenelon : and it is not to be
expected that he who has once maintained the letters
to be genuine, ftiould by reafoning or criticifm be com¬
pelled to relinquilh them : but we are perfuaded, that,
after the prefent generation of writers ftiall be extinft,
thefe letters and lonnets will never be cited as evidence,
except of the profligacy of thofe by whom they were fa¬
bricated.
Such is a view (partial it may be deemed by fome) of
thisremarkable controverfy previous to the publication of-
Mr Laing’s Hiftory of Scotland. But, inoppofition toall
thefe arguments againft the genuim nefs and authenticity
of the letters and fonnets attributed to Mary, thishirtorian
obferves thatitisimpoflible tofix the fuppofed forgery on
any one of the. different perfons to whom it has been a-
feribed, which, it true, renders it abundantly evident, that
they muft have been the genuine produftions of the ill-
fated Mary. According to Mr Laing, it was neceffa-
ry for Mary to difavow the letters j and confequently
her commiflioners were inftrudted to affirm that they
were forged, and that there were diverfe of each fex in
-Scotland, particularly of thofe in company with her
adverfaries, who could conterfeit and write the queen’s
hand, as well as herfelf. I his ftrange affertion, fo ap¬
parently falfe, is repeated in Lefty’s memorial to Eli¬
zabeth j but of thole who could write and counterfeit
the queen s hand, none were ever named, even in his
defence of her honour j and the fuppofed forgery could
4 ^ be
MAR
Mary, be fixed on no particular perfon during Mary’s life,
—'Y—which, it mutt be confeffed, renders their forgery ex¬
tremely fuipicious. The writings fuppreffed in England
were Lefly’s and other anonymous vindications of Ma¬
ry, in which there is no intimation whatever of Le-
thington’s confeflion, that he had frequently forged the
queen's hand. The letters are thofe in the Cecil coU
]e<5tion, and the Cotton iibrary, which are equally fi-
lent 5 and we mutt conclude, that the author, whether
Cotton, James, or Camden, improving on Nrttfolk’s
apology, that Lethington moved him to confider the
queen as not guilty, afferted gratuitoufly that Lething¬
ton acknowledged the whole forgery, a» he had alrea¬
dy done, that Buchanan frequently repented on his
deathbed, of thofe calumnies which he reprinted in his
hiftory, at that time in the prefs, He who examines
with care, Camden’s mutilated account of the confer¬
ences in England, muft be fatisfied that the evidence of
the Cecil and Cotton papers, which he confefi'edly exa¬
mined, has been fuppreffed in his annals, in which Nor¬
folk’s letters from York are induftrioufly concealed.
Mr Laing is of opinion, that the fonnets afcribed to
Mary, are as certainly the productions of her pen, and
that the groffnefs of feme of them can only be a pre¬
vailing argument for their forgery with thole who are
ignorant of the groffnefs of the age, or foolilh enough
to believe with Goodall, that Mary never once be¬
trayed a fingle foible from the cradle to the grave.
As to the three contratts of marriage between the
queen and Both well, reckoned forgeries by fome au¬
thors, Mr Laing is alfo of opinion that they are the
genuine productions of Mary, who was glad to get rid
of a hulband whofe diffolui e manners had rendered him
odious in her eyes *, and Ihe expreffed no genuine for-
row after his extraordinary and atrocious murder. He
thinks that there is not to be found in any authentic
hiftory of thofe times, a fingle convincing argument of
their being forgeries. In a word, after much ingenious
eriticifm on the merits of the contracts, he concludes by
faying, that the private, inftead of being a copy or
abftraCt from the public contraCt, is evidently the
original from which the latter was formed j and it is
obfervable that the two firft contracts written by Mary,
or under her infpeCtion, are far fuperior in delicacy to
the lalt : a circumftance in vain imputed to the art of the
forgers, who, in faCt, were more defirous to aggra¬
vate than to extenuate the groffnefs of her guilt (b).
She wrote, I. Poems on various occafions, in the
Latin, French, and Scotch languages. One of her
poems is printed among thofe of A. Blackwood an¬
other in Brantome’s Dames il/ufres, written on the
MAR
death of her firft hufband Francis. 2. Confolation of Mary,
her long imprifonment, and royal advice to her fon.
3. A copy of verfes, in French, lent with a diamond ring
to Queen Elizabeth. There is a tranflation of thele
verles among the Latin poems of Sir Thomas Chaloner.
4. Genuine Letters of Mary Queen of Scots, to James
earl of Bothwell ; tranflated from the French, by E.
Simmonds, 1726. There are, befides, many other of
her epiftles to Queen Elizabeth, Secretary Cecil, Mild-
maye, &c. which are preferved in the Cottonian, Afli-
molean, and other libraries.
Mary II. queen of England, eldeft daughter of
James II. by his firft wife, was born at St James’s
in 1662. She was bred up a Proteftant, and mar¬
ried to William Henry of Naffau, then prince of
Orange, afterwards king of England, in the 16th
year of her age. She ftaid in Holland with her huf¬
band till February 12. 1689, when ftie came over, and
was folemnly proclaimed queen of England, &e. She
was an equal lharer with her hufband in all the
rights belonging to the crown $ but the adminiftra-
tion and execution thereof were lodged folely in the
king. She was a princefs endowed with the high-
eft perfections both of body and mind : Ihe loved hif¬
tory, as being proper to give her ufeful inftruCtions ;
and was alfo a good judge as well as a lover of poe¬
try. She ftudied more than could be imagined, and
would have read more than {he did, if the frequent re¬
turns of ill humours in her eyes had not forced her to
fpare them. She gave her minutes of leifure to archi¬
tecture and gardening ; and fince it employed many
hands, fhe faid, the hoped it would be forgiven her.
She wras the moft gracious of fovereigns to her fub-
jeCts, and the moft obliging of wives to her hufband,
as w ell as the moft excellent of miftreffes to her fer-
vants : fhe ordered good books to be laid in the places
of attendance, that perfons might not be idle while
they were in their turns of fervice. She was exceed¬
ing zealous for a reformation of manners j charitable
in the higheft degree, without the leaft oftentation.
This excellent queen died on the 28th of December
1695, at Kenfington, of the fmallpox, in the 33d year
of her age. In her the arts loft a proteClrefs, the
unfortunate a mother, and the world a pattern of every
virtue As to her perfon fhe was tall, of a majeftie
graceful mien, her countenance ferene, her complexion
ruddy, and her features beautiful.
MART Magdalen's Day, a feftival of the Romifh
church, obferved on the 22d of July.
MART-Gerane's-Houfe, a name given to Dunmore-
head, in the parifh of Dunqueen, county of Kerry, and
province
r 634 i
(b) This article ftands in need of an apology ; but whether for its length or its fhortnefs, our readers may per¬
haps differ in opinion. If it be confidered as a piece of common biography, and compared with the limits which
we have preferibed to our other articles of the fame kind, it has fwelled to an extent beyond all proportion. But
as a piece of common biography it ought not to be confidered : it is intimately conneCled with the hiftory of
Scotland at a very interefting period ; and it has been juftly obferved, by one of the ableft writers of the age,
that “ the fa£l under difpute in the life of Mary, is a fundamental and effential one ; and that, according to the
opinion which the hiftorian adopts with regard to it, he muft vary and difpofe the whole of his fubiequent narration.”
Viewed in this light, our abftraft of the evidence which has been urged on both fides of this controverly will by
many be deemed too fhort. To fuch as wifh for complete fatisfaclion, we can only recommend the unbiafftd ftudy
■of the writings of Buchanan, Lejlie bifhop of Rofs, Goodall, Robertfon, Hume, Tyt/er, Sir David Dalrymple, Stuart,
Whitaker, and Laing.
MAH [6
Mary province of Manlier, in Ireland. It is the moft weftern
point of all Europe, and called by the Irifh Ty Vorneif
^ ‘ ~ Geerone. It is a point as much celebrated by them as
.Tohn-of-Grnat’s houfe by the Scots, which is the utmoft
extremity of North Britain.
MARYBOROUGH, a borough, market, and poll
town, and the aflizes town to Queen’s county, in the
province of Leinfter, in Ireland ; fo called in honour of
Mary queen of England, who reduced this part of the
country to (hire-ground by a£t of parliament 6th and
yth Philip and Mary. It is governed by a burgomaf-
ter and bailiffs, and has a barrack for a troop of horfe.
It formerly returned two members to parliament. It is
diftant from Dublin 40 miles. N. Lat. 53. o. W. Long.
7. 20.
MARYBURGH. See Fort WILLIAM.
MARYGOLD. See Caltha, Botany
Corn MartgoLD. See Chrysanthemum, Botany
Index.
French MarTGOLB. See Tagetes, Botany Index.
MARYLAND, one of the Thirteen United States
of America. It received that name in honour of Hen¬
rietta Maria, the confort of King Charles I. who made
a grant of this country, with very extraordinary powers,
to Lord Baltimore. It lies between 38 and 40 de¬
grees north latitude, and in longitude from 74 to
78 degrees weft from London. It is bounded on the
north by Pennfylvania; on the eaft by the Delaware
ftate ; on the fouth-eaft and fouth by the Atlantic
ocean, and a line drawn from the ocean over the penin-
fula (dividing it from Accomack county in Virginia)
to the mouth of Patomack river, thence up the Pato-
mack to its firft fountain, thence by a due north line
till it interfe&s the fouthern boundary of Pennfylvania,
in Lat. 390 43' 18" j fo that it has Virginia on the
fouth, fouth-weft, and weft. It contains about 14,000
fquare miles, of which about one fixth is water. It
is divided into 18 counties, 10 of which are on the
tveftern and 8 on the eaftern ftiore of Chefapeak bay,
St Mary’s, Somerfet, Calvert, Montgomery, Wa(h-
ington, Queen Ann’s, Caroline, Kent, Charles, Tal¬
bot, Dorchefter, Baltimore, Ann Arundel, Worcefter,
Hartford, Cecily Frederick, and Prince George’s.
Each of the counties fends four reprefentatives to the
houfe of delegates 5 befides which, the city of Anna¬
polis and town of Baltimore fend each two, making
% in the wdiole 76 members. The climate is generally
mild and agreeable, fuited to agricultural productions
and a great variety of fruit trees. In the interior
hilly country the inhabitants are healthy : but in the
flat country, in the neighbourhood of the marfties
and ftagnant waters, they are, as in the other fouthern
dates, fubjeCt to intermittents. Chefapeak bay di¬
vides this ftate into the eaftern and weftern diviflons.
It affords feveral good fiftieries •, and, in a commercial
view, is of immenfe advantage to the ftate. It re¬
ceives a number of the largeft rivers in the United
States. From the eaftern fliore in Maryland, among
other fmaller ones, it receives Pokomoke, Choptank,
Chefter and Elk rivers j from the north the rapid
Sufquehannah ; and from the weft Patapfco, Severn,
Patuxent, and Patomack, half of which is in Mary¬
land and half in Virginia. Except the Sufquehannah
and Patomack, thefe are (mall rivers. Eaft of the Blue
ridge of mountains, which ft retches acrofs the weftern
35 ] MAR
part of this ftate, the land, like that in all the fouthern Ma
ftates, is generally level and free of ftones. Wheat and
tobacco are the ftaple commodities of Maryland. In
the interior country, on the uplands, confiderable quan¬
tities of hemp and flax are raifed.
The number of inhabitants in this ftate, including
the negroes, is 254,050 ; which is 18 for every fquare
mile. The inhabitants, except in the populous towns,
live on their plantations, often feveral miles diftant
from each other. To an inhabitant of the middle,
and efpecially of the eaftern ftates, which are thickly
populated, they appear to live very -etired and unfo-
cial lives. The effedfts of this comparative folitude are
vifible in the countenances as well as in the manners
and drefs of the country people 5 there being among
them very little of that cheerful fprightlinefs of look
and aftion which is the invariable and genuine off.
fpring of focial intercourfe ; nor do they pay that at¬
tention to drefs which is common, and which decency
and propriety have rendered neceffary, among people
who are liable to receive company almoft every day. As
the negroes perform all the manual labour, their mailers
are left to faunter away life in (loth, and too often in
ignorance. Thefe obfervations, however, muft in juftice
be limited to the people in the country, and to thofe
particularly whofe poverty or parfimony prevents their
fpending a part of their time in populous towns or
otherwife mingling with the world.
The chief towns in this ftate are Annapolis and Bal¬
timore. Annapolis^ the capital, and the wealthieft
town of its fize in America, is fituated juft at the
mouth of Severn river, 30 miles fouth of Balti¬
more. The houfes are generally large and elegant 5
and the ftadthoufe is the nobleft building of the kind
in America.—Baltimore has had the moft rapid growth
of any town on the continent, and is the fourth in fize
and the fifth in trade in the United States. It lies in
Lat 39. 21. on the north fide of Patapfco river, around
what is called the Bafon. The fituation of the town
is low'. The houfes were numbered in 1787, and found
to be 1955 ; about 1200 of which were in the town,
and the reft at Fell’s point. The number of (lores
was 152; and of churches 9, w'hich belong to German
Calvinifts and Lutherans, Epifcopalians, Preflbyteri-
ans, Roman Catholics, Baptifts, Methodifts, Quakers,
Nicolites, or New Quakers. The number of inhabi¬
tants is between 10,000 and 11,000. There are many
very refpeftable families in Baltimore, who live gen¬
teelly, are hofpitable to ftrangers, and maintain a
friendly and improving intercourfe with each other;
but the bulk of the inhabitants, recently colle6led
from almoft all quarters of the world, bent on the pur-
fuit of wealth, varying in their habits, their manners,
and their religions, if they have any, are unfocial, un¬
improved, and inhofpitable. The trade of Maryland
is principally carried on from Baltimore, with the other
ftates, with the Weft Indies, and with fome parts of
Europe. To thefe places they fend annually about
30,000 hogftieads of tobacco, befides large quantities
of wheat, flour, pig iron, lumber, and corn,—beans,
pork, and flax feed, in fmaller quantities ; and receive
in return, clothing for themlelves and negroes, and
other dry goods, wines, fpirits, fugars, and other Weft
India commodities. R he balance is generally in their
favour.
4 L 2
The
MAR [ 636 ] M A S
Maryland. The Roman Catholics, who were the firft fettlers
"v in Maryland, are the moll numerous religious fe£t.
Eelides thel'e, there are Protellant Epifcopalians, Eng-
lilh, Scots, and Irilli Prefbyterians, German Calvi-
nifts, German Lutherans, Friends, Papilts, Metho-
dills, and Nicolites, or New Quakers. The colleges
in this Hate have all been founded fince the year 1782,
and are yet in their infancy. The names of the leve-
ral feminaries are, Wafhington College at Chellertown,
inllituted in 17825 St John’s College at Annapolis,
founded in 17845 Caktfbury College at Abingdon,
inliituted by the Methodifts in 17855 and a college
founded by the Roman Catholics at Georgetown.
There are a few other literary inllitutions, of inferior
note, in different parts of the Hate, and provifion is
made for free fchools in moll of the counties : though
fome are entirely neglefted, and very few carried on
with any fuccels 5 lo that a great proportion of the
lower clafs of people are ignorant, and there are not a
few who cannot write their names. But the revolu¬
tion, among other happy effects, has roufed the fpirit
of education, which is fait fpreading its falutary influ¬
ences over this and the other fouthern Hates.
'1 he legillaiure of this Hate is compofed of two di-
flinfl branches, a fenate and houfe of delegates 5 and
Hyled I lie General AJJembhj of Maryland. The fenate
confilts of 15 members, chofen every five years. Nine
of thefe muH be refidents on the weflern fliore and
fix on the eafiern 5 they mull be more than 25 years
c- a&e> have refided in the Hate more than three
years next preceding the eledlion, and have real and
perfonal property above the value of icool. The
houfe of delegates is compofed of four members for
each county, chofen annually on the firlt Monday in
0£lober. The city of Annapolis and town of Balti¬
more fend each two delegates. The qualifications of
a delegate, are, full age, one year’s refidenee in the
county where he is chofen, and real or perfonal pro¬
perty above the value of 500I. The qualifications of
a freeman are, full age, a freehold eflate of 50 acres of
land, and aflual refidence in the county where he offers
to vote 5 property to the value of 30I. in any part of
the Hate, and a year’s refidence in the county where he
offers to vote.
On the fecond Monday of November annually, a go¬
vernor is appointed by the joint ballot of both" houfes.
J he governor cannot continue in office longer than
three years fuccefhvely, nor be eledltd until the expi¬
ration of four years after he has been out of office,
i ne qualifications for the chief magifiracy are 25
years of age, five years refidenee in the Hate next
preceding the ele&ion, and real and perfonal eflate
above the value of 5000I. 5 1000I. of which mull be
freehold eilate. This conftitution was eHabliffied by
a convention of delegates at Annapolis, AuguH 14.
1776.
Maryland was granted, as has been already noticed,
by King Charles I. to Cecilius Calvert, baron of Bal¬
timore in Ireland, June 20. 1632. The government
of the province was by charter vefled in the proprie¬
tary 5 but it appears that he either never exercifed
thefe powers alone, or but for a (hort time. The
honourable Leonard Calvert, Efq. Lord Baltimore’s
brother, was the firfl governor or lieutenant general.
In 1638, a law was palled, conflituting the firll regular
3
houfe of affembly, which was to confiH of fueh repre-
lentatives, called but'gej/es, as Hiould be defied purfuant
to writs iffued by the governor. Thefe burgeffes pof-
feffed all the powers of the perfons elefling them 5 but
any other freemen, who did not affent to the elec¬
tion, might take their feats in perfon. Twelve bur¬
geffes or freemen, with the lieutenant general and fe-
cretary, conllituted the affembly or legiflature. This
affembly fat at St Mary’s, one of the fouthern coun¬
ties, which was the firfl fettled part of Maryland. In
1687, the government was taken out of the hands of
Lord Baltimore by the grand convention of England.
Mr Copley was appointed governor by commiflion
from William and Mary in 1692, when the Proteflant
religion was ellabliffied bylaw. In 1716, the govern¬
ment of this province was reflored to the proprietary,
and continued in his hands till the late revolution 5
when, being an abfentee, his property in the lands was
confifcated, and the government affumed by the free¬
men of the province, who formed the conflitution now
exifling. At the clofe of the war, Henry Harford^
Efq. the natural fon and heir of Lord Baltimore, peti¬
tioned the legiflature of Maryland for his eflate 5 but
his petition was not granted. Mr Harford eftimated
his lofs of quit-rents, valued at 20 years purchafe, and
including arrears, at 259,4881. 5s.—dollars at 7s. 6d.
and the value of his manors and referved lands at
327,441!. of the fame money.
MARYPORT, a fea port town of Cumberland, fi.
tuated at the mouth of the Elne. It has a good har¬
bour 5 and has 70 or 80 fail of Hupping from 30 to 250
tons burden, principally employed in the coal trade j
fome of them fail up the Baltic for timber, flax, iron,
&c. They have a furnace for call iron and a glafs-
houfe. A chapel was erebted here in 1760.
MAS, Lewis du, natural fon to Jean Louis de
Montcalm Seigneur de Candiac, and a widow’ of rank
of Rouergue, was born at Nifmes in 1676. His firfl
attention was beftowed on jurifprudence 5 but after¬
wards he was altogether occupied with mathematics,
philofophy, and the ftudy of the languages. Father
Malebraiicbe cultivated his acquaintance and efteemed
his virtues. His firft appearance was fevere, his ge¬
neral temper tranquil 5 yet he had a lively and fertile
imagination. His mind was aftive, full of refources,
and methodical. We are indebted to his indultry for
the Typographical Bureau. This invention is the
more ingenious, as it prefents the tedious parts of edu¬
cation, namely, reading, writing, and the elements of
languages, to the youthful mind as a delightful enter¬
tainment 5 and many people in France, both in the ca¬
pital and in the provinces, have adopted it with fuc-
cefs. After he had conceived the idea of this inven¬
tion, he made the firfl trial of it on the young Candiac,
who was remaikable for his underftanding in his ear-
HqH years. Du Mas conduded his pupil to Paris and
the principal cities in France, where he was univer-
fally admired. This prodigy was carried off in the
year 1726 before he was feven years of age, and his
lofs had nearly deprived Du Mas of his reafon, A
dangerous illnefs was the confequence of his vexation 5
and he would have died of want, if a gentleman had
not taken him from his garret and entertained him in
his own houfe. Du Mas afterwards retired with Ma¬
dame de Vaujour within two leagues of Paris, and died
LQt
Maryland
II
Mas.
MAS [ 637 ] MAS
in the year 1774, aged 68. He was a philofopher
. belli in genius and charafttr. His works are, 1. L'Art
' de tranfpofer toutesfortes de Mufquesfans etre oblige de
connoitre, ni le temps, ni le mode, publithed at Paris in
4to. 1711. This work is extremely curious, but of
no advantage to the ftudy of mufic. 2. A volume in
quarto, printed at Paris 1733, in four parts, entitled,
Bibliotheque des enfans. In this treatife he has placed
in a clear point of view, the fyftem and economy of
his Typographical Bureau. This invention, like every
thing new, was cenfured by fome and admired by
others. The author himfelf defended it with much
fuccefs in the journals and in feveral occafional pam¬
phlets. This colleftion, however, is become exceed¬
ingly fcarce. The Typographical Bureau was brought
to perfeflion by M. Reybert a citizen of Avignon,
who enriched it w ith many articles containing ufeful
and agreeable information in geography, hiftory, fable,
&c. &c. 3. Memoires de PEcoffe fous le regne de Marie
Stuart, by Crawford, and tranllated from the Englilh.
This tranflation was found in manufcript in the library
of the marquis d’Aubais, with whom Du Mas had lived
in the molt intimate habits of friendihip.
Mas Planta, a plant wdiich upon the fame root pro¬
duces male flowers only. See Masculus Flos, Bo¬
tany Index.
MASAFUERO, an ifland of the South fea, lying
in S. Lat. 33. 45. W. Long. 80. 46. It is very high
and mountainous, and at a diftance feems to confift
of one hill or rock. It is of a triangular form, and
feven or eight leagues in circumference. There is
fuch plenty of fifli, that a boat with a few hooks and
lines may very foon catch as many as will ferve 100
people. Here are coal-fifh, cavilliers, cod, hallibut,
and cray filh. Captain Carteret’s crew caught a king-
filher that weighed 87 pounds, and was five feet and
a half long. The lharks were here fo ravenous, that,
in taking foundings, one of them fwallowed the lead,
by which they hauled him above water j but he re¬
gained his liberty by difgorging his prey. Seals are
fo numerous here, that Captain Carteret fays, if many
thoufands were killed in a night, they would not be
miffed next morning. Thefe animals yield excellent
train oil •, and their hearts and plucks are very good
food, having a tafle fomething like thofe of a hog :
their fkins are covered with a very fine fur. There
are many birds here, and fome very large hawks. Of
the pintado bird one (hip caught 700 in one night.
Commodore Byron landed here with difficulty in 176?,
in order to take in wood and water, of both which he
found plenty. He found alfo great numbers of goats,
whofe flefh tafted as well as venilon in England.
MASBOTHAH, or Mesboth;ei, the name of a
fe£t, or rather of twm fe6Is; for Eufebius, or rather
Hegefippus whom he cites, makes mention of twro
different fe£ls of Mafbothaeans. The firlt w7as one-of
the feven feffs that rofe out of Judaifm, and proved
very troublefome to the church ; the other was one
of the feven Jewifh fe£ts before the coming of Jefus
Chrift.
The word is derived from the Hebrew rs2X0,fchabat,
“ to reft or repofe j” and fignifies idle eafy indolent people.
Eufebius fpeaks of them as if they had been fo called
from one Mafbotheus their chief: but it is much more
probable that their name is Hebrew, or at leaft Chal- Mafbothasi
daic, fignifying the fame thing with a Sabbatarian in
our language j that is, one who makes profeflion of ,
keeping Sabbath.
Valefius will not allow the two fe£ts to be confound¬
ed together : the latt being a fe<R of Jews before, or
at leaft contemporary with Chrift; and the former a
feft of heretics defcended from them. Rufinus diftin-
guiflies them in their names; the Jewifti fe£t he calls
Mafbuthaei; and the heretics Maibuthseni. The
Malhuthseans were a branch of the Simonians.
MASCULINE, fomething belonging to the male,
or the ftronger of the two fexes. See Male.
Masculine, is more ordinarily uled in grammar to
fignify the firft and worthieft of the genders of nouns.
See Gender.
The mafculine gender is that which belongs to the
male kind, or fomething analogous to it.
Moft fubftances are ranged under the heads of maf¬
culine or feminine.—This, in fome cafes, is done with
fhow of reafon; but in others is merely arbitrary, and
for that reafon is found to vary according to the lan¬
guages and even according to the words introduced
from one language into another.—Thus the names of
trees are generally feminine in Latin and maiculine in
the French.
Farther, the genders of the fame word are fometimes
varied in the fame language. Thus alvus, according to
Prifcian, was anciently mafculine, but is now become
feminine. And navire, “ a Ihip,” in French, was an¬
ciently feminine, but is now’ mafculine.
MASCULINE Rhyme, in the French poetry, is that
made with a word which has a ftrong, open, and ac¬
cented pronunciation; as all words have, excepting
thofe which have an e feminine in their laft lyllable.
For inftance, amour m&jour, mart and fort, are maf¬
culine rhymes; and pere and mere, gloire and memoire,
are feminine. Hence alfo verfes ending with a maf¬
culine rhyme, are called mafculine verfes, and thofe end¬
ing with a feminine rhyme, feminine verfes. It is now
a rule eftablilhed among the French poets never to ufe
the above two mafculine or two feminine verfes luc-
ceflively, except in the loofer kind of poetry. Marot
was the firft who introduced this mixture of mafculine
and feminine verfes, and Ronfard was the firft who
pra&ifed it with fuccefs. The mafculine verfes fhould
always have a fyllable lefs than the feminine ones.
MASCULINE Signs. Aftrologers divide the figns into
mafculine and feminine ; by reafon of their qualities,
w’hieh are either active, and hot or cold, accounted
mafculine; or paffive, dry and moift, which are fe¬
minine.—On this principle they call the Sun, Jupiter,
Saturn, and Mars, mafculine; and the Moon and Venus
feminine. Mercury, they fuppofe, partakes of the two.
Among the figns, Aries, Libra, Gemini, Leo, Sagitta¬
rius, Aquarius, are mafculine: Cancer, Capricornus,
Taurus, Virgo, Scorpio, and Pifces, are feminine.
MASCULUS flos. See Flos, Botany Index.
MASH, a drink given to a horfe, made of half a
peck of ground malt put into a pail, into which as
much Raiding hot water is poured as will wet it very-
well : when that is done, ftir it about, till, by tailing,
you find it as fweet as honey; and when it has ftood
till it is lukewarm, it is to be given to the horfe. This
liquor
M AS l 6^
Hi liquor is only ufed after a purge, to make it work the
better : or after hard labour, or inftead of drink in the
time of any great ficknefs.
MASK. See Masque.
MAS1NISSA, a king of a fmall part of Africa,
who at firft afiifted the Carthaginians in their wars
-againft Rome ; but afterwards joined the Romans,
and became the firmeft ally they ever had. See Nu-
MIDIA.
MASON, a perfon employed under the dire£tion of
an architeft, in the raifing of a done building.
The chief bufinefs of a mafon is to make the mor¬
tar j raife the walls from the foundation to the top,
with the necefl'ary retreats and perpendiculars; to form
the vaults, and employ the Hones as delivered to him.
When the ftones are large, the bufinefs of hewing or
cutting them belongs to the ftonecutters, though thefe
are frequently confounded with mafons: the orna¬
ments of fculpture are performed by carvers in ftones
or fculptors. The tools or implements principally ufed
by them are the fquare, level, plumb line, bevel, com-
pafs, hammer, chiffel, mallet, faw, trowel, &c. See
Square, &c.
Befides the common inftruments ufed in the hand,
they have likewife machines for raifing of great bur¬
dens, and the conducing of large ftones •, the principal
of which are the lever, pulley, wheel, crhne, &c. See
Lever, &c.
Mason, William, an Englifli poet of diftinftion,
born in 1725, was the fon of a clergyman who held
the living of Hull. He took his firft degrees at St
John’s college, Cambridge in 1745, whence he remov¬
ed to Pembroke college, of which he was admitted a
fellow in 1747. He was M. A. in 1749, a minifter
in 1754. The earl of Holdernefie prefented him to
the valuable redtory of Afton in Yorklhire, and pro¬
cured for him the office of chaplain to his majefty. His
ode on the inftallation of the duke of Newcaftle as
chancellor of the univerfity of Cambridge was the firft
fpecimen of his poetical talents, which gained him con-
fiderable reputation, although the fubjeft was not popu¬
lar. His monody to the memory of Pope, and Ifis, an
elegy, added to his fame, which was ftill farther in-
creafed by his dramatic poem of Elfrida in 1752, and
Caraftacus in 1759.
He did not fucceed in writing tragedy, as he did not
compofe for the modern ftage, but wiftied to revive the
manner of the ancients. He publiftved a fmall collec¬
tion of odes in 1756, intended as an imitation of his
dear friend Gray. He gave the world fome elegies in
1763, which in general are marked with the fimplicity
of language proper to this fpecies of compofition,
breathing noble fentiments of freedom and of virtue.
In point of morality he may juftly be confidered as the
pureft of poets, and one of the warmeft friends of civil
liberty by which the age he lived in was diftinguiftied.
The firft book of his Englifh Garden made its appear¬
ance in X772) a didadtic poem in blank verfe, of which
the fourth and laft book was printed in the year 1 781.
Some good critics conlider this poem as rather ftiff, and
the dry minutenefs of the preceptive part, prevented it
from bringing the author any great degree of populari¬
ty. In 1775 he publiftied the poems of Mr Gray, to
which he prefixed memoirs of his life and writings.
His obfervations on the charadter and genius of his
I
8 ] MAS
friend did honour to his tafte and feelings, and of con- Mafon,
fequence the volume was favourably received. Mafonry,
At the place of his refidence he adled with the v—~~
friends of reform, and the enemies of fuch meafures as
were deemed incompatible with the liberties of free¬
men. During the continuance of the American war,
he addrefled an ode to the naval officers of Great Bri¬
tain, on the acquittal of Admiral Keppel in 1779, in
which he decidedly execrated the war carrying on
againft the people of America. When Mr Pitt role to
power in 1782, Mafon addrefled an ode to him, which
contained patriotic and manly fentiments, but his lyric
imagery did it cenfiderable injury. He publiftied in
1783 a poetical tranflation of Frefnoy’s Latin poem on
the art of painting, which unites great elegance of
language and verfification with a correct reprefentation
of a difficult original.
Befides the living with which he was prefented foon
after taking orders, he obtained the preferments of pre¬
centor and canon refidentiary of the cathedral of York.
At that church he preached an occafional difcourfe in
178800 the fubjeft of the Have-trade, full of animated
declamation againft the inhumanity of the traffic. The
centenary commemoration of the revolution in that year
produced his fecular ode, which breathed his ufual
fpirit of freedom. An additional volume of his poenas
was given to the world in 1797, confifting of mifcella-
neous pieces, the revifed produftions of his youth, and
the effufions of his old age. In his Palinody to Liberty
we behold the change wrought in his political princi¬
ples by the melancholy events of the French revolu¬
tion.
Mr Mafon died in April 1797, at the age of 72,
the confequence of a mortification by a hurt in his leg.
He had married an amiable lady, who died of a con-
fumption in 1767, and was buried at Briftol cathedral,
under a monument on which are infcribed fome very
tender and beautiful lines by her hufband. The cha¬
racter of Mafon in private life was exemplary for worth
and active benevolence. A tablet has been placed to
his memory in Poets Corner in Weftminfter abbey.
Some fatirical pieces of merit have been afcribed to him,
but fome are of opinion that the internal evidence is
fufficient to decide againft his title to them j yet it muff:
be allowed that he could write with energy and fimpli¬
city, and the objets of fatire in thefe pieces are fuch
as it was extremely probable that he would fix upon.
MASONRY, in general, a branch,of architecture,
confifting in the art of hewing or fquaring ftones, and
cutting them level or perpendicular, for the ufes of
building: but, in a more limited fenfe, mafonry is
the art of aflembling and joining ftones together with
mortar.
Hence arife as many different kinds of mafonry as
there are different forms and manners for laying or
joining ftones. Vitruvius mentions feveral kinds of
mafonry ufed among the ancients j three of hewed
ftone, viz. that in form of a net, that in binding, and
that called the Greek mafonry; and three of unhewed
ftones, viz. that of an equal courfe, that of an unequal
courfe, and that filled up In the middle } and the feventh
was a compofition of all the reft.
Net mafonry, called by Vitruvius reticulatum, from
its refemblance to the meflres of a net, confifts of ftones
fquared in their courfes, and fo difpofed as that their
joints
MAS [
Mafonry. joints po obliquely ; and their diagonals are the one
perpendicular and the other level. This is the moft
agreeable maionry to the eye, but it is very apt to
crack.
Bound mafonry, is that in which the ftones were
placed one over another, like tiles; the joints of their
beds being level, and the mounters perpendiculars, fo
that the joint that mounts and feparates two ftones al-
wavs falls dheftly over the middle of the ftone below.
This is lefs beautiful than the net work 5 but it is more
folid and durable.
Greek mafonry, according to Vitruvius, is that where
after we have laid two ftones, each of which makes a
courfe, another is laid at the end, which makes two
courfes, and the fame order is obferved throughout
the building •, this may be called double binding, in re¬
gard the binding is not only of ftones of the fame courfe
with one another, but likewife of one courfe with ano¬
ther courfe.
Mafonry by equal courfes, called by the ancients ifo-
domum, differs in nothing from the bound mafonry, but
only in this, that its ftones are not hewn.
Mafonry by unequal courfes, called pfeudifodemum,
is alfo made of unhevved ftones, and laid in bound
work; but then they are not of the fame thicknefs, nor
is there any equality obferved excepting in the feveral
courfes, the courfes themfelves being unequal to each
other.
Mafonry filled up in the middle, is likewife made of
unhewed ftones, and by courfes : but the ftones are
only fet in order as to the courfes.
Compound mafonry is of Vitruvius’s propofing, fo
called as being formed of all the reft. In this the
courfes are of hewed ftone ; and the middle being left
void, is filled up with mortar and pebbles thrown in
together : after this the ftones of one courfe are bound
to thofe of another courfe with iron cramps fattened
with melted lead.
All the kinds of mafonry now in ufe may be reduced
to thefe five, viz. bound mafonry j that of brick work,
where the bodies and projeftures of the ftones enclofe
fquare fpaces or pannels, &c. fet with bricks; that de
inoilon, or fmall work, where the courfes are equal,
■well fquared, and their edges or beds rufticated j that
where the courfes are unequal ; and that filled up in
the middle with little ftones and mortar.
Free MasONRT, denotes the rule or fyftem of myf-
teries and fecrets peculiar to the fociety of free and ac¬
cepted mafons.
1. When men are in a ftate of barbarity, and are
aufe of _   ^ 
e fepara- fcattered over the furface of a country in fmall and in-
ifionsP ° dependent tribes, their w-ants are as fmall in magni¬
tude, as they are few in number. It is in the power,
therefore, of every individual, to perform for himfelf
and his family, every work of labour which neceflity or
comfort requires; and while, at one time, he equips
himfelf for the chafe or the combat, at another, he is
rearing a habitation for his offspring, or hollowing his
canoe to furmount the dangers of the fea. But as foon
as thefe tribes affociate together, for the purpofes of
mutual proteflion and comfort, civilization advances
apace; and, in the fame proportion, the wants and de¬
fires of the community increafe. In order to gratify
thefe, the ingenuity of individuals is called forth ; and
thofe, who, from inability or indolence, cannot fatisfy
639 j MAS
their own wants, will immediately refort to the fuperior Mafonry.
Ikill of their neighbours. Thofe members of the com- 1 !
munity, who can execute their work with the greateft
elegance and celerity, will be moft frequently employ¬
ed ; and, from this circumftance, combined with the
principle of emulation, and other caufes, that diftin&ion
of profeffions will arife, which is found only among na¬
tions confiderably advanced in civilization and refine¬
ment.
2. One of the firft objefts of man, in a rude ftate, is Reafons
to fereen himfelf and his family from the heat of the^7^ archi-
tropic iun, from the inclemency of the polar regions, or ^u^have
from the ludden changes of more temperate climates, been the
If he has arrived at fuch a degree of improvement, as firft profef-
to live under the dominion of a fuperior, and under the^on*
influence of religious belief, the palace of his king, and
the temple of his gods, will be reared in the moit mag¬
nificent ftile which his Ikill can devife and his induttry
accompliih, and decked with thofe faife ornaments
which naturally catch the eye of unpoliihed men.
From that principle which impels the lower orders to
imitate the magnificence and fplendour of their fupe-
riors, a foundation will be laid for improvement in the
art of building ; and it is extremely probable, from the
circumflances which have been mentioned, as well as
from others which the flighteft reflettion will fuggeft,
that architecture will be the firft profeflion to which
men will exclufively devote their attention, and for
which they will be trained by an eftabliflied courfe of
preparatory education.
# 3* Nor is it from this ground only, that mafonry de- Architec-
rives its fuperiority as a feparate profeflion. Whileture fiuPe-
many other arts adminifter to our luxury and pride, "ortoever3r
and gratify only thofe temporary wants and unnatural ^nical6’
defires which refinement has rendered neceffary, the profeffion.
art of building can lay claim to a higher objeCI. The
undertakings of the architeft, not only furnifli us with
elegant and comfortable accommodation from the in¬
clemency of the feafons, from the rapacity of wild
hearts, and the ftill more dangerous rapacity of man ;
they contribute alio to the ornament and glory of na¬
tions, and it is to them that we are indebted for thofe
fortreffes of ftrength which defend us from the inroads
of furrounding enemies. Nor can the works of the
architect be ranked among thofe objeCts which furnifli
amufement and accommodation for a few years, or at
moft during the ihort term of human life ; they defeend
unimpaired from generation to generation ; (hey ac¬
quire additional grandeur and value from an increafe
of age ; and are the only fpecimens of human labour
which, in fome meafure, furvive the revolutions of king¬
doms, and the wafte of time. The fplendid remains of
Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman architecture, which, in
every age, have attracted the attention of the learned
and excited the aftonilhment of the vulgar, are Hand¬
ing monuments of the ingenuity and power of man ;
and, in ages yet to come, they will refleCt a dignity on
the art of building, to which no other profeflion can
arrogate the flighteft claim.
4. But there is ftill another confideration, which en-Other
titles architecture (to a decided pre-eminence among the ‘ aufes of
other arts. It is itfelf the parent of many fc-parate pro- thePre- emi-
feflions ; and requires a combination of talents, and ann£n‘y,far'
extent of knowledge, for which other profeffions have ^
not the fmalleft occaflon. An acquaintance with the
fciences
MAS [ 640 ] MAS
Mafonry. feiences of geometry and mechanical philofophy, with
tlie arts of fculpture and defign, and other abftrufe and
elegant branches of knowledge, are indifpenfable re-
quifitcs in the education of a good architeft ; and raife
his art to a vaft height above thofe profeflions, which
pra£tice alone can render familiar, and which coniiil in
the mere exertion of mufcular force. It appears, then,
from thefe conliderations, that there is fome foundation
in the very nature of architecture, for thofe extraordi¬
nary privileges to which mafons have always laid
claim, and which they have almoft always poffefled—
privileges, which no other artifts could have confidence
to alk, or liberty to enjoy ; and there appears to be
fome foundation for that ancient and refpeCtable order
of free mafons, whofe hiitory we are now to inveftigate.
5. But, that we may be enabled to difcover free
mafonry under thofe various forms which it has aflum-
ed in different countries, and at different times, before
it received the name which it now' bears, it will be ne-
ceffary to give a (hurt defcription of the nature of this
inftitution, without developing thofe myfteries, or re¬
vealing thofe ceremonial obfervances which are known
only to the brethren of the order.
Defcription 6. Free mafonry is an ancient and refpeClable infti-
of the infti- tution, embracing individuals of every nation, of every
religion, and of every condition in life. In order to
confirm this inftitution, and attain the ends for w hich it
was originally formed, every candidate comes under a
folemn engagement never to divulge the myfleries of
the order, nor communicate to the uninitiated the fe-
crets with which he may be entrufted, and the pro¬
ceedings and plans in which the fraternity may be
engaged. After the candidate has undergone the
neceffary ceremonies, and received the ufual inftruc-
tions, appropriate words and fignificant figns are im¬
parted to him, that he may be enabled to diftinguifh
his brethren of the order from the uninitiated vulgar,
and convince others that he is entitled to the privileges
of a brother, fhould he be vifited by diftrefs or W’ant,
in a diftant land. If the newdy admitted member be
found qualified for a higher degree, he is promoted,
after due intervals of probation, till he has received
that mafonic knowledge, which enables him to hold
the higheft offices of truft to which the fraternity can
raife its members. At regular and appointed feafons,
convivial meetings of the fraternity are held in lodges
conftrufted for this purpofe: temperance, harmony, and
joy, charafterife thefe mixed affemblies. All diftinc-
tions of rank feem to be laid afide, all differences in re¬
ligious and political fentiments are forgotten : and thofe
petty quarrels which difturb the quiet of private life,
ceafe to agitate the mind. Every one ftrives to give
tution of
free mafon-
17.
happinefs to his brother ; and men feem to recoiled, Mafonry.
for once, that they are fprung from the fame origin,
that they are poffeffed of the fame nature, and are
deflined for the fame end.
7. Such are the prominent features of an inftitution, Various
which has of late produced fo great divifion in the fen-°Pinions
timents of the learned, refpe&ing its origin and ten - abtut tl‘ff
dency. While a certain clafs of men (a), a little over-pef^^
anxious for the dignity of their order, have reprefen ted ry.
it as coeval with the wmrld j others, influenced by an
oppofite motive, have maintained it to be the invention
of Engliffi Jefuits, to promote the views of that in¬
triguing and dangerous affociation (b). Some philofo-
phers, among whom we may reckon the celebrated
Chevalier Ramfay, have laboured to prove, that free
mafonry arofe during the crufades j that it was a fe-
condary order of chivalry $ that its forms originated
from that warlike inftitution, and were adapted to the
peaceful habits of feientific men (c). Mr Clinch (d)
has attempted, with confiderable ingenuity and learn¬
ing, to deduce its origin from the inftitution of Pytha¬
goras. M. Barruel (e) fuppofes it to be a continuation
of the fociety of knights templars ; while others, with a
degree of audacity and malice rarely to be found in
the charafter of ingenuous men, have imputed the
origin of free mal’onry to fecret affociaticns, averfe to
the interefts of true government, and purfuing the
villanous and chimerical projeft of levelling the diftinc-
tions of fociety, and freeing the human mind from the
facred obligations of religion and morality.
8. Without adopting any of thefe untenable opini-Free mafor.
ons, or attempting to difcover the precife period w hen ry has ex ft-
free mafonry arofe, it may be fufficient to eftablifh ®<yin^r
its claim to an early origin, and to (hew that it has ex- dr¬
ifted in different ages of the world under different forms ft rent coun.
and appellations (f). In the execution of this talk, the tries,
candid enquirer will be fatisfied with ftrong and numer¬
ous refemblances, as the nature of the fubjeft excludes
the poffibility of rig’d demonftration. Every human
inftitution is fubjeft to great and numerous variations ;
the different afpe£ts under which they appear, and the
principles by which they are regulated, depend upon
the progrefs of civilization, upon the nature of the go¬
vernment by which they are protedled, and on the pe¬
culiar opinions and habits of their members. If, there¬
fore, in comparing free mafonry with other ancient af-
fociations, we thould find it coincide with them in every
circumftance, there would be ftrong reafons for fuf-
pefting, that the imagination of the writer had coun¬
terfeited refemblances when deftitute of authentic in¬
formation ; or that the order had adopted the rites and
ceremonies of antiquity, to cloak the recency of their
origin,
(a) Anderfon’s Hiftory and Conftitutions of Free Mafonry, p. 1. Preflon’s Illuftrations of Mafonry, p. 6. tenth
edition.
(b) Manufcript of Bode of Germany, in the poffeffion of M. Mourner.
(c) Leyden’s Preliminary Differtation to the Complaynt of Scotland, p. 67, 71,
(d) Anthologia Hibernica, for January, March, April, and June I794#
(e) Memoirs of Jaeobinifm, vol. ii. p. 377, 378, &c.
(f) M. Mounier obferves, that if the order of free mafons exifted among the ancients, it would have been
mentioned by cotemporary writers. This argument, however, for the recency of their origin, is far from being
conclulive. For though it is allowed by all, that free mafonry has exifted in this country for at leaft 300 years,
yet the affociation is never once mentioned in any of the hiftories of England.
MAS [64
Mafonry. origin, to command the veneration and excite the no-
iteafons
why the
tiee of the public. Againft free mafonry, however,
this charge cannot be preferred : we thall have occa-
fion to confider it when connected with the idolatry of
the heathens, when devoted to the church of Rome,
and when flourifhing under the milder influence of the’
reformed religion.
9. As men, in the early ages of fociety, were defti-
knowledtre tUte .t^°^e met^ods diffufing knowledge which we
hfarchitec-:”ow enJ°y» an(i even of thofe which were ufed in
:ure would Greece and Rome, when the art of printing was un-
■)e confined known ; the few difeoveries in art and fcience which
»afew. were then made, muft have been confined to a fmall
number of individuals. In thefe ages, the purfuit of
fcience mull have been a fecondary confideration, and
thofe who did venture to explore the untrodden regions
of knowledge, would overlook thofe unfubftantial fpe-
culations, which merely gratify the curiofity of philofo-
pbers ; and would fix their attention on thofe only
which terminate in public utility, and adminifter to the
neceflities of life. As architedlure could only be pre¬
ceded by agriculture, it muft have been in this fcience
that the firft efforts of human Jkill were tried ; and in
which man muft have firft experienced fuccefs in ex¬
tending his dominion over the works of nature. The
nrft architects, therefore, would be philofophers. They
l ' alone required the aflirtance of art j and they alone
would endeavour to obtain it. The information which
was acquired individually, would be imparted to others
of the fame profeflion; and an affociation would be
formed for the mutual communication of knowledge,
and the mutual improvement of its members. In order
to preferve among themfelves that information W'hich
they alone collefted ; in order to excite amongft others
a higher degree of refpeft for their profeflion, and pre¬
vent the intrufion of thofe who were ignorant of archi¬
tecture, and, confequently, could not promote the ob¬
ject of the inftitution, appropriate words and figns
would be communicated to its members ; and fignificant
ceremonies would be performed at their initiation, that
their engagement to fecrecy might be impreffed upon
their mmds, and greater regard excited for the infor¬
mation they were to receive. Nor is this mere fpecu-
lation ; there exift at this day, in the deferts of Egypt,
juch monuments of architeaure, as muft have been
reared in thofe early ages which precede the records
of authentic hiftory ; and the ereaion of thefe ftupend-
ous fabrics, muft have required an acquaintance with
the mechanical arts, which is not in the poffeflion of
modern architeas. It is an undoubted faa, alfo, that
there exifted, in thefe days, a particular affociation of
men, to whom fcientific knowledge w'as confined, and
who refembled the fociety of free mafons in every thing
but the name.
ufes.of . I0* Egypt, and thofe countries of Alia which
religious contiguous to that favoured kingdom, the arts and
;s with Sciences were cultivated with fuccefs, while other na-
myfte tions were involved in ignorance: it is here, therefore,
iofiree that free mafonry would flourilh, and here only can we
fonr** Vol. XII. Part II. J .
i ] MAS
difeover marks of its exiftence in the remoteft ages. It Mafonryr
is extremely probable, that the firft and the only ob- 1 v"—
je£l of the ioeiety of mafons, was the mutual communi¬
cation of knowledge connedled with their profeflion j
and that thofe only would gain admittance into their
order, whofe labours were fubfidiary to thofe of the
architeft. But when the ambition or vanity of the E-
gyptian priefts prompted them to ereft huge and ex-
penfive fabrics, for celebrating the woilhip of their
gods, or perpetuating the memory of their kings, they
would naturally defire to participate in that Icientific
knowledge, which was poffeffed by the architedls they
employed j and as the facerdotal order feldom fail,.
among a fuperftitious people, to gain the objedts of their
ambition, they would, in this cafe, fucceed in their at¬
tempts, and be initiated into the myfteries, as well as
inftrudted in the fcience of free mafons. Thefe remarks
will not only afiift us in difeovering the fource from
which the Egyptian priefls derived that knowledge
for which they have been fo highly celebrated j they
w'ill aid us alfo in accounting for thofe changes which
were fuperinduced on the forms of free mafonry, and
for the admiflion of men into the order whofe profef-
fions had no connedlion with the royal art.
11. When the Egyptian priefts had, in this manner,
prbeured admiflion into the fociety of free mafons, they
connedled the mythology of their country, and their
metaphyfical fpeculations, concerning the nature of God
and the condition of man, with an afibciation formed
for the exclufive purpole of fcientific improvement, and
produced that combination of fcience and theology
which, in after ages, formed fuch a confpicuous part of
the principles of free mafonry.
12. The knowledge of the Egyptians was carefully
concealed from the vulgar 3 and when the priefts did
condefcend to communicate it to the learned men of
other rations, it was conferred in fymbols and hierogly¬
phics, accompanied with particular rites and ceremo¬
nies, marking the value of the gift they bellowed.
What thofe ceremonies were, which were performed at
initiation into the Egyptian myfteries, we are unable, at
this diftance of time, to determine. But as the EJeu-
finian and other myfteries had their origin in Egypt,
we may be able, perhaps, to difeover the qualities of
the fountain, by examining the nature of the ftream.
13. The immenfe population of Egypt, conjoined The fcience
with other caufes, occafioned frequent emigrations from *nd myfte-
that enlightened country. In this manner it became nes
the centre of civilization, and introduced into the moft £^ln‘ans
diftant and favage climes the fublime myfteries of itsGreeci"116
religion, and thofe inventions and difeoveries which
originated in the ingenuity of its inhabitants. The firft
colony of the Egyptians that arrived in Greece, was
conduced by Inachus, about 1970 years before the
Chriftian era 3 and about three centuries afterwards, he
was followed by Cecrops, Cadmus, and Danaus (g).
Ibe favage inhabitants of Greece beheld with aftonifti-
ment the magical tricks of the Egyptians 3 and regard¬
ed as gods thofe fkilful adventurers, who communicated
4 M to
(G) Voyage du Jeune Anacharfis en Grece, 4to. tom. i. p. 2. Cecrops arrived in
Cadmus came from Phemcia to Bceotia in 1593 B. C. and JDanaus to Argoiis in 1386 B,
Attica in 1657 B. C.
c*
Mafonry.
Inftitution
of the Eleu
finian my-
fteries.
Inftitution
of the Pan-
athenfa
and Diony-
fian my-
fteries.
Reftm-
blance be¬
tween the
Eleufiman
and Diony
fian my-
fleries.
Similarity
between
the Eleufi
nian my-
llerie:. and
free ma-
•fonry.
M A S
to them the arts and feiences of their native land (h).
In this manner were fown thole ieeds of improvement,
which, in future ages, exalted Greece to fuch pre-emi¬
nence among the nations.
14. After the Egyptian colonies had obtained a fe-
cure feitlement in their new territories, and were freed
from thofe uneafy apprehenfions which generally
trouble tbe invaders of a foreign land, they inftituted,
after the manner of their anceftors, particular feftivalsor
myfteries, in honour of thofe who had benefited their
country by arts or by arms. In the reign of Eriflhonius,
(A. C. 1500), the myfteries of the Egyptian Ifis were
eftablilhed at Eleufts under the name of the Eleufinia.
They were inftituted in honour of Ceres, who having
come to Greece in queft of lier daughter Proferpine,
relided with Triptolemus at Eleufis, and inftru&ed him
in the knowledge of agriculture, and in the iiill more
important knowledge of a future ftate (l).
15. About the fame time, the Panathenea were infti¬
tuted in honour of Minerva, and the Dionyfian my¬
fteries in honour of Bacchus, who invented theatres (k),
and inftrutted the Greeks in many ufeful arts, but par¬
ticularly in the culture of the vine (l). dhat the E-
leufinian and Dionyfian myfteries were intimately con-
nefted with the progrefs of the arts and feiences, is ma-
nifeft from the very end for which they were formed ;
and that they were modelled upon the myfteries of Ifis
and Ofiris, celebrated in Egypt, is probable from the
fimilarity of their origin, as well as from the confent
of ancient authors (m). If there be any plaufibility in
our former reafoning concerning the origin of know¬
ledge in Egypt, it will follow, that the Dionyfia and
the myfteries of Eleufis, were, like the focieties of free
mafons, formed for fcientific improvement, though tinc¬
tured with the do&rines of the Egyptian mythology.
16. But it is not from conje&ure only that this con-
clufion may be drawn. The ftriking fimilarity among
the external forms of tbefe fecret affociations, and the
ftill more ftriking fimilarity of the objects they had in
view, are ftrong proofs that they were only different
flreams iffuing from a common fountain. Thofe who
were initiated into the Eleufmian myfteries, were bound
MAS
by tbe moil awful engagements, to conceal the inffruc- Mafofiry,
tions they received, and the ceremonies that were per- —""v-—^
formed (n). None were admitted as candidates, till
they arrived at a certain age and particular perfons
were appointed, to examine and prepare them for tbe
rites of'initiation (o). Thole, whofe conduit w as found
irregular, or who had been guilty of atrocious crimes,
were rejeiled as unworthy of initiation j while the fuc-
cefsful candidates were inftrufted, by lignificant fymbols,
in the principles of religion (p), were exhorted to quell
every turbulent appetite and p;.[lion (qJ, and to merit,
by the improvement of their minds, and the purity of
their hearts, thofe ineffable benefits which they were
ftill to receive (r). Significant words were communi¬
cated to the members : grand officers prelided over
their affemblies (s) : Their emblems were exaftly fimi-
lar to thofe of free mafonry (t) •, and the pandidate ad¬
vanced from one degree to another, till he received all
the leffons of wifdom and of virtue which the priefts
could impart (u). But befides thefe circumftances of
refemblance, there are two fads, tranfmitted to us by
ancient authors, which have an aftoniffitng fimilarity to
the ceremonies of the third degree of free mafonry. So
ftriking is the refemblance, that every brother of the
order who is acquainted with them, cannot queftion,
for a moment, the opinion which we have been attempt¬
ing to fupport (x).
17. Having thus mentioned fome features of refem-The myftfe
blanee between the myfteries of Eleufis, and thofe ofriesof
free mafonry, let us now attend to the fentiments of kkufis and
contemporaries, refpeding thefe fecret affociations, and j-only h!^ae‘
we will find, that they have been treated with the fameeXpfr,en.
illiberality and infolence. That fonie men, who, fromced the
felf-fufficitney, or unfucial difpofitions, have refufed toian e treat'
be admitted into thefe orders, ftiould detrad from the^n^mr°“
charader of an affociation, which pretends to enlighten tiate(L
the learned, and expand the affedions of narrow and
contraded minds, is by no means a matter of -furprife j
and it is equally confiftent with human nature, that
thofe, whofe irregular condud had excluded them from
initiation, fttould calumniate an order, whofe bleflings
they were not allowed to participate, and wTiofe honours
[ 642 ]
(h) Herodot. lib. i. cap. 58. (1) Ifocrates Paneg. tom. i. p. 132.
(K) Polydor Virg. de Rerum Invent, lib. iii. cap. 13.
(lA R 'bertfon’s Greece, p. 59. Bacchus or Dionyfius came into Greece during the reign of Amphydyon, wh»
flouriftied about T497 B. C. ......
(m) En adfum natura parens tuis Luci admota precibus futnma numinum,—cujus numen unicum, multi form 1
fpecie, ritu vario, tutus veneratur orbis. Me primogenii Phryges Peffinunticam nominant drum rtiatrem ; hinc
Autochtones Attic! Cecropiam Minervam (alluding to the Panalhenea) j Illinc Cretes Didynnam Dianam, &c.
Eleufinii vetuftam Deam Cererem ; prifeaque dodrina pollentes Egyptii, ceremoniis me prorlus propriis perco-
lentes, appellant vero nomine reginam Ifidems L. Apuleii Metamorph. lib. xi.
(n) Andoc de My ft. p. 7. Meurfius in Eleuf My ft. cap. 20. This latter author has colleded all the paf-
fages in ancient writers, about the Eleufinian myfteries.
(o) Hefychius in
(p) Clemens Alexand. Strom, lib. i. p. 325. lib. vin p. 845.
(qJ Porphyr. ap. Stob. Eclog. Pbyf. p. 142s
(r) Arrian in Epidet. lib. id. cap. 21. p. 44O4
(s) Robertfon’s Greece, p. 127.
(t) Eufeb. Prepar. Evangel, lib. iii. cap. 12. p. li/.
(u) Petav. ad. Themift. p. 414. Anacharfts. tom. iii. p. 582.
(x) The brethren of the order may confult, for this purpofej the article EleUSINIa, and Robertfon’s hilloiy
t>f Ancient Greece, p. 1274
MAS F <*43 ] MAS
| Mafonry. they were prohibited to ftiare. Men of this defcription
reprefented the celebration of the Eleufinian my dries, as
fcenes ofriot and debauchery ; and reproached the mem¬
bers of the aflbciation, that they were not more virtuous
and more holy than themfelves (y). But it is the opinion
of contemporary writers, that thefe rumours were com¬
pletely unfounded, and arofe from tne filence of the
initiated, and the ignorance of the vulgar. They even
maintain, that the myfteries of Eleufis produced lanfti-
ty of manners, attention to the focial duties, and a de¬
fire to be as diftinguilhed by virtue, as by filence.
See Eleusinia. The illuftrious Socrates could never
be prevailed upon to partake of thefe myfteries (z) ;
and Diogenes, upon receiving a fimilar felicitation, re¬
plied, “ That Pitaecion, a notorious robber, obtained
initiation ; and that Epaminondas and Agefilaus never
defired it (a).” But did not thefe men know, that in
all human focieties, the virtuous and the noble muft
fometimes affociate with the worthlefs and the mean ?
Did they not know that there often kneel in the fame
temple, the righteous and the profane ; and that the
faint and the (inner frequently officiate at the fame al¬
tar ? Thus did the philolophers of antiquity calumniate
and defpife the myfteries of Eleufis •, and, in the fame
manner, have fome philofophers of our own day, de¬
famed the chara&er, and queltioned the motives office
mafons.
^bjedVon 18. This fimilarity of treatment, which the myfteries
ntwered 0f Ceres and free mifonry have received, is no (mail
proof of the fimilarity of their origin, and their object.
To this conclufion, however, it may be obje&ed, that
though the points of refemblanee between thefe fecret
focieties are numerous, yet there were circum(lances in
the celebration of the Eleufinian myfteries, which have
no counterpart in the ceremonies of free mafonry. The
facrifices, purifications, hymns, and dances, which were
neceflary in the feftival of Ceres, have, indeed, no
place in the fociety of free mafons. But thefe points
of diffimilarity, inftead of weakening, rather ftrengthen
our opinion. It cannot be expe£ted, that in the reign
of Polytheifm, juft fentiments of the deity ftiould be
entertained; and much lefs, that the adherents of
Chriftianity ftiould oend their knees to the gods of the
heathens. The ancients worftiipped thofe beings, who
conferred on them the moft fignal benefits, with facri¬
fices, purifications, and other tokens of their humility Mafonry.
and gratitude. But when revelation had difclofed to t-—-
man more amiable fentiments concerning the Divine
Being, the fociety of free mafons baiffihed from their
myfteries thofe ufeleis lites, with which the ancient
brethren of the order attempted to appeafe and requite
their deities ; and modelled their ceremonies upon this
foundation, that there is but one God, who muft be
worftiipped in fpirit and in truth.
19. The myfteries of Ceres were not confined to the The myfte.
city of Eleufisj they were introduced into Athens a ries°f
bout 1356 B. C. (b) j and, with a few (light vana- E'eulIS
tions, were obierved in Phrygia, Cyprus, Crete, and^*5^”
Sicily (c). Ihey had reached even to the capital offeveral
France (d) ; and it is highly probable that, in aCvuntries.
(hurt time after, they were introduced into Britain, and
other northern kingdoms (e). In the reign of the em¬
peror Adrian (f), they were carried into Rome, and
were celebrated, in that metropolis, with the fame rites
and ceremonies which were performed in the humble
village of Eleufis. They had contracted impurities,
however, from the length of their duration, and the
corruption of their abettors ; and though the forms of
initiation were (till fymbolical of the original and noble
objeCls of the inftitution ; yet the licentious Romans
nuftook the (liadow for the fubftance j and, while they
underwent the rites ot the Eleufiman myfteries, they
were ftrangers to the objeCl for which they were
framed.
20. About the beginning of the fifth century, Theo-A-holh'en
dofius the Great prohibited, and al '.oft totally extin-ot,th^
guffhed the Pagan theology in the Roman empire (g) ;
and the myfteries of Eleuiis fuffered in the general de-in the reign
vaftation ^H). It is probable, however, that thelefi >'heo-&
myfteries were fecretly celebrated, in (pile 0+ the ffcvere(lo^us'
ediCls of Theodofiusj and that they were partly conti¬
nued during the dark ages, though (tripped of their
original purity and fplendour. We are certain, at
leaft, that many rites of the Pagan religion were per¬
formed, under the diffembled name of convivial meet¬
ings, long after the publication of the emperor’s
ediCts (1) ; and Pfellus (K.), informs us, that the myf¬
teries of Ceres fubliited in Athens till the eighth centu¬
ry of the Chriftian era, and were never totally fuppref-
fed.
4 M 2 21. Having
(y) Robertfon’s Greece, p. 127. Porphyr. de Abftinentia, lib. iv. p. 353. Julian oral, v. p. 173.
(z) Lucian in DemonaCt. tom. ii. p, 380.
(a) Plot, de and. Poet. tom. ii. p. 21. Diog. Laert. lib. vi. § 39.
(b) Playfair’s Chronology.
(c) Lucii Apuleii Metamorph. lib. xi.-p. 197, 198.
(D) Praife of Paris, or a (ketch of the French capital, 1803, by S. Weft, F. R. S. F. A. S. This author
obferves, in the preface to his work, that Paris is derived from Par I/is, becaufe it was built befide a temple de¬
dicated to that goddtfs ; that this teraple was demolifhed at the eftablifhment of Chriftianity, and that there re¬
mains, to this dav. in the Petits Auguftins, a ftatue of Ifis nurfing Orus.
(E) Omiito Eltufinam fan&am illam et auguftam, ubi imtianturgentes orarum ultima:. Cic. de Nat. Deorum
lib. i. fub fine. ?
(F) A. D. 117. Encyclop. Brit. vol. vi. p. 555. Potter’s Antiq. vol. i. p. 389.
(g) Gibbon’s H (lory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 8vo. vol. v. p. 12c.
(h! Zozim. Hilt. lib. iv.
(1) Gibbon, vo). v. p. ito.
(k) In his treatifi «V* ^|«rs5-<y «< e'>Aips?, quoted by Mr Clinch in the Anthologia Hibernica, for
January 1794, p. 36.
M A S
'Mafotvry. 21. Having thus confidered the origin and decline
' * 11 ' of the myfteries of Eleulis, and discovered in them
numerous and prominent features of refemblance to
thofe of free mafonry j we may reafonably infer, that
the Egyptian myfteries which gave rife to the former,
had a (till nearer affinity to the latter; and, from this
conclufion, the opinions that were formerly ftated, con¬
cerning the antiquity of ifie order, and the origin of
Egyptian knowledge, will receive very conliderable
confirmation.
Origin and 22. Let us now direft our attention to the Dionyfia,
Ifory ot or myfteries 0£ Bacchus, which were intimately con-
fian mylte- ne&ed with thofe of Ceres, and, perhaps, ftill more
rks. with the myfteries of free mafonry. Herodotus (l) in¬
forms us that the folemnities, in honour of Dionyfius or
Bacchus, were originally inftituted in Egypt; and
were tranfported from that country into Greece, by one
Melampus. But not only did the myfteries of Ceres
and Bacchus flow from the fame fource *, the one was
in fome meafure interwoven with the other, and it is
almoft certain, from what we are now to mention, that
thofe who were initiated into the former, were entitled
to be prefent at the celebration of the latter. The
ftxth day of the Eleufinian feftival was the moft bril¬
liant of the whole. It received the appellation of
Bacchus, becaufe it was chiefly, if not exclufively, de¬
voted to the worlhip of that god. His ftatue, attended
by the initiated and the minifters of the temple, was
condu&ed from Athens to Eleufis, with much pomp
and Solemnity (m). And after it had been introduced
into the temple of Ceres, it was brought back to
Athens with fimilar ceremonies. The connexion be¬
tween the Eleufinian and Dionyfian myfteries is mani-
feft, alfo, from the common opinion, that Ceres was
the mother of Bacchus (n). And Plutarch aflures us,
that the Egyptian Ifis was the prototype of Ceres ; that
Ofiris was the fame with Bacchus; and that the Dio¬
nyfia of Greece was only another name for the Pamy-
lia of Egypt (o). As Bacchus was the inventor of
theatres, as well as of dramatical reprefentations, that
particular clafs of mafons, who were employed in the
ereftion of thefe extenfive buildings, were called the
Dionyfian artificers (p), and were initiated into the
myfteries of their founder, and confequently into thofe
of Eleufis (qJ). But, from the tendency of the human
mind to embrace the ceremonial, $rhile it negle&s the
fubftantial part of an inftitution, the Dionyfian feftiva],
in the degenerate ages of Greece, was more remark¬
able for inebriation and licentioufnefs, than for the cul-
M A S
tivation of virtue and of fcience ; and he who was at Mafonry.
firft celebrated as the inventor of arts, was afterwards y—J
worfliipped as the god of wine. Thofe who were defi-
rous of indulging fecretly in licentious mirth and un¬
hallowed feftivity, cloaked their proceedings under the
pretence of worlhipping Bacchus ; and brought dif-
grace upon thofe myfteries, which were inftituted
for the promotion of virtue, and the improvement of
art.
23. About 200 years B. C. an illiterate and licen-The Bac.
tious prieft came from Greece to Tufcany, and inftitu-c}ianalia
ted the Bacchanalia, or feaft of the Bacchanals
From Tufcany they were imported to Rome ; but the
promoters of thefe midnight orgies having proceeded tofian myfu"
the fartheft extremity of diflipation and difloyaity, they iks.
were abolilhed throughout all Italy, by a decree of the
fenate (s). It has been foolilhly fuppofed, that the
Bacchanalia were fimilar to the Dionyfian myfteries,
merely becaufe they were both dedicated to Bacchus.
The Liberalia of Rome was the feftival correfpondingThe Libe.
to the Dionyfia of Greece (t) ; and it is probable thatralia were
this feaft was obferved throughout the Roman empire,fimiiar t0
till the abrogation of the Pagan theology in the reign
of Theodofius. The opinion which an impartial in-ries.
quirer would form, concerning the nature and tenden¬
cy of the myfteries of Bacchus, would not be very fa¬
vourable to the charafter of the inftitution. But it
ftiould be remembered that deviations from the inten¬
tions and form of any afibciation, are no objedHon to
the affociation itfelf. They are rather proofs of its ori¬
ginal purity and excellence ; as it is not from the paths
of vice, but from thofe of virtue, that we are accuftom-
ed to ftray.
24. Hitherto we have confidered the Dionyfian myf¬
teries under an unpropitious afpedt ; let us now trace
them in their progrefs from Europe to Afia, where
they retained their primitive luftre, and effedlually
contributed to the rapid advancement of the fine
arts.
25. About 1000 years B. C. (u), the inhabitants oflnccnfe-
Attica, complaining of the narrownefs of their terri-cluence.01
tory, and the unfruitfulnefs of its foil, went in queft ofth.e Iomc
more extenfive and fertile fettlements. Being joined [h'^Diony-
by a number of the inhabitants of furrounding pro-fian myfte-
vinces, they failed to Afia Minor, drove out the inha-ries were
bitants, feized upon the moft eligible fituations, and uni-efta,)!.lllie^
ted them under the name of Ionia, becaufe the greateftm ia*
number of the refugees were natives of that Grecian
province (x). As the Greeks, prior to the Ionic mi¬
gration.
[ 6U 1
(l) EhMn yct(> <ln MiXetf^TTn?, sfti 0 Yivne-ccpivos tx Aitvwis to ts vvoftoi x.ou rijy (Ww. Herodot. lib. ii. cap. 49.
(m) Anacharfis, tom. iii. p. 531. Plut. in Phoc. tom. i. p. 754. Meurf. in Eleuf. cap. 27.
(n) Potter, vol. i. p. 393.
(o) De Ifide et Ofiride. Idee du Gouvernment Ancien et Modern de PEgypte, p. 26. Paris 1743.
(p) Ak>wfmkoi Tiyrnrou. Aulus Gellius, lib. XX. c. 4.
(Q_) Vick Potter, vol. i. p. 41.
(r) Tit. Liv. lib. xxxix. cap. 8.
(s) Graecus ignobilis in Etruriam venit, nulla cum arte earum quas multas ad anlmorum corporumque cultum
nobis eruditijjima omnium gens invexit, fed facrificulus et vatis.
(t) Liberalia (fays Feftus) liberi Fefta, quae apud Graecos dicuntur Dionyfia. Vid. Univerfal Hiftory, vol. xiii.
p. 262.
(u) Playfair places the Ionic migration in 1044 B. C. Gillies in 1055 ? an(^ Barthelemy, the author of A-
nacharfis’s Travels, in 1076.
(x) Herodotus, lib. i. cap. 142, Gillies’s Hift. of Greece, 8vo. vol, i. p. 102.
Mafonry,
iiftory of
^ he Diony-
ian artiT
icers.
fheir re-
smblance
o free
aafonSt
M A S [ 64
gratlon, had made confiderable progrefs in the arts and
* fciences (y), they carried thefe along with them into
their new territories ; and introduced into Ionia the
myfteries of Minerva and Dionyfius (z), before they
were corrupted by the licentioui'nefs of the Athenians.
In a ihort time the Afiatic colonies furpaffed the mo,
ther-country in profperity and fcience. Sculpture in
marble, and the Doric and Ionian orders, were the re-
fult of their ingenuity (a). They returned even into
Greece 5 they communicated to their anceftors the in¬
ventions of their own country ; and inftrufted them in
that ftyle of architedlure which has been the admira¬
tion of fucceeding ages. For ihefe improvements the
world is indebted to the Dionysian artificers, an aflbci-
ation of fcientific men, who poflfeffed the exclufive pri¬
vilege of ere&ing temples, theatres, and other public
buildings in Afia Minor (b). They fupplied Ionia,
and the furrounding countries, as far as the Hellefpont,
with theatrical apparatus by contradl: ; and eredted the
magnificent temple at Teos, to Bacchus, the founder
of their order (c). Thefe artifts were very numerous
in Afia, and exifted, under the fame appellation, in
Syria, Perfia, and India (d). About 300 years before
the birth of Chrift a confiderable number of them
were incorporated, by command of the kings of Per-
gamus, who affigned to them Teos as a fettlement,
being the city of their tutelary god (e). The mem¬
bers of this aflbciation, which was intimately connedl-
ed with the Dionyfian myfteries, were dittinguifhed
from the uninitiated inhabitants of Teos, by the fcience
which they poflefled, and by appropriate words and
figns, by which they could recognize their brethren of
the order (f). Like free mafons they were divided
into lodges, which were diftinguifhed by different
names (g). They occafionally held convivial meetings
in houfes erefted and confecrated for this purpofe; and
each feparate affociation was under the direftion of a
5 ] MAS
mafter, and prefidents or wardens (h). They held a
general meeting once a-year, which was folemnized
with great pomp and feftivity ; and at which the breth¬
ren partook of a fplendid entertainment, provided by
the mafter, after they had finifhed the facrinces to their
gods, and efpecially to their patron Bacchus (1).
J. hey ufed particular utenfils in their ceremonial obfer-
vances ; lome of which were exaftly fimilar to thofe
that are employed by the fraternity of free mafons (k).
And the more opulent artifts were bound to provide
for the exigencies of their poorer brethren (l). The
very monuments which were reared by thefe mafons, to
the memory of their mafters and wardens, remain to
the prefent day in the Turkifh burying grounds, at
Siverhiflar and Eraki (m). The infcriptions upon them
exprefs, in ftrong terms, the gratitude of the fraternity,
for their difinterefted exertions in behalf of the order ;
for their generofity and benevolence to its individual
members 5 for their private virtues, as well as for their
public condudl. From fome circumftances which are
ftated in thefe infcriptions, but particularly from the
name of one of the lodges, it is highly probable, that
Attalus, king of Pergamus, was a member of the Dio¬
nyfian fraternity.
26. Such is the nature of that affociation of archi-
tedfs, who erefted thofe fplendid edifices in Ionia,
whofe ruins even afford us inftruflion, while they ex¬
cite our furprife. If it be poflible to prove the identity
of any two focieties, from the coincidence of their ex¬
ternal forms, we are authorifed to conclude, that the
fraternity of the Ionian architedls, and the fraternity of
free malons, are exa&ly the fame 5 and as the former
pradlifed the myfteries of Bacchus and Ceres, fevera?
of which we have Ihown to be fimilar to the myfteries
of mafonry ; we may fafely affirm, that, in their inter¬
nal, as well as external procedure, the fociety of free
mafons refembles the Dionyfiacs of Afia Minor (n).
27. The
Mafonry.
y——
(Y) Accoiding to the author of Anacharfis’s* Travels, the arts took their rife in Greece about I547> B. C.
(z) Chandlers l ravels in Afia Minor, p. 100, 410. 1775* The Panathenea and the Dionyfian myfteries
were inftituted about 300 years before the Ionic migration.
(a) Gillies’s Hift. Ant. Greece, vol. ii. p. 162.
(b) Strabo, lib. iv. Chifhull Antiquitates Afiaticae, p. 107. Robifon’s Proofs of a Confpiracy, p. 20.
(c) Ionian Antiquities, publiffied by the Society of Dilettanti, p. 4. Strabo, lib. iv. Chiffiull Antiq. Afiat.
P- x39-
(D) Kxi r» Aicvvc-M tw Anzv oXw Kniti^Ma-eoiris r»f Strabo, p. 471. Ionian Antiquities, p. 4.
(e) Chandler’s i ravels, p. 100. Chilhull Antiq. Afiat. p. 138. Ionian Antiquities, p. 4.
(f) Robifon’s Proofs of a Confpiracy, p. 20.
(g) One of thele lodges was denominated K«<vov r«v AttxXitmv, i. e. Commune Attaliftarum j and another
Kaoav ms i. e. Commune Sodalitii Echini. Chiffiul, p. 139.
(h) See the two decrees of thefe artifts preferved by Chiffiul, p. 138—149. The place where they affembled
is called rvvoixtx, contubernium ; and the fociety itfelf, fometimes <rv»«ya;y»), collegium ; *;§ecr<s, fedla ; aWej, fy-
nodus; xoivos, communitas. See Aulus Gellius, lib. viii. cap. xi.
(1) Chandler’s Travels, p. 103. ,
^ (k) See the decree of the Attalifts in Chiffiull, particularly the paffages at the bottom of p. 141, 142 ; uvctXtTrw
eis >cxi tx wgas (v<r%Yip&<ru> iv ru Tipim ikxvx, i. e. in delubro etiam, ultra ea quae ornamento erant, non
pauca utenfilia reliquit.
(l) Chiftiull, p. 140.
(m) Chandler’s Travels, p. 100. Thefe monuments were eredled about 150 years B. C. The infcriptions
upon thern were publiffied by Edmund Chilhull, in 1728, from copies taken by Conful Sherard in 1709, and
examined in 1716. Ionian Antiquities, p. 3.
O) Robifon, who will not be fufpedted of partiality to free mafons, aferibes their origin to the Dionyfian
artifts.
I
MAS [ 646 ] MAS
Mifonry. 2"]. The opinion, therefore, of free mafons, that
their order exilled, and flouriihed at the building of
enre of free Solomon’s temple, is by no means fo pregnant with ab-
malonry at furdity as fome men would wifli us to believe. We
the build- have already fhown, from authentic fources of informa-
in^ of So o- t;ori} that the myfteries of Ceres and Bacchus, were in-
p'e not im- about 400 years before the reij>n of Solo-
p.ooabie. mon (°) ? arifl there are lining reafons for believing,
that even the affociation of the Dionyfian architedls ex-
ifled before the building of the temple. It was not, in¬
deed, till about 300 years before the birth of Chrifl,
that they were incorporated at Tens, under the
kings of Pergamus ; but it is univerfally allowed, that
they arofe long before their fettlement in Ionia, and,
what is more to our prelent purpofe, that they exiflrd
in the very land of Judea (p). It is obferved by Dr
Robifon (Q_), that this afiociation came from P rfia in¬
to Syria, along with that iiyle of architecture which is
call d Grecian : And fini e we are informed by Jofe-
phus (r), that that Ipecies of archrtefture was ufed at
tiie ereifdion of the temple ; there is reafon to infer, not
only that the Dionyfiac^ exitted before the reign of So¬
lomon, but that they afli ed this monarch in building
that magnificent fabric, which he reared to the God of
Ifrael. Nothing, indeed, can be mbre Ample and con¬
fident than the creed of the fraternity, concerning the
ftafe of their order at this period. The vicinity of Je-
rufalem to Egypt ; the connection of Solomon with
the royal family of that kingdom (s) ; the progrefs of
the Egyptians in architectural fcience ; their attach¬
ment to mytteries and hieroglyphic (ymbols1, and the
probability of their being employed by the king of If-
rael, are additional confiderations, which corroborate
the fentrments of free mafons, and abfolve them from
tliofe charges of credulity and pride with which they
have been loaded.
Objection 28. To thefe opinions, it may be objeCted, that if
aniweied. t^e fraternity of free mafons flouriftied during the reign
of Solomon, it would have exifted in Judea in after
ages, and attracted the notice of lacred or profane hif-
torians. Whether or not this objeCtion is well founded,
we (hall not pretend to determine ; but if it can be
fhown, that there did exift, after the building of the
temple an aflociation of men, refembling free mafons,
in the nature, ceremonies, and objeCt of their inftitu- Mafonry
tion ; the force of the objeCtion will not only be taken '"■“"■v*—^
away, but additional flrength will be communicated to
the opinion which we have been fupporting. 1 he af¬
fociation here alluded to, is that of the Eflenes, whofe
origin and fentiments have occafioncd much difeuflion
among ecc.efiaftical hiftorians. They are all ot one
mind, however, refpeCting the conftitution and obfer-
vances of this religious order.
29. When a candidate was propofed for admiflion, Hiftory of
the ItriCteft ferutiny w as made into his character (t). t^e Efftnes,
If bus life had hitherto been exemplary ; and if he ar>-
peared capable of regulating Ins eonduCt according to
the virtuous though aultere maxims of their order, he
was prefented at the expiration of his noviciate, with a
white garment, as an emblem ©f the correCtnefs of his
conduCt and the purity of his heart (u). A iolcmn
oath was then adminiitered to him, that he would ne¬
ver, even at the rifk of his life, divulge the my It cries
of the order j that he would make no innovations on
the doCtrines of the fociety •, ai d that he would conti¬
nue in that honourable courle of piety and virtue which
he had begun to puriue (x). Like free mafons, they
inftruCted the young member in the knowledge which
they derived from their anceftors (y). They admitted
no women into thu ir order (z). 'i hey had particular
figns for recognizing each other, which have a ftrong
refemblance to thole of free mafons (a). They were
divided into feparate lodges or colleges (b). They had
difterent places of meeting, where they praCtifed their
rites, and fettled the affairs of the fociety ; and, after
the performance of thefe duties, they aflembled in a
large hall, where an entertainment was provided for
them by the prefident, or mailer of the college, who
allotted a certain quantity of provifions to every indivi¬
dual (c). They aboliflied all diAinCfions of rank ^ and,
if preference was ever given, it was given to piety, li¬
berality, and virtue (d). Stewards were appointed in
every town, to fupply the wants of indigent flran-
gers (e). The Effenes pretended to higher degrees of
piety and knowledge, than the uninitiated vulgar •, and
though their pretenftons were high, they were never
quettioned by th( ir enemies. Auflerity of manners was
one of the chief charaCteriftics of the Effenian fraU mi-
ties :
(o) According to Pla% fair’s Chronology, the temple of Solomon w'as begun in 1016, and finiflied in iooB.,
B. C. The Eleufinian myiieries were introduced into Athens in 1 3 56 B. C. a confiderable time after their in-
flitution.
(p) Robifon’s Proofs of a Confpiracy, p. 20.
(Q.) Proofs of a Confpiracy, p. 20, 21.
(r) Jewifli Antiquities, book viii. chap. v..
(s) Jofephus’s Jewifh Antiquities, bonk viii. chap. ii.
(t) Jofeph. de Bello Judaico, lib. ii. cap. 1. (u) Id. id. (x) I'd. id.
(y) Philo de Vi a C ntemplativa, apud opera, p. 691. Bafnage, b. ii. ch. 13. § 8.
(z) Bafnage, b. ii. ch 12. § 26. Id. id. § 22.
(a) In order to be convinced of this, our brethren of the order may confult fome of the works already quoted $
particularly, Philo’s i reai.le de Vita Contemplativa, apud opera, p. 691.
(B) Batnage, b. iii. c. 12. § 14. vid. opera Philonis, p. 679. When Philo, in his Treatife enti led “ Quod
omnis probus Liber,” is delsribing the fociety of the Effenes, he employs the fame terms to denote the affocia-
tion itfelf, and their places of meeting, which are ufed in the decree of the Dionyfians already mentioned. Vide
Philo de Vita Contemplativa, p, 691.
(c) Joteph. de Bello Judaico, lib. ii.. cap. 1. (d) Id. id. § 20, 22. Philonis Opera, p. 678.
(e) Baihage, b. iii. c. 12. § 20. chap. 13. § 1.
mas ' f 647 ] MAS
Mafonry. tics; They frequently aflembled, however, in convivial of the Knights of the Temple of lerufalem, who bound Mrfmy.
partiesj and relaxed for a while the feverity of thofe themfelves to adorn the porches of that magnificent —^
duties which they were accuflomed to perform (f). This ftructure, and to preferve it from injury and decay (l).
remarkable coincidence between the chief features of This affociation was compofed of the greatett men of
the mafonie and Eifenian fraternities, can be accounted Ifrael, who were diftinguilhed for their charitable and
for, only by referring them to the fame origin. Were peaceful difpofitions (m) j and always fignalized them-
the circumdances of relemblance either few or fanci- felves by their ardent zeal for the purity and pr-eferva-
ful, the fimilarity might have been merely cafual.- But tion of the temple (n). From the fe fads it appears
when the nature, the objeft, and the external-forms of that the ElTenes were not only an ancient fraternitv,
two inftitutions, are precilely the lame, the arguments but that they originated from an affociation of archi-
for them identity are fomething more than prefumptive, te&s, wha were conne&ed with the building of Solo-
ihere is one point, how'evrer, which may, at firff fight, mon’s temple. Nor w'as this order confined to the Holy
feem to militate again!! this fuppofition. The Effenes Land. Like the fraterniti es of the Dionyfiacs and free
appear to have been in no refipeds ponnefted with ar- mafons, it exifted in all parts of the world (o); and
c iteflure, nor addiffed to thofe fciences and purfuits though the lodges in Judea were chiefly, it not wholly,
winch are fublidiary to the art of building. That the compofed of Jews, yet the Effenes admitted into their
Lffenes duefted their attention to particular fciences, order men of every religion, and every rank in
which they pretended to have received from their fa- life (p). They adopted many of the Egyptian myfte-
t ers, is allowed by all writers j but, whether or not thefe ries (q_) ; and, like the priefts of that country, the ma-
ioences were in any flrape conneded with architeaure, gi of Perfia, and the gymnofophifts in India, they unit-
ve are, at this diftance ot time, unable to determine. ed the ftudy of moral with that of natural philofo-
Be this as it may» uncertainty upon this head, nay, phy (r). Although they were patronized By Herod,
even an affurance that the Effenes were unconneaed and refpeaed by all men for the correitnefs of their
with architectural fcience, will not affeCt the hypothefis conduct, and the innocence of their order (s), they
which «e have been maintaining. For therehave been, fuffered fevere perfecutions from the Romans, till their
and ftill. are, many affociations of free mafons, where order was abolilhed, about the middle of the fifth cen-
no architeas are members, and which have no connec- tury (t) ; a period extremely fatal to the venerable in-
tion with the art of building. But if this is notdeemed ftitutions of Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
a fufficient anfwer to the objeaion, an inquiry into the 31. Conneaed with the Effenian and Mafoniefraterni-inft;tutjon
origin of the Effenes will probably remove it altogether, tiV, wa-the inftitution of Pythagoras at Crotona. After or , ythago-
while it affords additional evidence, for the identity of this phil-ofopher, in the courfe of his travels throughras at Cro*
the mafonic and Effenian affociations. Egypt, Syria, and Ionia, had been initiated into thelona*
icEifenes 30. Sacred and profane hiltorians have entertained mylleries of thele eidightened kingdoms, he imported
» i ST Jfferent °PInions concerning the origin of the Effenes. into Europe the feiences of Alia, and offered to the in-
,sf afideans, J a11 a8ree.* however, in reprefenting them as an habitants This native foil, the important benefits which
[ 10 were aocient affociation, originating from particular fra'erni- he himfelf had received (u). The offers of the fage
1 und to ties, which formerly exifted in the land of Judea (g). having been rejeaed by his countrymen of Samos (x)
- tem ! Pimy refers thera to/hch a remote antiquity (h) that he fettled at Crotona, in Italy, where more refpeft was
l!| lerufa-6 mu‘rr ^aVe ex.'^ec^ during the reign ()f Solo- paid to his perfon, and more attention to his pre-
n. j.11 ,n > and even Bafnage, who is the only writer that cepts (y). When the kindnefs of the Crotonians, and
feems difpofed to confider them as a recent affociation, their folicitude to obtain fcientific information, had in-
con-effes that they exifted under Amigonus, about 300 fpired Pythagoras with fonre hopes of fuccefs, he felea-
year-, before the Chnllian era (1). Scalier contends, ed a number of his dilciples, who from the fimilarity
with much appearance of truth, that the Effenes were of their charafters, the mildm fs of their difpofitions,
descended from the Kaiideans, who make fuch a con- and the fteadinefs of their conduct, feemed belt adapted*
fptcuous figure in the hiftory of the Maccabees (k). for forwaiding the purpofes he had in view (z). Thefe
The Kafideans were a religious fraternity, or an order he formed into a fraternity, or feparate order of men,
w hum
(l*) Hicam aliquid de fodalitiis eorum, quoties hilarius convivia celebrant. Philonis opera, p. 692. ,
(g) Gale’s Court of the Gentiles, part ii. book ii. chap. 6. p. 147. Serrarii Trihoeraef. lib. iii. cap. ii. Vid.
etiam Bafnage, b. ii. cb. 12. § 4. j and Piflet. Th^olog. Chret. tom. iii. part. iii. p. ic6.
(h) Plin. lib. v. cap. 17. Vid. etiam S.ilirmm, c. 3 j. p. 43. edit. Salmafii ; and art. Essenes.
(1) Bafnage, book ii. chap. ii. § 8. Piftet. Theolog. Chret. tom. iii. part Hi. p. 107.
(k) Scaliger de Emend. Temp.
(l) Sealiger Elench. Trihaeraelii Nicolai Serrarii, cap. 22. p. 441.
{m) r Maccabeas, vii, 13. Scaliger ut fupra.
(o) Bafnage, b. ii. chap. 13. § 4.
(p) Id. Id. chap. 12. J 20. compared with chap. 13. § 4. (qJ Id. Id. chap. 12. § 24.
(a) Philo’s I reatife, entitled, “ Quod omnis probus Liber,” apud Opera, p. 678.
(s) Id. Id. chap. 12 § 13, 25. (x) Bafnage, b. ii. chap. 12. § 25, 26.
(u) Pythagoras returned from Egypt about 560 year* before Chrift.
(x) Jfimblichus de vita Pythagoree, part i. cap. 5. p. 37. (y) Id. Id. cap. 6. P. 42, 4
(z) Gillies’s Hiitory of Ancient Greece, vol. ii. p, 27.
MAS [ 648 ]
Mafonry. whom he inftru&ed in the faiences of the eaft (a), and were aflembled
MAS
Refem-
blance be¬
tween the
Pythago¬
reans and
to whom he imparted the mytteries and rites of the E-
gyptian, Syrian, and Ionian affociations. Before any
one was received into the number of his difciples, a mi¬
nute and diligent enquiry was made into his temper
and character (b). If the iffue of this enquiry was fa¬
vourable to the candidate, he bound himfelf, by a folemn
engagement, to conceal, from the uninitiated, the myf-
teries which he might receive, and the fciences in which
free malbns. he might be inftrufted (c). The doftrines of charity,
of univerfal benevolence, and efpecially of affeftion to
the brethren of the order, were warmly recommended
to the young difciples (d) ; and fuch was the intluence
which they had upon their minds, that difcord feemed
to have been banithed from Italy (e) and the golden
age to have again returned. Strangers of every coun¬
try, of every religion, and of every rank in life, were
received, if properly qualified, into the Pythagorean
affoeiation (f). Like free mafons they had particular
words and figns, by which they might diftinguifh each
ether, and correfpond at a diflance (g). They wore
white garments, as an emblem of their innocence (h).
They had a particular regard for the eaft (1). They
advanced from one degree of knowledge to another (k ).
They were forbidden to commit to writing their myfte-
ries, which were preferved folely by tradition (l) : The
Pythagorean fymbols and fecrets were borrowed from
the Egyptians, the Orphic and Eleufinian rites, the
Magi, the Iberians, and the Celts (m). They confifted
chiefly of arts and fciences, united with theology and
ethics, and u^ere communicated to the initiated in cy¬
phers and fymbols (n). An alfociation of this nature,
founded upon fuch principles, and fitted for fuch ends,
did not remain long in obfcurity. In a fhort time it
extended over the kingdoms of Italy and Sicily, and
was diffufed even through ancient Greece, and the
iflands of the Egean fea (o). Like other fecret focieties,
it was vilified by malicious men, who were prohibited
from fharing its advantages, from the weaknefs of their
minds and the depravity of their hearts (p). Chagrined
with difappointment, and enflamed with rage, they of¬
ten executed vengeance upon the innocent Pythago¬
reans, and even fet fire to the lodges in which they
But the difciples of the fage per-
ftftcd in that honourable caufe in which they had em¬
barked ; and, though the perfecution of their enemies
drove them from their native land, they ftill retained
for each other the fympathy of brothers, and often fuf-
fered death in its moft agonizing form, rather than vio¬
late the engagements into which they had entered (r).
An attempt, like this, againft the fociety of free malons,
has been witnefl’ed in our own day. It has not, indeed,
proceeded to fuch an extremity of violence. The fpirit
of extirpation, however, exifted in fentiment, though it
had not the courage to difplay itielf in aftion. Lifaf-
feftion to government, and difrefpedl to religion, were
charged upon them with all the confidence of truth :
And, had the governments of Europe been weak enough
to credit the fancies of a few political enthufiafts, their
fubjefts might, at this moment, have been armed a-
gainft each other, and the nations of the world em¬
broiled in difcord.
32. From thefe obfervations, it is manifeft, that the
Pythagorean and Mafonic inftitutions were fimilar in
their external forms, as well as in the objedfts which
they had in view' j and that both of them experienced,
from contemporaries, the fame unmerited reproach.
Mr Clinch, in his Effays on Free Mafonry (s), has e-
numerated, at great length, all the points of refemblance
between thefe two inftitutions. He attempts to prove,
that free mafonry took its rile from the Pythagorean
fraternity ; but though he has been fuccefsful in point¬
ing out a remarkable coincidence between thefe affocia-'
tions, he has no authority for concluding that the for¬
mer originated from the latter. In a mafonic manu-
feript, pieferved in the Bodleian library, in the hand¬
writing of King Henry VI. it is exprefsly faid, that
Pythagoras learned mafonry from Egypt and Syria, and
from thofe countries where it had been planted by the
Phenicians ; that the Pythagoreans carried it into
France ; and that it was, in the courfe of time, im¬
ported from that country into England (x). This, in¬
deed, is no direft proof of our opinion j it fhows us, at
leaft, that the fame fentiments have been entertain¬
ed about four hundred years ago by the fraternity
in England. It has been fuppofed^ by fome philofo-
phers
(a) Aulus Gellius lib. i. cap. 9. Gillies, vol. ii. p. 27.
(b) Jamblichus de vita Pythagorse, cap. 17. p. 76. Gillies, vol. iii. p. 27.
(c) Jamblichus, cap. 23. p. 104.
(d) Id. cap. 8. p. 53. cap. 33. p. 193. cap. 6. p. 43. cap. 23. p. 102. Bafnage’s Hiftory of the Jews, b. ii.
cap. 13. § 21. Anthologia Hibernica for March 1794, p. 181.
(e) Jamblichus, cap. 7. p. 46.
(f) Gillies, vol. ii. p. 28. Jamblichus, cap. 33. p. 202.
(g) Gillies, vol. ii. p. 27. Anthologia Hibernica for March 1794, p. 181.
(h) Bafnage, b. ii. chap. 13. § 21. Anthologia Hibernica for March 1794, p. 183.
(1) Bafnage, b. ii. chap. 13. § 21. (k) Jamblichus, cap. 17. p. 72.
(l) Jamblichus, part i. cap. 32. p. 191.
(m) Warburton’s Divine Legation of Mofes, book iii. fe£L 3. vol. 2. p. 132, 133. Jamblichus, cap. 8. p. 139,
Gillies, vol. ii. p. 27.
(n) Jamblichus, cap. 8. p. 139. Gillies ut fupra.
(o) Gillies, vol. ii. p. 28. Jamblichus, cap. 35. p, 207. (p) Id. Id. p. 200.
(q^) Jamblichus, p. 208. et feq. (r) Id. Id. chap- 32. p. 189.
(s) Publilhed in the Anthologia Hibernica for 1794.
(x) Lives of Leland, Hearne, and Wood, Oxford, 1772. Appendix to the life of Leland, N° vii. A copy
of this manufeript may be feen in every work on free mafonry.
Mafonry.
)bjeftion
nlwered.
thofe.
M AS f 649 ]
Mat'onry. pliers (u), that Pythagoras derived his myfteries chiefly fome of lefs
" » from the Eflenes, who were at that time much refpefted
and very numerous in Egypt and Syria. The wonderful
fimilarity, indeed, between thefe focieties, both in the
forms which they had in common with free mafonry,
and in thofe lefler cuftoms and ceremonies, which were
peculiar to themfelves, render fuch a fuppofition ex¬
tremely probable. It is remarked by all ecclefiaftical
hiftorians, that the Eflenes were Pythagoreans, both in
difcipline and doftrine (x) ; without ever confidering
that the former exifted fome hundred years before the
birth of Pythagoras (y). The Pythagoreans, there¬
fore, were connedded with the Eflenes, and the Eflenes
with the Kafideans, who engaged topreferve and adorn
the temple of Jerufalem.
33. There is one objection to the view which we
have taken of this fubjeddj which, though it has al¬
ready been {lightly noticed, it may be neceflary more
completely to remove. Although it will be acknow¬
ledged by every unbiafled reader, that free mafonry has
a wonderful refemblance to the Eleufinian and Diony-
fian myfteries, the fraternity of Ionian architedfls, and
the Eflenian and Pythagorean aflbciations ; yet fome
may be difpofed toqueftion the identity of thefe inftitu-
tions, becaufe they had different names, and becpufe
fome ufages were obferved by one, which were neglect¬
ed by another. But thefe circumilances of diffimilarity
arife from thofe neceflary changes, which are fuperin-
duced upon every inftitution, by a fpiiit of innovation,
by the caprice of individuals, and by the various revo¬
lutions in civilized fociety. Every alteration or im¬
provement in philofophical fyftems, or ceremonial infli-
tutions, generally produces a correfponding variation in
their name, deduced from the nature of the improve¬
ment, or from the name of the innovator. The differ¬
ent aifociations, for example, whofe nature and tenden¬
cy we have been confldering, received their names from
circumftances merely cafual, and often of trifling confi-
deration ; though all of them were eltablifhed for the
fame purpofe, and derived from the fame fource. When
the myfteries of the Eflenes were imported by Pytha¬
goras into Italy, without undergoing much variation,
they were there denominated the myfteries of Pythago¬
ras ; and in our own day, they are called the fecrets
ef free mafonry, becaufe many of their fymbols are de¬
rived from the art of building, and becaufe they are
. believed to have been invented by an aflociation of ar¬
chitects, who were anxious to preferve, among them¬
felves, the knowledge which they had acquired (z).
The difference in the ceremonial obfervances of thefe
inftitutions may be accounted for nearly upon the fame
principles. From the ignorance, or fuperior fagacity of
thofe who prefided over the ancient fraternities, fome
ceremonies would be infifted upon more than others,
Vol. XII. Part II.
Mafonry.
M A S
moment would be exalted into confe
quence, while others of greater importance would be
deprefled into obfcurity. In procefs of time, therefore,
fome trifling changes would be effected upon thefe ce¬
remonies, fome rites abolifhed, and fome introduced.
The chief difference, however, between the ancient
and modern myfteries, is, in thefe points which concern
religion. But this arifes from the great changes which
have been produced in religious knowledge. It cannot
be fuppofed that the rites of the Egyptian, Jewifti, and
Grecian religions, fhould be obferved by thofe who pro-
fefs only the religion of Chrift ; or that we fliould pour
out libations to Ceres and Bacchus, who acknowledge
no heavenly fuperior, but the true and the living God.
34. It may be proper here to take notice of an ob- Objection
jeftion urged by M. Barruel, againft the opinion ofot rr
who believe that the myfteries of free mafonry an were
IT
are fimilar to the myfteries of Egypt and Greece (a).
From the unfairnefs with which this writer has ftated
the fentiments of his opponents on this fubjeft j from
the confidence and triumph with which he has propofed
his own ; and, above all, from the difingenuity with
which he has fupported them, many inattentive readers
may have been led to adopt his notions, and to form as
defpicable an idea of the underftandings, as he would
wifli them to form of the eharafler of mafons. He
takes it for granted, that all who embrace the opinion
which we have endeavoured to fupport, muft neceffarily
believe, that a unity of religious fentiments, and moral
precepts, was maintained in all the ancient myfteries j
and that the initiated entertained juft notions of the
unity of God, while the vulgar were addidled to the
groffeft polytheifm. Upon this gratuitous fuppofition,
which we completely difavow, becaufe it has no connec¬
tion with our hypothefis, does Barruel found all his de¬
clamations againft the connedtion of our order with
the Pythagorean and Eleufinian inftitutions. If this
fuppofition, indeed, were true, his opinion would be ca¬
pable of proof. But he is all the while combating the
dogmas of Warburton, while he thinks he is overturn¬
ing the antiquity of our order. There is perhaps in no
language fuch a piece of downright fophiftry as this por¬
tion of Barruel’s work. He feems to fcruple at no me¬
thod, however bafe or difhonourable, that can bring dif-
credit upon free mafonry, and every thing connedled
with it. After having overturned the opinion of War-
burton, he then attacks us on our ground, and ftiles us
the children of fophiftry, deifm, and pantheifm, who de¬
duce our origin from aflociations of men that were ene¬
mies to Chriftianity (b), and followed no guide but the
light of nature. But this writer fhould recoiled!, that
the fon is not accountable for the degeneracy of hi» pa¬
rents ; and, if the ancient myfteries were the nurferies
of fuch dangerous opinions, as this writer, in opoofi.
4 N tion
(u) Faydit Lettre, Nouvelles de la Repubhque des Lettres, Odtobre 1703, p. 472.
(x) Gregory’s Church Hiilory, vol. i. cent. 1.
(y) Pliny, book 5. cap. 17. Solinus, cap. 3.9. p. 43.
(Z) Symbols derived from the art of building, were alfo employed by the Pythagoreans, for conveying
inftrudlion to thofe who were initiated into their fraternity. Vid. Proclus in Eucl. lib. xi. def. 2. &c. 6
(a) Memoirs of Jacobinifm, vol. ii. p. 33^—360.
. (B) Barruel, vol. ii p. 357. I do not find in any fyftem of chronology, that Chriftianity exifted in the
time of Pythagoras, or at the eftabliftiment of the Eleufmian myfteries !
MAS
[ 650 ]
MAS
Ma'bnry.
Modern hif-
tory of free
mafonry.
Tire acade¬
my of fe-
crets elta-
bliflied by
Eaptitta
Porta.
tinn to authentic hiftory, lays to their charge, it is to
the glory of their pofterity, that they have fliaken off
the yoke, and embraced that heavenly light which their
anceilors affefted to delpiie.
35. Having finifhed what may properly be denomi¬
nated the ancient hi dory of free mafonry, we are now
to trace its progrefs from the abolition of the heathen
rites, in the reign of Theodofius, to the prefent day ;
and, though the friends and enemies of the order feem
to coincide in opinion upon this part of its hiftory, the
materials are as fcanty as before, and the incidents
equally unconnefted. In thofe ages of ignorance and
diforder which fucceeded the dedrudlion of the Roman
empire, the minds of men were too much debafed by
fa perdition, and contrafled by bigotry, to enter into
affociations for promoting mental improvement and
mutual benevolence. The fpirit which then raged,
was not a fpirit of enquiry. The motives which then
influenced the condudd of men, were not thofe bene¬
volent and correft principles of a<dion which once di-
ftinguiflied their anceftors, and which ftill diftinguifli
their poflerity. Sequedered habits and unfocial dif-
pofitions charaderized the inhabitants of Europe, in this
feafon of mental degeneracy; while free mafons, aduat-
ed by very different principles, inculcate on their
brethren the duties of focial intercourfe, and commu¬
nicate to all within the pale of their order, the know¬
ledge which they poflefs and the happinefs which
they feel. But, if fciencehad exided in thefe ages, and
if a defire of focial intercourfe had animated the minds
of men, the latter mud have languilhed for want of
gratification, as long as the former was imprifoned
within the walls of a convent, by the tyranny of fu-
perdition, or the jealoufy of power. Science was in
thefe days fynonymous with herefy ; and had any bold
and enlightened man ventured upon philofopbical in-
vedigations, and publilhed his difeoveries to the world,
he would have been regarded by the vulgar as a magi¬
cian, and punilhed as a heretic by the church of
Rome. Thefe remarks may be exemplified and con¬
firmed by an appropriate inftance of the interfering
fpirit of the Romilh church, even in the fixteenth cen¬
tury, when learning had made confiderable advance¬
ment in Europe. The celebrated Baptida Porta ha¬
ving, like the fage of Samos, travelled into diftant
countries for fcientific information, returned to his na¬
tive home, and edablifhed a fociety which he deno¬
minated the academy of fecrets. He communicated
the information which he had colle£l:ed to the members
of this affociation, who, in their turn, imparted to
their companions the knowledge which they had indi¬
vidually obtained. But this little fraternity, advancing
in refpeclability and fcience, foon trembled under the
rod of ecclefiadical oppreffion ; and experienced in its
diffblution, that the Romilh hierarchy was determined
to check the ardour of invedigation, and retain the
human mind in its former fetters of ignorance and fu-
perdition. How then could free mafonry flourilh, when
the minds of men had fuch an unfortunate propenfity
to monkilh retirement, and when every fcientific and
fecret affheiation was overawed and perfecuted by the Mafonry.
rulers of Europe ? ' -—v—-~j
36. But, though the political and intelledlua! condi-It ^proba¬
tion of fociety was unfavourable to the pro^refs of freeze that tb«
mafonry ; and, though the fecret affociations of the an-anc'ent
cients were diifolved in the fifth century, by the com- v’eiv ob*
mand of the Roman emperor, yet there are many rea-fervedpri.
fons for believing that the ancient myderies were ob- vauly after
ferved in private, long after thtdr public abolition, bytlicir aho]i.
thofe enemies of ChriAianity who were ftill attached Lotl0n'
the religion of their fathers. Some authors (c) even
inform us, that this was aftually the caie, and that the
Grecian rites exifted in the eighth century, and were
never completely abolifhed, (Art. 20.). Thefe con-
fiderations enable us to conned the heathen myfteries,
with that trading affociation of architeds, which ap¬
peared, during the dark ages, under the fpecial au¬
thority of the fee of Rome.
37. The infatiable defire for external finery, and xradin; af-
gaudy ceremonies, which was difplayed by the catholicfodation of
priefts in the exercife of their religion, introduced aarcilitefls
correfponding defire for fplendid monafteries, and mag-^u'^n* ^
nificent cathedrals. But as the demand for thefe build-1 a" **
ings was urgent, and continually increafing, it was with
great difficulty that artificers could be procured, even
for the eredion of fuch pious works. In order to en¬
courage the profeffion of architedure, the bilhops of
Rome, and the other potentates of Europe, conferred
on the fraternity of free mafons the moll important
privileges ; and allowed them to be governed by laws,
cuftoms, and ceremonies, peculiar to themfelves. The
affociation was compofed of men of all nations, of Ita¬
lian, Greek, French, German, and Flemifh artifts, who
w ere denominated free malons, and who, ranging from
one country to another, ereded thofe elegant churches
and cathedrals, which, though they once gratified the
pride and ftieltered the rites of a corrupted priefthood,
now excite the notice of antiquarians, and adminifter
to the grandeur of kingdoms. The government of this
affociation was remarkably regular. Its members lived
in a camp of huts, reared befide the building in which
they were employed. A furveyor, or mafter, prefided
over and direded the whole. Every tenth man was
called a warden, and overlooked thofe who were under
his charge ; and fuch artificers as were not members of
this fraternity, were prohibited from engaging in thofe
buildings which free mafons alone had a title to
rear (d). It may feem ftrange, and perhaps incon-
fiftent with what we have already faid, that the frater¬
nity of free mafons fhould have been fandioned, and
even proteded by the biihops of Rome. Secret affoci¬
ations, indeed, are always a terror to temporal and
fpiritual tyranny. But the church of Rome, inftead of
approving of the principles of free mafonry, by the en¬
couragement and patronage which they gave to archi-
teds, only employed them as inftruments for gratifying
their vanity, and fatiating their ambition. For in after
ages, when mafons were more numerous, and when the
demand for religious ftrudures was lefs urgent than be¬
fore, the biftiops of Rome deprived the fraternity of
thofe
(c) Gibbon, 8vo. vol. v. p. no.
(d) Wren’s Parentalia, or a Hiftory of the Family of Wren, p. 306, 307. Henry’s Hiftory of Great Britain,
$vo. vol. viii. p. 273. b. iv. chap. 5. § 1. Robifon’s Proofs of a Confpiracy, p. 21.
Mafonry
Introduc¬
tion office
mafonry
into Scot¬
land.
onnedtion
etween
ee mafons
nd the
nights -
'mplars.
MAS [65
thofe very privileges which had been conferred upon
them without folicitation, and perfecuted, with unre¬
lenting rage, the very men whom they had Voluntarily
taken into favour, and who had contributed to the
grandeur of their ecclefiaflical eftablifhment.
38. Wherever the catholic religion was taught, the
meetings of free mafons w'ere fanftioned and patroni¬
zed. I he principles of the order were even imported
into Scotland (e) where they continued, for many ages,
in their primitive fimplicity, long after they had been
extinguifhed in the continental kingdoms. In this
manner, Scotland became the centre from which thefe
principles again iffued, to illuminate, not only the na¬
tions on the continent, but every civilized portion of
habitable world. What thofe caufes were which
continued the locieties of free mafons longer in Bri¬
tain than in other countries, it may not, perhaps, be
eafy to determine j but as the faft itfelf is unqueftion-
able, it mull have arifen, either from fome favourable
circumftances in the political ftate of Britain, which
did not exilt in the other governments of Europe j or
from the fuperior policy, by which the Britilh mafons
eluded the fufpicion of their enemies, and the fuperior
prudence with which they maintained the primitive
fimplicity and refpedlability of their order. The form¬
er of thefe caufes, had, without doubt, a confiderable
(hare, in producing the effeft under confideration ; and
we know for certain, that, in our own days, the latter
has preferved free mafonry in a flourifhing condition
throughout thefe united kingdoms, while, in other
countries, the imprudence and foolilh innovations of its
members, have expofed it to the fevereft and jufteft
cenfure, and, in many cafes, to the moft violent perfe-
cutions. It is a faft, requiring no confirmation, and
refulting from the moft obvious caufes, that free mafon¬
ry never flourifties in feafons of public commotion ; and
even in Great Britain, though the feat of war is com¬
monly in foreign countries, it has univerfally declined.
But in thofe lands which are the theatre of hoftilities,
it will be negledled in a ftill greater degree ; and, if
thefe hoftilities are long continued, or frequently recur,
the very name and principles of the order muft be foon
extinguiftied. Amid thofe continual wars, therefore,
•which, during the middle ages, diftra&ed and defolated
the eontinent of Europe, the affociation of architedls
would be foon diffolved •, while in the humble village
of Kilwinning, on the weftern coaft of Scotland, they
found a fafe retreat from the violent convulfions of con¬
tinental wars.
39. Before we detail the progrefs of free mafonry,
after its importation into Britain, it will be neceffary to
give fome account of the knights templars, a fraternity
of free mafons whofe affluence and virtues often raifed
the envy of contemporaries, and whofe unmerited and
unhappy end muft have often excited the compaffion of
pofterity. It would be needlefs labour to enter into
1 ] MAS
any inveftigation, in order to prove, that the order of Mafonrr.
the knights templars was a branch of free mafonry. —V—-'
I his fadl has been invariably acknowledged by free
mafons themlelves j and none have been more zealous
to eftablifti it than the enemies of their order (f).
The former have admitted the fad, not becaufe it was
creditable to them, but becaufe it was true j and the
latter have fupported it, becaufe by the aid of a little
fophiftry, it might be employed to dilgrace their oppo¬
nents.
40. The order of the knights templars was inftituted ^;^ory °f
during the crufades, in the year :u8, by Hugo dethe kniShts
Paganis, and Geoffrey of St Omers. It received thiste'“plarS‘
appellation be.caufe its members originally refided near
the church in Jerufalem, which was dedicated to our
Saviour. Though the profeffed objed of this religi¬
ous affociation was to proted thofe Chriftian pilgrims,
whofe miftaken piety had led them to the holy city;
yet it is almoft beyond a doubt, that its chief and pri¬
mary intention, was to pradife and preferve the rites
and myfteries of mafonry. We know at leaft, that the
knights templars, not only poffeffed the myfteries, but
performed the ceremonies, and inculcated the duties of
free mafons $ and it is equally certain, that the prac-
tifing of thefe rites could contribute nothing to the pro-
tedion and comfort of the Catholic pilgrims. Had
the templars publicly avowed the real objed of their
inftitution, inftead of that favour which they fo long
enjoyed, they would have experienced the animofity of
the church of Rome. But as they were animated with
a fincere regard for the Catholic religion, and with
a decided abhorrence for the infidel poffeffors of Judea,
it was never once fufpeded that they tranfaded any
other bufinefs at their fecret meetings, but that which
concerned the regulation of their order, the advance¬
ment of religion, and the extirpation of its enemies. ‘
The many prodigies of valour which they exhibited
againft the infidels; the many charitable deeds which
they performed towards the diftreffed pilgrimsj and
the many virtues which adorned their private charader
procured them, from the rulers of Europe, that refped*
and authority to which they were fo juftly entitled, and
which they fo long maintained. But relptd and au¬
thority were not the only rewards which they pur-
chafed by their virtues and military prowefs. From
the munificence of the popes, the generofity of the
pious princes and nobles of Europe, and from the gra¬
titude of thofe opulent pilgrims, who, in the moments
of diftrefs, had experienced their kind afliftance, the
knights templars had acquired fuch immenfe pofftffions
in every kingdom of Europe, but particularly in France,
that their revenues often exceeded thofe of the fecular
princes. Thus independent in their circumftances, and
being fatigued with thofe unfuccefsful ftruggles againft
the infidels, which they had maintained with fuch°man-
ly courage, they returned to their native land to enjoy
4 N2 in
f ^8* II4‘0, Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. xi. Parifli of Kilwinning 5 or Edinburgh Magazine
(F) Vu/. Banners Memoirs of Jacobinifm, vol. ii. p. 379—383. where this is attempted at fome length. As
Barruel, however, was unacquainted with the obfervances of the templars and mafons, he has attributed to both
many abfurd rites which probably never exifted but in his own mind. For the fame reafon he has omitted many
points of relemblance which would have eftabliffled the common opinion upon an immoveable foundation. ■
MAS
[ 65
Mafonry. in peace and quiet, the recompenfe of their toils. But,
liJ^e aJl men -who are fuddenly tranfported from danger
and fatigue, to opulence and eafe, many of the templars
deviated from that virtuous courfe which they had
hitherto puifued, and indulged too freely in thole lux¬
uries and fafliionable amufements to which they were
invited by opulence, and impelled by inactivity. Thus,
from the indifcretions of a few, did the knights templars
lofe a confiderable fhare of thofe honours, and that ce¬
lebrity, which they had long enjoyed. But this relax¬
ation of dilcipline, and attachment to luxurious indo¬
lence, were the only crimes of which the templars were
guilty *, and to men of honour and fpirit like them, the
forfeiture of popularity, which was the confequence of
their apeftafy, would be a fufficient punifhment. This,
however, was not the fentiment of Pnilip the Fair.
That barbarous monarch, inftigated by private revenge
againft fome individuals of the order j encouraged by
the profpeCl of fharing in their ample revenues j and
fpurred on by a fpirit which feldom refides in a human
bread:, imprifoned in one day all the templars in France,
merely at the inftance of two worthlefs members of the
order, who had been difgraced and punilhed by their
fuperiors, for 'the enormity of their crimes. It was
pretended by thefe bafe accufers, that the templars ab¬
jured our Saviour, that they fpit upon his crofs, that
they burned thtir children, and committed other atro¬
cious crimes, from which the human mind recoils with
horror, and which could have been perpetrated only
by men fo completely abandoned as the informers them-
felves. Under the pretence of difcovering what de¬
gree of credit might be attached to thefe accufations,
the templars were extended on the rack till they con-
fefied the crimes with which they were charged. Se¬
veral of the knights, when ftretched on this inftrument
of agony, made every acknowledgement which their
perfecutors defired. But others, retaining on the rack
that fortitude and contempt of death which they had
exhibited in the field, perfifted in denying the crimes
laid to their charge, and maintained with their lateft
breath, the innocence of their order. Many of thofe,
even, who had tamely fubmitted to their perfecutors,
retraced thofe ignominious confeffions which the rack
had extorted •, and maintained their integrity in the
midft of thofe flames which the barbarous Philip had
kindled for their deftruflion. Fifty-nine of thefe un¬
happy men were burnt alive at Paris, by a flow fire ;
and the fame vindictive and inhuman fpirit w as exhibit¬
ed in the other provinces of France, and in the other
nations of Europe. The fortitude which, in every
country, was difplayed by thefe unfortunate fufferers,
could have been infpired by innocence alone j and is a
ftrong proof, that their minds were not fo enervated by
indolence, nor their bodies fo enfeebled by luxury, as
has been generally believed. The only murmurs which
parted from their lips, were thofe which exprefled their
anguilh and remorfe, that they had betrayed, in the
hour of pain, the interefts of their order, and had con-
feiTed themfelves guilty of crimes unworthy of a temp¬
lar and a man.
41. But the atrocious fcene was yet to corfie which was
Death of
the grand
mailer and
other digni¬
taries.
2 ] MAS
to complete the ruin of the templars, and fatiate the ven- Mafonry,
geance of their enemies. Their grand mailer Molay, and  v~—
other dignitaries of the order, ilill furvived : and, though
they, had made the moft fubmiflive acknowledgements to
their unrelenting perfecutors, yet the influence which
they had over the minds of the vulgar, and their connec¬
tion with many of the princes of Europe, rendered them
formidable and dangerous to their opprefl’ors. By the
exertion of that influence, they might reltore union to
their d^imembered party, and infpire them with courage
to revenge the murder of their companions j or, by
adopting a more cautious method, they might repel, by
uncontrovertible proofs, the charges for which they
fuffered 5 and, by intereliing ail men in their behalf,
they might expole Philip to the attacks of his own fub-
je£ts, and to the hatred and contempt of Europe.
Aware of the dangers to which his character and per-
fon would be expofed by pardoning the furviving
templars, the French monarch commanded the grand
mailer and his brethren to be led out to a fcaffold,
erected for the purpole, and there to confefs before the
public, the enormities of which their order had been
guilty, and the jullice of the punilhment which had
been infii&ed on their brethren. If they adhered to
their former confi fiions, a full pardon w'as promifed to
them j but if they fliould perlilt in maintaining their
innocence, they were threatened with deftru£lion on a
pile of wood, which the executioners 'had erefled in
their view, to awe them into compliance. "While the
multitude were Handing around in awful expt flation,
ready, from the words of the prifoners, to jultify or con¬
demn their king, the venerable Molay, with a cheerful
and undaunted countenance, advanced, in chains, to
the edge of the fcaffold j and, with a firm and impref-
five tone, thus addreffed the fpeflators. “ It is but
juft, that in this terrible day, and in the laft moments
of my life, I lay open the iniquity of falfehood, and
make truth to triumph. I declare then, in the face
of heaven and earth, and I confefs, though to my eter¬
nal lhame and confufion, that I have committed the
greateft of crimes j but it has been only in acknowledg¬
ing thofe that have been charged with fo much viru¬
lence upon art order, which truth obliges me to pro¬
nounce innocent. I made the firft declaration they re¬
quired of me, only to fufpend the exceflive tortures of
the rack, and mollify thofe that made me endure them.
I am fenfible what torments they prepare for thofe that
have courage to revoke fuch a confeflion. But the hor¬
rible fight which they prefent to my eyes, is not capable
of making me confirm one lie by another. On a con¬
dition fo infamous as that, I freely renounce life which
is already but too odious to me. For what would it
avail me to prolong a few miferable days, when I mull
owe them only to the blackeft of calumnies (g).” In
confequence of this manly revocation, the grand mafter
and his companions were hurried into the flames, where
they retained that contempt of death which they had
exhibited on former occaiions. This mournful fcene
extorted tears from the lowed: of the vulgar. Four
valiant knights, whofe charity and valour had procured
them the gratitude and applaufe of mankind, fuffering,
without
(g) Hiftoire de Chevaliers Hofpitaliers de Saint Jean de Jerufalem, par Abbe Vertot, tom. ii. p. ioj. I02>
MAS [6
Rlifonry.
L'he inno-
ence of
he knights
empjars
onfidered.
without fear, the moft cruel and ignominious death,
was indeed a fpeelacle well calculated to excite emo¬
tions of pity in the hardelt hearts ; and, whatever opi¬
nion we may entertain concerning the character of that
unhappy order, every mind of fenfibility will eompaf-
fionate the fate of the templars, and curie the inhuman
policy of Philip the Fair.
42. From this Ihort and imperfecl account of the
origin and ruin of the knights templars, the reader will
be enabled to underiland the nieriis of the quell ion, re-
fpefiing the innocence of that order, which it will be
neceffary here to confider. The opinions of contempo¬
rary writers were too much influenced by party fpirit,
and religious zeal, to deferve any regard in this invefti-
gation. All thofe writers (h), however, who are ge¬
nerally deemed impartial hiftorians, and who were in
no refpecls interefted, either in the condemnation or
acquittal of the templars, have, without hefitation, pro¬
nounced them innocent of the crimes laid to their
charge, and imputed their deftru£Hon to the avarice
and private refentment of Philip. In the decifion of
thefe hiftorians, the public had, in general, acquiefced,
till their fentiments were unfettled by the bold preten-
fions, and the fophiftical reafoning of Barruel. This
writer has charged upon the templars all thofe crimes
with which their enemies had formerly loaded them :
he has attempted to juftify the feverity of the French
king, and has reproached, with the bittereft inveftive,
the fociety of free mafons, becaufe they were once con-
nefted with a fraternity, which, in his opinion, was fo
wicked and profane. While we endeavour, therefore,
to defend the templars againft thefe recent calumnies,
we {hall, at the fame time, be maintaining the refpefta-
bility of the mafonic inftitution, by vindicating its mem¬
bers from that imputed depravity, which, according to
Barruel, they have inherited from their fathers.
43. In order to form an impartial judgment refpeft-
ing any fentence which has been paffed, without pro¬
per evidence, either againft individuals or aflbciations,
it is neceffary to be acquainted with the motives and
charadter of the accufers, and wdth the benefits which
might accrue to them and the judges, by the punifh-
ment or liberation of the accufed. In the cafe before
us, the accufers had been difgraced and imprifoned by
the accufed, for their villany and crimes. Their chief
profecutor and judge was adluated by motives of avarice
and private refentment ; and many rival orders who
had been languifhing in obfcurity and indigence, propa¬
gated with affiduity the flanderous tale, in hopes of
fharing in thofe ample poffeflions, and that public fa¬
vour, which had been acquired by the fuperior abilities
of the knights templars. To all ranks of men, indeed,
the veneration which the name of a templar infpirtd,
was an objedt of envy : their opulent revenues were cal¬
culated to give trouble to a covetous mind, and the re¬
markable regularity of their eondudt was no fmall in¬
citement to the exercife of detradlinn. Such were the
motives and profpedfs of their judges and accufers.
Let us attend now to the accufations which were
S3 1 MAS
brought againft them, and we {hall find that thefe Mafonry.
could Icarcely come under the cognizance of law, as —~-y~^
their pretended crimes were committed againft them-
felves and not againft fociety. Did they perpetrate
murder upon any of their fellow-citizens ?—This was
never laid to their charge. Did they purloin any
man’s treafures ?—Of theft they were never accufed.
Did they inftigate to rebellion the lubjedts ot any go¬
vernment, or plot deftrudfion againft the perfon of any
king?—Underfuch a charadter they were never known,
till Barruel called them traitors and regicides-, becaufe,
forfooth, it was his opinion, that their fueceffors, the
free mafons in France, were acceffory to the murder of
their king. What then were their crimes ? it was (aid,
that they burned their own infants ! and yet an inftance
was never produced, in which the child of a templar
had difappeared, and in which the tendernefs of a mo¬
ther, as would certainly have happened, remonftrated
againft the murder of her child. They were faid to
have committed the moft unnatural of all crimes! and
yet no individual produced a fpecific inftance which he
could corroborate by indubitable proof. They were
accufed of infulting the crofs of Chrift *, and yet they
had fhed their blood in the defence of his religion. Of
crimes like thefe, one may conceive a depraved indi¬
vidual to have been guilty ; but to believe, that a re-
fpe&able fraternity, confining of thoufands of members,
could be capable of fueh enormities, requires a degree
of faith to which the moft credulous will fcarcely at¬
tain.
44. The innocence of the templars, and theinjuftice
of Philip, will be ftill more apparent, by confidering
the conduct of the latter, as related even by Barruel.
This writer obferves, “ That two men, who had been
imprifoned for their crimes, declared that they had
fome important difeoveries to make concerning the
knights templars, and that this declaration, though
entitled to little credit, made the king determine on
the diffolution of the order, and arreft; on one day all
the templars in his kingdom (1).” Here then was
the moft flagrant injuftice in the very threftiold of the
whole affair. Without fummoning a fingle witnefs;
without examining a fingle templar •, without confult-
ing a fingle friend ; without even knowing what the
important difeoveries were which the criminals had to
make j the French king determined on the deftruflion
of the templars, on the deftruffion of an order whofe
grand mafter had been his particular friend, and even
the god father of one of his children (k). This lat¬
ter circumftance, indeed, is brought forward by Bar¬
ruel, to juftify the conduft of Philip, becaufe he facri-
ficed the duties of friendfhip to the principles of juftice.
But, when we take it in connexion with the reft of
his conduft, it mull infpire every honeft mind with a
more degrading opinion of the head and heart of that
perfecuting monarch.
45. Such being the premature and precipitant de¬
termination of Philip, we may confider the order of the
templars as at that time diffolved, and regard all thofe
examinations,
(h) Among thefe we may reckon Hume, Hiftory of England, vol. ii. p. 373. Henry, Hiftory of Britabn
vol. viii. p. 43. and Vertot, ut fuprn.
(0 Memoirs of Jacobinifm, vol. ii. p. 364. (k) Id. Id. p. 366.
4 ,
M A S r 654 ] MAS
Mufonry- examinations, inquiries, oonfeffions, trials, and councils
* which fucceeded, as mere phantoms of juftice, conjured
up by that crafty prince, to dazzle the eyes of his fub-
je'ds, and i’anftify the depravity of his own conduft.
By keeping this circumftanee in view, the intelligent
reader will be enabled to underhand the minute,
though fometimes contradictory, details of hiftorians,
refpeCting the trial and confeffions of the knights
templars $ and, notwithftanding the veil of juftice with
which the judges attempted to cover their proceedings,
he will be enabled to develope the deteftable principles
upon which their trial was eondufted, and the Itill
more deteltable motives which invited Clement V. to
partake in the guilt of Philip the Fair.
46. The moft formidable, and indeed the only plau-
fible argument by which Barruel fupports his opinions,
is drawn from the confeifions of the templars. He
maintains that the avowals of the >knights were free
from compulfion, and that no fet of men could be fo
bafe as to accufe their brethren of crimes, of which they
believed them to be entirely innocent. But the fallacy
of his reafoning will appear from the flighteit reflection.
It is a curious, though unqueftionable fa£t, that, when
an avowal mult be made, men are more ready to accufe
themfl Ives‘ of crimes of w hich they have never been
guilty, than to confefs thofe which they have adtually
committed. Such as have attended to the operation
of their own minds, particularly in the earlier part of
life, will acquiefce in this extraordinary truth ; and
thofe who have not had occafion to obferve it, will
find, upon confideration, that it is confonant to the con-
ftitution of the human mind. When a man confeffes
himfelf guilty of a crime which he has realty perpe¬
trated, he is expofed, not only to the reproaches of
his own confidence, but to thofe of the world ; and,
fliould he, at any time, retraft his confeflions, he muft
be aware that every fubfequent enquiry would only
confirm the truth of his firft depofition. But when a
man, from a principle of fear, acknowledges the truth
of accufations with which he has been unjuftly loaded,
a fenfe of his integrity and innocence fupports him
under the opprobrium of the world, and he is confcious
that his charafter vvill be vindicated by every inveftiga-
tion, and that the confeflions which he himfelf made,
may at any time be proved to have been the offspring
of neceflity. Such undoubtedly were the feelings by
-which the templars were actuated. Convinced, that
the crimes which they were defired to acknowledge,
were of fuch an unnatural kind, that they could never
be i iputed, by any reafonable man, to a numerous and
hitherto refpefbble fraternity, they yielded to the feli¬
citations of their perfecutors; with the well-grounded
hope that future enquiry would remove the ftain which
the irrefiflible defire of felf prefervation had prompted
them to throw upon them character. From this very
confideration, indeed, namely from the nature of the
crimes charged upon the templars, have many eminent
hifforians maintained the innocence of that unhappy
order. But, were we even to allow with Barruel, in
oppofition to all hiftory, that the avowals of the knights
were free and numerous ; by an application of the prin- Mafonry.
ciples already laid down, we would from that circum- '■“““V"'*"*
fiance, prove the innocence, and not the guilt of the
templars.
47. It is not, however, upon fpeculative principles
alone, that we can account for the confefiions and fub-
feqgent recantations of the knights. There are, for¬
tunately, feme hiftorical fa<ffs which furnifti a rational
explanation of their conduft j but which Barruel,
either from ignorance or defign, has totally overlooked.
About the commencement of the whole affair, Molay
the grand matter of the order, had been examined at
Paris. From the caufes already explained, but parti¬
cularly from a dread of thofe torments, to which an
obftinate avowal of his innocence would expofe him, he
made every eonfeflion which his perfecutors demanded ;
but he at the fame time tranfmitted circular letters to
an immenfe number of his brethren, requefting them
to make the fame confeffions with himfelf (l) ; for it
was only by fubmiflive conduft, that they could hope to
difarm the fury^of their enemies, and avert the blow
which was threatened to their order. Agreeably to the
requeft of Molay, many of the templars made the fame
acknowledgements j while others with a morality more
inflexible, and courage more undaunted, difdained to do
evil that good might come, and perfevered unto death
in the avowal of their own innocence, and that of their
order. Molay, however, and thofe knights who had
followed his example, foon perceived that though their
fubmiflions had protefted them from injury as indivi¬
duals, they had neverthelefs rather inflamed the rage
of Philip againft the order j and being now convinced
that their acknowledgements of guilt had produced an
effedl oppofite to what they expe&ed, they boldly re¬
traded their former avowals, and adopted that intrepid
condud of which we have already given a (hort ac¬
count'. There is another circumftance conneded with
this part of our fubjed, which, though not taken notice
of by hiftorians, is well deferving of the reader’s at¬
tention. It is afferted by all contemporary writers,
whether the friends or adverfarics of the templars, that
all thofe knights who maintained their innocence, were
condemned either to death, or to a punilhment equally
fevere j while all who confeffed, and adhered to their
confefiions, were either completely acquitted, or fen-
tenced to a few days fafting and prayer, or a fhort im-
prifonment (m). It is allowed alfo.by thefe hiftorians,
and even by Barruel, that a very confiderable number
of the templars were altogether ignorant of the crimes
perpetrated by the reft, and that fome who were privy
to them, were not partakers in their guilt. In which
clafs then are we to rank thefe innocent men ? among
thofe who fuffered or among thofe who were faved ? If
among the former, their enemies were guilty of the
moft flagrant injuftice and cruelty, in confirming the
innocent on the fame pile with the guilty. If among
the latter, they muft have been compelled to confefs
themfelves guilty of crimes of which they were com¬
pletely innocent.
48. In order to ftrow that the confeflions of the tem¬
plars
(l) Hiftoire He Chevaliers Hofpitaliers, par Abbe Vertot, tom. ii. p. 86.
(m) Some of them even received penlions for their confeflions. See Vertot, tom. ii. p. 91.
MAS [ 655 ] M A S
J Mafonry. plars were voluntary, and not extorted by the rack,
' Barruel is obliged to deny fads which are admitted by
every hiilorian. But, left his readers ihould not be fo
fceptical on this point as himfeif, he takes care to inform
them, that the biihops declared, that all whole confef-
fions were extorted by. the rack, Ihould be regarded as
innocent, and that no templar fhould be fubjedt to it j
that Clement V. rather favoured the templars, and that
he fent the moft venerable perfons to interrogate thole
whole age and infirmities prevented them from appear¬
ing . ;fore him. But who were thofe aged and infirm
templars to whom Clement is fo compaftionate ? Were
they men fmarting under difeafes inflicted by the hand
of heaven ? Were they men whofe aged limbs were
unfit for the fatigues of a journey, or whofe gray hairs
had excited the pity of the Roman pontiff? No—they
were a few undaunted knights whom the blood-extort¬
ing fcrews of their tormentors had tortured and dif-
abled ; whofe flelh had been lacerated on the rack,
and whofe bones had been disjointed or broken on the
wheeL Thefe are the men, who, in the language of
the above writer, were prevented by their age and in¬
firmities from travelling to Poi&iers, or who, in the more
Ample ftyle of the Pope himfelf* were unable to ride on
horfeback, or to bear any other method of conveyance
whatfoever.
49. Having thus endeavoured to vindicate the charac¬
ter of the templars from the accufations of their ene¬
mies, it will be neceffary to make a few remarks re-
Ipefting the ceremonial obfervanceswliich are attributed
to them and their pofterity, by the author of the me¬
moirs of Jacobinifm. But this, our enemies well know,
is forbidden ground, on which free mafons are prohibi¬
ted to enter by the laws of their order. It is here, con-
fequently, that the moft numerous, and apparently the
moft fuccefsful attacks have been made, for we can be
provided with no means of defence without laying open
the myfteries of the fraternity. Confcious of the dif-
advantages under which free mafons labour, their ad-
s verfaries have fabricated the moft frightful and foolilh
ceremonies, and impofed them upon the world as the
ceremonies of mafonry. Among this number, may be
reckoned thofe rites and oaths which Barruel afcribes
to the templars and their pofterity, but which, we fo-
lemnly aver, have no connexion either with the one or
the other; and, were we permitted to divulge to the
world the whole of our ritual fyftem, many who have
duped the public by deceitful information, would ftand
abalhed at their condudt; while others, who havfe con¬
fided in fuch information, would be aftonilhed at the
extent of their credulity. Then might free mafons de¬
fy, as they have done in every other point, the fabrica¬
tions of the malicious, and the conjectures of the igno¬
rant : then, too, might they mock at the ingenuity of
the wife. But, as they are bound to preferve from pu¬
blic view the rites of their order, it is highly difinge-
nuous to affail them in a quarter where refiftance is
impoflible, and where every unprincipled man may
triumph with impunity. Is not this to affafiinate an
enemy with his hands tied behind his back ? Is not
this to reproach a foe who is deprived of the organs of
utterance ?
50. But there is another important confideration,
which, while it points out in a more ftriking manner
the dilingenuity of fuch conduft, fhould, at the famd
5
time, incite the candid enquirer to reject every calum- Mafonry.
ny againli fecret aflociations, arifing from reports con- »
cerning their rites and ceremonies. If ever the fecrets
of free mafonry were betrayed, they muft have been
betrayed by men who were completely deftitute of reli¬
gious principle 3 who paid no refpecl to thofe ties which
unite the members of civil, as well as fecret affocia-
tionsj who, in (hort, neither feared God, nor regarded
man. Suppofe, then, that a perfon, pretending to be
a free mafon, offered to communicate, either to an in*
dividual, or to the public, the rites and ceremonies of
his order. What degree of credit ftiould men of pro¬
bity attach to the information thus received ? A per¬
fon addreffes them under the chara£ter of a perjurer,
offering to violate the moft folemn engagements, and
to divulge myfteries which have been concealed for
ages. He may give them accurate information, or he
may not. If the fecrets which he offers to betray have
been hitherto unknown, there is no poflible way of
afcertaining the truth of his depofition. And it is ra¬
ther to be lufpefted, that he will dupe his auditors by
falle information, than trample upon an engagement,
guarded by the moft awful fanftions. He might, in¬
deed, confirm by an oath, the truth of his affeveration ;
but, as he muft have violated an oath equally folemn,
no man of fenfe will give him the fmalleft credit. But,
fuppofing that he really divulges the fecrets and cere¬
monies of free mafonry, it is clear, that he has not un-
derftood their true import, or, at leaft, that they have
made no impreffion upon his mind. It is almoft cer¬
tain, therefore, that, from ignorance, or mifapprehen-
fion of their meaning, he will exhibit, under an afpeifl
calculated to excite ridicule, thole rites and ceremonies,
which, if properly explained, would command admira¬
tion. If then it be fo difficult for the uninitiated to
difcover the fecrets of free mafonry, and ftill more fo
to afcertain their fignification, if they fticuld difcover
them 3 what muft we think of thofe men who open
their ears to every fianderous tale againft free mafons,
which unprincipled men may impofe upon their credu¬
lity ? What muft we think of thofe who reproach and
vilify the order, upon the uncertain reports of cun¬
ning and interefted men ? We appeal to the impartial
reader, if they are not equally bafe with the informers
themfelves.
51. Such are the confiderations by which we would
attempt to repel thofe charges and diftorted fadls, with
which Barruel has calumniated the charatter, and dif-
figured the hiftory of the templars. They will be
lufficient, we hope, to remove thofe erroneous impref-
fions which the perufal of the Memoirs of Jacobinifm "
may have left upon the reader’s mind. Although we
have adopted the opinion of thofe who maintain the in¬
nocence of that unfortunate order, we cannot coincide
with them in believing, that, as individuals, they were
free from blame. The templars were poffeffed of the
fame nature, and influenced by the fame paflions as
their fellow men 3 and they were, unqueftionably, ex-
pofed to more ftrong and numerous temptations. Some
of the knights, therefore, may have been guilty of
crimes, and thefe too of an aggravated kind, which,
by a ftrange, though not uncommon miftake, might
have been transferred to their order. But it w as never
proved that they were traitors, child-murderers, regi¬
cides, and infidels. A certain clafs of hiftorians, in¬
deed, 1
MAS
Mafonry. deed, have imputed to them fueh iniquities ; and, when
" unable to eftablifh their affertions, have fixed upon their
order the more probable crimes of drunkennefs and de¬
bauchery. But amidft all thefe accufations, we hear
nothing of that valour which firft raifed the templars to
pre-eminence ; nothing of that charity and beneficence
which procured them the refpedt of contemporaries;
nothing of that fortitude and patience which molt of
them exhibited on the rack, and in the flames. In their
cafe it has been too true, that
The evil which men do lives after them :
The good is often interred with their bones.
52. But allowing the templars to be as guilty as their
enemies have reprefented them ; upon what principles
of found reafoning, or of common fenfe, does Barruel
transfer their guilt to the fraternity of free mafons ? Is
it abfolutely neceflary, that the fon (hould inherit the
bodily difeafes, and the mental debility of his fore-fa¬
thers ? or is it fair, that one order, propofing to itfelf
the fame object, and inftituted upon the fame principles
as another, {hould be charged alfo with the fame
crimes ? Certainly not. If virtue and vice were here¬
ditary qualities, free mafons might arrogate to themfelves
much honour from their connexion with the templars ;
but, as we have not been applauded for a templar’s vir¬
tues, wre (hould not be reproached for a templar’s crimes.
But the reafoning of Barruel is as repugnant to the dic¬
tates of experience, as it is to thofe of common fenfe.
Were not the inhabitants of England, at one period,
fanatics, rebels, and regicides ? But where now is the
nation that is moreliberal in its religion, and more fleady
in its loyalty ! Did not the French, at one time, tor¬
ture, burn, and maffacre their fellow citizens, from the
fury of their religious zeal, and the ftrength of their
attachment to the Catholic communion ? But what na¬
tion under heaven was a few years ago lefs influenced by
religious principles, and lefs attached to the church of
Rome ! Did not the rulers of France, at one time,
torment and aflaflinate hundreds of the templars, be-
caufe they deemed them infidels, traitors, and regi¬
cides ? And have we not feen, in thefe latter days,
the very rulers of France themfelves, infidels, traitors,
and regicides ! But if the impartial reader {hould, upon
farther inquiry, give credit to the guilt of the templars ;
in order to remove the imputed {lain which has been
transferred to free mafons, it may be fufficient to ad-
drefs him in the words of the poet,
Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in i/lis.
Origin and About the time of the knights templars, chivalry
cf chivair* ^ ar"vecl at *ts higheft perfedlion. It had its ex-
*, cnva ry. jfl.ence^ jncleed, prior to this period, but as it continued
to influence the minds of men long after the deftrudlion
of that unhappy order, it was thought proper to defer
its confideration till the prefent ftage of our hiflory.
When chivalry made its firfl: appearance, the moral and
political condition of Europe was in every refpedl dc-
M A S
plorable. The religion of Jefus exifled only in name. Mafonry.
A degrading fuperllition had ufurped its place, and
threatened ruin to the reafon and the dignity of man.
The political rights of the lower orders wrere facrificed
to the interell of the great. War was carried on with
a degree of favage cruelty, equalled only by the fangui-
nary contentions of the beads of prey; no clemency
was fhown to the vanquilhed, and no humanity to the
captive. The female fex, even, were funk below their
natural level : they were doomed to the mod labori¬
ous occupations, and were delerted and defpifed by that
very fex, on whofe protection and fympathy they have
fo natural a claim. To remedy thefe diforders, a few
intelligent and pious men formed an affociation, whofe
members fwore to defend the Chridian religion, to prac-
tife its morals, to proteCl widows, orphans, and the
weaker fex ; and to decide judicially, and not by arms,
the difputes that might arile about their goods or ef¬
fects. It was from this affociation, undoubtedly, that
chivalry arofe (n) ; and not, as Come think, from the
public invediture with arms which was cudomary
among the ancient Germans. But, whatever was its
origin, chivalry produced a confiderable change in the
manners and fentiments of the great. It could not,
indeed, eradicate that ignorance and depravity which
engendered thofe awful evils which we have already
enumerated. It has foftened, however, the ferocity of
war. It has redored the fair fex to that honourable
rank which they now pofiefs, and which at all times
they are entitled to hold. It has infpired thofe fenti¬
ments of generofity, fympathy, and friendfliip, which
have contributed fo much to the civilization of the world;
and has introduced that principle of honour which,
though far from being a laudable motive to aClion, of¬
ten checks the licentious, when moral and religious
confiderations would make no impreflion upon their
minds.
54. Such was the origin of chivalry and fuch the blef- Chivalry a
lings which it imparted. That it was a branch of free*?ranc'! °f.
mafonry, may be inferred from a variety of confidera ryee m8
tions, from the confent of thofe who have made the 3
deeped refearches into one, and who were intimately
acquainted with the fpirit, rites, and ceremonies of the
other. They were both ceremonial inditutions. Im¬
portant precepts were communicated to the members
of each, for the regulation of their conduid as men, and
as brethren of the order (o). The ceremonies of chi¬
valry, like thofe of free mafonry, though unintelligible
to th£ vulgar, were always fymbolical of fome impor¬
tant truths (p). The objeft of both inditutions was
the fame, and the members bound themfelves, by an
oath, to promote it with ardour and zeal (qJ. In chi¬
valry there were alfo different degrees of honour,
through which the youths were obliged to pafs before
they w ere inveded with the dignity of knighthood (r) ;
and the knights, like free mafons, were formed into
fraternities or orders, didinguifhed by different appella¬
tions (s).
55. From
[ 656 ]
(n) Boutainvilliers on the Ancient Parliaments of France, letter fifth, quoted in Brydfon’s Summary View
©f Heraldry, pp. 24, 25, 26.
(o) Brydfon’s Summary View of Heraldry, p. 31. (p) Id. p. 95. (Q_) Id. p. 32.
00 W- PP- 36> 37- (S) Id. pp. 38, 40.
| MaConr?*
M A S [ 65
55. From thefe circumflances of refemblance, we do
not mean to infer that chivalry was free mafonry un-
he opinions ^er ano^er name ; we mean only to (how that the two
fthe inftitutions were intimately conneded 5 that the former
earned and took its origin from the latter, and borrowed from it, not
ther con- on]y fome 0f Jj-g ceremonial obfervances, but the lead-
derations. features an(i t]ie general outline of its conftitution.
Thefe points of limilarity, indeed, are in fome cafes fo
linking, that feveral learned men have affirmed that
free maionry was a fecondary order of chivalry, and
derived its origin from the ufages of that inftitution
(t). For what reafons thefe authors deduce the forms
of free mafonry from the ceremonies of chivalry, it is
difficult to conjedlure. The only argument which they
adduce, is the fimilarity of the inftitutions; but they do
not confider, that this proves, with equal force, that free
mafonry is the parent of chivalry. We have already
Ihown, that there were many fecret inftitutions among
the ancients, but particularly the fraternity of Diony-
lian archite&s, which refembled free mafonry in every
thing but the name ; and it requires no proof that thefe
fraternities arofe many hundred years before the exift-
ence of chivalry. If then there be any refemblance
between the inftitutions which we have been comparing,
we muft confider free mafonry as the fountain, and chi¬
valry only as the ftream. The one was adapted to the
habits of intelligent artifts, and could flourifti only in
times of civilization and peace ; the other was accom¬
modated to the difpolitions of a martial age, and could
exift only in feafons of ignorance and war. With thefe
obfervations, indeed, the hiftory of both fraternities en¬
tirely correfponds. In the enlightened ages of Greece
'and Rome, when chivalry was unknown, free mafonry
flouriftied under the fandlion of government, and the
patronage of intelligent men. But, during the reign
of Gothic ignorance and barbarity, which followed the
deftruflion of imperial Rome, free mafonry languiffied
in obfcurity, while chivalry fucceeded in its place, and
propofed to accomplifti the fame objedt by different
means, which, though more rough and violent, were
better fuited to the manners of the age. And when
fcience and literature revived in Europe, and Mat¬
tered thofe clouds of ignorance and barbarifm with
which (he had been overftiadowed, chivalry decayed
along with the manners that gave it birth, while
free mafonry arofe with increafing fplendour, and
advanced with the fame pace as civilization and re¬
finement.
56. The connexion between chivalry and free ma¬
fonry, is excellently exemplified in the fraternity of the
knights templars. It is well known that this aflocia-
tion was an order of chivalry, that the templars per-
empHfied formed its ceremonies, and were influenced by its pre-
thcfo- cepts j and we have already ftiown, that the fame af-
I Inplacs".16 ^ocJat,on was initiated into the myfteries, and pradtifed
Vol. XII. Part II.
xion of
ivalry
d free
ifonry
7 ] MAS
the rites of free mafonry (Art. 39, 40.): But, though Mafonry.
they then exifted in a double capacity, it mull be evi- T"**"-1
dent to all who ftudy the hiftory of the templars, that
their mafonic charadter chiefly predominated, and that
they deduced the name of their inftitution, and their
external obfervances, from the ufages of chivalry, to
conceal from the Roman pontiff the primary objedt of
their order, and to hold their fecret meetings free from
fufpicion or alarm. About this time, indeed, the
church of Rome fandtioned the fraternity of operative
mafons, and allowed them to perforin their ceremonies
without moleftation or fear. But this clemency, as w-e
have already Ihown, was the offspring of neceflity
(Art. 37.) ; and the fame interefted motive which
prompted his holinefs to patronize that trading afibcia-
tion, could never influence him to countenance the du¬
plicity of the templars, or permit them to exift in their
mafonic capacity. It was the difcovery, indeed, of
their being free, mafons, of their aflembling fecretly,
and performing ceremonies to which no ftranger was
admitted, that occaftoned thofe awful calamities which
befel their order. It will, no doubt, appear furprifing
to fome readers, that fuch zealous defenders of the Ca¬
tholic religion Ihould pradtife the obfervances of an affo-
ciation, which the church of Rome has always perfe-
cuted with the bittereft hoftility. But their furprife
will ceafe, when it is recolledted, that even about the
middle of the 18th century, when free mafonry was
prohibited in the ecclefiaftical ftates, by a papal bull, the
members of the Romifh church adopted the fame plan.
So much attached were they to the principles and prac¬
tice of the fraternity, that they eftablilhed a new fecret
aflbeiation fimilar to that of free mafonry, into which
they profefled to admit none but zealous abettors of the
papal hierarchy. In this manner, by flattering the pride
of the church, they eluded its vigilance, and preferved
the fpirit of free mafonry, by merely changing its name,
and profefling to make it fubfervient to the intereft of
the pontificate.
57. Before leaving this fubjedf, it may be intereff-Thete f,
ing to fome readers, and neceflary for the fatisfadlion piars were
of others, to ftibw in what manner the knights templars initiated by
became depofitaries of the mafonic myfteries. Wehavesyriac fra“
already feen, that almoft all the fecret aflbeiations 0£teraitle'*
the ancients either flourirtied or originated in Syria,
and the adjacent countries. It was here that the Dio-
nyfian artifts, the Eflenes, and the Kafideans arofe.
From this country alio came feveral members of that
trading aflociation of mafons, which appeared in Eu¬
rope during the dark ages (u) j and we are aflured,
that, notwithftanding the unfavourable conditions of that
province, there exifts, at this day, on Mount Libanus,
one of thefe Syriac fraternities (x). As the order of
the templars, therefore, was originally formed in Syria
and exifted there for a coniiderable time, it would ba
4 O no
(T) Chevalier Ramfay. See Robifon’s Proofs of a Confpiracy, p. 39. Leyden’s Preliminary Differtation to
the Complaynt of Scotland, pp. 67. 71. and the preface to Guilliam’s Difplay of Heraldry, edii. 6th.
(u) Mr Clinch, who appears not to have been acquainted with this fadt, fuppofes that free mafonry was intro¬
duced into Europe by means of the Gypfies. Anthologia Hibernica, for April 1794, p. 280. There wa< fuch
a conftant communication between Afia and Europe in the time of the crufades, that the cuftoms and manners
ol the one, muft, in fome meafure, have been transferred to the other,
(x) Anthologia Hibernica, April 1794, p. 279.
Mafonrv.
Hiftory of
free ma-
fonry in
Britain.
Free ma-
fonry m*
Sreduced ini
to Scotland.
Atid alfo
into Eng¬
land.
MAS [ ^5$ 1 MAS
no improbable fuppofition that they received their ma-
fonic knowledge from the lodges in that quarter. But
tve are fortunately in this cafe not left to conjeflure,
for we are exprefsly informed by a foreign author (y),
who was well acquainted with the hiftory and cuftoms
of Syria, that the knights templars tvere actually mem¬
bers of the Syriac fraternities.
58. Having thus compared free mafonry with thofe
fecret affociations which arofe during the dark ages ;
let us now diredft our attention to its progrefs in Bri¬
tain, after it was extinguiflied in the other kingdoms of
Europe. We have already feen that a trading frater¬
nity of free mafons exifted in Europe during the mid¬
dle ages ■, that many fpecial favours were conferred
upon it by the Roman fee 5 that they had the exclufive
privilege of eredling thofe magnificent buildings, which
the pride of the church of Rome, and the mifguided
zeal of its members, had prompted them to rear 5 and
that feveral mafons travelled into Scotland, about the
beginning of the 12th century, and imported into that
country the principles and ceremonies of their order.
And we have illuftrated feveral caufes which preferved
this affociation in Britain after its total diflblution on
the continent.
59. That free mafonry was introduced into Scotland
by thofe architedh who built the abbey of Kilwinning,
'is manifeft, not only from thofe authentic documents,
by which the exiftence of the Kilwinning lodge has been
traced back as far as the end of the 15th century, but
by other collateral arguments, which amount almoft to
a demonftration. In every country where the tempo¬
ral and fpiritual jurifdiftion of the pope was acknow¬
ledged, there was a continual demand, particularly du¬
ring the 1 2th century, for religious ftrudfures, and con-
fequently for operative mafons, proportional to the piety
of the inhabitants, and the opulence of their ecclefiaf-
tical eftabliftiment; and there was no kingdom in Eu¬
rope where the zeal of the inhabitants for popery was
more ardent than in Scotland, where the kings and
nobles were more liberal to the clergy, and where,
of confequence, the church was more richly endow-
ed (z). The demand, therefore, for elegant cathe¬
drals and ingenious artifts, muft have been propor-
tionably greater than in other countries, and that de¬
mand could be fupplied only from the trading aflbcia-
tion on the continent. When we confider, in addition
to thefe fadts, that this affociatinn monopolized the
building of religious ftrudlures in Chriftendom ; we are
authorifed to conclude, that thofe numerous and elegant
ruins, which ftill adorn the villages of Scotland, were
eredled by foreign mafons, who introduced into this
ifland the cuftoms of their order.
60. It was probably about this time, alfo, that free
mafonry was introduced into England ■, but whether
the EnglHh received it from the Scotch mafons at
Kilwinning, or from other brethren who had arrived
from the continent, there is no method of determining. Mafcmiy.
The fraternity in England, however, maintain, thatv'—
St Alban, the proto-martyr, who fiourithed about the
end of the third century, was the firft who brought
mafonry to Britain ; that the brethren received a char¬
ter from King Athelftane, and that his brother Edwin
fummoned all the lodges to meet at York, which form¬
ed the firft grand lodge of England ( *■). But thefe
are merely aflfertions, not only incapable of proof from
authentic hiftory, but inconfiftent allb, with feveral hi-
ftorical events which reft upon indubitable evidence (b).
In fupport of thefe opinions, indeed, it is alleged, that
no other lodge has laid claim to greater antiquity than
that of York, and that its jurifdiclion over the other
lodges in England has been invariably acknowledged
by the whole fraternity. But this argument only
proves that York was the birthplace of free mafonry in
England. It brings no additional evidence in fupport
of the improbable ftories about St Alban, Athelftane,
and Edwin. If the antiquity of free mafonry in Bri¬
tain can be defended only by the forgery of filly and
uninterefting ftories, it does not deferve to be defended
at all. Thofe who invent and propagate fuch tales, do
not, furely, confider that they bring difcredit upon
their order by the warmth of their zeal ; and that, by
fupporting what is falfe, they prevent thinking men
from believing what is true.
61. After the eftablifhment of the Kilwinning and Progrefsof
York lodges, the principles of free mafonry were ra-freema-
pidly diffufed throughout both kingdoms, and feveral
lodges were erefted in different parts of the ifland. As
all thefe derived their exiftence and authority from the
two mother lodges, they were likewife under their ju-
rifdi&ion and controul; and when any differences arofe,
that were connected with the art of building, they were
referred to the general meetings of the fraternity, which
were always held at Kilwinning and York. In this
manner did free mafonry flourifh for a while in Britain^
after it was completely aboliftied in every part of the
world. But even here it was doomed to fuffer a long
and ferious decline, and to experience thofe alternate
fucceffions of advancement and decay, which mark the
hiftory of every human inftitution. And though dur¬
ing feveral centuries after the importation of free ma¬
fonry into Britain, the brethren of the order held their
public afl'emblies, and were fometimes prohibited from
meeting by the interference of the legiftature, it can
fcarcely be faid to have attra&ed general attention till
the beginning of the lyth century. ’I he caufes of this
remarkable retardation which the progrefs of malonry
experienced, it is by no means difficult to difcover^
In confequence of the important privileges which the
order received from the church of Rome, many chofe
the profeffion of an architeft, which, though at all
times an honourable employment, was particularly in
high requeft during the middle ages. On this account^
h
(vf Adler de Drufis Montis Libani, Rom. 1786. . , ,
(Z) The. church poffeffed above one halt of the property in the kingdom. Robertfon’s Hiftory of Scotian ,
vol. i pp. 137, 6;, 269.
(a) A. D. 926. Prefton’s Illuftrations of Mafonry, p. 148. Smith’s Ufe and Abufe of Free Malonry, p. S1*
Free Mafon’^ Calendar 1778.
^b) See Hr Plot’s Natural Hiftory of Staffordftrire, chap. viii. pp. 316—31?*
MAS [ 65
Mafonry. the body of operative mafons increafed to fuch a de-
gr^e» and the rage, as well as the neceffily for religious
1 edifices, was fo much diruinilhed, that a more than luf-
ficient number of hands could, at any time, be procur¬
ed for fupplying the demands of the church, and of
Caufes of its pious individuals. There being now no fcarcity of ar-
abfequent chitefts, the very reafon which prompted the church to
e me* protect the fraternity, ceafed to exiftj they, therefore,
withdrew from them that patronage, which they had
fpontaneoufly proffered, and denied them even the li¬
berty of holding their fecret affemblies. But thefe
were not the only caufes which produced fuch a ftriking
change in the conduft of the church, to the mafonic
order. The fpirit of free mafonry, as we have already
faid, was hoftile to the principles of the church of
Rome, ihe intention of the one was to enlighten the
mind j the objedt and policy of the other to retain it in
ignorance. When free mafonry flourifhed, the power
of the church muft have decayed. The jealoufy of the
latter, therefore, was aroufed ; and, as the civil power
in England and Scotland was almoft always in the
hands of ecclefiaflics, the church and the ftate were
combined againft the principles and practice of free
mafonry (c). Along with thefe caufes, the domeftic
and bloody wars, which convulfed the two kingdoms
from the 13th to the 17th century, confpired, in a
great degree, to produce that decline of the fraternity
for which we have been attempting to account,
reema- 62. But notwithftanding thefe unfavourable circum-
nry flou- fiances, free mafonry feems to have flourilhed, and at-
ie reign 0ftra<^e^ t^e attention of the public in the reign of Hen-
enry VI. VI. who, when a minor, afcended the throne of
England in 1422. In the third year of his reign, in¬
deed, the parliament palled a fevere act againfl the fra¬
ternity, at the inftigation of Henry Beaufort, bilhop of
Winchefttr, who was then entrufted with the education
of the young king. They enadted that the mafons
fhould no longer hold their chapters and annual affem-
blies ; that thofe who fummoned fuch chapters and af¬
femblies Ihould be conlidered as felons ; and that thofe
who reforted to them Ihould be fined and imprifon-
ed (d). But it would appear that this aft was never
put in execution; for, in the year 1429, about five
years after it was framed, a refpeftable lodge was held
at Canterbury under the patronage of the archbilhop
himfelf (e). When King Henry was able to take into
his own hands the government of his kingdom, and to
form an opinion of his own refpefting the ufe and ten¬
dency of the mafonic fraternity, in order to atone for
9 1
M A S
the rigorous conduft of his parliament, he not only pe,r- Mafonfy.
mitted the order to hold their meetings without molef-
tation, but honoured the lodges by his prefence as a
brother. Before he was initiated, however, into the
myfteries of the order, he leems to have examined, with
fcrupulous care, the nature of the inllitution, and to
have perufed the charges and regulations of the frater¬
nity, as collefted from their ancient records. Thefe
fafts are contained in a paper written in the reign of
his fuecelfor, Edward IV. and confirmed by a manu-
fcript in King Henry’s own hand-writing, which is fa¬
miliar to every perfon who has tludied the hifiory of the
order. 1 his manufcript confiits ol queilions and an-Account of
fwers refpefting the nature and tendency of free mafon- a cur-:°us
ry, and feems to be the refult of the king’s examina-’™3/0"^111®*
tion of fome of the brethren before he became a mem-IlU
ber of the fraternity. It was firlt procured from the
Bodleian library by the celebrated Mr Locke, who
tranfmitted it to the earl of Pembroke, accompanied
with explanatory notes (f). In the title of the manu¬
fcript, it is faid to have been faithfully copied from the
hand-writing of King Henry VI. by John Ldand, an¬
tiquarian, who, according to Mr Locke, was the cele¬
brated antiquary of that name who lived in the 16th
century, and was appointed by King Henry VilL at
the dilfolution of monafteries, to fearch for, and fave
fuch books as were worthy of prefervation. As this
manufcript was originally printed at Frankfort, I was
led to inquire what grounds there were for believing
that the explanatory notes, and the letter to the earl
of Pembroke which accompany it, were the produftion
of Mr Locke. But I found that this had been uni*
formly taken for granted by every writer upon the fub-
jeft, though the ciicumftance is not mentioned in the
large edition of Mr Locke’s works. The ftyle of the
letter, however, and the acutenefs of the annotations,
refemble fo much that philofopher’s manner of writing,
and the letter is fo defcriptive of Mr Locke’s real fitu-
ation at the time when it was written, that it is almoft
impoflible to deny their authenticity. In the letter it-
felf, which is dated 6th May 1696, Mr Locke re¬
marks that he compofed the notes for the fake of Lady
Maflram, who was become very fond of mafonry, and
that the manufcript had fo much excited his own curio-
fity, that he was determined to enter into the fraternity
the next time he went to London, which, he adds, will
be very foon. Now Mr Locke was at this time refid-
ing at Oates, the country feat of Sir Francis Maftiam,
as appears from one of his letters to Mr Molyneux*
4 O 2 which
(c) As a proof of the hoftility of the church of Rome to fecret affociations which pretended to enlighten the
mind, we mentioned (p. 53. fupra) its treatment of the academy of fecrets, inftituted in the 16th century for the
advancement of phyfical fcience. When a local and temporary inftitution drew down the vengeance of the Ro¬
man fee, what mull have been its conduft to a lodge of mafons ? A farther account of the academy of ferr^i,
may be found in Prieftley’s Hdlory of Vifion, vol. ii.
• (°) d.Henry VI. cap. 2. A. D. 1425, fee Ruffhead’s Statutes. Dr Plot’s Natural Hiftory of Staffordlhire
chap. vin. p. 318. ’
_ (E) Manufcript Regifter of William Morlat, prior of Canterbury, p. 28. entitled, ZfiWfo ewrtfo Domini
ijulielmi prions Ecclejice Chnjli Cantuaren/is, crga feftum natalis Domini 1429. In this Regifter are mentioned
the names of the mailers, wardens, and other members of the lodge.
(F) This manufcript was firft printed at Franckfort in 1748, and afterwards reprinted in the London and Gen
tleman’s Magazines for 1753. It may be feen in the lives of Leland, Hearne, and Wood, 8vo. Oxford 1772"
vol. 1. pp. 96, 104. Appendix, N° viii.j and in Preftoa’s Illuftrations of Mafonry, p. no. * ’ *
MAS [ 660 ] MAS
Mafonry. which is dated Oates, March 30, 1696 5 and it ap-
pears, that he aftually went to London a fliort time
after the 6th of May ; for another letter to the fame
gentleman is dated, London, 2d July 1696 (g). Not-
withllanding thefe fadts, Dr Plot maintains that free
mafonry was not patronifed by King Henry VI. (11),
and that thofe who have fupported a different opinion,
were ignorant of the laws and chronicles of their own
country. Dr Plot may have been a good chemift and
natural hillorian, but when our readers hear upon what
foundation he has eftablilhed his opinion, they will
agree with us in thinking that he was a bad logician.
He obferves, that an adl was pafifed in the king’s mi¬
nority, prohibiting all general alfemblies and chapters
of free mafons, and that as this aft was not repealed
till 1 562, by 5th Elizabeth, cap. 4. it was impoflible
that free mafonry could be patronifed in the fame reign
in which it was prohibited. The faft is, that the aft
was not repealed by 5th Elizabeth, cap. 4. which does
not contain a fingle word about free mafons. It Dr
Plot’s argument, therefore, proves any thing, it would
prove that free mafonry has not been patronifed fince
the reign of Henry VI. for that aft has never yet been
repealed. But fuppofing that it was repealed, the pro-
hibitory ftatute in Henry’s reign might never have been
put in execution, as very often happens j and Dr Plot
himfelf remarks, that the aft 5th Elizabeth was not
obferved. It is plain, therefore, that inftead of being
impoflible, it is highly probable that King Henry pa¬
tronifed the fraternity. When they were perfecuted
by his parliament, he was only three years of age, and
could neither approve nor difapprove of its fentence j
and it was very natural, that when he came to the
years of maturity, he Ihould undo a deed which his
parliament had diflionourably done.
Free n>a- 63. While free mafonry was flourilhing in England
fonry pa- under the aufpices of Henry VI. it was at the fame
tronifed in tjme patronifech jn the After kingdom, by King James I.
Knv*in * ^ t^ie auth°rity °f this monarch, every grandmafter
James I. who was chofen by the brethren, either from the nobi¬
lity or clergy, and approved of by the crown, was en¬
titled to an annual revenue of four pounds Scots from
each mailer mafon, and likewife to a fee at the initia¬
tion of every new member. He was empowered to ad¬
mit any difterences that might arife among the breth¬
ren, and to regulate thofe affairs, connefted with the
fraternity, which it was improper to bring under the
cognizance of the courts of law. The grandmafler alfo
appointed deputies or wardens, who reflded in the chief
towns of Scotland, and managed the concerns of the
order, when it was inconvenient to appeal to the grand-
mailer himfelf (1).
And by 64. In the reign of James II. free maionry was by
King no means neglefted. The office of grandmaiter was
James II. granted by the crown to William St Clair, earl of
Orkney and Caithnefs, baron of Roflin, and founder of
the much admired chapel of Roflin. On account of
the attention which this nobleman paid to the intercfls Mafonn-,
of the order, and the rapid propagation of the royal art '—’"v—'
under his adminiilration, King James II. made the of¬
fice of grandmailer hereditary to his heirs and fuccef-
fors in the barony of Roil in} in which family it conti¬
nued till the inftitution of the grand lodge of Scotland.
The barons of Roflin, in the capacity of hereditary
grandmafters, held their principal annual meetings at
Kilwinning, the birthplace of Scolifti mafonry, wbile
the lodge of that village granted conllitutions and char¬
ters of ereftion to thofe brethren of the order, who
were anxious that regular lodges Ihould be formed in
different parts of the kingdom. Thefe lodges all held
of the lodge of Kilwinning ; and, in token of their re~
fpeft and fubmiffion, joined to their own name, that of
their mother lodge, from whom they derived their ex-
iftence as a corporation (k).
65. During the reigns of the fucceeding Scotifh mo-
narchs, free mafonry {till flouriihed, though very little
information can be procured relpefting the ftate of the
fraternity. In the privy feal book of Scotland, how¬
ever, there is a letter dated at Holyroodhoule, 25th
September 1590, and granted by King James VI. “to
Patrick Copland of Udaught, for ufing and exercifing
the office of wardanrie over the art and craft of mafon-
rie, over all the boundis of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kin¬
cardine, ,to had wardan and juftice courts within the
faid boundis, and there to minifter juftice (l).” This
letter confirms what has already been faid concerning
the ftate of mafonry in Scotland. It proves beyond
difpute, that the kings of Scotland nominated the of¬
fice-bearers of the order j that thefe provincial matters,
or wardens, as they were then called, adminiftered juf¬
tice in every difpute which concerned the “ art and
craft of mafonrie j” that lodges were eftablilhed in all
parts of Scotland, even in thofe remote, and, at that
time, uncivilized counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and
Kincardine j and it completely overturns the unfoundr
ed affertion of Dr Robifon, who maintains (m), that the
celebrated antiquary Elias Alhmole, who was initiated
in 1646, is the only diftinft and unequivocal inftance
of a perfon being admitted into the fraternity who was
not an architeft by profeflion.
66. The minutes of St Mary’s chapel, which is the Minutes of
oldeft lodge in Edinburgh, extend as far back as the St Mary’s
year 1598 *, but as they contain only the ordinary pro-chaPek
ceedings of the lodge, we can derive from them no
particular information refpefting the cuftoms and condi¬
tion of the fraternity. It appears, however, from thefe
minutes, that Thomas Bofwell, Efq. of Auchinleck,
was made a warden of the lodge in the year 1600 j
and that the honourable Robert Moray, quartermafter- .
general to the army in Scotland, was created a mafter
mafon in 1641. Thefe fafts are deferving of notice,
as they Ihow, in oppofition to Dr Robifon, that perfons
were early admitted into the order, who were not archi-
tefts by profeflion.
67. When
(g) Locke’s Works, folio, vol. iii.
(h) Natural Hiftory of Staffordlhire, cap. viii. p. 318.
(l) Charter. Hay’s MSS. fee art. 66.
(l) Privy Seal Book of Scotland, 61. F. 47.
(m) Proofs of a Confpiracy, p. 21.
2
(k) Such as Canongate Kilwinning, &c.
MAS
[ 661 ] MAS
1 Jvlafoniy* 67. When James VI. afcended the throne of Eng-
^—y ' land, he feems to have negle&ed his right of nominat-
j ^ ing the office-bearers of the craft. In Hay’s manufcript
Roflin ap- in the advocates library, there are two charters granted
] pointed he-by the Scotiffi mafons, appointing the Sinclairs of Rof-
Ireditary Jin their hereditary grandmafters. The firft of thefe is
deri^ ma" vv^^out a date, but figned by feveral mafons who ap¬
point William St Clair of Roflin, his heirs and fuccef-
fors, their “ patrons and judges.” The other is, in
fome meafure, a ratification of the firft, and dated
1630, in which they appoint Sir William St Clair of
Roflin, his heirs and fucceffors, to be their “ patrons,
proteftors, and overfeers, in ail time coming.” In the
iirft of thefe deeds, tvhich feems to have been written a
little after the union of the crowns, it is ftated, that for
lome years the want of a protestor had engendered
many corruptions among the mafons, and had confider-
ably retarded the progreis of the craft ; and that the
appointment of William Sinclair, Efq. was, with the
advice and confent of William Shaw, mafter of work
to his majefty. After prefiding over the order for ma¬
ny years, William St Clair went to Ireland, where he
continued a confiderable time j and, in confequence of
his departure, the fecond charter was granted to his
fon Sir William St Clair, invefting him with the fame
powers which his father enjoyed. It deferves alfo to be
remarked, that in both thefe deeds, the appointment of
William Sinclair, earl of Orkney and Caithnefs, to the
office of grandmafter, by James II. of Scotland, is
fpoken of as a fa£t well known, and univerfally admit¬
ted. Thefe obfervations will fet in a clear point of
view what muft hitherto have appeared a great incon-
fiftency in the biftory of Scotifli mafonry. In the deed
by which William Sinclair, Efq. of Roflin, refignedthe
office of hereditary grandmafter in 1736, it is ftated
that his anceftors, William and Sir WTlliam St Clair of
Roflin, were conftituted patrons of the fraternity by the
Scotifli mafons themfelves j while it is well known, that
the grant of hereditary grandmafter w:as originally made
by James II. of Scotland, to their anceftor, William
Sinclair, earl of Orkney and Caithnefs. But, when
we confider that James VI. by not exercifing his power,
virtually transferred to the craft the right of eledling
their office-bearers, the inconfiftency vanifties j for Mr
Sinclair and his predeceflbrs, as far back as the date of
thefe charters, held their office by the appointment of
the fraternity itfelf. Left any of Mr Sinclair’s pofte-
rity, however, might, after his refignation, lay claim
to the office of grandmafter, upon the pretence that this
office was bequeathed to them by the grant of James II.
to the earl of Caithnefs and his heirs ; he renounces not
only the right to the office which he derived from the
brethren, but any right alfc, which, as a defeendant of
the earl of Caithnefs, he might claim from the grants
of the Scotiffi monarchs.
68. Notwithftanding thofe civil commotions which
difturbed Britain in the 17th century, free mafonry
flouriffied in Scotland, under the aufpices of the Sin¬
clairs of Roflin. No particular event, however, which
is worthy of notice, occurred during that time, or even
during the remainder of the century. The annual af- Mafonry,
femblies of the fraternity were ftill held at Kilwinning,
and many charters and conftitutions were granted by
the lodge of that village, for the erection of lodges in
different parts of the kingdom.
69. In the year 1736, Wrilliam St Clair of Roflin, The office
who was then grandmafter of Scotland, was under theSrancl
neceffity of difponing his eftate, and, as he had no chil-^j^1
dren of his own, he was anxious that the office of grand- \y. Sinclair. ■
mafter Ihould not be vacant at his death. Having,
therefore, affembled the Edinburgh and neighbouring
lodges, he reprefented to them the utility that would
accrue to the order, by having a gentleman or noble¬
man, of their own choice, as grandmafter of mafonry
in Scotland •, and, at the fame time, intimated his in¬
tention to refign into the hands of the brethren, every
title to that office which he at prefent poffeffed, or
which his fucceffors might claim from the grants of the
Scotifli kings, and the kindnefs of the fraternity. In
confequence of this reprefentation, circular letters were
difpatched to all the lodges of Scotland, inviting them
to appear, either by themfelves or proxies, on next St
Andrew’s day, to concur and affift in the election of a
grandmafter. When that day arrived, about 32 lodges
affembled, and, after receiving the deed of refignation
from William Sinclair, proceeded to the ekftion of an¬
other grandmafter j when, on account of the zeal which
William Sinclair of Roflin had always ffiown for the
honour and profperity of the order, he was unanimoufly
elefted to that high office, and proclaimed grandmafter
mafon of all Scotland. Thus was inftituted the grand fnftjtuticrj
lodge of Scotland, which continues to flouriffi at the of the
prefent day. grarid lodge
70. We have already brought down the hiftory 0fO* Scotland
mafonry in England to the end nearly of the 15th
century. During the whole of the 16th, and the be¬
ginning of the 17th century, no events occurred which
can be inferted in a general hiftory of the order. The
lodges continued to meet, but feem neither to have at¬
tracted the notice, nor excited the difpleafure of the
Jegiflature.
71. During the civil wars, however, between the Free ma¬
king and the parliament, the fraternity appears to havefonry flou-
been better known j and many were initiated into its1!*^1 du-
myfteries, who were equally diftinguiflied by their lite- l^rs
rary talents, and their rank in life. Elias Affimole in¬
forms us, that he and Colonel Mainwaring were admit¬
ted into the order at Warrington, in OClober 1646 (n).
This gentleman was the celebrated antiquarian who
founded the Affimolean mufeum at Oxford. His at¬
tachment to the fraternity is evident from his diligent
inquiries into its origin and hiftory, and his long and
frequent attendance upon its meetings (o). Charles II.
too, was a member of the fraternity, and frequently
honoured the lodges with his prefence (p). From this
fad, chiefly, Dr Robifon afferts, that free mafonry was
employed by the royalifts for promoting the caufe of
their fovereign, and that the ritual of the mafter’s de¬
gree feems to have been formed, or twifted from its ori¬
ginal inftitution, in order to found the political princi¬
ples
(n) Alhmole’s Diary, p. 15.
(p) Proofs of a Confpiracy, p. 22.
(g) Id. p. 66,
M A
'Mafonry. pies of the candidate (o,).
’ analogy by which this opinion is fupported, is perhaps
one of the mod ftriking inRances that could be adduced
to (how, to what puerile arguments the mod: learned
will relort, when engaged in the defence of a defperate
caufe. But though Dr Robifon maintains, that all
who witnelfed the ceremonies of the mailer’s degree
during the civil wars, could not fail to fhowr, by their
countenances, to what party they belonged, yet he
obferves, in another part of his work, that the lymbols
of mafonry feemed to be equally fuiceptible of every
interpretation, and that none of thefe were entitled to
any decided preference (r). Such inconfiftencies as
thefe it is not eafy to explain.
Free ma- 72. An opinion of an oppofite nature, though equal-
fonrv is fup-ly extravagant, has been maintained by Pivati (s),
pofrd by an[j t]ie 0f “ Free Mafonry Examined.” Thefe
have origi- writers affl-rt, that free mafonry originated in the time
rated in of the Englilh commonwealth j that Oliver Cromwell
the rime of was its inventor j that the level was the fymbol of re¬
tire com- ^ publican equality j and that the other figns and cere-
mon-ie.. ' monies were merely arbitrary, and formed for concealing
Abfurdity their political defigns. It would be ridiculous to enter
of this opi- into a f rious refutation of fuch opinions as thefe, which
'nion- are founded on the mod unpardonable ignorance. That
free raafonry exided before the time of Cromwell is as
capable of demondration, as that Cromwell himfelf ever
exifled. It is really entertaining to obferve, what in-
confillent and oppofite opinions are formed upon the
fame fubjedt. According to one writer, free mafonry
was invented and employed by the adherents of the
king ; according to another, it was devifed by the
friends of the parliament. In the opinion of fome it
originated among the Jefuits, who ufed it for the pro¬
motion of their fpiritual tyranny and fuperdition;
while others maintain, that it arofe among a number of
unprincipled fceptics, who employed it for deftroying
the fpiritual tyranny and fuperilition of the Jefuits !
73. It was about this time, according to Dr Robi¬
fon, that free mafonry was introduced among the conti¬
nental kingdoms. After James II. of England had
abdicated the throne, and taken refuge in France with
feveral of his adherents, it is probable that they would
communicate additional fpirit to the French lodges j
but that the Englifh refugees were the fird who ex¬
ported mafonry from Britain, or that they employed it
for re-eftablifhing the Stuart family on the Englifh
throne, it is impoffible to prove. Such affertions Dr
Robifon has not only hazarded, but has employed them
alfo as the foundation of defamatory conclufions, with¬
out adducing a fingle proof in their fupport. Notwith-
ftanding the difficulty, however, of determining the
precife period when the principles of free mafonry were
S [ 662 ] MAS
The drained and fanciful imported into France, it is manifed, from the univerfal Mafonry,
confent of the continental lodges, that it was of Britilh
origin ; and it is more than probable, that ihe French
received it from Scotland about the middle of the 16th
century, during the minority of Queen Mary. It is
well known, that there was at that lime a freer inter-
courfe between Scotland and France than at any other
period. Mary queen of Scots was then married to the
heir apparent of France j and Mary of Guile, filler t«
the French king, was at the fame time regent ot Scot¬
land. In confequence of this intimate connection be¬
tween the two kingdoms, French troops were lent to
the affillance of the Scots, who, having redded many
years in the kingdom, and habituated to the manners
and cudoms of their allies, would naturally carry along
with them into their native country, thole culloms
which afforded them pleafure j and none we know could
be more congenial to the tade and dilpodtions of
Frenchmen, than the ceremonial obiervances of free
mafonry. But it is not upon thele confiderations mere¬
ly that our opinion depends. It receives ample confir¬
mation from a fa£l, of which Dr Robifon feems to have
been totally ignorant. In the year 1645, a particular
jurifdiclion for mafons, called mafonnerie, or mofonry%
was edablifhed in France. All differences which re¬
lated to the art of building, were decided by particular
judges who were called overleers of the art of malonryj
and feveral counfellors were appointed for pleading the
caufes, which were referred to their deciiion (t). This
inditution has fuch a driking reiemblance to the w arden
courts which exided in Scotland in the 16th century,
art 65. that it mud have derived its origin from thefe.
In both of them, thofe caufes only,were decided which
related to mafonry, and overfeers were chofen in both
for bringing thefe caufes to a decifion (u). But as
fimilar tribunals were held in no other part of the w orld,
and as the warden courts were firll edablilhed in Scot¬
land, it is almod certain, that the French borrowed
from the Scots the idea of their mafonic tribunal, as
well as free mafonry itfelf, at that particular period
when there was Inch a free communication between the
two kingdoms. That the French received free mafon¬
ry from Scotland, may be prelumed alfo from the lin¬
gular pre-eminence which was always given by foreign¬
ers to Scotiffi mafonry, and from the degree of Cheva¬
lier Mofon Eccjjbis, which, as a mark of refpeft to
Scotland, the French had added to the three fymboli-
cal degrees of mafonry about the beginning of the 18th
century. Had free mafonry not been introduced into
France till after the revolution in 1688, as Dr Robifon
affirms, it is wonderful how fuch a fail Ihould have
been fo quickly forgotten ; for it was unknown about
30 or 40 years afterwards, at what period the French
received
(qj) Proofs of Confpiracy, p. 21.
(r) Id. p. 99.
(s) Pivati Art. Liberi Muratori auvero Francs Masons Venezia, quoted by Mr Clinch.
(t) M. ^onnerie eil auffi le nom d’une jurisdidlion particuhere pour les masons : Elle le tient au palais a Paris,
et le* appellations font p >r!ees au parlement : cette jurisdiction a e-e etablie en 1645. Ceux qui 1’exercent font
appelles Generaux des Oeuvres de Ma^onnerie de France. Ils connoiffent de differends entre les oeuvriers
com ernant le fait des batimonts. La ma^onnerie a des procureurs particuheres, difftrens de ceux de parlement,
qui cependant peuvenf y plajder. DiClionuaire de Trevoux, vol, v. p. 23.
(u) See Appendix, jN° ii.
MAS
Mafonry. received it from Britain j and, if the exiled family had
employed free mafonry, for overturning the Hanoverian
fucceffion, it is ftill more ftrange that fuch a circum-
flance ftiould be unknown in a country, where con¬
cealment was certainly unneceffary. When any new
cuftom is introduced into a nation, the time of its intro-
du&ion may be remembered for 70 or 80 years by one
individual, without being committed to writing ; and,
though it be not of fufficient importance, tradition will
preferve it from oblivion for a much greater length of
time. If tree mafonry, therefore, never exifted in
France till after the revolution in 1688, is it not ab-
furd to fuppofe, that the period when fuch a fingular in-
fHtution was eiiablifhed, thould be utterly forgotten at
the diitanee of 30 or 40 years from its eftablifhment,
though, during that time, it was never perfecuted by
the French government ?
innovation 74. But, at whatever period, and from whatever
ipon tree fource free mafonry was introduced into France, it af-
^rance^ m ^urnt*^ there a very remarkable form. The attachment
of that people to innovation and external finery, pro¬
duced the moft unwarrantable alterations upon the prin¬
ciples and ceremonies of the order. A number of new
degrees were created \ the office-bearers of the craft
were arrayed in the moll fplendid and coftly attire $
and the lodges were transformed into lefluring rooms,
where the wifer brethren fupported the moll extravagant
opinions, difcufled the abltrufelt queftions in theology
and political economy, and broached opinions hollile to
the interells of true religion and found government. In
the other countries of the continent, fimilar innovations,
in a greater or lefs degree, prevailed, while the Britilh
lodges preferved the principles of the craft in their pri¬
mitive fimplicity and excellence. Such dangerous in¬
novations have not the fmalleft connexion with the
principles of free mafonry. They are unnatural excref-
cences formed by a warm imagination, and foftered by
the interference of defigning men. Thofe who reprehend
free mafonry, therefore, for the changes which it under¬
went in the hands of foreigners, may throw equal blame
upon religion, becaufe it has been a cloak for licentiouf-
nefs and hypocrify; or, upon fcience, becaufe it has
been converted into an inftrument of iniquity. The
changes of which we have been treating, arofe altoge¬
ther from the political condition of the countries where
they were made. In France, and the other kingdoms
of Europe, where popery was the ecclefiallical effablifli-
ment, or where abfolute power was in the hands of
their monarchs, the moll flavilh rellraints were impofed
upon the conduct and converfation of the people. None
dnrll utter his own fentiments, or converfe upon fuch
metaphyfical fubjedls as militated againft the theology
and politics of the times. Under fuch rellraints fpecu-
lative men, in particular, were highly diflatisfied.
Thofe powers which heaven had bellowed, and on the
exercife of which their happinefs depended, were fet¬
tered by human laws, and that liberty of fpeech re-
ftrained which tyranny had no right to controul. For
thefe reafons, the lodges were frequented by men of
philofophical habits, who eagerly embraced an oppor¬
tunity of publilliing their fentiments, and difcufling the
favourite objffts of their Itudy, without dreading the
threats of government, or the tortures of the inquifition.
In this view, the lodges may be compared to little re¬
publics, enjoying the rational liberties of human nature,
2
[ 663 ]
M A S
in the midfl: of an extenfive empire, enffaved by defpd- Maforryv
tifm and fuperftition. In the courie of time, however, v_"
that liberty was abufed, and doctrines were propagated
in the French and German lodges, which it is the duty
and policy of every government to difcourage and fup-
prefs. But thefe corruptions had by no means a ne*-
ceffary connexion with free mafonry : they arofe whol¬
ly from the political condition of the continental king¬
doms. In Britain, where the order fubfifted much Caufes of
longer than in any other country, its hillory is flained the purity
by no glaring corruptions or offenfive innovations j
more attention was paid to the intrinfic value of the 1 1 0 ^E3'
order, than to its external obfervances; and the Britilh:
lodges had a greater refemblance to charitable meet¬
ings, than to pompous and fplendid aflemblies. Blefltd
with a free confhtution, and the enjoyment of every li¬
berty which does not approach to licentioufnefs, the
Britilh mafons were under no temptation to introduce
into their lodges religious and political difcuffions. The
liberty of the prefs enables them to give the wideft cir*
culation to their opinions, however new or extravagant j
•and they are liable to no puniffiment, by publicly at¬
tacking the eftablilhed religion of their country. The
Britilh lodges, therefore, have retained their primitive
purity •, they have been employed in no finiffer caufe ;
they have harboured in their bofom neither traitors,
nor atheifts, nor French philofophers.
75 While the French were bufily engaged in the
decoration of their lodges, and in the invention of new
degrees and trilling ceremonies, the maions in England
were more wifely employed in extending the bounds*
ries of the royal art. About the beginning of the 18th
century, during the reign of Queen Anne, free mafon¬
ry feems to have rapidly declined in the fouth of Eng¬
land. Four lodges only exitled in the fouth, and few
hopes could be entertained of revival, while the feat of
the grand lodge was at fuch a dilianoe as the city of
York. In fuch circumftances the four lodges met in
1717, and, in order to give vigour to their declining fnllitution
caufe, and advance the interefts of the fraternity in the the
fouth, they ele£led themfelves into a grand lodge, and lo(^e
chofe Anthony Sayer, Efq. for their firlt grandmaller. jn j
Thus was inftituted the grand lodge of England, which
h^s now attained to fuch a pitch of profperity and
fplendour. The motive which fuggeiled this inllitution,
was certainly laudable and ufeful ; but every perfon
mull be aware, that the four lodges were guilty of a
confiderable impropriety in omitting to requell the
countenance of the grand lodge of York. Notwdth-
flanding this negligence, the greateft harmony fubfiiled
between the two grand lodges till 1734 j and under
the aufpices of both, the order tlouriffied in every part
of the kingdom, but particularly in the fouth of Eng¬
land, where it had formerly been in fuch a languishing
condition. In the year 1734, however, the grand lodge
of England having granted conllitutions to lodges with¬
in the diftridl of York, without the confent of their
grand lodge, incurred to fuch a degree the difpleafure
of the York mafons, that the friendly intereourfe which
had formerly fubfiiled between them, was completely
broken off j and the profperity of the one was always
viewed by the other with a fufpicious eye. In 1739
alio fome trilling innovations upon the ancient cufioms
of the order, having been imprudently functioned by
the grand lodge of England, i’everalof the old London
maions ^
M A S
Mafonry.
[ 664 ]
MAS
Free ma¬
fonry intro¬
duced into
different
parts of the
world.
Into the
Eaft Indies,
America,
Germany,
Africa, Sec.
mafons were highly offended, and, after feceding from
the grand lodge, and pretending to aft under tlie York
conftitution, they gave themfelves the appellation of
slncient Mafons, while they attached to thofe conneft-
ed with the grand lodge the odious appellation of Mo¬
derns, who, in their opinion, never exifted till the
year 17 17* The ancient mafons, after their feceflion,
continued to h< h! their meetings, without acknowledg¬
ing a fupefior, till the year 1772, when they chofe for
their grandmafter the duke of Athol, who was then
grandmafter eleft for Scotland. Since that period both
the grand lodges of England have attained to a high
degree of profperity •, but fuch is their mutual antipa¬
thy, that the members of the one have no correfpon-
dence or communion with thofe of the other. The
Irifh and Scotilh mafons, however, who feem rather to
favour the ancients, hold communion with both the
grand lodges, and are allowed to be prefent at all their
meetings. It is much to be regretted, that fuch re-
fpeftable bodies as the two grand lodges of England,
fhould retard the progrefs of mafonry by their mutual
jealoufies and diffenfions. Schifms in focieties general¬
ly arife from mifeonduft on both {ides, which was cer¬
tainly the cafe in the fchifm under confideration. The
moderns undoubtedly departed from their ufual caution
and propriety of conduft, by authorifing the flighteft
innovations upon the ceremonies of an ancient inftitu-
tion. But the ancients have been guilty of a greater
impropriety by being the aftive promoters of the fchifm j
and Hill more, by holding up the moderns to the ridi¬
cule of the public. If thefe errors, however, wTere mu¬
tually acknowledged, and buried in oblivion, that breach
would foon be repaired which has fo long feparated the
two lodges, and which the Scotifh and Irifh mafons
have always regarded with pity and indignation.
76. After the inftitution of the grand lodge of Eng¬
land in 17x7, free mafonry affumed a bolder and a
more independent afpeft. It was no longer confined to
the Britifh ifles, or to the capital of France, but was
deftined to irradiate every portion of the globe j and,
while the grand lodges of Scotland and England con¬
templated with pleafure the propagation of the royal
art, their diligence was fully rewarded by the gratitude
and liberality of the foreign lodges, for the gift which
they received.
77. In the year 1729 free mafonry was introdueed
, into the Eaft Indies $ and, in a ftiort time after, a pro¬
vincial grandmafter was appointed to fuperintend the
lodges in that quarter. In 1730 the grand lodge of
Ireland was inftituted ; lodges were erefted in different
parts of America } and a provincial deputation granted
to M. Thuanus, for the circle of Lower Saxony. A
patent was fent from England in 1731, to ereft a lodge
at the Hague, in which Francis Stephen, duke of Lor-
rain, and afterwards emperor of Germany, was initiated
into the order ; and provincial grandrnafters were ap¬
pointed for Ruflia, and Andalufia in Spain. In 1736
lodges were erefted at Cape Coaft, in Africa, and at
Geneva ; and provincial deputations were granted for
Upper Saxony and the American iflands. In 1738, a
lodge was inftituted at Brunfwick, under the patronage
of the grand lodge of Scotland, in which the late king
of Pruffia was initiated when prince royal. His maje-
fty was fo pleafed with the maxims and ceremonies of
the order, that he, ever afterwards, was its moft zea¬
lous partlzan, and. even requefted that a lodge fhould Mafopry.
be eftablifhed in the capital of his own dominions. In
this lodge many of the German princes were initiated,
who afterwards filled the office of grandmafter, with
much honour to themfelves, and advantage to the fra¬
ternity.
78. But while free mafonry flouriftied in thefe differ-pree ma
ent parts of the world, and in many other places whichfons perfe-
it would be tedious to enumerate, it was doomed to un-toted in
dergo a variety of perfecutions from the unfounded jea-Holian^
loufies of a few defpotic rulers, and the deep-rooted ftl-
perftition of a few Catholic priefts. Thefe perfecutions
took their rife in Holland in the year 1735. The
States General were alarmed at the rapid increale of free
mafons, who held their meetings in every town under
their government j and as they could not believe that
architefture and brotherly love were their only objefts,
they refolved to difcountenance their proceedings. In
confequence of this determination, an edift was iffued
by government, ftating, that though they had difeover-
ed nothing in the praftices of the fraternity, either in¬
jurious to the interefts of the republic, or contrary to
the charafter of good citizens ; yet, in order to prevent
any bad confequences which might enfue from fuch affo-
ciations, they deemed it prudent to abolifh the affem-
blies of free mafons. Notwithftanding this prohibition,
a refpeftable lodge continued to meet privately at Am-
fterdam *, but intelligence having been communicated
to the magiftrates, all the members were arrefted and
brought before the court of juftice. At this tribunal,
in prefence of all the magiftrates of the city, the mailers
and wardens boldly defended themfelves ; and declared
upon oath, that they were loyal fubjefts, faithful to
their religion, and zealous for the interefts of their coun¬
try ; that free mafonry was an inftitution venerable in
itfelf, and ufeful to fociety 5 and that though they could
not reveal the fecrets and ceremonies of their order,
they could affure the judges that they were contrary to
the laws neither of God nor man, and that they would
willingly admit into their order any individual in whom
the magiftrates could confide, and from whom they
might receive fuch information as would fatisfy a rea-
fonable mind. In confequenee joi thefe declarations,
the brethren were difmiffed, and the town fecretary re¬
quefted to become a member of the fraternity. After
initiation he returned to the court of juftice, and gave
fuch a favourable account of the principles and prac¬
tice of the fociety, that all the magiftrates became
brethren of the order, and zealous patrons of free
mafonry.
79. After free mafonry had thus honourably triumph-Free ma-
ed over her perfecutors in Holland, fire had to contend fonry peril
in France with prejudices equally inveterate though ^uted
lefs infuperable. Although many perfons of diftinftionI'rance’
defended the fraternity, and expoftulated with the court
on the impropriety of fevere meafures, their aflemblies
were abolifhed in 1737, under the common pretext that
fome dreadful defign was concealed beneath their in¬
violable fecrets, hoftile to religion, and dangerous to
the kingdom. But when thefe ebullitions of party fpirit
and private malice had fubfided, the prohibition of go¬
vernment was gradually forgotten, and the fraternity
in France recovered their former profperity and fplen-
dour.
80. In Germany too, the tranquillity of the or(*er Qedr^nai)>
MAS
«s Jiftirbcd by the intrigues nf fome ignorant females,
pome German ladies, who pofl'effed more curiofity than
is common to their fex, were anxious to difcover the
lecrets of free mafonry. Having been baffled in all
their attempts on the ficklenefs of their hufflands, and
the fondnefs of their admirers, they converted their cu-
nr°^y into revenge, and attempted to inflame the mind
. J^ana Tnerefathe emprefs queen, again!! the lodges
lnrr fnna‘t att8mpt was in fome meafure fuc-
ceisrul, as they perfuaded her to iffue an order for fur-
prifing all the mafons in the city when affembled in
their lodges. This plan, however, was fruftrated by
the intervention of the emperor Jofeph I. who beina-
himfelf a mafon, pledged himfelf for the good conduct
of his brethren, and fliowed the ladies and their friends
that their charges againft the order were falfe and de¬
famatory.
Veemafons. Si. When the flame of perfecution is once kindled
11 Italy16 ltSs c!eva^ai;ions are Seldom confined to the fpot where it
oisginated. The example of one nation is urged as an
excufe for the condua of another; and like the ftorm
on the landy defert, its effeas are ruinous in proportion
to its progrefs. In Holland and France the hollility of
the government again!! free mafonry was foon difarmed.
But when the flame reached the ecclefiaftical flates of
Italy, its effeas were more baneful and its duration
more lengthened. In the year 1738, a formidable bull
was thundered from the conclave, not only againft free
mafons themfelves, but againft all thofe who counte¬
nanced a fet of men who, in the opinion of his holinefs,
were enemies to the tranquillity of the Hate, and hoftile
to the fpiritual interefts of fouls. This bull was follow¬
ed by an edia dated 14th January 1739, in which the
fervitude of the galleys, the tortures of the rack, and a
fine of 1000 crowns in gold, were threatened to perfons
of every defcription who breathed the infectious air of
a mafonic affembly. A few weeks afterwards a decree
was. iffued by his holinefs condemning a French book,
entitled An Apology for the Society of Free Mafons’
and ordering it to be burnt by the minifters of juftice’
m one of the beft frequented ftreets of Rome
[ 665 ] MAS
they might preferve the myfteries of free mafbnry from Mafonry.
fuch of the members as were not malons, they rejeaed
from their ritual all the mafonic figns and ceremonies j
and in order to efcape the vengeance of the church of
Rome, they converted the oath of fecrecy into a fimple
promife, and admitted women into their new aflbcia-
tion. The mopfes were patronifed by the moft illuf-
trious charaaers in Germany, and feveral princes of the
empire w'ere grand mailers o! the older. The hoftility
of the Roman fee to the proteftants in Germany in¬
duced the mopfes to exclude them from their fraternity ;
but this was merely a pretence to deceive his holintfs,
for they afterwards admitted men of every religion and
of every country.
84. As the authority of the pope did not extend to
Switzerland, free mafonry flourifhed in that republic till
I74I; when the council of Berne iffued an edia pro¬
hibiting under the feverell penalties the affemblies of
free mafons. No reafon was afligned for this condua,
and no charges advanced againft the order. The coun¬
cil of Berne are terrified for fecret affociations, and
therefore they muft opprefs and pcrfecute them. Not
fatisfied with abolifhing the lodges in the republic, they
decreed that every free mafon muft accufe himfelf be¬
fore the magiftrates of the diftria, that he muft re¬
nounce his obligations to fecrecy, and fwear in the pre¬
fence of the Almighty, to trample upon ihofe engage¬
ments, which before the fame Being they had fworn to
revere. Such an inftance of tyranny over the minds
and confciences of men, is a remarkable faa in the hif-
tory of a republic where the reformed religion had been
praaifed from its infancy, and where free mafons
had always conduaed themfelves with exemplary pro¬
priety.
85. Ihe perfecutions which free mafonry encounter-Freemafon-
ed were hitherto confined to the continent. The tidePerrecu-
of religious frenzy, however, now rolled to the fliores!e^Jn
_r r> !. • r . _ . land.
HI in Ho!- 82, In confequence of thefe enaaments at Rome,
f t id. the catholic clergymen in Holland attempted in 1740
to enforce obedience to the decrees of their fuperiors.
In examining the religious qualifications of thole who
required a certificate to receive the holy facrament, the
pnefts took occafion to refufe the certificate to fuc’h as
"were free mafons, and expelled them for ever from the
communion table. Having exerted their authority in
the expulfion of feveral refpeaable charafters, the atten¬
tion of the public was roufed by fuch arbitrary proceed¬
ings, and after the publication of feveral pamphlets by
the adherents of both parties, the Hates general inter¬
fered, and prohibited the exercife of that fpiritual
powder, which, inftead of fuppreffing immorality7, had
excited divifions among their fellow fubjefls.
1 i tut ion ?3- /n order to preferve the order from that ruin to
‘ tieafib- which it feemed faft approaching, feveral free mafons of
H on of diftinftion in Germany who were friendly to the church
1= implies, of Rome, inftituted a new affociation formed on the
fame principles, and prepofing to itfelf the fame objec!
as free mafonry. The members were denominated
mopfex, from the German word wgAr, fignifying a young
malliff, which was deemed a proper emblem of the mu¬
tual fidelity and attachment of the brethren. But that
Vol. XII. Part II.
of Britain. In the year I745> the Aflhciate Synod at¬
tempted to difturb the peace of the fraternity ; and had
they been poffeffed of half the power of the church of
Rome or the council of Berne, their proceedings,
prompted by equal fanaticifm, would have been mark¬
ed with the lame feverity j but, fortunately for the or¬
der, their pow'er extended only to the fpiritual concerns
of thofe delinquents w ho were of the fame fed! with
themfelves. In the beginning of the year 1745, an
overture was laid before the fynod of Stirling, Hating
that many improper things were performed at the initia¬
tion of mafons, and requefting that the fynod would con-
fider whether or not the members of that order w'ere en¬
titled to partake in the ordinances of religion. The fy¬
nod. remitted this overture to all the kirk leffions under
their infpeblion, allowing them to a£! as they thought
proper. In 1755, however, they appointed all their kirk-
feflions to examine every perlon who was fufpefted to
be a free mafon, and to demand an explicit anfwer to
any queftion which they might alk, concerning the ad-
miniltration of the snalon oath. In the courfe of thefe
examinations, the kirk feftion difeovered, (for they feem
hitherto to have been ignorant of it) that men who were
not archite&s were admitted into the order. On this
account the fynod, in the year 1757, thought it necef-
fary to adopt ftriifler meafures. Fhey drew up a lift of
queftions, which they appointed every kirk-feffion to
put to thofe under their charge. Thefe queftrons re-
4 P lated
MAS r 666 1 MAS
M afor.ry.
Free ma-
fonry flou-
riflies on
the conti¬
nent.
lated to what they thought were the ceremonies of free
mafonry ; and thofe who refufed to anfwer them were
debarred from religious ordinances. The objeft of
thefe proceedings was not, certainly, as is pretended, to
make the abettors of the Affociate Synod more holy
and upright, by detaching them from the fraternity.
This could have been effected without that fpecies of
examination which they authorifed. The church of
Rome were contented with difperfing the fraternity, and
receiving its repentant members into their communion.
The council of Berne went no farther than abolilhing
the fociety, and compelling the brethren to renounce
their engagements, left they (hould be inconfiftent with
the duties of citizens. But a fynod of Scottilh diffen-
ters, who cannot imitate in thefe points the church of
Rome and the council of Berne, muft compel the free
mafons of their congregation to give them an account
of thofe myfteries and ceremonies, which they durit not
obtain by regular initiation.
86. Notwiihftanding thefe perfecutions, free mafonry
flourifhed, and was in the higheft eftimation in Great
Britain, France, Germany, and feveral other kingdoms
of Europe. In 1743, it was exported from Scotland
to Denmark •, and the lodge which was then inllituted
is now the grand lodge of that kingdom. The fame
profperity has attended the firit lodge in Sweden, which
was erefted at Stockholm in 1754, under a patent from
Scotland. In 1765, a fplendid apartment was eredled
at Marfeilles for the accommodation of the brethren.
It was adorned with the fineft paintings, reprefenting
the moft interetling fcenes that occur in the hiftory of
the Old and New Teftament, and calculated to remind
the fpeftator of his various duties as a man, a fubjeft,
and a Chriifian. The repreftntation of Jofeph and his
brethren, of the Samaritan and Jew, of Lot and the
Angels, muft have reminded every brother of the beau¬
ty of charity and forgivenefs, which are the firft prin¬
ciples of mafonry, as they are the firfl: duties of man.
The pidlure of Peter and the Apoftles paying tribute
to Caefar, muft have recalled to every individual his
obligations, as a citizen, to revere and fupport the con-
ftituted authorities. And the reprefentation of Job in
his misfortunes, lifting up his ha. ds to heaven, muft have
forced upon the minds of the moft: inconfiderate, this
important refleftion—>that fortitude and refignation to
the will of God are. the duties of all in diftrefs, and
that the divine blefling will ultimately attend thofe who
bear, without murmuring, the chaftifements of their fa¬
ther, and preferve, amidft the fevereft trials, their pa¬
tience and virtue unimpaired (x). Thefe obfervations,
apparently trifling, are important in one refpeft, as they
fhow that the French lodges had not at that time foftered
in their bofom the votaries of fcepticifm and difloyalty.
The other lodges in France were at this time numerous
and magnificent. The grand lodge contained about
twenty offices, which were all filled by noblemen of the
higheft rank. They had provincial grand matters fi-
milar to thofe of Scotland, and the infignia and jew'els
of all thofe office-bearers, were as rich and fplendid as
the lodges where they alFmbled.
87. In the year 1767, a lodge under an Englilh
conftitution was eftabliffied at Berlin, under the appel- Mafonry.
lation of Le Royale York, in honour of the duke of
York, who was initiated into the fraternity by that
lodge wffiile he was travelling on the continent. In
1768, the free mafons of Germany were authorifed to
hold their affemblies, by a charter granted by the king
of Pruffia, the elector of Saxony, and the queen of
Hungary and Bohemia, and afterwards by the emperor
of Germany himfelf. By another charter from Eng¬
land, in 1769, a lodge was erefted at Brunfwick, which,
a fhort time after, received a provincial deputation from
England, for fuperintending the lodges of Lower Saxony.
In the year 1773, a compaft was entered into between
the grand lodge of England, under Lord Petre, and
the grand lodge at Berlin, under the prince of Heffe
Darmftadt, which had a few years before been duly
erefted into a grand lodge, at a meeting of the mailers
and wardens of twelve regular lodges. In this com-
pa£l it was llipulated, that the grand lodge of Berlin
ihould be acknowledged as the grand lodge of the
w'hole empire of Germany, including the dominions of
his Pruffian majefty ; that it ffiould exercife no mafonic
power out of the empire of Germany, or within the dif-
trift under the authority of the grand lodge of Brunf¬
wick *, that the ele&orate of Hanover fhould be free to
both the grand lodges in Germany •, and that the
contrafling parties ihould unite their efforts to counter-
a£l all innovations in mafonry, and particularly the pro¬
ceedings of a fet of mafons in Berlin, who, under the
denomination of StriSie Obfervant'Z, bad annihilated
their former conftitutions, erefled themfelves into a
grand lodge, and fanflioned very improper innovations
upon the principles and ceremonies of the fraternity.
This compaft was highly approved of by the king of
Pruflia, who immediately erefled the grand lodge of
Berlin into a corporate body. In I777> of
Pruflia was proteflor of all the malons in Germany.
Ferdinand, duke of Brunfwick and Lunenburgh, was
grand matter of all the united lodges in Germany j
and the other offices were filled by the moft able
and illuftrious princes of the empire. Under the auf-
pices of fuch diltinguilhed perfonages, and the jurif-
diflion of the grand lodges of Berlin and Brunfwick,
free mafonry has flourilhed to the prefent day in that
extenfive empire.
88. In Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, charity- charity
fchools were erefled by the lodges, for educating thef hoois
children of free mafons, whofe poverty debarred themere<^^
from this advantage. In that which was formed at rcem
Brunfwick, they were inftru6led even in claflieal learn¬
ing, and various branches of the mathematics } and
were regularly examined by the duke of Brunfwick,
who rewarded the moft deferving with fuitable dona¬
tions. At Eifenach feveral feminaries of this kind
were eftabliftied. The teachers w ere endowed with fix¬
ed falaries •, and, in a (hort time after their inftitution,
they had fent into the world 700 children, inftrudled
in the principles of fcience, and tht doflrinesof Chrift-
ianity. In 1771, an eftablifhment of a fitnilar kind
was formed at Caffel, in which the children were main¬
tained and educated till they could provide for them¬
felves.
(x) For a further account of this building, fee Smith’s Ufe and Abufe of Free Mafonry, p. 165.
M A S
Mafonry. felves. In 1773 the united lodges of Drefden, Leip-
• fick, and Gorlitz, ereded at Fred-ricklladt a ieminary
of learning for children of every denomination in the
electorate of Saxony. The mafonic fubfcriptions were
fo numerous that the funds of the inftitution were fuf-
ficient for its maintenance ; and in the fpace of five years,
above 1100 children received a liberal education. In
the fame year, an extenfive workhoufe was ereCted at
Prague in which the children were not only initiated
into the firft principles of learning, but into thofe
branches of the ufeful and fine arts which might qualify
them for commercial and agricultural fituations. It
deferyes to be remarked, that the founders of thefe in-
fhtutions, amid their anxiety for the public profperity,
never neglefted the fpiritual interefts of the children!
They faw that early piety is the foundation of all that
is ufeful and honourable in life; and that without this
fpeculative knowledge and pra&ical fkill are of little
avail.—How inconfiftent are fuch fa£ts with thofe fa¬
bulous accounts of the German lodges, which have been
publifhed in England by a few’ party-men.
"reemafon- 89. While thefe things were going on in Germany,
y perfecu- the brethren in Portugal were expofed to the perfecu-
1 °r‘ tion of its bigotted rulers^ Major Frangois d’Alin-
[ 667 ]
M A S
court, a Frenchman, and Don Gyres de Ornellas Pra-
cao, a Portuguefe nobleman, were in 1766 imprifoned
by the governor of Madeira for their attachment to
their order. Being afterwards carried to Lilhon, they
were confined for fourteen months, till they w-ere re¬
leafed by the generous interceffion of the brethren in
that city. In the following year feveral free mafons
were confined at Naples, but foon liberated by the in-
terceflion of foreign princes, and the eloquence of an
Italian advocate.
Not with Handing the perfecutions which the fra-
90.
ternity experienced in Holland, free mafonry was
flourifhing in that republic in 1779. At that time a
compadl: was entered into between the grand lodge of
Holland, held at the Hague, and that of England. In
this compact it was ftipulated that the grand lodge of
Holland fliould be permitted to eredl lodges within her
territories, both at home and abroad, and to appoint
provincial grand mafters over each diftridl. In confe-
quence of this acceffion of power to the grand lodge of
Holland, free mafonry flourilhed, under its aufpices, in
the Dutch fettlements in India, Africa, and South
America.
rigin and 91- -h-611 us now diredl our attention to a new fecret
iftoryof affociation which about this time, arofe in Germany,
and which was imagined to have taken its rife from
free mafonry, and to have planned a diabolical con-
fpiracy againft every religious and political eftablilb-
ment in Europe. In 1775 the order of the illuminati
was founded by Dr Adam Weilhaupt, profcffor of
canon law in the univerfity of Ingoiftadt. In this af¬
fociation fpeculative opinions were inculcated, which
were certainly inconfiftent with the principles of found
religion and focial order. But that illuminifm origi¬
nated from free mafonry ; that it brought about the
trench revolution, or even planned any dangerous con-
‘e illumi.
iti.
fpiracy, are circumftances for which the fhsdow of a Mafonry.
proof has not yet been adduced. Dr Robifon indeed  V 
exprefsly affirms, that illuminifm “ took its rife among
the free mafons, but was totally different from free ma¬
fonry and by a deceitful anachronifm, he reprefents
Weifhaupt as an a&ive member in the German lodges,
before he acquaints his readers that he was the founder
of the illuminati, for no other reafon than to make
them believe that Weiftiaupt was a free mafon before
he planned his new affociation (y). $ Now the cafe was
very different indeed. Barruel himfelf afferts, “ that
it is a faff demonftrated beyond a doubt, that Weiffiaupt
became a mafon in 1777 only ; and that two years be¬
fore this, when he eftabliffied illuminifm, he was totally
unacquainted with the myfteries of free mafonry (z).”
Here then is an important faft which ftrikes at the
root of all Dr Robifon’s reafwning againft free mafonry.
Barruel maintains, that Weiffiaupt was not a mafon till
two years after the organization of his new inftitution ;
and Dr Robifon allows, that illuminifm was totally dif¬
ferent from free mafonry. The two inftitutions, there¬
fore, were totally unconne&ed ; for the members of
the one were never admitted into the lodges of the
other, without being regularly initiated into the myf¬
teries of both. Upon thefe fimple fads we would arreft:
the attention of every reader, and thofe in particular
who have been fwindled out of their fenfes, by the uni¬
ted exertions of a prieft and a philofopher.
92. After Weiffiaupt had organized his inftitution,
he exerted every nerve to diffeminate its principles,
lor this purpole he became a free mafon in 1777 ; and
by means of emiffaries, he attempted to circulate his
opinions among the French and German lodges. In
thefe attempts indeed, he was fometimes fuccefsful.
But it fliould be recolle61ed by thofe who, on this ac¬
count, calumniate free mafonry, that the fame objedion
may be urged againft Chriftianity, becaufe impoftors
have fometimes gained profelytes, and perverted the
wavering minds of the multitude. Thefe dodrines,
however, were not merely circulated by Weiffiaupt in
a few of the lodges, and taught at the affemblies of
the illuminati. They were publiftied to the world in
the moft fafcinating form, by the French encyclope-
difts ; and were inculcated in all the eloquence, with
which fome of the moft celebrated philofophers on the
continent could adorn them. It can only be faid of
Weiffiaupt, therefore, that he was not juft fuch a deter¬
mined infidel as Voltaire and his affociates.—Such is a
fhort, and it is hoped, an impartial view of the origin
and progrefs of the illuminati. It may be now proper
to attend to the caufes from which this affociation arofe,
and the advantages and difadvantages which it may
have engendered.
93. About the middle of the eighteenth century the Caufes from
literati on the continent were divided into two great which illu-
parties. The one may be confidered as ex-jefuits, orm‘nifn»
adherents to the Catholic fuperftition, who were promo- ro^e*
ters of political and religious defpotifm, and inculcated
the dodfrines of non-refiftance and paflive obedience.
The other party was compofed of men who were friends
4 ^ 2 to
(y) Proofs of a Confpiracy, Introdu&ion, p. 15. and p. 101.
1 z) Memoirs of Jacobinifm, Part iii. Preliminary Obfervations, p. 13. and p. 12.
MAS [ 668 ] MAS
Mafonry. to the reformed religion, enemies of fuperftition and
—v—~ fanaticifm, and fupporters of the abfurd doftrine of the
infinite perfeftibility of the human mind. They were
diffatisfied with that flavery which was iaipofed by the
defpotifm of the continental rulers, and the fuperftition
of the church of Rome j and many of them entertained
opinions adverfe to the Chriftian religion, and to every
exifting form of government. Between thefe two
parties there was a perpetual ftruggle for power. Ihe
ex-jefurts accufed their opponents as heretics and pro¬
moters of jacobinifm and infidelity j while the others
were conftantly expofing the intrigues of priefts, and
the tyranny of defpots. 1 o this latter elals belonged
Weithaupt and his affociates, who inftituted the order
of the illuminati for no other purpofe than to oppofe
thofe corrupted priefts, who would have degraded them
as Chriftians, and thofe tyrannical defpots who have
enflaved them as citizens. The collifion of thefe parties
was certainly productive of the greateft advantages.
While the Jefuits reftrained the inclination of one part
of the community, to overrate the dignity of the hu¬
man mind, and anticipate ideal vifions of religious and
political perfection ; the illuminati counteraCted thofe
gloomy opinions which debafe the dignity of our na¬
ture, which cheek the energies of the mind, and im-
pofe the moft galling yoke of religious and political
fervitade.
94. After the French revolution, which, as Mounier
has well ftiown, arofe from other caufes than thofe to
which Barruel and Robifon afcribe it, the plans of thefe
parties were not carried on in Germany fo fyftematical-
ly as before ; and notwithftanding the fabrications w'ith
which Barruel has calumniated the lodges in that coun¬
try, free mafonry prevails to his day, refpeCted by the
moft virtuous and icientific members of the community,
and patronized by the moft diftinguifhed princes of the
empire.
RefpeCtabi- 95- In Germany the qualifications for a free mafon
lity of free are great and numerous. No perfon is initiated into
maioiis in ^]ie order without the confent of every member of the
Germany. jocjge . an(j it frequently happens, that a German even
is excluded by a fingle diffenting voice. On this ac¬
count the lodges of that country are filled w-ith perfons
of the fir ft rank and refpeClability 5 and every thing is
conduCled with the greateft decorum and folemnity.
As mafonry is there held in the higheft eftimation, an
Engliftunan will obtain an eafier introduction to the
chief nobility and literali of Germany in a mafon lodge
than in any other place j and will never repent of ha¬
ving been initiated into the order in his native coun¬
try (a).
96. After the publication of the works of Barruel
and Robifon, the progrefs of free mafonry in Britain
was retarded by an aCt of parliament in 1799 f°r the
lupprefliori of feditious focieties, by which the fraternity
were virtually prohibited from ereCting new lodges in
the kingdom. But this aCt was not prompted by the
calumnies of thefe writers. It became neceffary from
the political condition of the kingdom j and the excep¬
tions which it contained in favour of free mafons, com¬
pletely prove that government never credited the re- Mafonry
ports of thefe alarmifts, but placed the moft implicit Mafou.
confidence in the loyalty and prudence of Britifh ma- Y ^
fons. The private characters, indeed, as well as the
public fituations of thofe individuals who are now grand
mafters of the order, are a fufficient pledge to the le-
giflature and the uninitiated public, that free mafonry
will preferve in thefe kingdoms its ancient purity and
fimplicity, and that it will ever continue to be the foe
of defpotiim and oppreflion, the enemy of fuperftition
and fanaticifm, the promoter of civilization and good
order, and the friend of true benevolence and unafteClcd
piety.
MASORA, a term in the Jewifti theology, fignify-
ing a work on the Bible, performed by feveral learned
rabbins, to fecure it from any alterations which might
otherwife happen.
Their work regards merely the letter of the Hebrew
text, in which they have, firft, fixed the true reading
by vowels and accents : they have, fecondly, numbered
not only the chapters and feClions, but the verfes,
words, and letters of the text : and they find in the
Pentateuch 5245 verfes, and in the whole Bible 23,206.
The mafora is caIRd, by the Jews, the hedge or fence of
the /aw, becaufe this enumeration of the verfes, &c.
is a means of preferving it from being corrupted and
altered. They have, thirdly, marked whatever irregu¬
larities occur in any of the letters of the Hebrew text 5
fuch as the different fize of the letters, their various
pofitions and inverfions, See. and they have been fruit¬
ful in finding out reafons for thefe irregularities and
myfteries in them. They are, fourthly, fuppofed to
be the authors of the Keri and Chetibh, or the margi¬
nal corrections of the text in our Hebrew Bibles.
The text of the faered books, it is to be obferved,
was originally written without any breaks or divifions
into chapters or verfes, or even into words •, fo that a
whole book, in the ancient manner, was but one con¬
tinued w’ord 5 of this kind we have ftill feveral ancient
manuferipts, both Greek and Latin. In regard, there¬
fore, the facred wrilings had undergone an infinite
number bf alterations, whence various readings had
arifen, and the original was become much mangled
and difguifed, the Jews had recourfe to a canon, which
they judged infallible, to fix and afeertain the reading
of the Hebrew text ; and this rule they call tnafora,
“ tradition,” from tradidit, as if this critique
wrere nothing but a tradition which they had received
from their forefathers. Accordingly they fay, that
when God gave the law to Mofes at Mount Sinai, he
taught him, firft, the true reading of it ^ and, fecond¬
ly, its true interpretation •, and that both thefe were
handed down by oral tradition, from generation to ge¬
neration, till at length they were committed to writing.
The former of thefe, viz. the true reading, is the fub-
jeCt of the mafora ; the latter, or true interpretation,
that of the mifhna and gemara.
According to Elias Levita, they were the Jews of
a famous fehool at Tiberias, about 500 years after
Chrift, who coropofed, or at leaft began, the mafora ;
whence
(a) Dr Render’s Tour through Germany, Introduction to vol. i. p. 30. and 33. Dr Render maintains, that
free mafonry has greatly improved the manners and difpofition of the Germans. See vol, ii. p. 200 Note*
mas [ 669 ] MAS
Mafora, -whence they are called mafontes, and nwforetic doBors.
Aben Ezra makes them the authors of the points and
accents in the Hebrew text, as we now find it j and
which ferve for vowels.
'Ihe age of the maforites has been much difputed.
Archbifiiop Ufher places them before Jerome ; Capel,
at the end of the fifth century \ Father Morin, in the
tenth century. Bafnage fays, that they were not a fo-
ciety, but a luceeflion of men j and that the mafora is
the work of many grammarians, who, without alfoci-
ating and communicating their notions, compofed this
collection of criticifms on the Hebrew text. It is ur¬
ged that there were maforites from the time of Ezra and
the men of the great fynagogue, to about the year of
Chrift 1030 : and that Ben Alher and Ben Naphtali,
w ho were the belt of the profefikm, and who, according
to Balnage, w'ere the inventors of the mafora, flourilhed
at this time. Each of thefe publilhed a copy of the
whole Hebrew text, as correCt, fays Dr Prideaux, as
they could make it. The eaftern Jews have followed
that of Ben Naphtali, and the weftern that of Ben
Ather *, and all that has been done fince is to copy
after them, without making any more correftions or
maiorttical criticifms.
The \rabs have done the fame thing by their Ko¬
ran that the maiorites have done by the Bible •, nor do
the Jews deny their having borrowed this expedient
from the Arabs, who firlt put it in praCtice in the feventh
century.
There is a great and little Mafora printed at Venice
and at Bafil, with the Hebrew text in a different cha-
rafter. Buxtorf has written a maforelic commentary,
which he calls Tibernts.,
MASQUE, or Mask, a cover for the face, con¬
trived with apertures for the eyes and mouth •, origi¬
nally worn chiefly by women of condition, either to
preferve their complexion from the weather, or out of
mndeily to prevent their being known. Poppaea, wife
of Nero, is faid to be the firft inventor of the mafque ;
which (he did to guard her complexion from the fun
and w'eather, as being the moft delicate woman, with
regard to her perfon, that has been know-n.
Theatrical mafques w'ere in common ufe both among
the Greeks and Romans: Suidas and Athenasasafcribe
the invention of them to the poet Chcerilus, a contem¬
porary of Thefpis : Horace attributes them to ^Tifchy-
lus; but Ariftotle informs us, that the real inventor,
and confequently the time of their firft introduftion
and ufe, were unknowm. Brantome obferves, that the
common ufe of modern mafques was not introduced till
towards the end of the fixteenth century.
Masque is alfo ufed to fignify any thing ufed to
cover the face, and prevent a perfonrs being known.
The penitents of Lyons and Avignon hide their faces
with large white veils, which ferve them for mafques.
The Iron MASQUE {Mafque de Ferf) or Man with
the Iron Mafque, a remarkable perfonage fo denominat¬
ed, who rxifted as a ftate prifoner in France during
the latter part of the 17th century. As the circum-
ftances of this perfon form a hiftorical problem which
has occafioned much inquiry, and given rife to many
conjeftures, as well as of late, in confequence of the de-
ftruftion of the Baftile, excited in a particular manner
the curiofity of the public, it (halt be endeavoured to
eondenfe in this article the fubftance of every thing
5
material that has been publilhed on the fubjeft. We Mafquev
fhall firft relate fuch particulars concerning this extra-
ordinary prifoner as appear to be well authenticated j
and lhall afterwards mention the different opinions and
conjeftures that have been entertained with regard to
his real quality, and the caules of his confinement.
I. The authenticated particulars concerning the Iron
Mafque are as follows : A few months alter the death
of Cardinal Mazarine, there arrived at the ifle of Sainte
Marguerite, in the fea of Provence, a young prifoner
whofe appearance was peculiarly attrafting : his per¬
fon w as above the middle fize, and elegantly formed ;
his mien and deportment were noble, and his manners
graceful ; and even the found of his voice, it is faid,
had in it fomething uncommonly interefting. On the
road he conftantly wore a mafque made w-iih iron
fprings, to enable him to eat without taking it off. It
was at firft believed that this mafque was made entire¬
ly with iron ; whence he acquired the. name of “ the
Man with the iron malk.” His attendants had receiv¬
ed orders to defpatch him if he attempted to take oft'
his mafque or d-ifcover himfelf. He had been firft con¬
fined at Pignerol, under the care of the governor M. de
St Mars j and upon being fent from thence to Sainte
Marguerite, he was accompanied thither by the fame
perfon, who continued to have the charge of him. He
was always treated with the moft marked refpeft : he
was ferved conftantly in plate \ and the governor him¬
felf placed his dilhes’on the table, retiring immediately
after and locking the door behind him. He lu-to^yoit
(thee’d and thou’d) the governor ; Avho, on the other
hand, behaved to him in the moft; refpeftful manner,
and never wore his hat before him, nor fat down ia
his prefence unlefs he was defired. The marquis dc
Louvoifis, who went to fee him at St Marguerite,
fpoke to him Handing, and with that kind of attention
which denotes high refpeft.
During his refidence here, he attempted twice, in
an indireft manner, to make himfelf known. One
day he wrote fomething w ith his knife on a plate, and
threw it out of his window towards a boat that was
drawm on fliore near the foot of the tower. A fiftier-
man picked it up and carried it to the governor. Mi
de St Mars was alarmed at the fight j and a&ed the
man with great anxiety, whether he could read, and
whether any one elfe had feen, the plate ? The man
anfwered, that he could not read, that he had but juft
found the plate, and that no one elfe had feen it. He
was, however, confined till the governor was well af-
fured of the truth of his affertions.-—Another attempt
to dilcover himfelf proved equally unfuccefsful. A
young man who lived in the life, one day perceived
fomething floating under the prifoner’s w'indow ; and
on picking it up, he difcovered it to be a very fine
fhirt written all over. He carried it immediately to
the governor; who, having looked at fame parts of
the writing, afked the lad, with fame appearance of
anxiety, if he had not had the curiofity to read it Fie
protefted repeatedly that he had not y but two days
afterwards he was found dead in his bed.
The Mafque de Fer remained in this ifle till the year
1698, when M. St Mars being promoted to the go¬
vernment of the Baftile, condufted his prifoner to that
fortrefs. In his way thither, he ftopt with him at his
«ftat® near Palteau. The Mafque arrived there in a
litter*
M AS [ 670 ] M A S
Mafque. litter, furrounded by a numerous guard on horfeback.
M. de St Mars ate at the fame table with him all the
time they refided at Palteau; but the latter was always
placed with his back towards the windows; and the
peafants, who came to pay their compliments to their
mailer, and whom curiolity kept conftantly on the
watch, obferved that M. de St Mars always fat op-
pofite to him with two piftols by the fide of his plate.
They were waited on by one fervant only, who brought
in and carried out the dilhes, always carefully {hutting
the door both in going out and returning. The pri-
foner was always malked, even when he paffed through
the court j but the people faw his teeth and lips, and
alfo obferved that his hair was gray.—The governor
llept in the fame room with him, in a fecond bed that
was placed in it on that occafion. In the courfe of
their journey, the Iron Malk was, one day heard to
alk his keeper whether the king had any defign on
his life ? “ No, prince,” he replied j “ provided that
you quietly allow yourfelf to be conduced, your life is
perfectly fecure.”
The Itranger was accommodated as well as it was
poffible to be in the Baftile. An apartment had been
prepared for him by order of the governor before his
arrival, fitted up in the moft convenient llyle $ and
every thing he exprelfed a defire for was inllantly pro¬
cured him. His table was the bell that could be pro¬
vided j and he was ordered to be fupplied with as rich
clothes as he defired : but his chief tafte in this laft
particular was for lace, and for linen remarkably fine.
It appears that he was allowed the ufe of fuch books
as he defired, and that he fpent much of his time in
reading. He alfo amufed himfelf with playing upon
the guitar. He had the liberty of going to mafs ;
but w'as then ftriflly forbid to fpeak or uncover his
face : orders were even given to the foldiers to fire upon
him if he attempted either j and their pieces w ere al¬
ways pointed towards him as he palfed through the
court. When he had occafion to fee a furgeon or a
phyfician, he was obliged, under pain of death, con-
llantly to wear his malk. An old phyfician of the
Baftile, who had often attended him when he was in-
difpofed, faid, that he never faw' his face, though he
had frequently examined his tongue, and different parts
of his body j that there was fomething uncommonly
interefting in the found of his voice j and that he ne¬
ver complained of his confinement, nor let fall from
him any hint by which it might be gueffed who he was.
It is faid that he often paffed the night in walking up
and down his room.
This unfortunate prince died on the 19th of No¬
vember 1703, after a Ihort illnefs j and was interred
next day in the burying-place of the parilh of St Paul.
The expence of his funeral amounted only to forty
livres. The name given him was Marchiali: and even
his age, as well as his real name, it Teemed of import¬
ance to conceal; for in the regifter made of his fune¬
ral, it was mentioned that he was about forty years
old*, though he had told his apothecary, fome time
before his death, that he thought he muft be fixty.—
It is a well-known fadl, that immediately after the
prifoner’s death, his apparel, linen, clothes, mattreffes,
and in Ihort every thing that had been ufed by him,
'Were burnt; that the walls of his room were fcraped,
the floor taken up, evidently from the apprehenfion
I
that he might have found means of writing any thing Mafque.
that would have difcovered w-ho he was. Nay, fuch '■v—^
was the fear of his having left a letter or any mark
which might lead to a difcovery, that his plate was
melted down j the glafs was taken'out of the window
of his room and pounded to dull j the window-frame
and doors burnt 5 and the ceiling of the room, and
the plafter of the infide of the chimney, taken down.
Several perfons have affirmed, that the body was bu¬
ried without a head j and Monfieur de Saint Foix in¬
forms us*, that “ a gentleman having bribed the fex- #rn hi,ry
ton, had the body taken up in the night, and found KfaU Hiflo.
ftone inftead of the head.” riques.
The refult of thefe extraordinary accounts is, that
the Iron Mafque was not only a perfon of high birth,
but muft have been of great confequence j and that
his being concealed was of the utmoft importance to
the king and miniftry. We come now, therefore, to
notice,
II. The opinions and conjeftures that have been
formed concerning the real name and condition of this
remarkable perfonage. Some have pretended that he
was the duke of Beaufort j others, that he was the
count de Vermandois, natural fon to Louis XIV. by
the duchefs de la Valliere. Some maintain him to
have been the duke of Monmouth, natural fon of
Charles II. of England by Lucy Walters j and others
fay, that he was Gerolami Magni, minifter to the duke
of Modena.
Befides thefe conje&ures, none of which poffeffes
fufficient probability to entitle them to confideration,
a fifth has been advanced j namely, That the Iron
Matque was a fon of Anne of Auftria, queen to
Louis XIII. and confequently that he was a brother of
Louis XIV. j but whether a baftard brother, a bro¬
ther-german, or a half-brother, is a queftion that has
given rife to three feveral opinions, which we lhall
ftate in the order of time in which the refpedlive tranf-
adtions to which they allude happened.
1. The firft opinion is, that the queen proved with
child at a time when it was evident it could not have
been by her hulband, who, for fome months before,
had never been with her in private. "The fuppofed
father of this child is faid by fome to have been the
duke of Buckingham, who came to France in May
1625, to conduft the Princefs Henrietta, wife of
Charles I. to England. The private letters and me¬
moirs of thofe times fpeak very fufpicioully of the
queen and Buckingham \ his behaviour at Amiens,
whither the queen and queen-mother accompanied the
princefs in her way to Boulogne, occajioned much whif-
perirg: notwithftanding the pains that have been ta¬
ken by La Porte in his Memoires to excufe his miftrefs,
it appears that the king, on this occafion, was ex¬
tremely offended at her, and that it required all the
influence and addrefs of the queen-mother to effeft a
reconciliation. It is faid, that this child was privately
brought up in the country •, that when Mazarine be¬
came a favourite, he was intrufted with the care of
him -, and that Louis XIV. having difcovered the
fecret on the death of the cardinal, thought it ne*
ceffary to confine him in the manner that has been re-
lated. ,
But it may be obferved, that this fceret could U
fcarcely have efcaped the vigilance of the cardinal dej^j 05,^43.
Richlieu 5
MAS [67
Jlafque- Richlieu j and it is not improbable, that a minifter fo
v  little fcrupulous, if inclined to fave the honour of a
queen, would have removed a child, who, if he lived,
might have been made ufe of to difturb th&tranquil¬
lity of the kingdom. After this fuppofed birth, the
queen had frequent quarrels with the king, and what
was more dangerous, with the cardinal $ who even
ufed every means in his power to inquire into her molt
private tranfaflions. It was on a memorable occa-
lion of this kind, that her fervant La Porte was thrown
into the Baftile ; and it can fcarcely be imagined (lie
would have had the firmnefs Ore then difplayed, while
confcious of fo much guilt, and under the rilk of hav¬
ing it difcovered. The prifoner with the mafque ap¬
pears, by feveral accounts, to have been a youth of
a handfome figure in the year 1661 ^ and in 1703,
when he died, to have been above fixty ; but had
he been a fon of Buckingham, he would have been
about thirty-fix in 1661, when he could not be faid to
have been a youth j and in November 1703, about
feventy-eight.
2. The fecond opinion is, that he was the twin bro¬
ther of Louis XIV born fome hours after him. This
firft appeared in a Ihort anonymous work publilhed
without date, and without the name of place or printer.
It is therein faid, “ Louis XIV. was born at St Ger¬
mains en Laye, on the 5th of September 1638, about
noon ; and the illuftrious prifoner, known by the ap¬
pellation of the Iron Mafque, was born the fame day,
while Louis XIII. was at fupper. The king and the
cardinal, fearing that the pretenfions of a twin brother
might one day be employed to renew thofe civil wars
with which France had been fo often afflifted, cauti-
oufly concealed his birth, and fent him away to be
brought up privately. Having but an imperfed know¬
ledge of the circumftances that followed, I lhall fay
nothing more, for fear of committing errors 5 but I
firmly believe the fa£t I have mentioned ; and time
will probably prove to my reader, that I have ground
for what I have advanced.”
This opinion has been more noticed fince the publi¬
cation of a work called Metnoires du Marechal Due de
Rieh/ieu, written by the abbe Soulavie; concerning
which it may be proper to premife, that the prefent
duke of Richlieu, fon of the marechal, difavows this
work, while the abbe Soulavie, who had been em¬
ployed by the marechal, infifts on the authenticity of
his papers (a). He informs us, that the duke of Rich¬
lieu was the lover of Mademoifelle de Valois, daughter
of the regent duke of Orleans, and afterwards duchefs
of Modena, who in return was paffionately fond of him ;
that the regent had fomething more than a paternal
affection for his daughter ; and that, though Ihe held
his fentiments in abhorrence, the duke of Richlieu
made ufe of her influence with her father to difeover
the fecret of the prifoner with the mafque ; that the
regent, who had always obferved the moll profound
filence on this fubjeft, was at laft perfuaded to intruft
her with a manufeript, which (he immediately fent to
her lover, who took a copy of it. This manufeript is
i ] MAS
fuppofed to have been written by a gentleman on his Mafque.
deathbed, who had been the governor of the prifoner. "v—""
The following is an extract of it, from what the abbi
Soulavie has told us.
“ The birth of the prifoner happened in the evening
of the 5th of September 1638, in prefence of the chan¬
cellor, the bilhop of Meaux, the author of the manu¬
feript, a midwife named Peronete, and a fieur Honorat.
This circumftance greatly difturbed the king’s mind j
he obferved, that the Salique law had made no provi-
fion for fuch a cafe j and that it was even the opinion
of fome, that the laft born was the firfl: conceived, and
therefore had a prior right to the other. By the ad¬
vice of Cardinal de Richlieu, it was therefore refolved
to conceal his birth, but to preferve his life, in cafe by
the death of his brother it (hould be neceffary to avow
h'm. A declaration was drawn up, and figned and
fworn to by all prefent, in which every circumftance
was mentioned, and feveral marks on his body deferib-
ed. This document being fealed by the chancellor
with the royal feal, was delivered to the king j and all
were commanded and took an oath never to fpeak on
the fubjeft, not even in private and among themfelves.
The child was delivered to the care of Madame Pero¬
nete the midwife, to be under the direftion of Cardinal
de Richlieu, at whofe death the charge devolved to
Cardinal de Mazarine. Mazarine appointed the author
of the manufeript his governor, and intruded to him
the care of his education. But as the prifoner was
extremely attached to Madame Peronete, and ftie
equally fo to him, Ihe remained with him till her death.
His governor carried him to his houfe in Burgundy,
where he paid the greateft attention to his education.
“ As the prifoner grew up, he became impatient to
difeover his birth, and often importuned his governor
on that fubjefh His curiofity had been roufed by
obferving that meffengers from the court frequently
arrived at the houfe : and a box, containing letters
from the queen and the cardinal, having one day been
inadvertently left out, he opened it, and faw enough
to guefs at the fecret. From that time he became
thoughtful and melancholy •, ‘ which (fays the author)
I could not then account for. He Ihortly after alked
me to get him a portrait of the late and prefent king ;
but I put him off by faying that I could not procure
any that were good. He then defired me to let him
go to Dijon ; which I have known fince was with an
intention of feeing a portrait of the king there, and
of going fecretly to St John de. Lus, w ere the court
then was on oceafion of the marriage with the infanta.
He was beautiful $ and love helped him to aceomplifti
his wilhes. He had captivated the affections of a
young houfekeeper, who procured him a portrait of
the king. It might have lerved for either of the bro¬
thers-, and the di’covery put him into fo violent a paf-
fion, that he immediately came to me with the portrait
in his hand, faying, Voila mon frere et voi/a que jefuis,
fhowing me at the fame time a letter of the cardinal de
Mazarine that he had taken out of the box.’ Upon this
difeovery his governor immediately fent an exprefs to
court
(a) A letter from the duke of Richlieu, and anfwer from the abbd Soulavie, appeared in the Journal de
Paris.
MAS [ 672 ] * MAS
Mafguc, court to communicate what had happened, and to defire
new inftru&ions; the confequence of which was, that
the governor and the young prince under his care w ere
arretted and confined."”
This memoir, real or fictitious, concludes with fay¬
ing, “ I have fuffered with him in our common prifon:
I am now fummoned to appear before my judge on high;
and for the peace of my foul I cannot but make this
declaration, which may point out to him the means of
freeing himfelf from his prefent ignominious fituation,
in cafe the king his brother thould die without children.
Can an extorted oath compel me to obferve fecrecy on
a thing fo incredible, but which ought to be left on
record to pofterity.”
3. The third opinion is, that he was a fon of the
queen by the cardinal de Mazarine, born about a year
after the death of her hufband Louis XIII. j that he
was brought up fecretly ; and that foon after the death
of the cardinal, which happened on the 9th of March
1661, he was fent to Pignerol. To this account F.a-
* Traite de therGriffet *' objeCls, “ that it was needlefs to mafque
la verity dea face that was unknown 5 and therefore that this
VHi/loire, opinion does not merit difcuflion.” But in anfwer it
p. 318. n. fogg bgpn obferved, That the prifoner might Itrongly
refemble Lords XIV. which would be a fufficient rea-
fon to have him mafked. This opinion is fuppofed to
have been that entertained by Voltaire, who afferts his
thorough knowledge of the fecret, though he declined
being altogether explicit. The abbe Soulavie, author
of Memoirs of the Marechal de Richlieu, fpeaking on
this fubjeft, fays, “ That he once obferved to the ma¬
rechal, that he certainly had the means of being in¬
formed who the prifoner was ; that it even feemed that
he had told Voltaire, who durft not venture to publifh
the fecret 5 and that he at laft alked him, whether he
was not the elder brother of Louis XIV. born without
the knowledge of Louis XIII.? That the marechal
Teemed embarrafled, but afterwards faid, that he was
neither the ‘baftard brother of Louis XIV. nor the
duke of Monmouth, nor the count of Vermandois, nor
the duke of Beaufort, as different authors had advan¬
ced ; that their conjeftures were nothing but reveries :
but added, that they however had related many cir-
cumftances that were true ; that in fad the order was
given to put the prifoner to death if he difcovered
himfelf*, and that he finilhed the converfation by fay¬
ing, All I can tell you on the fubjed is, that the p>i-
foner was not of fuch eonfequenee when he died at the
beginning of the prefent century as he had been at the
beginning of the reign of Louis XIV. and that he
was (hut up for important reafons of Hate.” The
abbc Soulavie tells us, that he wrote down what had
been faid, and gave it to the marechal to read, who
corroded fome expreffions. The abbe having pro-
pofed fome further queffions, he anlwered. “ Read
what Voltaire publifhed lad on the fubj< d of the pri¬
foner with the rnafque, efpecially at the end, and refled
on it.”—-The paffage of Voltaire alluded to, is as fol¬
lows : -
“ I he man with the mafque (fays he), is an enigma
of which every one would guefs the meaning. Some
have faid that it w-as the duke of Beaufort ; but the
duke of Beaufort was killed by the Turks in the de¬
fence of Candy in 1669, anc* l^e pnf®ner with the
mafque was at Pignerol in 1661. Befides, how could
the duke of Beaufort have been arrefted in thd midft Mafqiw,
of his army, and brought to France, without any one '—v^-
knowing it? and why confine him? and why that
mafque ?'-s^Others have dreamed that he was the count
de Vermandois, natural Ion of Louis XIV. who died
publicly at the army in 1683 of the fmallpox, and
was buried at the little town of Aire and not Arras *,
in which Father Griffet w-as mifl.aken, but in which
to be fure there is no great harm. Others have ima¬
gined, that it w'as the duke of Monmouth, who was
beheaded publicly in London in the year 1685. But
for this he muff have rifen again from the dead, and
he mull have changed the order of time, and placed
the year 1662 in the room of the year 1685. King
James, who never forgave any one, and who on that
account delerved all that happened to him, muff have
pardoned the duke of Monmouth, and got another to
die in his (lead, who perfeftly refembled him. This
Sofia muft firft have been found, and then he mull
have had the goodnefs to let his head be cut off in
public, to fave the duke of Monmouth. It wan ner
ceflary that all England thould be miiiaken •, and that
King James (hould beg of Louis XIV. to be fo oblig¬
ing as to be his gaoler •, that Louis XIV. after having
(hown this trifling piece of civility to King James,
(hould not have been wanting in the fame attention to
his friend King William and to Queen Anne (with
both of whom he was engaged in war), and to pleafe
them, retained the dignity of gaoler, with which James
had honoured him.
“ All thefe illuiions being diffipated, it then remains
to know who this prifoner was, and at what age he
died. It is clear, that if he was not permitted to
crofs the court of the Baflile, or to ffpeak to his phy-
fician, except covered with a mafque, it muff have been
from the apprehenfion that his features and counte¬
nance might have difcovered fome refemblance. He 1
could (how his tongue but not his face. He (aid him¬
felf to the apothecary of the Baftile, a few- days before
his death, that he believed he was about 60. Mr Mar-
foban, who was fon-in-law to this apothecary, and fur-
geon to the marechal de Richlieu, and artenvards to
the regent duke of Orleans, told me this frequently.
Why give him an iTALIANwamt ?—They always call¬
ed him Marchialu He who writes this article perhaps
knows more than Father Griffet, but he will fay no¬
thing farther.”
This opinion has been lately refumed, illuflrated,
and enforced, by M. de Saint Mihiel, in a work en¬
titled' Le Veritable Homme, &c. “ The real Man wjth
the Iron Mafque.” The author, in fu-pport of his
idea, attempts to prove that Anne of Auftria and Car¬
dinal Mazarine were married. This, lays he, the
duchefs of Orleans affures us of in three of her letters.
In the firft, dated Sept. 13. 1713, die expreffes her-
felf as follows : “ Old Beauvais, who was firft lady of
the bedchamber to the queen dowager, was a quauit-
ed with the fecret of the ridiculous marriage ; this
rendered it neceffavy for the queen to do every thing
that her confidant withed ; and this circumftauce has
given rife in this country to an extenfion of the rights
of firft ladies of the bedchamber.” In the fecond of
thefe letters, dated Nov. 2. 1717, (he fays, “ The queen-
mother, widow/ of Louis XIII. did worfe than love
Cardinal Mazarine j (he married him, for he was not
%
MAS*
Marque, a pnefl: ; he was not even in orders-; and who could
~~r~~ have hindered her ? He was moit horribly tired of the
good queen-mother, and lived on very bad terms with
her, which is the reward that people deferve.for enter¬
ing into inch marriages.” In her third letter, dated
July 2. 1,719, (peaking of the queen, the duchefs (ays
‘bhe was perfectly eafy refpeding Cardinal Mazarine :
he was not a pried, and therefore nothing could pre¬
vent their being married. The fecret paflage through
which the cardinal went every evening {o the queen’s
apartment is ttill td be feen at the Palais Royal.” A-
mong other proofs befide.s the above, which M. de
St Mihiel brings to fubdantiate this marriage, he ob-
• ierves, that Mazarine held all councils of date in his
apartment* whiid he was (having or dreffing ; that he
never permitted any perfon to fi; down in his’prefence
not even the chancellor nor mardial de Villeroi; and
that while they were deliberating with him on date
aftatrs, H would be often playii^g with his monkey or
linnet. VV hat man (continues the author) would have
iubje&ed to (uch humiliations a chancellor, who holds
tae fird office in the kingdom dnee that of condable
has been fuppreiTed, and a mardiai who was governor
to the king, had he not been in reality a fovereign
himielf, in virtue of his being hufband to the queen-
regent ? He therefore concludes, that the man with the
m>n mafque was fon to Anne of Audria and Cardinal
Mazarine ; and endeavours to judify this aflertion by a
vanecy of conji dural proofs. Of' fome of thefe we
jnall give a diort (ketch :—
1. No piince, or perfon of any confideration, after
the year 16445 which time the man with the iron
Hiafque was born, until the time when his exidence
was known, difappeared in France. This perfonage,
therefore, was not a prince or great lord of France
known at that time,
2. 1 he man with the iron mafque was not a fo¬
reigner ; for foreigners, even of the highed didindion
did not at that period dudy the French language in
luch a manner as to attain fo great perfedion in it as to
pa(s for Frenchmen. If this prifoner had fpoken with
the lead foreign accent, the officers, phyficians, fur-
geons, apothecaries, confeiTors, and others employed m
the prifons where he wa|, and dpecjally the priloners
with whom he converfed at St Margaret, would not have
failed to difcover it. From all this M rie St Mihiel
tn^rs that he mud have been a Frenchmen,
3' i iit exidence or the man with the iron mafque
has been known for upwards of 93 years. Had any
perfon or nigh rank disappeared at.an anterior period,
nis friends, relations, or acquaintances, would not have
wiled to claim him, or at lead to fuppofe that he w.s
tne man concealed by this mafque. Rut no one dilap.
pared, nor was any one claimed ; the man with the
iron mafque was therefore a perfon unknown.
4s ^ his man was not torn away from fociety on ac¬
count of any criminal hdion ; (or when he was arrett¬
ed, it was fort feen that he would caufe much embar-
raffiment, and occafion great expences. He was there¬
fore not a criminal, elfe means would have been pur-
(Bed to get rid of him ; and confequently all the import-
ance of his being concealed was attached folely to his
perl on,
jf, 1 m-. f!ranger mud have been a perion of very
VOL. XH. Part II, ;
r 673 i
MAS
high birth ; for the governor of the prifon, Sf Mars, Mafque.
benaved always to him with the greatelt relpeft. ‘' "w
6. Louis XIII. played on the guitar ; Louis XIV.
did the lame in a very maderly manner ; and the man
With the iron mafque played alfo on that indrument :
which gives us reafon to believe that his education was
diredfed by the fame perfons who had prelided over
that Oi L mis XIV. and who appear to have been the
particular choice of Anne of Audria.
7. This dranger died on the 19th of November
1703 ; and a few days before his death, he told the
apothecary of the Badile, that he believed he was
about 60 years of age, Suppofing that he was then
59 and a half, he mud have been born towards ihe
end of May 1644; and if he was 60 wanting three
months, he mud have been born in the end of Augud
or the beginning of September, of the fame year •
a period when the royal authority was in the hands of
Anne of Audria, but in reality exercifed more by
Mazarine than by her. “ I have already proved (con¬
tinues the author), that from the fird day of the re¬
gency of Anne of Audria, the greated friendftiip,
and even intimacy, fubfiitea between this pnncels and
the cardinal ; that thefe (entiments were changed into
a mutual love, and that they were afterwards united
by the bonds of marriage. They might, therefore
well have a fon about the month of September 1644]
as Louis XIII. had been then dead more than 15
months, having died on the 15th of May the year
preceding. But nothing of what I have related, or
of what has been written, and acknowledged as fad,
refpecting the man with the iron mafque, can be ap¬
plied, except to a (on of Mazarine and Anne of Auf-
tna. The man with the iron mafque, was indebted,
therefore, for his exidence to Cardinal Mazarine and
tire regent widow of Louis XIII.”——To accoum. for
the manner in which the queen was able to conceal
her pregnancy and delivery, Madame de Motteville is
quoted ; who relates, under the year 1644, t^at Anne
07 Audria quitted the Louvre, becaufe her apartments
there diffileafed her : that (he went to refide at the
Palais Royal, which Ricblieu, when he died, bequeath¬
ed to the d'coated king : that when (he fird occupied
this lodging, Jhc was dreadful:y affnclea with thej> vn-
due: that the phyiieians aferibed this difordtr to her
deji (51 ion and application to huiinefs, which gave her
much embarraflment : but that being cun d of her me¬
lancholy, as well as of her malady, (he refolved to
think only of enjoying tranquillity ; which (he did, by
communicating to her mmider the burden of public
affair-. On this quotation, M. de St Mihie! afks, “ Is
it not very Angular, that the queen, who during tb« 29
years of her former wedded date, had always redden m
the Louvre, Specially from 1626, when Louis Xid.
ceaied to cohabit with her, until {heir reunion, which
took place m the beginning of December 16^7, ffiould
have quitted it preeifi-ly in 1644, becauie du wa- dif-
pleafed with her apartments \ How happened it that her
apartments difpleaf. d her this year, and neither iooner
nor later ? She might, undoubtedly have had any kind
of furniture there which (he defired, and every altera¬
tion made according to her wiffies, as (he was then ab-
iolute miflrefs: but the caule of her det< rmiuatton Is
platn ; the apartments of the Palais Royal, which (rent
4&
MAS r 674 ] MAS
Mafque. a garden, were much more convenient for her to be de-
“"■'"V"””' livered in fecret.”
8. As it is neceffary that fome name {hould be given
to every man, in order to dittinguiih him from another,
that of Marchiali was given to the man with the iron
mafque : a name which evidently (hows, that it had
been invented by an Italian. [Cardinal Mazarine was
a native of Pifcina in the Abruzzo.J
9. Anne of Auftria was remarkably delicate refpeft-
Ing every thing that touched her perfon. It was with
great difficulty that cambric could be found fine enough
to make fhifts and ffieets for her. Cardinal Mazarine
ence rallying her on this fubjeft, faid, That f Jhe
JhouUbe damned, her punijhment in hell would be to Jl<.e]>
in Holland Jheets. The predominant tafle of the man
with the iron mafque, was to have lace and linen of
the moft extraordinary finenefs. “ Who (fays the
author) does not perceive, in this fimilarity of taftes,
the maternal tendernefs of Anne of Auftria, who would
have thought her fon a great fufferer had he not been
indulged with fine linen
“ Louis XIII. (continues M. de St Mihiel) was a
hufband of a gloomy difpofition, and an enemy to plea-
fure : while the queen, on the contrary, was fond of
focial life \ and introduced at the court of France, efpe-
cially after {he became free, that eafe and politenefs
which diftinguilhed it under Louis XIV. from all the
other courts of Europe. Louis XIII. had alio a dila-
greeable countenance, and a breath fo offenfive, that it
wras a puniffiment for Richlieu to remain near him. It
is clear, therefore, that Ihe could not be much pleafed
with fuch a hufband. When ihe became regent of the
kingdom by the king’s death, which happened on the
14th of May 1643, as {he had not enjoyed that happi-
nefs which arifes from a clofe union of hearts, it will
not appear extraordinary that {he fhould indulge the
affection die entertained for Cardinal Mazarine,and that
{he {hould marry him. Every circumftance that could
tend to favour fuch a marriage will be found united in
her fituation. She was at a diftance from her family 5
abfolute millrefs of all her aftions j and had, befides, a
heart formed for love. Mazarine, though a cardinal,
had never entered into orders j he gave out that he w as
defcended from a great family ; he was handfome and
well made *, he was of a mild, infinuating difpofition,
and remarkably engaging in converlation j and his of¬
fice, as prime minifter, afforded him every opportunity
®f vifiting and converfing w ith the queen whenever he
thought proper. Is it, therefore, fo very aflonilhing,
that, with fo many advantages he was able to capti¬
vate the queen fo far as to induce her to marry him ?
Such a marriage was not, indeed, according to the ufual
eourfe of things. Yet it was not without many prece¬
dents, particularly among fovereigns of the other fex,
who had given their hands to perfons of inferior rank.
Thus Chriftian IV of Denmark efpoufed Chriltina
Monk 5 Frederick IV. efpoufed Mademoifelle Re-
wentlaw j James II. heir to the throne of England,
married the daughter of a counfellor ; Peter the Great
raifed to the throne Catharine I. the daughter of a
poor villager, yet perhaps the moft accomplilhed woman
at that time between the Viitula and the Pole ; and
Louis XIV. efpoufed the widow of a poet, but a wo¬
man poffeff d of the moft extraordinary merit. As the
women, however, are not forgiven fo readily as the men
for entering into fuch marriages, Anne of Auftria kept Marque
hers a fecret from this motive, and becaufe (he would !i
have been in danger of lofing the regency of the king- Mafs>
dom had it been known.” 'mm
The reafoning of M. de St Mihiel is both ingeni¬
ous and plaufible j though the probability of the ac¬
count is fomewhat diminiftied by confidering what muft
have been the queen’s age at this period, after Ihe had
been Louis’s wife for 29 years before his death.—
The account immediately preceding, without this ob¬
jection, feems abundantly credible. But, whether, up¬
on the whole, either of them can be received as deci-
five, or whether the myftery of the iron mafque re¬
mains ftill to be unravelled, we muft leave to the reader
to determine.
Masque, in ArchiteBure, is applied to certain pieces
of It ulpture, reprefenting fome hideous forms, grotelque,
or fatyrs faces, &c. uftd to fill up and adorn Vacant
places, as in triezf s, the pannels of doors, keys of arches,
&c. but particularly in grottos.
MASQUERADE, or Mascarade, an affembly of
perfons matqued or diiguiicd, meeting to dance and di¬
vert themfelves. This was much in ufe with us, and
has been long a very common practice abroad, efpecially
in carnival time.
The word comes from the Italian mafcarata, and
that from the Arabic mafcara, which fignifies “ rail¬
lery, buffoonery.” Granacci, who died in 1543,
is faid to have been the firft inventor of mafque-
rades.
MASRAKITHA, a pneumatic inftrument of mu-
fic among the ancient Hebrews, compofed of pipes of
various fizes, fitted into a kind of wooden cheft, open
at the top, and flopped at the bottom with wood co¬
vered with a Ikin. Wind was conveyed to it from the
lips, by means of a pipe’fixed to the cheft : the pipes
were of lengths mufically proportioned to each other,
and the melody was varied at pleafure, by flopping and
unftopping with the fingers the apertures at the upper
extremity. See Plate CCXCVI1I.
MASS, in Mechanics, the matter of any body cohe¬
ring with it, i. e. moving and gravitating along with it.
In which fenfe, majs is diftinguiftrtd from bulk, or
volume, which is the expanfion ot a body in length,
breadth, and thicknefs.
The mafs of any body is rightly eftimated by its
weight ; and the n affts of two bodies of the fame
weight are in a reciprocal ratio of their bulks.
Mass, Mifla, in the church of Rome, the office or
prayers ufed at the celebration of the eucharift j or in
«ther words confecrating the bread and wine into the
body and blood of Chrift, and ofiering them la tranfub-
ftantiated as an expiatory {acrifice for the quick and the
dead.
As the mafs is in general belif ved to be a reprefenta-
tion of the paffion of our bleffed Saviour, fo every a6Iion
of the prieft, and every particular part of the lervice, is
fuppofed to allude to the particular circumftances of his
paffion and death.
Nicod, after Baronius, obferves that the word
comes from the Hebrew miflach (oblalum'); or from
the Latin mijfa mijforum ; becaule in the former
times, the catechumens and excommunicated were lent
out of the church, when the deacons faid Ite, rmjfa
ejl, after fermon and reading of the epiftle and gof-
MAS
Ma&,
Mafl'a.
pel; they not being allowed to aflift at the confecra
tlon; Menage derives the word from mjjio, “ dif-
muring:” Others from mjfa, “miffing, lending
becauie in the mafs, the prayers of men on earth are lent
up to heaven.
The general divifion of maffes confifts in high and
low. 1 he firft is that fung by the chorifters, and cele¬
brated with the affiitance of a deacon and fub-deacon ;
low maffes are thofe in which the prayers are barely
rehearled without finging.
1'h. re are many different or occafional maffes in
the. Itomiffi church, fome of which have nothing pe¬
culiar but the name: fuch are the maffes of the
laints; that of St Mary of the fnow, celebrated on
the filth of Auguft ; that of St Margaret, patronefs
of lying-in-women j that of the feaft of St John the
. ptift, at which are faid three maffes j that of the
innocents, at which the gloria in excelfis and the
hallelujah are omitted, and it being a day of mourn-
ing, the altar is of a violet colour. As to ordinary
malles, fome are faid for the dead, and, as is fuppofed
contribute to fetch the foul out of purgatory : at thefe
imiles the altar is put in mourning, and the only de¬
corations are a crofs in the middle of fix yellow wax-
lights j the drefs of the celebrant, and the very mafs-
book, are black; many parts of the office are omitted,
and the people are difmiffed without the benediaion!
If the mafs be faid for a perfon diftinguilhed by his
rank or virtues, it is followed wdth a funeral oration :
they erea a chapelle ardente, that is, a reprefentation
of the.deceafed with branches and tapers of yellow
wax, either in the middle of the church, or near the
deceafed’s tomb, where the prieft pronounces a folemn
abfolution of the deceafed. There are likewife pri¬
vate maffes faid for ftolen or ftrayed goods or cattle
for health, for travellers, &c. which go under the name
of votive tnaffes. There is (till a further diftinaion of
maffes denominated from the countries in which they
were ufed ; thus the Gothic mafs, or tmjfa mofarabum, is
that uled among the Goths when they were mafters of
Spain, and which is ftill kept up at Toledo and Sala¬
manca ; the Ambrofian mafs is that compofed by St
Ambrofe, and ufed only at Milan, of which city be was
biffiop ; the Gallic mafs, ufed by the ancient Gauls;
and the Roman mafs, ufed by almoff all the churches in
the Romiffi communion.
. MASS of the Prefa n Elided mi fa prcefanSlifcatorumf
is a mafs peculiar to the Greek church, in wrhich there
k no confecration of the elements; but after finging
lorne hymns, they receive the bread and wine which
was before confecrated. This mafs is performed all
Lent, except on Saturdays, Sundays, and the annual
cia’ioo. J'he pried counts upon his fingers the days
of the enfuing week on which it is to be celebrated,
and cuts off as many pieces of bread at the altar as*
he is to fay maffes.; and after having confecrated them,
fteeps them in wine, and then puts them in a box;
out of which, upon every occafion, he take- fome of
it with a fpoon, and putting it on a diffi fets it upon
the a!tar. r
MASS A, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and in the Terra di Lavoro, with a biffiop’s fee •
feated on a mountain near the fea, in E. Long- to o*
N. Lat. 43. 5.
Massa, an ancient, populous, and handfome town of
1 675 1
MAS
Italy, and capital of a fmall territory of the fame name,
with the title of a principality, and a flrong cattle, it
is famous for quarries of fine marble, and is fituated in
E. Long. 14. 23. N. Lat. 40. 40.
MASSACHUSETS COLONY, the principal fub-
divifion ot New England, having Hampffiire on the
north, the Atlantic ocean on the tail and tbuth,
and Connecticut and Ne w York on the well. It is
about 100 miles long, and 40 broad. See Aew ENG¬
LAND.
MASSACRE, a term ufed to fignify the fuddew
and promifeuous butchery of a multitude. The moft
atrocious example of this kind upon record is that call¬
ed the Parifian MASSACRE, or MaJJhcre of St Bartho¬
lomew's Day. I he Parifian maffacre was carried on
with fuch deteftable perfidy, and executed with fuch
a bloody cruelty as would furpafs all belief, were it
not attefted by the moft undeniable evidence. In
the year 1572, in the reign of Charles IX. many of
the principal Proteftants were invited to Paris, under a
folemn oath of fafety, upon oceafion of the marriage
of the king of Navarre with the French king’s fifter ;
viz. the king of Navarre’s mother, Coligni admiral
of France, w ith other nobles. I he queen-dow'ager
of Navarre, a zealous Proteftant, was poifoned by
a pair of gloves before the marriage was folemni-
zed ; and on the 24th of Auguft 1572, being Bar¬
tholomew’s day, about daybreak, upon the toll of the
bell of the church of St Germain, the butchery be¬
gan. The admiral was bafely murdered in his own
houfe; and then thrown out of the window, to grati¬
fy the malice of the duke of Guife; his head was af¬
terwards cut off, and fent to the king and queen-mo¬
ther ; and his body, after a thoufand indignities offer¬
ed to it, hung up by the feet on a gibbet. After this,
the murderers ravaged the whole city of Paris, and
butchered in three days above ten thoufand lords’ gen¬
tlemen, prefidents, and people of all ranks. An hor¬
rible feene of things, fays Thuanus, when the very
ft reels and paffages refoundtd w ith the noife of thofe
that met together for murder and plunder; the groans
of thofe wffio were dying, and the (bricks of fuch as
were juft going to be butchered, were everywhere
heard ; the bodies of the (lain thrown out of the win¬
dows ; the courts and chambers of the houfes filled
with them; the dead bodies of others dragged through
the ft reels, their blood running down the channels in
fuch plenty, that, torrents Teemed to empty themfelves
in the neighbouring river ; and in a word, an innume¬
rable multitude of men, women with child, maidens,
and childre n, were all involved in one common deftruc-
tion > and the gates and entrances of the king’s palace
all befmeared with their blood.
From the city of Paris the maffacre fpread almoft
throughout the whole kingdom. In the city of Meaux
they threw above two hundred into jail ; and after they
had ravifhed and killed a great number of women, and
plundered the houfes of the Proteftants, they executed
their fury on thofe they had imprifoned, and calling
them out one by one, they were killed, as Thuanusex-
preffes, like (beep in a market; the bodies of fome were
flung into ditches, and of others into the river Maine.
In Orleans they murdered above five hundred men*
women, and children, and enriched themfelves w'ith
their fpoil. The fame cruelties were pra&iled at An-
4 Q. 2 gets,
Malfa
11
Maffawre.
MAS [ 676 ] M A S
Maffacre gers, Troyes, B urges, La Charite, and efpecially at
^ Lyons, where they inhumanly deltroyed above eight
. hundred Proteitants; children hanging on their parents
necks j parents embracing their children ; putting ropes
about the necks ot iome, dragging them through the
Hr ets, and throwing them, mangled, torn, and half
dead, into the river.
it would he endlefs to mention the butcheries com¬
mitted at Valence, Romanic, Rouen, &c. We ihall,
therefore, only add, ^ha;, according to Thuanus, above
thirty thouiand Protettants were detlroyed in this maf-
facre, or as others with grtater probability affirm, above
one hundred thoufand.
Thuanus himfelt calls this a moft deteftable villanyj
and, in abhorrence" of Si Bartholomew’') day, uled to
repeat thefe vrordsot P. Statius, Silv. v. lii. ver. 88. &.c.
Exadnt ilia dies trvof ne pojlera cred&nt
Secula. Nos certe taceamus, el obru'a multa
Nocle tegi pr opr ice palwmur cnminn gentis.
In the words of Job. chap. hi. ver. 3. &e. “ Let that
day perilh; and let it not be joined unto the days of
the year. Let darknefs and the lhadow of death ilain
it,” &:c. And yet, as though this had been the moft
heroic tranladliop, and could have procured immortal
glory to the authors of it, medals were ftruck at Paris
in honour of it.
But how were the news of this butchery received at
Rome, 'hat. faithful city that holy mother of churches !
How did the vicar of Chrill, the fucceflbr of Peter,
and the father of the Chrittian world, relilh it ? Let
Thuanus tell the horrid truth. When the news, fays
he, came to Rome, it w'as wonderful to fee how they
exulted for joy. On the 6th of September, when the
letters of the pope’s legate were read in the aflembly
of the cardinals, by which he aff.ired the pope that
all wras tranfafted by the exprefs will and command of
the king, it was immediately decreed that the pope
fhould march with his cardinals to the church of St
Mark, and in the mold iolemn manmr give thanks
to God for fo great a bleffing conferred on the fee of
Rome and the Chrildian world \ and that on the
Monday after, folemn mafs fhould be celebrated in the
church of Minerva j at which the pope, Greg. XIII.
and cardinals were prefer.t •, and that a jubilee ihould
be publiffied throughout the whole Chriitian world,
and the caufe of it declared to be, to return thanks
to God for the extirpation of the enemies of the
truth and church in France. In the evening the can¬
non of St Angelo were fired, to teilify the public joy j
the whole city illuminated with bonfires 5 and no one
fign of rejoicing omitted that was ufuaily made for
the greateid victories obtained in favour of the Roman
church.
MASSAGETiE, an ancient people about whofe
feat there is as much doubt as about that of the Ama¬
zons •, Tibullus and Ammirn place them near Albania,
beyond the Araxes, which fometimes denotes the Ox us j
It is probable they dwelt to the eald of Sogdiana, (Dio-
nyfius Periegetes, Herodotus, Arrian).
MASSALIANS, a fetof enthufialds who fprang up
about the. year 361, in the reign of the emperor Con-
ftantius, w ho maintained that men have two fouls, a ce-
leidial and a diabolical, and that the latter is driven out
by prayer.
MASSANIELLO. See Hijlory of Naples'. Maffarielle
MASSEiER, in Anatomy. See there i. Table oj i!
the Mujcles). Maffii on,
MASSICOT. See Masticot. ~ v—w
JV1ASSIEU, William, a learned French writer,
member of the Academy of Belles Lettres, and-of the
French Academy, was born at Caen in Normany in
1665, and completed his idudies at Paris, when he
entered amongit the J fuits ; but afterwards left, them,
that he might follow his inclination to polite litera¬
ture with the greater freedom. In 1710 he w ,s made
Grei k profeffor in the royal college ; and enjoyed that
poid till his death, which happened at Paris in 1722.
Fie wiote, I. Several curious dtffertations in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Inlciipiions. 2. A hiltory
of the French poetry, ;n 1 2mo, &c.
M ASSILI A, in Ancient Geography, a tow n of Gal¬
lia Narbonenfis, a colony of Phocean-, from Phoca-a,
a city of Ionia, and in confederacy wiih the Romans j
univertally celebrated, not only for its port, commerce,
and fdrength, but efpecially for its polilentls of man¬
ners and for its learning. According to Strabo, it
was the lehool for the barbarians, who were excited by
its means to a fondnefs for Greek literature, lo that
even their public and private transitions were all exe¬
cuted in that language. * Strabo adds, “ At this day
the nobleld Romans-repair thither for iludy rather than
to Athens.” Now Marfeilles, a city and port town of
Provence.
MASSILLON, Jean Baptiste, fon of a notary at
Hi eres in Pruvence, was born in 1663. an<^ tutored in¬
to the congregation of the oratory in 1681. He gain¬
ed the affeftions of every perfon in the towns to which
he was font, by the charms of his genius, the livelinefs
of bis character, and by a fund of the moft, delicate
and unafkTled piditemfs. His firll attempts in the
art of eloquence were made at Vienne, while he w'as
profeffor ot theology. His funeral oration on Henry
de Vdlars, avchhifhqp of that city, received umverfal
approbation. Tins iuccefs induced Father de la Tour,
who was at that time general of the congregation,
to call him to Paris. After he had been there for
fome time, he was afked what he thought of the
preachers who made a figure on that great theatre ?—
“ I find them poffeffed of great genius and abilities
(anfwered he) ; but if I preach, I will not preach like
them.” He in fatt kept his word, and iiruck out a
new path in this great field of eloquence. P. Bourda-
loue was excepted from the number of thole whom he
propofed not to imitate. If he did not take him for a
model in every thing, the reafon was, that his ge¬
nius led him to a different fpecies of eloquence.—
His manner of compofing, therefore, was peculiar to
himfelf, and in the opinion of men of tafte and judge¬
ment, was fuperior to that of Bouidaluue. The affedl-
ing and natural iimplicity of the father of the oratory,
(faid a great man), appears fitter to bring home the
truths of Chrifiianity to the heart than all the dialec¬
tics of the Jefuit. We muff feek for the logic of the
goipel in our own breafts 5 and the moft powerful rea-
fonings on the indilpenfable duty of relieving the di-
ftreffed, will make no impreffion on that man who has *
beheld without concern the iufferings of his brother.
If logic is neceffary, it is only in matters of opinion j
and thefe are fitter for the prefs than for the pulpit,
which
MAS [ 677 ] MAS
tfaflillon. which ought not to be the theatre of learned difcuf-
’—y—— fions. The truth of thefe redactions was clearly per¬
ceived when he appeared at court. Upon preaching
his fir It Advent ferraon at V erfailles, he received this
eulogium from the mouth of Louis XIV. “ Father,
when I hear others preach, I am very well pleafed
with them 5 but whenever I hear you, I am difiatif-
fied with my elf.” The firlt time he preached ins fa¬
mous fermon on thefmull number of the eletl, the whole
, audience were, at a certain place or it, itized with a
fudden and violent emotion, and almoit every perfon
half role from Ins feat by a kind of involuntary
movement. The murmur of acclamation and lurprile
wa^ fo great that it threw the orator into confufion }
but this only heightened the impreflion of that pat e-
tic dilcourle. What was molt iurpriling in Mallillon,
were his delcriptions of (he world, which were lo mb-
lime, fo delicate, and fo (Inking in the refemblance.
When he was allied, whence a man, like him, whofe
life was dedicated to retirement, could borrow them;
he anfwered “ From the human heart ; however little
we examine it, we will find in it the feeds of every
palTion. When 1 compofe a lermon (added he), I
imagine mylelf conlulted upon fome doubtful piece of
butinefs. I give my, whole application to determine
the perfon who has recourfe to me, to aft the good
and proper part. I exhort him, I urge him, and I
leave him not till he has yielded to my perfuafions.”
His declamation did not fail to be accompanied with
fuccefs. “ We think we fee him in our pulpits (fay
thole who had the pleafure of hearing him), with
the fimple air, the model! carriage, the downcait and
humble looks, the eaiy geliure, the affefting tone,
and the countenance of a man deeply penetrated with
his lubjeft, conveying the cleared information to the
underitanding, and raifing the molt tender emotions in
the heart.” Baron, the famous comedian, having met
him one day in a houfe which was open for the recep¬
tion of men of letters, paid him this compliment :
“ Continue to deliver as you do. Your manner is
peculiar to yourfelf; leave the obfervance of rules to
others.” When this famous aftor came from hearing
one of his fermons, truth drew from him the follow¬
ing confeffion, which is fo humiliating to his profef-
* lion : “ Friend (laid he to one of his companions who
accompanied him), here is an orator; we are only
aEiors.
In 1704’ Mafia 11 on made his fecond appearance at
-court, and dilplayed Hill more eloquence than before.
Louis XIV. after expreflang his faiisfaftion to him,
added, in the moll gracious tone of voice, Et je veaux,
nion pere, voi/s entendre tous les deux ans. Thefe flat¬
tering encomiums did not leffen his modelty. When
one ol his fellows was congratulating him upon his
preaching admirably, according to cuilom ; Oh ! give
over. Father (replied lie), the devil has told me fo al¬
ready, mucl? more eloquently than you.” The duties
of his office did not prevent him from enjoying fociety ;
and in the country he forgot that he was a preacher,
but always without trefpaffing again!! decency. One
day when he was at the houfe °f M. d- Crozaf, the lat¬
ter faid to him, ‘‘ Father, your doftrine terrifies me,
but I am encouraged by your life.” He was chofen
on account of his philofophical and coneiliatorv difpo-
fition of mind, to reconcile the cardinal de Noailies
4
with the Jefuits. All he gained by his attempts was Mafiillan,
the dilplealure of both parties ; and he found that it
was ealier to convert finntrs than to reconcile theolo¬
gians. In 17 the re gent, perfonally acquainted
with his merit, appointed him to the bifhopric of
Clermont. The next year, being dettined to preach
before Louis XV. who was only nine years of age, he
compofed in fix weeks thole difeourfes which are fo
well known by the name of Pent Careme. Thefe are
the chef d’ueuvre of this orator, and indeed of the ora¬
torical art. They ought continually to be read by
preachers as models for the formation of their talle,
and by princes as leffbns of humanity.
Maffiilon was admitted into the French academy a
year at erwards, in 17x9. The abbacy of Savigny
becoming vacant, the cardinal du Bois, to whom he
had been weak enough to give an atteftation for be¬
ing a priell, procured -it for him. The funeral ora¬
tion of the duchef's ot Orleans, in 1723, was the laft
difeourfe he pronounced in Paris. He never after¬
wards left his dioeete, where his gentlenefs, politenefs,
and kindnefs, had gained him the affeftion of all who
knew him. Fie reduced the exorbitant rights of the
epifcopal roll to moderate fums. In two years, he
caufed 20,000 livres to be privately conveyed to the
Hotel Dieu of Clermont. His peaceable difpofition was
never more difplayed than while he was a bilhop. He
took great pleafure in collefting the fathers of the
oratory and the Jefuits at his country houfe, and in
making them join in fome diverfion. He died on the
28th of September 1742, at the age of 79. His
name has become that of eloquence itfelf. Nobody
ever knew better how to touch the paflions. Prefer¬
ring fen time nt to every thing elfe, he communicated
to the foul that lively and lalutary emotion which ex¬
cites in us the love of virtue. What pathetic eloquence
did his difeourfes difplay ! what knowledge of the hu¬
man heart ! what conftant dilclofing of a mind deeply
affefted with his fubjeft ! what drain of truth, philo-
fophy and humanity ! what imagination, at once the
mol! lively, and guided by the founded judgment!.
Jail and delicate thoughts ; fplendid and lofty ideas j
elegant, well chofen, lublime, and harmonious expref-
fions; brilliant and natural images ; true and lively
colouring ; a clear, neat, fwelling and copious dyle,.
equally luited to the capacity of the multitude, and
fitted to pleafe the man of genius, the philofopher,
and the courtier, form the charafter of Maffillon’s elo¬
quence, elpecially in his Petit Careme. He could at
once think, dtferibe, and feel. It has been judly ob-
ferved concerning him, that he was to Bourdaloue
what Racine was to Corneille. To give the finilhing
droke to his eulogium, Of all the French orators, ffie
is the mod edeemed by foreigners.
An excellent edition of Maffillon’s works was pub-
lifhed by bis nephew at Paris in 1745 and 1746, in
14 vols. large 1 2mo, and 12 vols. of a fmall lize.—
Among them we find, 1. Complete fets of Sermons
for Advent and Lent. It is particularly in his moral
difeourfes, fuch as are almod all thofe of his fermons
for Advent and Lent, that Maffillon’s genius appears.
He excels, fays M. d’Alembert, in that fpecies of
el< quence, w hich alone may be preferred to all others,
which goes direftly to the heart, and which agitates
without wounding the foul. He fearches the inmoft
rectfligS'-
MAS
Maffillon, recedes of the heart, and lays open the fecret work-
Maflinger. jn^s 0p ^ pa{plonSj with fo delicate and tender a
hand, that we are hurried along rather than overcome.
His di&ion, which is always eafy, elegant, and pure,
everywhere partakes of that noble fimplicity, with¬
out which there can be neither good tafte nor true e-
loquence ; and this fimplirity is, in Maffillon, joined
to the moft attraftive and the fweeteft harmony, from
which it likewife borrows new graces. In ffiort, to
complete the charm produced by this enchanting ftyle,
we perceive that thefe beauties are perfectly natural j
that they flow eafily from this fource, and that they
have occafioned no labour to the compofer. There
even occur fometimes in the expreffions, in the turns,
or in the afft&ing melody of his ftyle, inftances of ne¬
gligence which may be called happy, becaufe they
completely remove every appearance of labour. By
thus abandoning himfelf to the natural current of
thought andexpreffion, Maffillongainedasmany friends
as hearers. He knew, that the more anxious an ora¬
tor appears to raife admiration, he will find thofe who
hear him the lefs difpofed to beftow it. 2. Several
Funeral Orations, Hifcourfes, and Panegyrics, which
had never been publiffied. 3. Ten difcourfes, known
by the name of Petit Careme. 4. The Conferen¬
ces F.cclejiajliques, which he delivered in the feminary
of St Magloire upon his arrival at Paris ; thofe which
he delivered to the curates of his diocefe ; and the
difcourfes which he pronounced at the head of the
fynods which he affembled every year. 5. Paraphrafes
on feveral of the Pfalms. The illuftrious author of
thefe excellent trails wiflied that they had introduced
into France a pra&ice which prevails in England, of
reading fermons inftead of preaching them from me¬
mory j a cuftotn which is very convenient, but by
which all the warmth and fervour of eloquence are
loft. He, as well as two others of his brethren, had
ftopt Ihort in the pulpit exaftly on the fame day. 
They were all to preach at different hours on Good-
Jbriday, and they went to hear one another in fuccef-
fion. The memory of the firft failed •, which fo ter¬
rified the other two, that they experienced the fame
fate. When our illuftrious orator was alked, what
was his bell fermon ? he anfwered, “ That which I
am moft mafter of.” The fame reply is afcribed to
Bourdaloue. The celebrated P. la Rue was of the opi¬
nion of Maffiilon, that getting by heart was a flavery
which deprived the pulpit of a great many orators, and
which was attended w ith many inconveniences to thofe
who dedicated themfelves to it. The abbe de la Porte
has colledled into one vol i2mo, the moft ftriking ideas,
and the moft fublime ftrokes, which occur in the works
of the celebrated biftiop of Clermont. This colleftion,
which is made with great judgment, appeared at Paris
in 1748, i2mo, and forms the 15th volume of the large
edition in lamo, and the 13th of the fmall in i2mo.
It is entitled, Penfeesfur differens fujets de morale et de
piete. tire'es, &c.
MASSINGER, Philip, an Engliffi dramatic poet,
was born at Salifbury about the year 1581, and was
educated at Oxford. He left the univerfity without
raking any degree } and went to London to improve
his poetical genius by polite converfation. There he
wrote many tragedies and comedies, which were recei¬
ved with vaft applaufe, and were greatly admired for
MAS
the economy of the plots and the purity of the ftyle. Maffing«
He was at the fame time a perfon of the moft confum- li
mate modefty ; which rendered him extremely beloved MairuD‘
by the poets of his time, particularly by Fle tcher. Mid- 'r"‘W
dleton, Rowley, Held, and Decker, who thought it
an honour to write,in conjunction with him. He was
as remarkable for his abilnies as his modefty. He died
fuddenly at his houfe on the Bank-fide in Southwark,
near the playhoufe ; and was interred in St Saviour’s
churchyard, in the fame grave with Mr Fletcher the
poet.
MASSIVE, among builders, an epithet given t«
whatever is too heavy and folid : thus a maflive co¬
lumn is one too fhort and thick for the order whofe
capital it bears j and a maffive wall is one whofe open¬
ings or lights are too fmall in proportion.
MASSON, Papirius, a French writer, tvas the
fon of a rich merchant, and born in the territory of
Forez, May 1544. After ftudying the belles lettre*
and philofophy, and travelling to different places, he
came to Paris, where he was made librarian to the
chancellor of the duke of Anjou, in which place he
continued ten years. In 1576, he was made an advo¬
cate of parliament *, yet never pleaded but one caufe,
which, however, he gained with univerfal applaufe. 
When the troubles of France were at an end, he mar¬
ried the After of a counfellor in parliament, with whom
he lived thirty-four years, but had no iffue by her.—
The infirmities of age attacked him fome time before
his death, which happened Jan. 9. 1611. He wrote
four books of French annals in Latin, firft printed at
Paris 1577, and afterwards in 1598, 410. The fe-
cond edition, more enlarged than the firft, deduces
things from Pharamond to Hen-y II. Maffon confi-
dered this as his principal performance $ yet he is now
chiefly known by his E/ogia virorum clarifiimorum, al¬
though he publiffied feveral other works.
Masson, John, a reformed minifter in Holland
fome years ago. He was originally of France, but
fled into England, to enjoy that liberty in religion
which his country refufed him. He wrote, 1. Hifoire
critique de la repubhque des lettres, from 1712 to 1717,
in 15 vols i2mo. 2. Vitte Horatii, Ovidii, et Plinii
junioris, 3 vols fmall 8vo, and printed abroad, though
dedicated to Engliffimen of rank : the firft at Leyden,
1708, to Lord Harvey, the fecond at Amflerdam,
1708, to Sir Juftinian Iffiam •, the third at Amfter-
dam, 1709, to the biftiop of Worcefter. Thefe lives
are drawn up in a chronological order, very learnedly
and very critically ; and ferve to illuftrate the hiftory,
not only of thofe particular perfons, but of the times
alfo in which they lived. 3. Hiftoire de Pierre Boyle et
des fes ouvrages ; Amfterdam, 1716, in l2mo. This
at haft is fuppofed to be his, though at firft it was gi¬
ven to M. la Monnoye,
Masson, Antony, an eminent French engraver,
who flourifhed towards the conclufion of the laft cen¬
tury, and refided chiefly at Paris. It appears that he
fometimes amufed himfelf with painting portraits from
the life, fome of which he alfo engraved. We have
no acount of the life of this extraordinary artift $ nor
are we even informed from what mafter he learned the
principles of engraving. He worked entirely with
the graver, and handled that inftrument with aftoniffi-
ing facility. He feems to have had no kind of rule
te
r m i
MAS . [ 6?9 ] . MAS
MaJTbi1, to dire& him with refpeft to the turning of the had done In the commercial way after the difcovery of MaiTuab.
* ftrokes » but twilted and twirled them about, without the paffage to India by the Cape of Good Hope.—  '
the lead; regard to the different forms he intended to Being thus deprived of its importance in every refpeft
exprefs, making them entirely lubfervient to his own the lurks no longer thought it worth while to lend a
caprice. Yet the effeft he has produced in this fingu- balhaw thither as formerly, but conferred the govern-
lar manner (Mr Strutt oblerves), is not only far lu- ment upon the chief of a tribe of Mahometans named
perior to what one could have fuppofed, but is often Befowi'e, who inhabit the coafts of the Red fea under
very pibturefque and beautiful. It was not in hittori the mountains of Habab, in the latitude of about 140
cal engraving that his greateit llrength confided. He north. On this officer they conferred the title of Naybe;
could not draw the naked parts of the human figure and on the removal of the bafhaw, he remained in fadt
fo corredtiy as was neceffary 5 but where the fubjedf mader of the place, though, to fave appearances, he
required the figures to be clothed, he fucceeded in a pretended to hold it from the Ottoman Porte, by a
wonderful manner. Among the mod edeemed works firman from the Grand Signior for that purpofe, and
by this admirable artift, may be* reckoned the follow- the payment of an annual tribute#
ing : The affumption of the Virgin, a large upright The Turks had originally put into the town of
plateMrom Rubens j a holy family, a middling-fized Maffuah a garrifon of Janizaries ; who, being left there
plate, lengthwife, from N. Mignard j Chrid with the on the withdrawing of the balhaw, and intermarrying
pilgrims at Emaus, a laige plate, lengthwife, from with the natives, foon became entirely fubjedfed to
Titian, the original pidure of which is in the ca- the naybe’s influence. The latter, finding himfelf at
binet of the king of France. I his admirable print a great didance from his protedlors the Turks, whofe
is commonly known by the name of the table-cloth-. garrifons were everywhere falling into decay, and
for the cloth, with winch the table is covered, is exe- that in conft quence of this he was entirely in the
cuted in a very Angular dyle. Alfo the following power of the emperor of Abyffinia, began to think of
portraits, among others: The Comte de Harcourt, a taking feme method of fecurmg himfelf on that fide,
large upright plate, reckoned a maderpiece in this Accordingly it was agreed that one half of the cudoms
clafs of fubjeds; Guillaume de Brifacier, fecretary to ftiould be paid to the Abyffinian monarch j who in re-
the queen of France j a middling-fized upright plate : turn was to allow him to enjoy his government unmo-
ufually known in England by the name of the Gray- Idled. Having thus fecured the triendfliip of the
headed Man, becaufe the hair in this print is fo finely emperor of Abyffinia, the naybe began gradually to
^n^A^or-r A TT r -n • i withdraw the tribute he had been aecudomed to pay
MASSU AH, a fmall ifland m the Red fea, near to the bafhaw of Jidda, to whofe government Maffuah
the coad of Abyffinia, about three quarters of a mile had been affigned ; and at lad to pay as little regard
long, and half as broad, one-third of which is occu- to the government of Abyffinia ; and in this date of
pied by houfes, another by ciderns for receiving rain- independence he was when Mr Bruce arrived there in
water, and one referved for a burial place. It has 1769 on his way to Abyffinia. This gentleman found
an excellent harbour, with water fufficiently deep both the prince and his people extremely unhof'pitable
for fhips of any fize to the very edge of the ifland j and treacherous ; fo that he underwent a variety of
and fo well fecured, that they may ride in fafety, let dangers during his refidence there, nor was it without
the wind blow from what quarter or with what de- great difficulty that he could get away from thence at
gree of drength it will. By the ancients it was call- lad.
ed Sebajiicum Os, and was formerly a place of great The ifland of Maffuah, as we have faid, is entirely
confequence on account of its harbour, from whence deditute of water-, nor can it be fupplied with pro-
a very extenfive commerce was carried on, and pof- vifions of any kind but from the mountainous country
feffed a fhare of the Indian trade in common with of Abyffinia on the continent. Arkeeko, a large
other ports of the Red fea near the Indian ocean.— town in the bottom of the bay, has water,’but is m
A very confiderable quantity of valuable goods was the fame predicament with regard to provifions • for
alfo brought thither from the tra& of mountainous the adjacent traa of flat land, named Samhar, ’is a
country behind it, which in all ages has been account- perfeft defert, inhabited only from the month of No-
ed very unhofpitable, and almofl inacceffible to dran- vember to April by fome wandering tribes, who carry
gers. The principal articles of exportation were gold, all their cattle to the Abyffinian fide of the mountains
ivory, elephants and buffaloes hides 5 but above all, when the rains fall there. Being thus in the territo-
flaves, who, on account of their perfonal qualifications, . ries of the Abyffinians, it is in the power of the empe-
were more edeemed than thofe from any other quarter, ror of that country, or of his officer the baharnagafh
Pearls of a confiderable fize, and of a fine water, are to darve Maffuah and Arkeeko, by prohibiting the’paf-
likewife found along the coad ; from the abundance of fage of any provifions from the Abyffinian fide of the
all which valuable commodities, the great defedl, a mountains.
want of water, was forgot, and the inhabitants cheer- The houfes of Maffuah are generally condru&ed of
fully fubmitted to fuch a great inconvenience. The long poles and bent grafs, as is ufual with other towns
ifland of Maffuah fell under the power of the Turks in of Arabia : only about 20 are of done, and fix or
the time of the emperor Selim, foon after the con- eight of thefe two dories high. The 'dones with
qued of Arabia Felix by Sinan Bafha, and was for which they are built have been drawn out of the fea ;
fome time governed by an officer from Condantinople. and in them the bed of that curious mufcle found em!
From thence the conqued of Abyffinia was for fome bodied in the folid rock at Mahon is frequently to be
time attempted, but always without fuccefs. Hence feen. Thek arc cattrd dattoli da mare, or fea dates:
It began to lofe its value as a garrifon for troops, as it but our author never faw any of the fifh themfelves*
2 though
Mafluah
il
Mali,
Plate
cctxv.
ng If *.3
MAS r 680
though he has no doubt that they tnay be met with
in the rocky iflands of Maffuah, if they would take the
trouble of breaking the rocks for them. All the ne-
ceflfaries of life are very dear in this place ; and their
quality is alio very indifferent, owing to the diilance
from whence they muft be brought, and the danger
of carrying them through the defert of Samhar, as
■well as to the extortions of the naybe hitnfelf, who,
under the name of ajloms, takes w hatever part of the
goods he thinks proper, fo the profit left to the mer¬
chant is fomelimes little or nothing, AH the money
here is valued by the Venetian fequin ; and it is owing
to the commercial intercourfe with the Arabian coait,
that any money at all is to be met with on this ifland
or the eallern coait of Africa. Glafs beads of all
kinds ancl colours, whether whole or broken, pafs for
fmall money.
Though Mafluah has now lofl very much of its com¬
mercial importance, a confiderable trade is {till carried
on from the place. From the Arabian fide are im¬
ported blue cotton and other cloths $ iotne of them
from India being very fine. Other articles are Vene¬
tian beads, cryftal, looking and drinking glafles, with
cohol or crude antimony, Thtfe three lait articles
come in great quantity from Cairo, fivft in the coffee
flups to Jidda, and then in fmall barks to the port of
Mafluah, Old copper is alfo a valuable article of com¬
merce. The Gal la and all the various tribes to the
we ft ward of Gondar wear bracelets of this metal,
which in feme parts of that barbarous country is faid
to fell for its -weight of gold. Here is alfo a dull, an
univalve of the fpecies of volutes, which fills at a
high price, and pafles for money among the various
tribes of Galla, The Banians were once the principal
merchants of Mafluah ; but their number is now redu¬
ced to fix, who are filvermfiths, and fubfift by making
ornaments for the women on the continent. They
like wife eflay gold, but make a poor livelihood,
MASSUET, R.ENE, or HENATUS, a very learned
Benedittine of the congregation of St Maur, was
born at S, Owen de Mace lies, in 1665-, He is chief¬
ly known for the new edition of St Irengeus, which he
publifhed in 1710, fie confulted feveral manuferipts,
which had never been examined for that purpofe,
gnd made new notes and learned prefaces. He died in
1716, after having written and publifhed feveral other
works,
MAST, a long round piece of timber, elevated
perpendic ularly upon the kee] of a fin'p, to which are
attached the yards, the fails, and the rigging, A maft,
with regard to its length, is either formed of one fu gle
piece, which is called a potc*maj}, or compofed of fe¬
veral pieces joined together, each of which retains the
name of raaft feparately. The lowed of thefe is ac¬
cordingly named the lower tnajl, a fig, the next in
height is the top-mad, fig. 2. which is erected at
the head of the former \ and the highed is the top¬
gallant-mad, c, fig, which is prolonged from the up¬
per end of the top-mad. Thus the two lad are no
Other than a continuation of the fird upwards.
The lower-road is fixed in the fhtp by an apparatus
dt (cribed in the articles HuEK and SHEER?; the foot,
•MAS
The latter of thefe are two ftrong pars of timber, fup- Mafb
ported by two prominences, which are as (boulders on
the oppofite fides of the malt, a little under its upper
end : athwart theie bars are fixed the ertfs trees, upon
which the frame of the top is fupported. Between the
lower mad head and the foremen of the crofs-trees, a
fquare (pace remains vacant, the fides of which are
bounded by the two tredle-trees. Perpendicularly
above ibis is the forernoft hole in the cap, whofe after
bole is folidly fixed on the head of the lower-mad. The
top mad is ert&ed by a tackle, whofe effort is commu¬
nicated from the head of the lower-mad to the foot of
the top-mad ', and the upper end of the latter is ac¬
cordingly guided into ai d conveyed up through the
holes between the tredlc-trees and the cap, a* above
mentioned. 1 he machinery by which it is elevated,
or, according to the fea phrafe, fweytd up, is fix< d in
the following manner : the top roj e d, fig, 4, palling Fig. ^
through a Mock e< which is hooked on one fide of the
cap, and afterwards through a hole, furniffied with a
flreave or pulley f, on the lower end of ti e top-mud,
is again brought upwards on the other fide of the matt,
where it is at length faflened to an eye-bolt in the cap
g, which is always on the fide oppofite to the top,
block e. To the low er t nd of the top-rope is fixed
the top-tackle h, the effort of which being tranlmit-
ted to the top-rope d, and thence to the lue] of th«
top-mad f, ntcefiarily lifts the latter upwards, paral¬
lel to the lower-mad. When the top-mad is railed to
its proper height, the lower end of it becomes firmly
wedged in the fquare hole above dtferibed, betwten
the tredle-trees. A bar of wood or iron called the
is then thrud through-a hole 1 in the heel of it, aerofij
the tredle-trees, by which the whole weight of the top-
mad is fupported.
In the fame manner as the top mad is retained at the
head of the lower-mad, the top-gaHant-u ad is erected,
and fixed at the head of the top-mad.
Betides the parts already mentioned in the condruc*
tion of malts, with refpeil to their length, the lower
mads of the larged fhips are compofed of ieveral pieces
united into one body. As thefe are generally the mod
fubdantial parts of various trees, a mad, formed by
this affemblage, is jufily elkefned much dronges than
one confiding of any tingle trunk, whofe inti rnal lb«
lidity may be very uncertain. The feveral pieces aro
formed and joined together, as reprefented in the lec¬
tion of a lower-mad of this fort, fig, 5, where « ispig, 5'.
the draft, or principal piece into which the red are fix*
ed, with their fides or faces clofe to each other. The
whole is fecured by feveral drong hoops of iron, driven
on the outfide of the mad, where they remain at proper
didances.
The principal articles to be confidered in equip¬
ping a ddp with mads are, id- the number $ 2d, their
fituation in the veflVl j and, 3d, their height above the
water.
The. mads being ufed to extend the fails by means
of their yards, it is evident, that if their number were
multiplied beyond what is neceffary, the yards muft
be extremely ihort, that they may not entangle each
other in working the drip, and by confequence their
or heel of it reds in a block of timber called the jlep, ■ fails will be very narrow', and receive a ImaU portion
which is fixed upon the ke/fon; and the top.mad j* at* 0 wind, If, on the contrary, there is not a fuffo ienfc
tmtwd so the head of it by the cap and the trejlhtrees, number @f malts in tins vdfol, the yards will br too
large
\
/
JTrtt/p .c
5
F 6.
MAS [ 681
 Iarge and heavy, fo as not to be managed without dif¬
ficulty. There is a mean between "thefe extremes,
which experience and the general praftice of the fea
- have determined ; by which it appears, that in large
fhips every advantage of failing is retained by thiee
malls and a bowfprit.
The molt advantageous pofition of the malls is un¬
doubtedly that from whence there refuits an equilibri¬
um between the refinance of the water on the body of
the Ihip on the one part, and of the direction of their
effort on the other. Ey every other polition this equi¬
librium is deftroyed, and the greatell effort of the mails
will operate to turn the Ihip horizontally about its di-
tedlion j a cireumilance which retards her velocity. It
is counterbalanced indeed by the helm •, but the fame
inconvenience Hill continues j for the force of the wind
having the reliltance of the helm to overcome, is not
entirely employed to pufh the velfel forward. The
axis of the relillance of the water Ihould then be previ-
oully determined, to difeover the place of the mnin-majl,
in order to fufpend the efforts of the water equally, and’
place the other malls fo as that their particular direc¬
tion will coincide with that of the main-mall. The
whole of this would be capable of a folution, if the fi¬
gure ofthevelfrl were regular, becaufe the point, about
which the refinance of the water would be inequilibrio
might be difeovered by calculation.
But when the real figure of the Ihip is confidered,
thele flattering ideas will inllantly vanilh. This obfer-
vation induced M. Saverien to employ a mechanical
method to difeover the axis of refinance of the water
which he apprehended might be ufed with fuccefs in
the manner following :
When the velfel is launched, before the places of the
marts are determined, extend a rope AB, fig. 6. from
the head to the llern. To the extremities A and B
attach two other ropes, AD, BC, and apply to the
other ends of thefe ropes two mechanical powers, to
draw the fhip according to the diredlion BC, parallel
to itfelf. The whole being thus difpoled, let a move-
able tube Z, fixed upon the rope AB, have another
rope Zll attached to it, whole other end communi¬
cates with a mechanical power R, equal to the two
powers D and C. This lalt being applied to the fame
velfel, in fuch manner as to take off the effedls of the
two others by Hiding upon the rope AB, fo as to dif¬
eover fome point Z, by the parallelilm of the ropes
AD, BC feebly extended with the rope ZR ; the line
ZR will be the axis of the equilibrium of the water’s
refirtance, and by confequtnce the main mart ihould be
planted in the point Z.
The figures E, E, E, are three windlaffes on the
Ihore, by which this experiment is applied.
With regard to the fituation of the other marts, it is
necellary, in the fame manner, to difeover two points j
fo that the direction of tne two mechanical powers ope¬
rating, will be parallel to the axis of refinance RZ al¬
ready found.
The exadl height of the marts, in proportion to the
form and fize of the Ihip, remains yet a problem to be
determined. The more the marts are elevated above
the centre of gravity, the greater will be the furface
of fail which they are enabled to prelent to the wind ;
lo far an additional height feems to have been advan-
tageous. But this advantage is diminilhed by the cir-
Vol. XII. Part II.
] mas
cular movement of the mall, which operates to make
the veffel Hoop to its effort j and this inclination is
increafed in proportion to the additional height of
the mall, an inconvenience which it is ntceffary to
guard againll. I bus what is gained upon one hand
is loft upon the other. To reconcile thele differences,
it is certain, that the height of the malt ought to be’
determined by the inclination of the veil'd, and that
the point of her greatell inclination Ihould be the term
of this height above the centre of gravity. Seethe ar¬
ticle Trim.
With regard to the general pra&ice of determining
the height of the marts, according to the different rates
of the fliips in the royal navy, the reader is referred to
the article Sail.
In order to leeure the marts, and counterbalance the
ftrain they receive from the effort of the lads impref-
fed by the wind, and the agitation of the Ihip at lea,
they are fuftained by feveral itrong ropts, extended’
from their upper ends to the outfide of the veffel, call¬
ed Jhrouds, marked 5, 5, 5, in fig. 4. and 5. ’They
are further fupported by other ropes, llretched from
their heads towards the fore part of the veffel.
The mart, which is placed at the middle of the
fhip’s length, is called the main-maj}; that which is
placed in the fore part, the fore-rnaj} ; and that which
is towards the ftern, is termed the mvzen mefi.
N. B. Mi%en is applied to this mall by all the na¬
tions of Europe, except the French, who alone call the
fore-mall mifaine.
MAS IER, a title given to feveral officers and
perlons of authority and command j particularly to
the chiefs of the orders of knighthood, &c Thus we
fay the grand mailer of Malta ; of St Lazarus j of the
Golden Fleece; of the Free Mafons, &x.
Master (Magfer), was a title frequent among the
Romans : they had their mailer of the people, magi-
Jterpopud, who was the dictator. Mailer of the ca¬
valry, magijler equitum, who held the fecond port in an
aimy after the dictator. Under the later emperors there
were alfo mailers of the infantry, magiftripeditum. A
marter of the cenfus, magj/er cenfus, who had nothing
of the chargeofacenfor, or fubcenfior, as the name items
to intimate ; but was the lame with the prupoftusfru-
fnentariorum.
Master of the Militia (magifer militia: f was an of¬
ficer in the lower empire, created, as it is laid, by
Dioclelian, who had the infpe£tion and government of
all the forces, with power to punilh, &c. fomewhat
like a conftable of France. At firfl' there were two
of thefe officers inftituted, the one for the infantry,
and the other for the cavalry; but the two were united
into one under Conftantine. Afterwards, as their power
was increafed, fo was their number alfo ; and there
was one appointed for the court, another for Thrace
another for the Eaft, and another for Illyria. They-
were afterwards called comites, counts, and clariffimi.
Their power was only a branch of that of the pra-
feftus pratorn, who by that means became a civil of¬
ficer.
Master of Arms (magi/ler armorumf was an officer
or comptroller under the mailer of the militia.
MASTER of the Offices fmafjler qffiaorum'), had the
fuperintendanee of all the officers of the court ; he was
alfo called magijler officii palatini, limply magjler; and
4 R his
Ma!t,
Matter
Mafter.
MAS [ 682 ] - MAS
Ins poll tnagijleria.—This officer was the fame in the
weftern empire "ith the curopalates in the eaftern.
Master at Arms, among us, is an officer appointed
to teach the officers and crew of a ffiip of war the
exercife of fmall arms j to confine and plant centi-
nels over the prifoners, and fuperintend whatever re¬
lates to them during their confinement. He is alfo
to obferve that the fire and lights are all extinguiffied
as foon as the evening gun is fired, except thofe which
are permitted by proper authority, or under the in-
fpettion of centinels. It is like wife his duty to attend
the gangway when any boats arrive aboard, and fearch
them carefully, together with their rowers, that no
fpirituous liquors may be conveyed into the ffiip unlefs
by permiffion of the commanding officers. In thefe fe-
veral duties he is affifted by proper attendants, called
his corporah, who alfo relieve the centinels and one an¬
other at certain periods.
MASTER of Arts, the firft degree taken up in foreign
univerfities, but the fecond in ours j candidates not
being admitted to it till they have ftuditd in the uni-
verfity feven years.
MASTER-Attendant, is an officer in the royal dock¬
yards, appointed to haften and affift at the fitting out
or difmantling, removing, or fecuring veffels of war,
&c. at the port where he refides He is particularly
to obferve, that his majefly’s ffiips are fecurely moor¬
ed, and for this purpofe he is expefted frequently to
review the moorings which are funk in the harbour,
and obferve that they are kept in proper repair. It
is alfo his duty to vifit all the ffiips in ordinary, and
fee that they are frequently cleaned and kept in or¬
der ; and to attend at the general mufters in the dock¬
yards, taking care that all the officers, artificers, and
labourers, regifiered in the navy-books, are prefent at
their duty.
MASTER of the Ceremonies,’^ an officer inftituted by
King James I. for the more folemn and honourable
reception of ambafladors, and flrangers of quality,
whom he introduces into the prefence.—The badge
of this office is a gold chain and medal, having on one
fide an emblem of peace, with King James’s motto ;
and on the reverfe the emblem of war, with Dieu
et mon droit. He is always fuppofed to be a perfon of
good addrefs, and a mafter of languages, and has an
appointment of 300I. a-year : he is conftantly attend¬
ing at court, and hath under him an affiftant mafter,
or deputy, at 6% 8d. a-day, who holds his place during
the kin ’s plea'ure.
There is alfo a third officer, called mar Pool of the ce¬
remonies, with icol. a-year, whofe bufinefs is to receive
and diftribute the mailer’s orders, or the deputy’s, for
the fervice ; but without their order he can do nothing.
Th’s is the king’s gift.
Masters of Chancery are ufually chofen out of the
barrifters of the common law ; and fit in chancery, or
at the rolls, as affiftants to the lord chancellor and
the mafter of the rolls. All thefe, fo late as the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, were commonly doctors of the
civil law.—To them are alfo committed interlocutory
reports, examination of bills in chancery, ftating of
accounts, taxing cofts, &c. and fotnetimes, by way of
reference, they are empowered to make a final determi¬
nation of caufes.
They have, time out of mind, had the honour to fit
in the houfe of lords, though they have neither writs
nor patent to empower them •, but they are received as
affiftants to the lord chancellor and mafter of the rolls.
They had anciently the care of infpe&ing all writs of
fummons, which is now performed by the clerk of the
petty bag. When any meffage is fent from the lords
to the commons, it is carried by the mafters of chan¬
cery. Before them alfo affidavits are made, and deeds
and recognizances acknowledged.
Befides thefe, who may be called wafers of chancery
ordinary, (being 12 in number, whereof the mafter of
the rolls is reputed the chief), there are alfo mafters of
chancery extraordinary, appointed to a6t in the feveral
counties of England beyond 10 miles diftance from
London, by taking affidavits, recognizances, &c. for
the eafe of the fuitors of the court.
MASTER of the Faculties, an officer under the arch-
biffiop of Canterbury, who grants licenfes and difpen-
fations : he is mentioned in the ftatute 22 and 23
Car. II. See COURT of Faculties.
Master Gunner. See Gunner.
MASTER of the Horfe is reckoned the third great of¬
ficer of the court, and is an office of great honour and
antiquity, and always (when not put in commiffion),
filled by noblemen of the higheft rank and abilities.
He has the management and difpofal of all the king’s
ftables and bred horfes. He has authority over the
equerries and pages, coachmen, footmen, grooms, ri¬
ders of the great horfe, farriers, and Imiths. He ap¬
points all the other tradefmen who work for the king’s
ftables •, and by his warrant to the avenor, makes them
give an oath to be true and faithful. In ftrort, he is
intruded with all the lands and revenues appropriated
for the king’s breed of horfes, the expences of the
{table, and of the coaches, litters, &c. He alone has
the privilege of making ufe of any of the king’s horles,
pages, footmen, &c. $ and at any folemn cavalcade he
rides next the king, and leads a horfe of ftate. His
falary is 1276I. 13s. qd. per annum. There is alfo a
mafter of the horfe in the eftabliffiment of her majefty’s
houfehold, with a falary of 800I. a-year.
MASTER of the Houfehold, is an officer under the
treafurer of the houfehold, in the king’s gift : his bu¬
finefs is to furvey the accounts of the houfehold.—He
has 661. 13s. 4d. a-year wages, and 433I. 6s. 8d. board
wages.
MASTER of the Mint, was anciently the title of him
wffio is now called warden of the mint; w hofe office is
to receive the filver and bullion which comes to the
mint to be coined, and to take care thereof. The
office of mafter and worker is now diftin6I : and this
officer is allowed for himfelf and three clerks 650I.
Mailer,
a-year.
Master of the Ordnance. See Ordnance.
MASTER of the Revels, an officer with an appoint¬
ment of 1 ool. a-year, whofe bufinefs is to order all
things relating to the performance of plays, mafques,
balls, &.c. at court. Formerly he had alfo a jurif-
didfion of granting licenfes to all who travel to a£f
plays, puppet (hows, or the like diverfions 5 neither
could any new’ play be adled at either of the two
houfes till it had paffed his perufal and licenfe j but
thefe powers were afterwards much abridged, not to
fay annihilated, by a ftatute for regulating playhoufes,
till the licenfing plays by the lord chamberlain was
eftablilhed.
MAS [ 68.3 1 MAS
Mafter. eftabliftied. This officer has a yeoman with 46I. 1 is. 8d.
v ' "L' e-year.
MASTER of the Rol/s, a patent officer for life j who
has the cuftody of the rolls and patents which pafs the
great feal, and of the records of the chancery.
In the abfence of the lord chancellor or keeper, he
alfo fits as judge in the court of chancery j and is by
Sir Edward Coke called his ajjijlant.
At other times he hears caufes in the rolls chapel,
and makes orders and decrees. He, is alfo the firft of
the mailers of chancery, and has their affiltance at the
rolls : but all hearings before him are appealable to the
lord chancellor.
He has alfo his writ of fummons to parliament, and
fits next to the lord chief juflice of England on the fe-
eond woolpack. He has the keeping of the parliament
rolls, and has the rolls-houfe for his habitation j as alfo
the cuftody of all charters, patents, commiffions, deeds,
and recognifances, which being made of rolls of parch¬
ment gave rife to the name. Anciently he was called
rlerk of the rolls.
The authority of the mailer of the rolls to hear and
determine caufes, and his general power in the court
»>f chancery, were the fubjefis of divers queltions and
difputes w'hich were very warmly agitated \ to quiet
which it was declared by fiat. 3 Geo. II. cap. 30. that
all orders and decrees by him made, except fuch as by
the courfe of the court were appropriated to the great
feal alone, fhould be deemed to be valid j fubjedl ne •
verthelefs to be difcharged or altered by the lord chan¬
cellor, and fo as they lhall not be enrolled till the fame
are figned by his lordfhip.
In his gift are the fix clerks in chancery, the exa¬
miners, three clerks of the petty-bag, and the fix
clerks of the rolls chapel where the rolls are kept. See
Rolls, Clerk, &c.
The mafter of the rolls is always of the privy coun¬
cil •, and his office is of great profit, though much fliort
x)f what it has been.
MASTER of a Ship, an officer to whom is committed
the direflion of a merchant veffel, who commands
it in chief, and is charged with the merchandifes
abroad.
In the Mediterranean the mafter is frequently called
patron, and in long voyages captain.
It is the proprietor of th,e veffel that appoints the
mafter; and it is the mafter wrho provides the equi¬
page, hires the pilots, failors, &c. The mafter is
obliged to keep a regifter of the feamen and officers,
the terms of their contrafl, the receipts and payments,
and, in general, every thing relating to his com-
miffion.
MASTER of a Ship of War, is an officer appointed by
the commiffioners of the navy, to take charge of navi¬
gating a <hip from port to port under the direflion of
the captain. The management and difpofition of the
fails, the working of a ftiip into her ftation in the order
of battle, and the dire£lion of her movements in the
time of action, and in other circumftances of danger,
are alfo more particularly under his infpedtion. It is
likewife his duty to examine the provifions, and accord-
ingly to admit none into the ftiip but fuch as are found,
fweet, and wholefome. He is moreover charged with
the liowage j and for the performance of thefe fervices
he is allow ed feveral affillants who are properly termed
mates and quartermafers.
MASTER of the Temple. The founder of the order of
the templars, and all his fucceffors, were called tnagni
templi magi/ln ; and ever fince the diffolution of
the order, the fpiritual guide and diredlor of the
lioufe is called by that name. See Temple and Tem¬
plar.
There were alfo feveral other officers under this
denomination, as matter of the wardrobe, with a Hi¬
lary of 2000I. a-year ; matter of the harriers, with
2000I. a year ; matter of the' ftaghounds, with 800I.
a-year } mafter of the jewel-office, &c. all now abo-
liihed.
MASTER and Servant; a relation founded in con¬
venience, whereby a man is dirtfted to call in the af-
fiftance of others, where his own {kill and labour will
not be fufficient to anfwer the cares incumbent upon
him. For the feveral forts of fervants, and how that
character is created or deftroyed, fee the article Ser¬
vant. In the prefent article we (hall confider, firft,
the effefl of this relation with regard to the parties
themfelves ; and, fecondly, its effecls with regard to
others.
1. The manner in which this relation affedls either
the mafter or fervant. And, firft, by hiring and fer-
vice for a year, or apprenticeftiip under indentures, a
perfon gains a fettlement in that parifti wherein he laft:
ferved 40 days,. In the next place, perfons ferving
feven years as apprentices to any trade have an ex-
clufive right to exercife that trade in any part of Eng¬
land. This law, with regard to the exclufive part of
it, h as by turns been looked upon as a hard law, or as
a beneficial one, according to the prevailing humour
of the times : which has occafioned a great variety of
refolutions in the courts of law concerning it ; and at¬
tempts have been frequently made for its repeal, though
hitherto without fuccefs. At common law every man
might ufe what trade he pleafed ; but this ftatute re-
ftrains that liberty to fuch as have ferved as ap¬
prentices : the adverfaries to which provifion fay, that
all reflriclions (which tend to introduce monopolies)
are pernicious to trade ; the advocates for it allege,
that unlkilfulnefs in trades is equally detrimental to
the public as monopolies. This reafon indeed only ex¬
tends to fuch trades, in the exercife whereof Ikill is
required : but another of their arguments goes much
farther ; viz. that apprenticeftiips are ufeful to the'com-
monwealth, by employing of youth, and learning them
to be early induftrious ; but that no one would be in¬
duced to undergo a feven years fervitude, if others,
though equally ikilful, were allowed the fame advan¬
tages without having undergone the fame difcipline :
and in this there feems to be much reafon. However,
the refolutions of the courts have in general rather
confined than extended the reftricttion. No trades are
held to be within the ftatute, but fuch as were in being
at the making of it : for trading in a country village,
apprenticethips are not requifite, and following the
trade feven years is fufficient without any binding j for
the ftatute only fays, the perfon mull ferve as an ap¬
prentice, and does not require an adlual apprenticeftiip
to have exilled.
A mafter may by law correft his apprentice for ne-
4 R 2 gligence
Matter.
M A vS
ilaf:er. gligence or other tnifbehaviour, fo it be done with
moderation : though, if the mafter or mafter’s wife
beats any other fervant of* full age, it is g, od caufe of
departure. But if any fervant, workman, or labourer,
affaults his mafter or dame, he fhall fuffer one year’s
imprifonment, and other open corporal punifhment, not
extei ding to life or limb.
By fervice all fervants and labourers, except appren¬
tices, become entitled to their wages 5 according to
agreement, if menial fervants; or according to the ap¬
pointment of the ftieriff or feflions, if labourers or fer¬
vants in hulbandry ; for the ftatutes for regulation
of wages extend to fuch fervants only ; it being inu
poflible for any magiftrate to be a judge of the em¬
ployment of menial fervants, or of courfe to alfels their
wages.
2. Let us now fee how ftrangers may be affected by
this relation of mafter and fervant ; or how a mafter
may behave towards others on behalf of his fervant, and
what a fervant may do on behalf of his mafter.
And. firft, the mafter may maintain, that is, abet
and aftift, his fervant in any aftion at law againft a
ftranger : whereas, in general, it is an offence againft
public juftice to encourage fuits and animofities, by
helping to bear the expence of them, and is called in
law maintenance. A mafter alfo may bring an action
againlt any man for beating or maiming his fervant :
but in lucli cafe he muft aftign, as a fpecial reafon for
fo doing, his own damage by the lofs of his fervice ;
and this lofs muft be proved upon the trial. A mafter
likewife may juftify an affault in defence of his fervant,
and a fervant in defence of his mafter: the mafter, be-
caufe he has an intereft in his fervant, not to be de¬
prived of his fervice ; the fervant, becaufe it is part of
his duty, for which he receives his wages, to ftand by
and defend his mafter. Alfo if any perfon do hire or
retain my fervant, being in my fervice, for which the
fervant departeth from me and goeth to ferve the other,
I may have an aftion for damages againft both the
new mafter and the fervant, or either of them ; but if
the new mafter did not know that he is my fervant, no
a61ion lies ; unlefs he afterwards refufe to reftore him
Upon information and demand. The reafon and foun¬
dation upon which all this do&rine is built, feem to be
the property that every man has in the fervice of his
domt ftics; acquired by the contradl of hiring, and
purchafed by giving them wages.
As for thofe things which a fervant may do on be¬
half of his mafter, they feem all to proceed upon this
principle, that the mafter is anfwerable for the a<ft of
his fervant, if done by his command, either exprefsly
given or implied : nam qui facit per a Hum, fncit per fe.
Therefore, if the fervant commit a trelpafs bv the
command or encouragement of his mafter, the mafter
ihall be guilty of it : not that the fervant is excufed,
for he is only to obey his mafter in matters that are
honeft and lawful. If an innkeeper’s fervants rob his
guefts, the mafter is bound to reftitution ; for as there
is a confidence repofed in him, that he will take care
to provide honeft fervants, his negligence is a kind of
implied confent to the robbery ; nam qui nan prohibet,
cum prohibere pojjit, jubet. So likewife if the drawer
at a tavern fells a man bad wine, whereby his health is
injur -d, he may bring an affion againft the maftPr ;
fox although the mafter did not exprefsly order the ftr-
M A S
vant to fell it to that perfon in particular, yet his per- Mafter.
mitting him to draw and fell it at all is implied a ge-  v—•
neral command.
In the fame manner, whatever a fervant is permitted
to do in the ufual courfe of his bufmefs, is equivalent
to a general command. If I pay money to a banker’s
fervant, the banker is anfwerable for it : If I pay it
to a clergyman’s or a phyfician’s fervant, whofe ufual
bufinefs it is not to receive money for his mafter, and
he embrzzles it, I muft pay it over again. If a fteward
lets a leafe of a farm, without the owner’s knowledge,
the owner muft ftand to the bargain : for this is the
fteward’s bufinefs. A wife, a friend, a relation, that
ufe to tranfaft bufinefs for a man, are quoad hoc his fer¬
vants ; and the principal muft anfwer for their con-
duft : for the law implies, that they aft under a ge¬
neral command ; and without fuch a doftrine as this
no mutual intercourfe between man and roan could fub-
fift with any tolerable convenience. If I ulually deal
with a tradefman by myfelf, or conftantly pay him
ready money, I am not anfwerable for what my fer¬
vant takes up upon truft : for here is no implied order
to the tradefman to truft my fervant : but if I ufually
fend him upon truft, or fometimes on truft and lome-
times with ready money, I am anfwerable for all he
takes up ; for the tradefman cannot poflibly diftinguith
when he comes by my order and when upon his own
authority.
If a fervant, laftly, by his negligence does any da¬
mage to a ftranger, the mafter (hall anfwer for his ne-
gleft : if a fmith’s fervant lames a horfe while he is
(hoeing him, an aftion lies againft the mafter, and not
againft the fervant. But in thefe cafes the damage
muft be done while he is aftually employed in the
mafter’s fervice ; otherwife the (ervant (hall anfwer for
his own mifbehaviour. Upon this principle, by the
common law, if a fervant kept his mafter’s fire negli¬
gently, fo that his neighbour’s houfe was burned down
thereby, an aftion lay againft the mafter; becaufe this
negligence happened in his fervice : otherwife, if the
fervant, going along the llreet with a torch, by ne¬
gligence lets fire to a houfe ; for there he is not in his
mafter’s immediate fervice, and muft himfelf anfwer
the damage perfonally. But now the common law is,
in the former cafe, altered by ftatute 6 Ann. c. 3.
which ordains, that no aftion (hall be maintained
againft any in whofe houfe or chamber any fire (hall
accidentally begin ; for their own lofs is fufficient pu-
nifhment for their own or their fervant’s careleffnefs.
But if fuch fire happens through negligence of any
fervant (whofe lofs is commonly very little), fuch fer¬
vant (hall forfeit look to be diftributed among the
fuff rers ; and, in default of payment, (hall be com¬
mitted to fome workhoufe, and there kept to hard la¬
bour for 18 months. A mafter is, laftly, chargeable
if any of his family layeth or cafteth any thing out of
his houle into the ftreet or common highway, to the
damage of any individual, or the common nuifance of
his majtfty’s liege people ; for the mafter hath the (u-
perintendance of all his houfehold. And this alfo
agrees with the civil law ; which holds, that the pater
farm/as, in this and fimilar cafes, ob a/terms cu/path tcm
netur, froe fervi,five liberi.
We may obJerve, that in all the cafes here put, the
maiter may be frequently a lofer by the truft repofed
in
r 6R4 1
MAS .[ 685 ] MAT
Mafter in his fervant, but never can be a gainer : he may
II frequently be anfwerable for his fervant’s mifbebaviour,
a 1 but never can (belter himfelf from punifhment by lay¬
ing the blame on his agent. The reafon of this is ftill
uniform and the fame ; that the wrong done by the
fervant is looked upon in law as the aviong of the
mailer himfelf j and it is a (landing maxim, that no
man (hall be allowed to make any advantage of his
own wrong.
MASTER Load, in mining, a term ufed to exprefs
the larger vein of a metal, in places where there are
feveral veins in the fame mountain. Thus it happens,
that there are feven, fometimes five, but more ufually
three veins or loads, parallel to each other, in the fame
mountain. Of thefe the middle vein is the largell,
and is called the majler load.
Master Wort. See Imperatoria, Botany Index.
MASTICATION, the aflion of chewing, or of
agitating the folid parts of our food between the teeth,
by the motion of the jaws, the tongue, and the lips,
whereby it is broken into fmall pieces, impregnated
with faliva, and fo fitted for deglutition and a more
eafy digeftion. See Anatomy, N° 104.
MASTICH, a kind of refin exuding from the len-
tifcus tree •, and brought from Chio, in fmall yellowhh
tranfparent grains or tears of an agreeable fmell, efpe-
cially when heated or fet on fire. See Pistachia.
This refin is recommended in old coughs, dyfente-
ries, hemoptoes, weaknefs of the ftomach, and in ge¬
neral in all debilities and laxity of the fibres. Geof-
froy directs an aqueous deco£tion of it to be ufed for
thefe purpofes : but water extracts little or nothing
from this refin. Redtified fpirit almoft entirely diffolves
it, and the folution is very warm and pungent. Maf-
tich is to be chofen in drops, clear, well-fcented, and
brittle.
We meet with a kind of cement fometimes kept in
the (Imps under the name of mallich. It is compofed
of this gum, and feveral other ingredients, and is
formed into cakes for ufe. This is intended for the
fervice of lapidaries, to fill up cracks in ftones, &c.
but is by no means to be ufed for any medicinal
purpofes.
MASTICOT, Massicot, or Yellow Lead, is
the calx or allies of lead, gently calcined, by which it is
changed to yellow of lighter or deeper tint, according
to the degree of calcination. Mallicot is fometimes
ufed by painters, and it ferves medicinally as a drier in
the corapofition of ointments or plallers. The malli¬
cot w hich is ufed by the Dutch as the ground of their
glazing, is prepared by calcining a mixture of one
hundred weight of clean fand, forty-four pounds of foda
and barilla, and thirty pounds of pearl allies.
MASTIFF dog or Band Dog, (cani.\ villaticus, or
catetiarius), is a fpecks of great (izr and (Ir^ngth, and
a very loud barker Manwond fays, that it derives its
name from mafe thefefe, being fuppofed to frighten
away robbers by its tremendous voice. Great Britain
was formerly fo noted for its maitifts. that the Roman
emperors appointed an officer in this ifland, with (he
title of Procurator Cynegii, \ h'>fe foie bufinefs was to
breed and tranfmtt from It nee to the amphitheatre,
iuch as wo ild prove equal to the combats of the place.
Strabo, lib. iv. tells us, that the maltiffs of Britain were
trained for war, and ufed by the Gauls in their battles.
See Canis, Mammalia Index.
MASTIGADOUR, or Slabbering-bit, in the
manege, a fnaffle of iron, all imooth, and of a piece,
guarded with paternofters, and computed of three halfs
of great rings, made into demi-ovals, of unequal bigr
nefsj the leffer being encloled within the greater, which
ought to be about half a foot high.
MASULAPATAN, a populous town of Afia in
the Fall Indies, and on the coail of Coromandel, in
the dominions of the Great Mogul. It carried on a
great trade, and mod nations in Europe had fa£lories
here $ but the Engliffi have now left it, and even the
Dutch themlelves have not above a dozen people here
to carry on the chintz trade. The inhabitants are
Gentoos, who will not feed on any thing that has life j
and they had a famous manufacture ot chintz, which
is greatly decayed fince the Englilh left off buying.
The Great Mogul has a cuftomhoufe here j and the
adjacent countries abound in corn, tobacco, and tim¬
ber for building. It is feated on the weft fide of the
bay of Bengal, 200 miles north of Fort St George.
E. Long. 81. 25. N. Lat. 16. 30.
MATACA, or Mantaca, a commodious bay in
America, on the north coaft of the ifland of Cuba.
Here the galleons ufually come to take in freffi water
in their return to Spain. It is 35 miles from the Ha-
vannah. W. Long. 85. 6. N. Lat. 25. o.
MATAMAN, a country of Africa, bounded by
Benguela on the north, by Monomotapa on the eaft,
by Caffraria on the fouth, and by the Atlantic ocean
on the weft. There is no town in it, and the inhabi¬
tants live in miferable huts, it being a defert country,
and hut little vifited by the Europeans.
MAT AN, or Mactan, an ifland of Afia in the
Eaft Indian fea, and one of the Philippines. The
inhabitants have thrown off the yoke of Spain j and
it was here that Magellan was killed in April 1521.
Cape MATAPAN, the mod fouthern promontory
of the Morea, between the gulf of Coran and that of
Colo-China.
MATARAM, a large town of Afia, formerly the
capital of an empire of that name in the ifland of Ja¬
va. It is ftrong by fituation, and is feated in a very
fertile, pleafant, and populous country, furrounded with
mountains. E. Long. in. 25. S. Lat. 7. 55.
MATARO, a town of Spain, in Catalonia j feated
on the coaft of the Mediterranean, 15 miles north-eaft
of Barcelona, and 35 foulh-weft of Gironne. It is a
fmall town, but induftrious and well peopled ; and the
environs abound in vineyards, which produce win«
much famed for its flavour. It likewife contains feve¬
ral manufa6lories, and is confidered as one of the rich-
eft and moll aflive towns in Catalonia. E. Long. 2. 35.
N. Lat. 41. 30.
MATCH, a kind of rope (lightly twilled, and pre¬
pared to retain fire for the ufes of artillery, mines, fire¬
works, &c.
It is made of hempen tow, fpun on the wheel like
cord, but very (lack ; and is tompofi d of three tw ills,
which are afterwards again covered with tow, (o that
the twills do not app-ar: lallly, it i« boiled in the lees
of >ld wines. 'This, when once lighted at the end,
burns on gradually and regularly, without ever going
out
MaftliT
11
Match.
w—■»“ y 1 — '»
MAT
r 686 ]
MAT
Mate.
Match out till tlie whole be confumed : the hardefl and drieft
match is generally the belt.
j ^i/ick-Match. See ^yiCK-Match.
MATCHING, in the wine trade, the preparing
veflels to preferve wines and other liquors, without
their growing four or vapid. The method of doing it
is as follows: Melt brimftone in an iron ladle, and
when thoroughly melted, dip into it flips of coarfe li¬
nen cloth ; take ihefe out, and let them cool j this the
wine-coopers call a match. Take one of thefe matches,
let one end of it on fire, and put it into the bung-
hole of a calk 5 flop it loofely, and thus fuller the match
to burn nearly out ; then drive in the bung tight, and
fet the calk afide for an hour to two. At the end of
this time examine the calk, and you will find that the
fulphur has communicated a violent pungent and fuf-
focating fcent to the calk, with a confiderable degree
of acidity, which is the gas and acid fpirit of the ful¬
phur. The calk may after this be filled with a fmall
wine which has fcarce done its fermentation ; and
bunging it down tight, it will be kept good, and will
foon clarify : this is a common and very ufeful method $
for m^ny poor wines could fcarce be kept potable even
a few months without it.
MATE of a Ship of War, an officer under the di-
redtion of the mailer, by whofe choice he is generally
appointed, to affilt him in the feveral branches of his
duty. Accordingly, he is to be particularly attentive
to the navigation in his watch, &c. to keep the /og
regularly, and examine the line and glalfes by which
the fliip’s courfe is meafured, and to adjufl: the fails to
the wind in the fore part of the Ihip. He is to have a
diligent attention to the cables, feeing that they are
well coiled and kept clean when laid in the tier, and
fuffieientlyj£r?W when employed to ride the Ihip. Fi¬
nally, he is to fuperintend and affilt at the llowage of
the hold, taking efpecial care that all the ballalt and
provifions are properly flowed therein.
Mate of a Merchant Ship, the officer who com¬
mands in the abfence of the mailer thereof, and lhares
the duty with hiqi at fea j being charged with every
thing that regards the internal management of the Ihip,
the direding her courfe, and the government of her
crew.
The number of mates allowed to Ihips of war and
merchantmen is always in proportion to the fize of the
veffel. Thus a firft-rate man of war has fix mates, and
an Eaft-Indiaman the fame number; a frigate of 10
guns, and a fmall merchant Ihip, but only one mate in
each ; and the intermediate Ihips have a greater or
fmaller number, according to their feveral fizes or to
the fervices on which they are employed.
Dura and via IVIALER, the names given by ana-
tomifts to the two membranes which furround the
brain. See Anatomy, N° 129, 130.
_ MATERA, a confiderable town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra d’Otranto, with
a bilhop’s fee, feated on the river Canapro. E. Long
16. 43. N. Lat. 40. 51.
Mate
il
Matera.
MATERIA MEDICA and PHARMACY.
/ INTRODUCTION.
x
ofmateWa department of medical fcience which treats
medica; , nature, effeds, and ufes of thofe remedies
that are employed for the prevention or removal of dif-
eafe is called MaTeria Medica. It comprifes the
natural hiflory of the articles, or an account of thofe
circumflances by which they may be diftinguiffied, and
of the means of procuring and preferving them ; their
chemical hiflory, or an account of the changes which
they undergo from the adion of various reagents, the
mode of analyzing them, of feparating their moll ufe-
lul principles, and of afcertaining their purity ; and
their medical hiflory, or an account of their fenfible ef-
feds on the animal fyftem both in the healthy and
morbid Hate, with their application to the pradice of
a medicine.
and of The art of colleding, and preferving the various
pharmacy, fubftances employed in medicine, and of reducing them
to thofe forms that are bell fuited to the various pur-
pofes for which they are exhibited, is called Phar-
This art is pradifed by the trading chemift
and the apothecary ; and at leaft the principles of it
form a neceffary part of education to every member of
the medical profeffion.
In the prefent edition of our Encyclopedia, it is
fropofed to treat of thefe two fubjeds together, fmce
they are intimately conneded, and when confider-
ed under the fame treatife, will occupy much lefs
room. 3
We lhall divide this article into four parts ; in the Arrange-
firft of which wre lhall briefly treat of thofe articlesment*
that are employed to fupport life, or of diet; in the
fecond we lhall treat of remedies in general, and lhall
arrange them into clafles according to their adion on
the animal economy; in the third we lhall confider the
methods of preparing them for exhibition, or lhall lay
down the general principles of pharmacy ; and in the
fourth we lhall briefly notice each of the articles em¬
ployed in medicine, whether Ample or officinal, and
mention the molt important circumftances neceffary to
be known refptding them.
As the limits which have been affigned to this article
are extremely confined, it cannot be expeded that the
fubjed will be treated at any great length. Contrary
to ufual pradice, we lhall dwell moll on the general
circumftances of materia medica and pharmacy, and
lhall be as brief on the individual articles, as is confift-
ent with perfpieuity and pradical utility. 4
We lhall not at prefent enter on a hiftorical account ^ r’ters c*
of the writers on the materia medica and pharmacy. If
we find room for fueh an account, we lhall introduce "* J
it at the end of this article, where we conceive it would
be moll properly placed. It will be expeded, how¬
ever, that we Ihould mention fome of the moll ap¬
proved
Cullen’s
treatife.
6
Lewis’s ex¬
perimental
hiftory.
7
Murray’s
Apparatus
Medicami-
8
Gmelin's
continua¬
tion.
9
Monro’s
Medical
and Phar-
maceuti -al
Cbemiftry.
MATERIA
proved works on thefe fubje^ls, and this wa fliall here
do very briefly.
As one of the principal modern writers on the ma¬
teria medica, it will be fufficient to mention the name
of Cullen. His work is flill confidered as clafltcal, and
is in the hands of every medical man. Whatever we
may think of the reafoning and hypothefis which it
contains, and however much we may be fatigued with
the prolixity of feme parts of the work, we (hall al¬
ways fet a jult value on the ufeful fa£ls and practical
remarks with which it abounds. It is to be regretted
that Dr Cullen did not prepare a fecond edition of the
materia medica before the infirmities of age had render¬
ed him lefs qualifled for the work, as in many refpefls
the firll edition is preferable to the fecond.
There are three works which Dr Cullen warmly re¬
commended, and which he thought fo excellent that
he wilhed them to be in the hands of all his readers.
Thele are Dr Lewis’s “ Experimental Hiflory of the
Materia Medica,” as publiihed in 8vo by Dr Aikin j
Bergius’s ‘‘ Materia Medica e regno.Vegetabili $” and
the “ Apparatus Medicaminum” of Profeffor Murray
of Gottingen.
Soon after Dr Cullen publiflied the fecond edition of
his Materia Medica, a new edition of Lewis by
Aikin appeared, fuperior to the former chiefly in con¬
taining the improvements made by the London college
in their Pharmacopoeia in 1788. Dr Lewis’s work is
flill valuable for the fafts which it contains relative to
the natural hiltory of the fubftances, and the a£lion of
feveral chemical agents on them ; but from the late
changes that have been made in chemical nomencla¬
ture, the language in which it is written has already
become obfolete.
Profeffor Murray had publiflied but a fmall part of
his “ Apparatus Medicaminum,” when the laft edi¬
tion of Cullen’s Materia Medica appeared. He, how¬
ever, lived to complete that part of his work which
treats of vegetable fubflances, of which five volumes
were publiflied during his life, and a fixth after his
death, by Dr Althof. In this laft volume an account
is given of columba root, anguftura bark, myrrh, and
feveral other medicines, which could not properly be
introduced into the general arrangement, as the plants
from which they are procured were not certainly
known.
A continuation of Murray’s Apparatus Medicami¬
num in two volumes, containing an account of mineral
fubftances, wras publiihed by Profeffor Gmelin in 1795.
It is very good, but will fcarcely now be confulted
when the improved ftate of modern chemiftry has given
rife to the produftion of fo many excellent works on
the fame fubjeft.
In 1788 Dr Donald Monro publiihed a work on
chemiftry, pharmacy, and the materica medica, in three
Volumes 8vo, under the title of “ Medical and Pharma¬
ceutical Chemiftry.” At the time of its publication,
it was the bell work of the kind in our language j and
it is ftill very valuable, though the late improvements
in chemiftry have in fome meafure diminilhed the uti-
ty of the chemical part of the work.
About ten years ago was publiihed the firft volume
MEDICA, &c. 687
of a fmall work, entitled, A Pra&ical Synopfis of the Introduc-
Materia Alimentaria and Materia Medica, by an ano- , tlon- ,
nymous author, who had alfo fome time before publilh- ^
ed the Thefaurus Medicaminum. After an interval of Pradlical
ten years, this fynopfis is at length completed by the pu- Synopfisand
blication of the fecond part of the fecond volume j andThefauru?
w e confider it as one of the moll ufeful w'orks on the Medicam^
fubjefts on which it treats. Both it and the Thefaurus^
abound with excellent pradlical obfervations, but the
arrangement adopted will in fome refpe&s be confider¬
ed as antiquated. Of this more hereafter. As thefe
two works are intimately connedled, it is to be wilhed,
that in a fubiequent edition they Ihould be united in¬
to one, in which form they would make two moderate
8vo volumes.
In 1804 Mr Murray, ledturer on chemiftry and ma- Morray’s
teria medica in Edinburgh, publilhed his Elements of Elements.
Materia Medica and Pharmacy, in two volumes, of
which the fecond is chiefly a tranllation of the new edi¬
tion of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, with fome ufe¬
ful remarks. In his firft volume, Mr Murray has
made fome ingenious obfervations on the general aftion
of medicines, which, independently of the theory he
adopts, wre confider among the molt valuable parts of
his work.
Few works have had a more extenfive circulation Duncan’s
than the Edinburgh New Difpenfatory, 3 work which New Dif-
was founded on the New Difpenfatory of Dr LewisPenfat01>
publiihed in 1753. Of this difpenfatory feveral fuc-
celfive editions were publilhed under the diredlion of
Dr Webfter, Dr Duncan, and Dr Rotheram, till in
1803 a new work, under the fame title, was publilhed
by Dr Andrew Duncan, junior. Of this improved
Difpenfatory we need fay little ; the rapid fale of three
large editions, and the call which has been made for a
fourth, fufficiently evince the opinion w'hich the public
has formed of its utility and execution. It is perhaps
the moll complete guide to the practical apothecary
which we have in any language.
In 1805 was publilhed a Imall volume containing Kirby^s
a tabular view of the Materia Medica by Dr Kirby.tables.
This little work is intended as a manual to the young
practitioner, and comprehends all the articles of the ma¬
teria medica that are received into the Pharmacopoeias
of Edinburgh, London, and Dublin, arranged into
claffes; and the mode of preferibing them is illuftrated
by appropriate formulae. Owing to the indifferent ftate
of the author’s health when this volume was printed, it
is disfigured by numerous typographical errors ; but
thefe are in general only literal ; and fuch as might
miilead the praditioner are correfted in the table of
Errata.
_ Among the bell foreign publications on materia me- Latent
dica and pharmacy we may enumerate reion
works.
Arnemann’s Therapeia Generalis $
Mirabelli’s Apparatus Medicaminum ;
Bouillon Lagrange Manual de Pharmacien;
Swediaur’s Materia Medica ;
Swediaur’s Pharmacopoeia j and the foreign Pharmaco¬
poeias referred to in Duncan’s Difpenfatory.
PART
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part I.
Dietetics.
PART I. DIETETICS.
Dietetics. THE fubjeft of diet and regimen was much more
attended to by the ancient p' ylieians than it ha- been
by thofe of modern times. In the writings of Hippo¬
crates and G Hus wt find feme excellent remarks both
on diet in general and on the particular diet that is
fuitable to lick people, and fi)r many centuries thefe
authors formed our only guides. Of late indeed, this
nectffary branch of the healing art has been very fuc
cefsfully cultivated, and leveral valuable works have
been publilhed on the fubjed. thefe we (hall here
enumerate a lew of the more refptdable.
Writers on Cullen’s Materia Medica, vol. i.
diet. Plonk’s Bromatologia j
Synopfis of Materia Alimentaria and Materia Medica,
vol. i.
Fordyce on Digeftion $
Nilbot on Diet j
Halh’s Articles on Diet in Encyclopedic Methodiquej
Didionary of Medicine ;
Beddoes’s Hygeia 5
Sir John Sinclair’s Code of Health and Longevity.
In the brief Iketch that we can here give of dietetics,
we (hall brft treat of food in general, and then mention
molt of the animal and vegetable fubltances that have
jy been or may be employed to fupport life.
Of food in All food is either of an animal or vegetable origin,
general. The former is, no doubt, more allied to our nature,
and molt eafily alfimilated to its nourilhment ; the
latter, though digelted with more difficulty, is the
foundation of the former, as vegetables are the nou-
rilhment of animals, and all food is therefore properly
derived from this fource. In many refpeds, however,
vegetable and animal food differ j and this difference
it is proper to remark, according to the various effects
it difplays on different parts of the human fyltem. In
the choice of vegetable food, a much nicer fele&ion is
made- by rnan than by any other animal ; and his
choice is chiefly confined to thofe of a mild, bland na¬
ture, and of an agreeable tafte. When any other
fubftances are felefted, it is entirely for the purpofe of
condiment or medicine. The firft difference to be ob-
ferved between animal and vegetable food, is with re-
fpeft to their effeds on the ftomach and bowels. In
the ftomach, vegetable food always difplays a tenden¬
cy to acefcency, while animal food, on the contrary,
tends towards putrefadion. Hence the former is apt
to produce fymptoms of uneafinefs, while (he latter in
moderate quantity is almoft never felt. In the fame
way, facility of folution belongs to vegetable food j
while from greater fiimnefsof texture, and vifcidityq
animal mod is apt to opprefs. Nor does the latter*
from its oily texture, always mix eafilv in the ftcmach
v'th other matters; while vegetables unite readily, hut
frequently continue long on the ftomach for want of a
proper ftimulus. Similar effeds are produced in the
bowels by thefe different kinds of food, as well as in
thi: ftomach. 1 he acefcency of vegetable food is at
all times apt to induce loo'chefs ; while the fame eff d
is never known to arife from animal food, except in a
very advanced ftate of putrefadion. On the contrary,
the body is generally kept by it in a regular date’;
while vegetables, from the li fter portion of them going
into chyle, produce a larger proportion of feculent
matter, and lie longer in the bowels from their inac¬
tive nature before being expelled.
'] he nourifhment conveyed by both kinds of food is
much the lame ; but the animal produd is in greater
quantity, and more eafily digefted, while the vegetable
retains its more watery nature, with a portion of unaf-
fimilating faline matter, which thougli introduced, is
again expelled by fume of the excretions. The animal
blood is then richer, more elaborated and ftimulating,
and excites a ftronger adion of the fyftem than that
produced from vegetables. Both produds, however,
equally take on an alkalefcent nature in the circula¬
tion ; for the acefcency of the vegetable is confined en¬
tirely to its adion on the ftomach and bowels. Thus,
from animal food a greater fupply of nouriftiment is re¬
ceived for the wants of the fyftem, depending on its
greater quantity of oil, and its longer retention in the
body than vegetable food. Agreeably to thefe dif¬
ferent effeds of animal and vegetable food, it is far¬
ther to be obferved, that the latter is more quickly
perfpirable than the former. Hence the tendency to
obefity, which arifes from animal food ; while part of
the vegetable aliment is very quickly carried off by
urine.
The combination of a vegetable and animal diet, is
certainly belt fuited to preferve a proper ftate of health
and ftrength. There are few who fubfift entirely upon
vegetables, and of thefe few, the conftitutions are ge¬
nerally feeble, fickly, and w eak, and they are the con-
ftant vidims to complaints of the ftomach and bowels.
Where this method of life is at all pradifed, it is con¬
fined to hot climates, where vegetable diet may no
doubt be carried to a greater extent without injury.
Some nations alfo have gone to the other extreme, and
live entirely on animal food ; and in a very cold at-
mofphere, this may be indulged beyond what would
otheruife he lafe lor the health of the body, fo that a
mixture of vegetable and animal nourifhment ftems
heft fitted for the health of man. But the proportion
in which thefe ought to be ufed, is a point equally ne-
ceffary to be enquired into. The benefits that attend
animal food are clearly the giving a fuperior ftrength
and vigour ; but, in proportion as it carries this to ex-
cefs, it expofes the body to dangerous confequences,
and to the produdion of various difeafes. Hence thofe
who exceed in the animal, or what we may term the
athletic diet, are foon worn out, and fall the vidims
of the over proportion of ftrength which fuch living
bellows.
Ihe advantages again of vegetable food, are moftly
of rlie paffive kind, and though it is difficult of af-
fimilation, yet under certain circumftances, a tolerable
degree of ftrength and vigour may be acquired from it.
It is more favourable for the appetite than animal fund,
and little injury can ariie from too much repletion with
it. It has many advantages over aniixal food, as it in¬
troduces
Part I.
l:Plftet‘cs-, trodtices no improper acrimony into the fyftem, and
v " counterafts the baneful effe&s of animal diet. It is to
this preference of vegetable food that the French owe
their freedom from difeafe in a greater degree than the
Engnir. : ana the bell rule to fecure heailth^ perhaps,
is to confine infancy and youth moftly to a vegetable
diet; manhood, and the decay of life, to animal food ;
while near the end of life, the vegetable fyftem fhould
again be returned to. But, whatever kind of diet we
adopt, a variety in the form of our food, as well as the
nature of it, fhould be attended to. Thus the con-
ftsnt ule of fohd nounfliment, however wholefome and
nutritious, by giving the ftomach more to do than is
neceflary, muft be attended with hurtful confequences.
In the fame way a perfeverance in the liquid aliment,
however fit by its qualities for conveying chyle into
the fyftem, could not fail to prove an improper diet, by
depriving the ftomach of that neceflary ftimulus from
its form, which folid food conveys. A mixture, there¬
fore, of folid and fluent nourifhment is abfolutely necef-
fary, whatever the nature of that nourifhment may be,
and this proportion muft be regulated by the different
fttuations of different individuals. A man who is fub-
jefted to much bodily exertion, requires certainly the
proportion of folid food to exceed, and likewife to be
taken in the moft permanent and nutritive ftate. A
man again accuftomed to little bodily labour, and fub-
jeiled to the eafe and inaflivity of a fedentary life,
fhould reverfe this plan, and the proportion of liquid
Should be increafed. In the ufe of the different kinds
of food, the fame regulations are proper. Where
along with a fedentary life, the ftomach rejects much
vegetable food, and a tendency to acidity renders its
ufe improper, the bad confequences of an excefs of
animal diet muft be corredted by giving it in the moft
foluble and diluted form. Thus the ufe of foups and
broths becomes highly proper, as giving the fufhcient
ftimulus of animal food to the ftomach, and at the fame
time prefenting it in a form by which a confiderable
patt quickly paffes off, and the excefs of nourilhment
which conftant animal food would produce is greatly
counteradled. It is to this caufe that we may attribute
the little injury which animal food is known to produce
in Scotland, and alfo in France, where foups are much
ai; ufed.
Proper With refpedl to the quantity of food to be adlually
quantity of taken, this muft be regulated much by the appetite and
the fupply required. The appetite is the great indica¬
tion of health; and where the ftomach is in a healthy
ftate, it relifties almoft every kind of nourilhment that
is prefented. This being the cafe, we are entirely to
be regulated in the quantity taken in by the appetite.
Satiety is the natural confequence of repletion, and
before this takes place, the ftomach itfelf gives the
alarm.
Among popular writers it has been a common axiom
that a fmall quantity of food is moft eafily digefted
and that wre Ihould rife from table with an appetite.
This idea proceeds entirely from the opinion that di-
geftion is effe&ed by the mufcular power, of the fto¬
mach. But it is a truth fufficiently eftabliftied that this
is not the cafe. It depends entirely on the fluid of the
ftomach, or gaftric fecretion, and is performed by the
application of this fluid equally well out of the body as
within the organ. Indeed we may fuppofe that a con-
Vol. XII. Part II.
MATERIA MED1CA, &c.
6 89,
fiderable quantity of food, wher. taker,, by producing Dietetics,
a greater ftimulus or irritation of the ftomach, will in- W"Y* J
creafe the gaftric fluid, and thus accelerate the procefs
of digeftion. At the fame time it muft be obferved
that there is in infancy a proper foundation for this re-
ftridfion. The gaftric fluid in children is more aftive,
and their ftomach yields more readily to diftention 5
the appetite, therefore, will continue longer before the
fenfe of fatiety takes place : but even here, as the diet
is moftly of a diluted kind, and foon paffes off, we be-
lie;ve that more has been attributed to the effedls of re¬
pletion, as the caufe of difeafe in children, than what
it deferves. , ■
The proper rule, in all cafes, is that the body fhould Body Ihould
be fufhciently nourifhed, whatever the nature or thebe !uffici‘
quantity of the nourifhment employed may be, and this
is beft determined by the apparent ftate of the body,
and what is again loft by it, or the quantity of its dif¬
ferent difcharges. Fhe body alfo, we may obferve, is
at all times under the influence of habit, and where it
is accuftomed to be circumfcribed, it is often amazing
to find what fmall quantities of nourifhment will fufftce,
and even health be preferved. Of this we have a
number of remarkable inftances brought forward by
medical writers. Nor is this confined folely to man ;
the inferior animals ftrow that their bodies can accom¬
modate themfelves to fimilar circumftances. This be¬
ing the cafe, the conftitution of man is limited in this
refpeft lefs, even in civilized life, than what has been
alleged. The chief point in health is to guard againft
extremes; for a uniform mode of life, even where -er¬
rors are confpicuous, is always lefs dangerous than hid¬
den excefs, either of one kind or another. 2-
The manner of taking food alfo requires attention.-^anner °f
In all folid nourifhment a proper chewing fhould taketakinS food'
place j this is a preparatory and neceffary ftep to the
aftion of the fluid in the ftomach j but this chewing
fhould not be carried, as feme have advifed, too far.
Something fhould be left for the ftomach to do, and
this organ will be found improved by exercife and by
increafing its active powers, as well as any other part
of the body. Hence fubftances rather of difficult di-
geftion may be at times properly prefented to it.
In his choice of food man is not circumfcribed like
the other animals. Its refpe&ive falubrity or pernici-
oufnefs he can in general judge of only by its tafte.
Hence, that his tafte may be as little deceived as pof-
fible, moft nourifhing fubftances, we obferve, are of a
bland, mild nature, and contain nothing offenftve to
this organ. Hence too there is a certain pleafure con¬
joined with the gratification of appetite, which is
meant both as an incentive to our taking nourifhment
and alfo to direft us in the feleftion of it.
From the conftitution, however, of man, experience
fhows that any nourifhment, however unfit, may be af-
fimulated by habit, and that wholefome and unwhole-
feme are often merely relative terms, regulated by
the exifting circumftances in which individuals are
placed.
I he defire for folid food is much feldomer carried
to excels than that for fluids. Both, where they oc¬
cur, are not the effeft of a natural appetite, but rather
of that artificial one which is created by the ufe of fti-
mulants increafing the relifh of food to the palate, or
its ftimulant effect on the ftomach. This excefs be-
4 S
comes
6 go
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Parti.
Dietetics. ‘ncr^frd by i*H?“?gcnC£ \ aha a habit, of courfe,
"''“-y-””.. comes to prevail, which diftends the itomach, relaxes
its tone, and deftroys its elafticity; in confequence of
which diforders of this organ arife, and a general
fulhefs and corpulency in the whole fyftem take
place.
The manner of taking food, as well as the quantity
and quality, requires fome attention. All extremes in
taking food, (hould be carefully avoided •, it Ihould
pafs into the ftomach in a flow and regular manner,
blended by the procefs of chewing with a fufficient
quantity of faliva to promote its diflolution in the fto-
mach. If hurried over without attention to this, the
difficulty of folution is increafed, and the ftomach is
fuddenly ditlended, and fatiety produced before it is
filled. The meal, therefore, becomes both deficient
in quantity, and the food, from the digeftive organs
having more to do, remains longer on the ftomach
than is either neceflary or proper*.
For more on this fubjedl, fee the articles ALIMENT,
Food, and Drink.
After thefe general obfervations on diet, we fliall
take a brief furvey of the principal articles employed as
food, under the general heads of SOLID Food, Drink,
and Condiments.
A. SOLID FOOD.
I. FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
» See Nif-
let on Diet.
24
Food deriv¬
ed from
quadru¬
peds.
25
Apes.
26
Bats.
27
Ant-eater.
2 S
Armadillo.
29
Rhinoceros.
3°
Elephant.
, 31
Walrus.
32
Seal.
Class I. MA1VIMALIA. Order 1. Primates.
There are few animals of this order employed as
food. In fome countries, however, feveral fpecies of
the genus fimia or a/>e, are eaten, particularly
Simia inuus, the Barbary ape. S. Beelzebul, the
preacher monkey. S. Panifcus, the four-fingered mon-
key.
Some fpecies of the bat tribe are occafionally eaten
by the natives of warm climates, efpecially
Vefpertilio vampyrus, the vampyre bat.
Order 2. Bruta.
Several tribes of this order afford nouriftiment to un¬
civilized nations.
The great ant-eater {myrmecophaga jubata) is fre¬
quently eaten by the American Indians*, but its flefh
has a ftrong and difagreeable flavour.
Moft fpecies of dafypus or armadillo form an article
of diet among the Indians.
The flefti of the rhinoceros bicornis, or two-horned
rhinoceros, is eaten in Abyflinia j but its flefti is very
finewy.
The flefh of the elephant is often eaten, both by the
Abyflinians and Hottentots. See Elephant, Mam¬
malia In lex.
Several ipecies of trichecus, or walrus, are eatable,
efpecially
Trichecus rofmarus, or arElic walrus.
Order 3. Fer^:.
From this order mankind have long derived part of
their nourilhment, efpecially in the earlier periods of
fociety.
The flefti of the common feal (phoca vitulina) was,
a few centuries ago, ferved up at the tables of the great Dietetics,
in this country ; and it ftill forms the principal fubfift- ’"v-—'
ence of the Greenlanders, Icelanders, and Kamtlcha-
dales.
<2 •?
The brown or black bear {urfus arHos) is eaten by Bear.
the common people in Norway, Ruflia, and Poland.
It is difficult of digeftion, and is generally failed and
dried befoxe being ufed. ^
Of the dog tribe few fpecies have been employed for Dog.
the food of man, though the common dog is greedi¬
ly eaten by the inhabitants of the South-fea iflands,
and is fometimes ufed as food in more civilized focieties.
See Dog, Mammalia Index.
Of the cat tribe, the flefti of the lien is confidered as Lion,
excellent food by feveral nations of Africa, and Kol-
ben prefers it to moft other animal food. ^
The common otter (lutra vulgaris) is eaten in feve-Otter,
ral Roman Catholic countries, and confidered as nearly
allied to fifti. See Otter, Mammalia Index.
The young of the fea otter {iutra marina) are faid
to be delicate eating, noteafily to be diftinguilhed from
lamb‘ . . . ' 37
Several fpecies of dide/phis or opoffum are confidered Opoffum.
by the natives of South America as equally good food
with the fleffi of the hare or rabbit, efpecially
Didelphis Virginiana, the Virginian opoffum. 38
The kanguroo {macropus major) forms a chief part Kanguroo.
of the animal food ufed by the natives of New Holland j
but the flcfli is very coarfe. 39
The common hedgehog {erinaceus europceus) is oc-Hedgehog,
cafionally ufed as food j and its fleffi is faid to be ex¬
tremely delicate.
Order 4. Glires.
4°
The common porcupine {hystrix crifiata) is eaten in Porcupine.
Sicily and Malta, and is frequently introduced to the
politeft tables at the Cape of Good Hope. ^
Several fpecies of cavia are ufed as food in Guiana, Cavia.
Brazil, and other parts of South America, efpecially
Cavia cobaya, the Guinea pig. C. paea, the fpotted
cavy. C. aguti, the long-nofed cavy, and C. aperea, the
rock cavy.
The fleffi of the beaver {caforfiber) is employed as Beaver,
food in America, and is faid to be good eating. It is
preferved by drying it in the fmoke. ^3
The alpine marmot {ar£lomy> marmota) affords nou-Marmot1
riffiment to the poorer inhabitants of the Tyrol, Savoy,
and other parts of the Alps; and, befides this, three
other fpecies are eatable, viz.
Ar6iomys monax, the Maryland marmot. A. bo-
bac, bobak ; and A. citellus, the cajan, or earlefs mar-
mot. ... 44
Several fpecies of fciurus, or fquirrel, may be eaten,Squirrel,
efpecially the common fquirrel (fciurus vulgariv), which
is much ufed in Sweden and Norway, and its fltffi is
faid to referable that of a barn-door fowl. 45
The common jerboa (dipus jaculus) is eaten by the Jerboa.
Arabs, who efteem its fleffi among their greateft deli¬
cacies. 45
Moft fpecies of lepus, or the hare tribe, are ufed as Hare and
common food, efpecially rabbit.
Lepus timidus, the common hare, and L. cuniculus,
the rabbit.
Of thefe the fleffi of the rabbit is fofter and more di-
geftible than that of the hare 5 but it is not fo nouriffi-
ing.
Part T.
Pietetics.
MATERIA MEDICxA, &c.
47
Cameius.
Elk.
43
49
Stag.
. So
Rein deer.
51
Fallow
deer.
5*
Roebuck.
S3
Chamois.
Coat.
54
55
Sheep.
Ox.
56
ing. Wild rabbits are both more digeftible and more
palatable than fuch as are domefticated.
Order 5. Pecora.
It is from this order that the principal part of animal
food, in civilized countries, is derived. Almoft all
the animals contained in this order form excellent
food.
Some fpecies of camelus, or the camel tribe, are eat¬
en, efpecially
Cameius dromedarius, the Arabian camel. C. gla-
ma, the g/ama, whofe llelh is faid to referable mutton.
Of the genus cervus, the following fpecies are moft
ufed, viz.
Cervus alces, the elk, eaten in Norway, Lapland,
and Sweden, where its fleih is much efteemed. It is
very nourifhing, but lies long on the ftomach.
C. elaphus, the common Jlag. The flefh of this ani¬
mal, when full grown, is well known under the name
of venifon, and is very digeftible, wholefome, and nou-
riftiing. The animal (hould not be killed till he is
above four years old, and the flefti is fatteft and beft
flavoured in the month of Auguft.
C. tarandus, the rein deer The flefti of this fpecies
forms the principal nouriftiment of the Laplanders j the
tongues are excellent when failed and fmoked, and the
milk is fweet and nouriftiing.
C. dama, the fallow-deer. The flefti of this fpecies
is a variety of venifon, and nearly refembles that of the
flag. The buck is preferred.
C. capreolus, the roebuck. The flefta of the roebuck
is confidered as inferior to that of the laft fpecies.
Of the genus antilope, almoft all the fpecies afford
excellent food , but the following is moft: generally em¬
ployed, viz.
Antilope rupicapra, the chamois.
The flefti of the young ibex (capra ibex) is faid to
be excellent food.
Of the common goat (capra hircus) only the young
are employed as food ; and a roafted kid is a very com¬
mon difh in America and the Weft Indies. Of goat’s
milk we (hall fpeak hereafter.
O^is aries, th ‘ common Jheep. Mutton is well known
to be a highly nutritious and wholefome meat. It is
perhaps more univerfally ufed than any other animal
food. Tup mutton has fuch a ftrong fmell and difagree-
able tafte, and is, befides, fo exceedingly tough and
difficult of digeftion, that it is never eaten but by thofe
who cannot afford to purchafe mutton of a better qua¬
lity. Kwe mutton, if it be more than between two and
three years old, is likewife tough and coarfe. Wedder-
mutton, or the flefti of the ca trated animal, is moft
efteemed, and is by far the fweeteft and molt digeftible.
Lamb being lefs heating and lefs denfe, is better fuited
to weak ftomachs •, but this applies only to the flelh of
lambs that have not been robbed of their blood by re¬
peated bleedings, or reared by the hand with m Jk
adulterated with chalk, in order to make the meat ap¬
pear white. Such pra£tices to render the food pleating
to the eye, at the expence of its alimentary properties,
cannot be too much reprobated.
Bos taurus, the common bull and cow. The flefti of
the bull has a ftrong difagreeable fmell, and is dry,
tough, and difficult of folution in the ftomach. Bull-
beef is rarely eaten. But the flefti of the ox, or caf-
691
traled animal, called ox-beef, is a highly nourifhing and Dietetic*,
wholefome food, readily digefted by healthy perfons, —
and conftituting a principal part of the common diet of
the inhabitants of this and many other countries. It is
the moft (Lengthening of all kinds of animal food.
Cow-beef is not fo tender nor fo nouriftiing, nor fo di¬
geftible as ox-beef. Veal is tender and nouriftiing j
but not fo eafily digefted, nor fo well fuited to weak
ftomachs, as is commonly imagined. It is matter of
juft complaint, that the fame injurious methods are
praftifed in the rearing and management of calves, as
have been already noticed under the article Lamb.
By fuch treatment the quality of the flefti is much de¬
praved. What is called beef-tea, is prepared by put-
ting a pound of the lean part of beef, cut into very thin
dices into a quart of water, and boiling it over a quick
fire about five minutes, taking off the feum. The li¬
quor is afterwards poured oft' clear for ufe. This makes
a light and pleafant article of diet for weak and deli¬
cate people. On fome occafions fpices may be advan-
tageoufly added to it. Gravy foup is very nouriftiing,
but is heavy and heating. It is ufed as a clyfter, as
well as taken into the ftomach. Calves-feet jelly is
highly nutritious and demulcent.
Befides the common ox, the following fpecies are
employed as food, viz.
Bos americanus, the American bifon. B. mofehatus,
the mufk bull. B. bubalus, the buffalo. B. caffer, the
cape ox, and B. grunniens, the yak.
Order 6. Bellu^e.
57
The flefti of the horfe may be eaten, but is veryHorfe.
coarfe. Mare’s milk is often ufed medicinally, but is
confidered as inferior to that of the afs.
Afles milk is light, and well iuited to weak fto-Afles milk,
machs. It is commonly employed in confumptive cafes j
and Hoffman recommends it in gout, rheumatifm,
jaundice, debility of the bowels, diforders of the urina¬
ry paffages, and in fluor albus.
The flefti of the tapir (tapir americanus) is much Tapir?
efteemed by the inhabitants of South America, but is
inferior to our beef.
The flefti of the wild boar is denfe, but fufficiently jjog.
tender, very nouriftiing, and more lavoury than that of °
the domeftic hog. But as the general properties of
both are the fame, they will be here noticed to¬
gether. The flefti of the wild boar is in feafon in
the month of Ottober. The head is efteemed the fineft
part. J'he flefti of the young animal is reckoned a
great delicacy. T.he common or domefic boar. The
fow. The flefti of the fow is ftrong, and makes bad
bacon. It is the flrfti of the caftrated animal that is in
common ufe, and that is known by the name of pork.
On account of the fat or lard with which it abounds,
it is not very eafily digefted. It is a very favoury food,
and affords a ftrong nouriftiment, fuited to perfons who
lead an a£live or laborious life. The too frequent and
long continued ufe of this meat favours obefity, produ¬
ces foulnefs of the ftomach and bowels, and occafions
diforders of the (kin.
I he flefli of the fucking pig is
reckoned a great delicacy, is very nouriftiing ; but by
reafon of the thick and (limy juice with°which it
abounds, it is not very readily diffolved in the ftomach,
and therefore is by no means a proper food for weak
and fickly perfons. Bacon is a coarle and heavy, but
4 S 2 nutritive
692
Dietetics, nutritive food, on]y fit to he taken in confiderable quan-
'““■“’‘v"""-' tity by robuit and labouring people. When it confti-
tutes a principal part of the daily diet, it brings on dif-
orders fimilar to thofe which arife from the immoderate
ufe of pork. In confequence of the fat or lard with
which it abounds, the flefh of the fwine tribe is more
or lefs laxative. Upon the whole, it may be faid of
pork, that the occafional and fparing ufe of it is fuffi-
ciently falutary ; but that it cannot be made a princi¬
pal part of the daily diet, without producing diforder
in many conftitutions, and particularly in thofe who are
of a melancholic temperament, and lead a fedentary
life.
The flefh of the different fpecies of this genus is
edible, efpecially that of the Jus tajajju and S. baby-
ruJfa- K
61
Food from Class II. BIRDS. Order 2. Pl(LE.
b rds.
Fi sf * Of this order only two fpecies are generally ufed as
food.
Corvus frugilegus, the rook. The young of this bird
is very fimilar to the pigeon, but is rather inferior in
flavour and digeftibility.
P. viridis, the green woodpecker. The flefh of this
and fome other fpecies is palatable,, but of difficult fo-
lution.
63
Anferts. Order 3. AnseRES.
Of this order the principal fpecies that are eaten be¬
long to the genus anas, of which all the fpecies may
be ufed for food ‘r but the following are moft generally
employed, viz. anas cygnus, the wild fwan. A. olor,
the tame fwan. A. anfer, the goofe. A. bernicla, the
brent goofe. A. mofchata, the Mufcovy duck. A. pe~
nelope, wigeon. A. ferina, pochard. A. crecca, teal.
A. bofchas, wild duck. A. domeftica, the tame or
common duck.
Alca ardtica, puffin. A. tarda, the ra%or-bill. A.
eirrhata, the tufted auk.
Pelicanus baffanus, the folandgoofe.
Barns marinus, the black-backed gull.
Of thefe the fwan, the goofe, the wigeon, the teal,
the wild and tame duck, are the moft digeftible 3 the
barnacle, the puffin, the foland goofe, and the black-
backed gull, are very fat, heavy, and have generally a
fifhy tafte.
64
Grailse. Order 4. Gralla;.
Of this order moft of the genera furnifh very good
and favoury food. The following are moft commonly
ufed, viz.
Scolopax rufticola, the woodcock. S. gallinago, the
fnipe. S. gallinula, the jack fnipe. S. glbttis, the great
plover, or green-fhank. S. tetanus, the fpotted fnipe.
S. limofa, the fane plover. S. lapponica, the red god-
wit.
Tringa pugnax, the ruff and reeve. T. vanellus,
the lapwing or baflard plover. T. cinchus, the purre.
T. fquatarrha, the gray plover, or fandpiper.
Charadrius marinellus, the dotterel. C. pluvialis, the
green plover. C. oedicnemus, the thick-kneed bufard.
C. hemantopus, the long-legged plover.
Fulica fufca, the brown gallinule. F, chloropus, the
Part I. [,
common water-hen. F. porphyrio, the purple water- Dietetics.
\
Order c. Gallina;. 6S
Gallirije,
This order furnifhes the principal part of the food
which we derive from the clafs of birds. The follow¬
ing fpecies afford excellent nouriihment, viz.
Pavo criftatus, the peacock.
Meleagris gallipavo, the turkey.
Penelope criftata, the quhan.
Crax aledtor, the crefed curaffow.
Phafianus gallus, the common fowl. Ph. colchicus,
common pheafant.
Numida meleagris, the Guinea hen.
Tetrao urogallus, the wood groufe. T. tetrix, the
black cock,ox black game. red game. T. per- j 1
dix, the common partridge. T. coturnix, the quail.
Order 6. Passeres. <><?
Pafferes.
The following fpecies of this order may be employed
as food, viz.
Columba domeftica, the common pigeon, and G. pa-
lumbus, the ring dove.
Alauda, the lark. All the fpecies.
Turdus vifcivorus, the miffel thrufh. T. pilaris, the
fieldfare. T. merula, the blackbird. I f*
Loxia curviroftra, the fheidapple, or crofsbill. L. co-
cothrauftes, the grojbeak or hawfnch. L. chloris, the.
green finch.
Bmberiza nivalis, the fnow bunting. E. miliaria, the
bunting. E. hortulana. E. citrinella, or yellow ham¬
mer.
Yxm<g\\\a cdhehs, the chaffinch. F. montifringiila,J p
brambling, or bramble-finch. F. domeftica, the houfe \ 6i
fparrow. F. montana, the tree fparrow.
Motacilla modularis, the hedge fparrow. M. fice-
dula, the epicurean warbler. M. cenanthe, the wheat-
ear. M. rubitra, the whin-chat. M. rubicula, the
fionechatter. M. phsenicurus, the redfart. M. eri- j A
thalus, the redtaiL
Hirundo efculenta, the efculent fwallow.
After this enumeration of birds, we muft fay fome-
thing refpedting the nutritious properties of eggs. ^
It is probable that the eggs of all the birds which we Eggs. | ](
have mentioned, and perhaps of moft others, might be
employed as food j but cuftom and convenience have
given the preference to thofe of the common hen, the
guinea hen, and the duck. The fluid contents of an
egg confift of the white and the yolk. The former
very much refembles the lymph of the blood, or the
coagulable part of milk. The latter, viz. the yolk, is
an animal mucilage, compofed of oil, coagulable lymph
and water. It is mifcible with cold water, fo as to form
an emulfion. The oil is feparable from the yolk, boil¬
ed till it becomes hard, by means of preffure *. * See Che-
The eggs of all granivorous birds, and efpecially oimijtry.
the domeftic fowl, yield a mild demulcent and ftrength-
ening aliment, well fuited to confumptive perfons, and
fuch as are exhaufted by immoderate evacuations. Raw
eggs are gently laxative, and are found to be fervice-
able in cafes of jaundice and obftrudted liver. A nutri¬
tive reftorative drink is prepared by rubbing the yolks
of two or three eggs, and a little white fugar, with a
pint
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part I.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Dietetics, pint or two of cold water, adding to it afterwards a
giafs 0f Rhenilh or any other light wine, and a little
lemon juice, to give it a flavour. This egg-emulfion
without the„wine, is a good remedy in coughs, hoarfe-
neffes, fpitting of blood, coftivenefs, &c.
Both the white and yolk of eggs are very indigeftible
when boiled to hardnefs. Eggs (hould be fubjedted to
as little of the art of cookery as poflible. The lighteft
as well as the fimplefl: mode of preparing them for the
table, is to boil them only as long as is neceffary to
coagulate (lightly the greateft part of the white, with¬
out depriving the yolk of its fluidity. This is what is
called poaching them j and in this way they lit well
upon molt ftomachs.
693
M. furmulle- Dietetics.
68
Food from
reptiles.
69
From fer.
pents.
70
Food from
filhes.
7i
Apodes.
72
Jugulares.
73
Thoracici.
Class III. AMPHIBIA. Order 1. Reptiles.
This clafs furnilhes but few articles of food, and of
thefe the following are the molt ufually employed, viz.
Teftudo mydas, the green turtle, T. ferox. T. gree-
ca, the land turtle.
Rana efculenta, the edible frog, or green water frog*
Lacerta agilis, common green lixard. L. fcincus, the
fcinle.
Order 2. Serpents.
Coluber viper, the viper. C. perus, the adder.
Of thefe the turtle is well known as a molt nourilh-
ing and palatable food. The efculent frog, though
not very nutritious, tattes much like chicken ; the viper
and adder are chiefly ufed in foups, which are confider-
ed as great reltoratives.
Class IV. FISHES.
It is probable that almoft all the different fpecies of
filh might be employed as food, but the following are
chiefly eaten, viz.
Order \. Apodes.
Muraena anguilla, the common eel. M. conger, the
conger eel. Ammodytes tobianus, the fand launce, or
fund eel.
Order 2. Jugulares.
Callyonimus lyra, the gemmous dragonet. C. dra-
cunculus, the fordid dragonet.
Trachinus draco, the weever.*
G.3dus aeglefinus, the haddock. G. catlarias, thetorfk,
G. morrhua, the cod-ffh. G. barbatus, the pont. G.
merlangus, the whiting. G. pollachius, the pollack.
G. molva, the ling. G. lota, the burbot.
Order 3. Thoracici.
Zeus faber, the dory.
Pleurone&es hippogloffus, the halibut. P. plateffa,
the plaife. P. flel'us, the flounder. P. limanda, the dab.
P. folea, the foie. P. maximus, the turbot.
Chaetodon roltratus, the jaculator. C. imperator, the
emperor of Japan.
Sparus moena,
Perea fluviatilis, the perch.
Scomber, the mackerel.
Mullus.barbatus, the red fur mullet.
tus, theflriped furmullet.
Trigla lyra, the piper.
Order 4. Abdominales.
Cobitis barbetula, the loach, or groundling.
Salmo falar, the falmon. S. trutta, the fea trout. S.
fario, the trout. S. alpinus, the charr. S. falvelinus,
the falmon trout. S. umbla. S. eperlanus, the fnelt.
S. albula, the whiting. S. thymallus, the grayling*
Efox lucius, the pike.
Mugil cephalus, the mullet.
Clupea harengus, the herring. C. fprattus, the fprat.
C. alofa, the Jhad. C. encraficolus, the anchovy.
Cyprinus barbus, the barbel. C. carpio, the carp.
C. gobio, the gudgeon. C. tinea, the tench. C. cepha¬
lus, the chub. C. leucifeus, the dace. C. rutilus, the
roach. C. erythrophthalmus, the rud. C. alburnus,
the bleak, and C. brama, the bream.
Order 6. Chondropterygii.
74.
Abdorni-
nales.
75
Chondro¬
pterygii.
Accipenfer fturio, the flurgeon. A. ruthenus, the flar-
let. A hufo, the iflng/afs flfh.
Raia batis, theJkate.
Petromyzon marinus, the lamprey. P. fluviatilis, the
leffer lamprey. P. branchialis, the lampern, or pride. ^5
The wholefomenefs of filh in diet has been much Of filh in
difputed. According to fome, it is the molt delicious general-
food of any j and according to others, it is without
ftrength or fubftance. It is certainly not adapted to be
the foie diet of the laborious clafs, but it makes an ex¬
cellent addition to vegetable food ; for inftance, with
potatoes, or other roots, what can be more acceptable
than a failed or fmoked herring, to give a relilh to iuch
infipid diet ? It is faid, indeed, that one barrel of failed
herrings will, in this way, go as far as three barrels of
falted beef. Frelh filh is certainly well calculated for
fedentary people, and thofe who relide in towns j and
at all events, it is fortunate to have fuch a refource for
food in a populous country, to be made ufe of when any
exigency requires fuch aid.
The texture of filh, in general, is more tender than
that of flelh. They have nothing of a fibrous ftruc-
ture, like flelh j of courfe, they are more eafily digefted
than meat, efpecially fuch as are not of a vifeid nature.
It is a lingular circumltance regarding filh, that,
though we require vegetables with our meat, we hard¬
ly ever take them with filh. Cullen fays, that by way
of experiment he has taken apples along with filh, but
found them to difturb digeflion.
The objections to filh, however, are numerous. The
nourilhment derived from them it is faid, is incom¬
plete j not fo llimulating, nor fo congenial to the na¬
ture of man, as either birds or quadrupeds; fome
claffes of them alfo, as Ihell-filh, falmon, &c. are more
indigeltible than meat j and filh, in general, has a
ftronger tendency to putrefaction than meat. But the
faults of filh are fomewhat corrected by the manner in
which they are commonly eaten. In a frelh Hate,
fauces and pickles of an acid nature are employed with
them, and when dried, the aCtion of the ftomach is
promoted by fait and fpices. Filh, compared with
flelh, is lefs nourilhing 5 and the more vifeid forts hard¬
er
Dietetics, er of digeftion. Hence many are under the neceflity,
^ after falmon, &c. to have recourfe to a dram of fome
Herltb and or other to carry them off *.
Part I.
dietetics.
Longevity,
vol. i. p.
407.
77
Food from
infeds.
78
Food from
Milk.
75
Class V. INSECTS.
Of infers properly fo called, none are ufed in fub-
ftance as food, except various fpecies of cancer, viz.
Cancer maenas, the common crah. C. pagurus, the
black-clawed crab. C. gammarus, the lobjler. C. aile-
cus, the craw Jtfh. C. ferratus, the prawn. C. cran-
gon, the Jljrimp, and C. Iqualla, the white Jbrinip.
Under this clafs we may rank honey, the produce of
the bee, which in its general elementary properties
agrees with fugar, to be afterwards noticed. It is,
however, rather more heating, and will not agree with
many ftomachs. It is beft eaten from the comb, as the
wax feems to correft its unpleafant effects.
Class VI. VERMES. Order 2. Mollusca.
The fepia fepiola, and the echinus efculentus, are the
only edible genera of this order of worms, and even
thefe are a coarfe and by no means a nourifhing food.
Order 3. Testacea.
Cardium edule, the common cockle.
Oil re a edulis, the common oyjler.
Mytilus edulis, the eatable mtifcle.
Helix pomatia, the common fnail.
Of thefe, the oyfter and the fnail are the moll whole-
fome and digeftible.
As occr.pying a middle rank between animal and ve¬
getable food, we (hall here notice mid and its various
produdts.
Milk is the proper and natural food of the young of
all animals of the mammalia clafs •, and cows milk
makes a principal part of the daily diet of a great pro¬
portion of the human race, both in the infant and adult
Hate. On account of the abundance of oily and cheefy
matter which it contains, cow’s milk is to infants by
no means fo well fuited as human milk ; but as the
mode of living in civilized fociety often depraves the
quality of woman’s milk, or prevents its fecrotion, cows
milk in too many inftances becomes a neceffary fubfti-
tute. On fuch occallons, as it is too heavy to be
given alone, it (hould be diluted with water : and as it
is dirpofed to become more acefcent than human milk,
and from that eaufe to produce gripings and other dif-
orders of the bowels in young children, it will often
be ufeful to mix with it decodiionsof animal fubftances,
fuch as chicken or veal broth, or decoflion of hartf-
horn (havings ; of which lad two ounces (h mid be
boiled in a quart of water, over a gentle fire, till the
whole is reduced to a pint ; when, after it is become
cold, it will be of the confidence of a light jelly.
This, mixed with about twice its quantity of cows milk,
with the addition of a little fugar, forms for young fub-
jeffs a proper aliment, approaching nearly to the nature
of human milk.
Milk is ufed medicinally in confumptions, efpecially
in their early fiage 5 in gouty affeftions, after the pa-
roxyfm is gone off, in final 1 pox, diluted with water, as
the common drink ; in meafles, efpecially the malig¬
nant kind, diluted in the fame manner) in gonorrhoea,
8»
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
lues venerea, and during a mercurial falivation in can¬
cerous affeftions j in cafes where mineral and animal
poifons, have been fwallowed ; in cafes of ftrangury
and dyfury from the abforption of cantharides, &c. ;
in tluor albus j in many fpafmodic and nervous dif-
orders.
When milk is ufed medicinally, it is often fervice-
able to dilute it with Pyrmont, Seltzer, or fome other
proper mineral water ) and to prevent acidity, and make
it fit eafier on the tlomach, lime water, and fome of
the diftilled arorqatic waters, are occafionally mixed
with it. To obviate collivenefs, which milk is apt to
induce, it is often proper to mix brown (ugar, or mag-
nefia with it, to boil it with oatmeal, veal broth, &c.
In general, milk is improper in inflammatory fevers,
unattended with puftulous eruptions) in bilious fevers)
in fcrophulous cafes ) and in rickets.
The following are the principal products and prepa¬
rations of milk in dietetic and medicinal ufe; cream
and butter are well known ) nor can it be neceffary to
notice how n\uch they diforder the ftomach and bowels
when taken too freely.
Curds taken in confiderable quantity, are highly op-
preflive to the ftomach, and not unfrequently prove the
caufe of obftru&ions and inflammations of the bowels.
Cheefe varies according to the kind of milk fromcheefsT
which it is prepared, according to the quantity of oil
and whey which the coagulable matter contains, and
laftly according to its age. In general, it is an aliment
fuited only to ftrong ftomachs, and to fuch perfons as
ufe great and conftant exercife. In the higher orders
of fociety, it is ufed chiefly as a condiment. Toafted
cheefe is not eafily digefted by weak ftomaehs ) and for
thofe who can be hurt by indigeftion, or heated by a * Se®.
heavy (upper, it is a very improper diet *. g’
Butter-milk is milk which has been deprived of its Butter
oily matter by churning or agitation. It is noun(hing,nu‘k.
cooling, and diluent. It is ufed in cachexies, atrophies,
confiamptions, &c.
Whey is the watery, faccharine part of milk, freed
in a great meafure from the butyraceous and cafeous
matter. It is lightly nutritive, diluent, aperient, and
diuretic. It is given in confumptions, dyfenteries,
jaundice, &c. alone, or mixed with mineral waters,
and fometimes impregnated with the juices of medici¬
nal herbs. Wine whey, tartar whey, muftard whey,
will be particularly noticed in their proper places.
Sugar of mdk is a faline fubftance, obtained from the
whey by evaporation. It has been properly called the
effential fait of milk. It has been much extolled by
fome writers as a remedy in confumptions ) but as it is
contained in whey, it is evident that preparation mufl:
poffefs all its virtues, and therefore that the trouble off Synopjis
obtaining it feparate muft be unneceffary f. of Mat.
Aliment.
II. FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. ar,d Med‘
vol. 1.
r r • . 82
Vegetable food is more ancient than any other. AsOfvege-
forming the food of animals, it is the foundation of allt 'ble tood
our nouriftiment, for by it thofe animals are nourifhed,111 8en£1’a**
which in turn afford fuftenance to man. Indeed there
are no circumftances under which a diet of animal food
(hould be folely employed. This has been confirmed
by every experiment made ) and the confinement of a
perfon only for a few days to this mode of living, has
induced
Part I. MATERIA
Dietetics, induced fuch fymptoms as obliged him to defift, Be-
fides this, by ftimulating to an extreme degree, the
fprings of life are by animal diet urged on too fail; and
preternatural, and of courfe weakening exertions of the
fyilem enfue, which induce, from their excefs, an ear¬
ly decay. Ihus childhood is prematurely uihered by
it into manhood ; and the powers of manhood, foon ex-
hauited, diiplay the infirmities and progrefs of age, at
a period when vigour and ilrength ihould hill be in per-
fedlion. A diet of vegetable food is, on the contrary,
conducive to long life. It neither accelerates the vital
energy, nor ripens the fruit before its time, but with a
flow and regular ftep brings forwards the different
ftages in their due feafon, and with all the advantages
which their proper maturity ought to confer on them.
At the fame time, while we thus point out the good
effects of a vegetable diet, in arrefling the progrefs of
life, and giving a greater permanence to exiftence, we
by no means approve of it as a diet to be entirely truft-
ed to.
Declaimers on the exclufive ufe of vegetable diet
have not taken into view the various and new circum-
ftances of fituation in which man is now placed. He
is no longer the child of nature, nor the paflive inha¬
bitant of one genial fpot, as when he was firft formed.
He is now a citizen of the world at large ; exertion
and toil are his conftant attendants, and he requires a
more ready and affimilated nourifhment than vegetable
food can convey. In many fituations alfo, the vigour
of his fyftem is weakened by extremes of temperature,
which demand, to counteradl them, the moft flimulant
and invigorating food he is capable of acquiring. The
excellence of vegetable food ufed alone is therefore
confined to a mild temperature and a paflive ftate, and
there it certainly deferves that preference which hu¬
manity and philofophy have beftowed upon it. Con-
iidering vegetable food as conveying a nourifhment in-
fufficient for our prefent civilized fituation, we fhall
next ftate the inconveniences that attend its being ufed
in excefs. The firft inconvenience of vegetable food
already noticed, is its ccnftant tendency to acefcency ;
but this is hurtful only when it takes place to a morbid
degree. If a natural tendency to acefcency prevails
in the ftomach, as a ftep towards aflimilation, it can¬
not fail to be noxioufly increafed by the foie ufe of ve¬
getables ; and the counteracting of this ftate, or check¬
ing the tendency to fermentation, muft be the great
fecret in the regulation of vegetable diet. This fecret
no doubt depends on the preventing, by our choice of
vegetables, excefs in the proportion of fermentable or
faccharine matter, and in exciting the aiftion of the fto¬
mach, fo that the vegetable food may not be too long
retained upon it.
The next inconvenience alleged againft vegetable
diet is its difficulty of aflimilation. That vegetable ali¬
ment is more difficult in being reduced to nourifhment,
feems generally admit;ed, and in the end it produces
a greater quantity of faeces. When received into the
ftomach it is likewife fpecifically lighter than the gaf-
tric fluids. Hence it floats near the top of the ftomach,
and caufes irritations. This uneafinefs is not felt for
fome time after its reception, but afterwards it begins
to operate on the upper orifice of the ftomach. The
difficulty, however, of aflimilation that attends vege¬
table food, may be got the better of by a proper fe-
5
MEDICA, &c.
leftion of it ; and it will alfo be chiefly felt in weak Dietetics,
ftomachs, and will by no means affedt the vigorous and v
robuft.
A third inconvenience of vegetable food is its extri¬
cation of a confiderable quantity of air, by which the
ftomach becomes diftended, often to an enormous de¬
gree, and much uneafinefs is produced in the adjacent
organs. This extrication of air is common to all ve¬
getables } it varies, however, extremely in different
kinds of them ; and it is from this circumftance that
the flatulence and torpor is experienced, which fuc-
ceeds a full meal of them. Hence all vegetables that
contain much of it fhould undergo a previous prepara¬
tion before being ufed as food.
Thefe, then, are the chief inconveniences attending
a vegetable regimen j while on the contrary, to counter¬
balance them, this fpecies of diet is always found to pro¬
mote or fharpen the appetite, and to keep the flomach
in an aftive ftate. Neither are any conftitutional dif-
orders the confequence of it, as happens from animal
food, for whatever morbid fymptoms arife under its ufe
are confined almoft entirely to the ftomach and bowels,
and feldom carry any hurtful effeifts to the fyftem at
large. Neither do any evils arife from occafional ex-
cefles in its ufe; and the mifchiefs of repletion or over-
fulnefs are avoided by it, unlefs in cafes of extreme in¬
dolence, or where a continued courfe of intemperance
is purfued as to the quantity taken. By its moderate
ftimulus it counterafts the difpofition to an inflammato¬
ry ftate, and in many cafes proves highly fervieeable,
in checking the violence, and arrefting the progrefs of
many conftitutional difeafes. Independently of its na¬
ture, it is of great importance to the ftomach, by giving
that proper diftention which this organ requires in order
to its healthy afftion.
Ihe wildom of nature has provided that the extent
of vegetable food fhould be much greater than that of
animal food, as the former is the foundation of nourifh¬
ment for all the animated creation. Hence we find
that there is icarcely any vegetable that does not afford
nourifhment to fome animal j and there are many
which, though naturally of a deleterious quality, can,
by proper preparation, be converted into nourifhment
to man. Man, more than any other animal, is di-
ftinguifhed as to the choice of food which he makes ;
and in this feleftion he is generally determined by his
tafte, between which and the ftomach nature has efta-
blifhed fuch a fympathy, that what is difagreeable to
the one, is feldom very digeftible by the other. Hence
inclination is to be particularly ftudied in every cafe of
w'eaknefs of the ftomach.
Among the other properties of vegetable food, it
has been efpecially confidered by all authors as having
moft influence on the powers of the mind, and in pre-
ferving a delicacy of feeling, a livelinefs of imagina¬
tion, and an aftivenefs of judgment ; but in propor¬
tion to thefe fuperior qualities, it muft be obferved, this
ftate of body is equally the attendant of timidity, fluc¬
tuation, and doubt. Animal food, in the other ex¬
treme, gives a ftrong vigour a’ d firmnefs of purpofe,
fitted for the moft active exertions of life. By a mix¬
ture of diet thefe two extremes come to be counter-
a£ted; the body poffefles a proper fhare of vigour $ and,
correfpondent to it, the mind difplays a firmnefs and
capacity fuited to every valuable purpofe. The diet,
then,
6g6
Dietetics, tlien producing this ftate may be properly called tem-
i‘“—perance, without limiting the individual to an exaft
portion of either kind of food, or tying him up by the
abfurd and fickly fyftem of Cornaro ; and this Hate will
be properly regulated by the experience and feelings of
each individual, both inregard to the quantity and qua¬
lity of his nourilhment.
In the ufe of vegetable food, as well as animal, at¬
tention muft be paid both to the proportion of it taken,
and alfo to the Hate in which it is ufed. The firft of
thefe muft be regulated by the three circumftances of
feafon, way of life, and climate. With refpeft to the
fir!!—in fummer the quantity of vegetable food ftiould
be always increafed, whatever our habits may be j
the propriety of this is evidently pointed out by nature,
from its abundance at this period. This increafe of
vegetable food is alfo the more neceffary if the ap¬
petite is naturally keen and healthy, as a more ftrong-
ly nourilhing aliment would at this time expofe to
all the effedts of putrefcency, which the increafe of
the vegetable diet will, on the contrary, counteradl.
The way of life muft alfo regulate a good deal the
proportion of vegetable nouriftiment. An effential cir-
cumftance in the ufe of all diet, as we formerly remark¬
ed, is the production of fuch a diftention of the ftomach
and bowels as may enable them to adt properly on their
contents. In the fedative and inadtive, it is particular¬
ly defirable that this diftention ftiould be produced by
food of a lefs nouriftiing kind, and that no more nou¬
riftiment be received than what the wants of the fyftem
require. Hence in thefe cafes, a vegetable diet is to be
preferred, while in the adtive and laborious, the plan
fliould be reverfed.
It is a fadt fufficiently eftabliftied, that the proportion
of vegetable food fliould be in a great meafure regulated
by the climate, as there is no doubt that the mortality
of warm climates is aggravated by the ufe of too much
animal food j and that a diet of a vegetable and acef-
cent nature with a large proportion of condiment, fuch
as we find ufed by the inhabitants of thofe countries,
is beft fuited to the prefervation of health 5 for by this
excefs of condiment, the morbid effedts on the ftomach
and bowels, natural to vegetable food, are counteract¬
ed, and the chyle formed from them paffes into the cir¬
culation in a proper ftate for fupporting the body in
mch a fituation. On the other hand in a colder region
a permanence of nouriftiment is required, which animal
food particularly conveys; and as this nouriftiment is
lefs apt to diforder the ftomach or bowels, no great por¬
tion of condiment is neceffary either as a ftimulus
to the organ, or in order to avoid any hurtful con-
fequences that may arife. The proportion, there¬
fore, of vegetable food is clearly pointed out to be
Imall, and chiefly of the farinaceous or leaft acefcent
kind. '
K The ftate in which vegetable food is ufed is of equal
importance with the proportion of it taken. Thus ve¬
getable food particularly requires to be ufed in a frefh
ftate j for, by being kept, many kinds of vegetables lofe
their peculiar flavour, their tafte and fmell, and in con-
fequence of this become indigeftible 5 this is particular¬
ly the cafe with the pulfes, with herbs, and with
* See Nif- fruits *.
or\Diet. To thefe general remarks we fliall fubjoin a catalogue
oi efculent plants from Bryant’s Flora Dietetiea, diftri-
MATEHTA MEDICA, &c.
Part I.
buted according to the method of that author, into Dietetics,
roots, ftioots, ftalks, leaves, flowers, berries, ftone fruit,
apples, legumens, grain, nuts, and fungufes.
I. ESCULENT ROOTS.
now or formerly made
Se£L 1. Roots
Bread.
ufe
S3
Efctilent
r roots,
or as
Arum colocafia, Egyptian arum. A. efculentum,
eatable arum. A. peregrinum, edders.
Calla paluftris, water dragons.
Convolvulus batatas, Spanijh potatoes.
Diofcorea fativa. D. alata. D. bulbifera, Indian
yams.
Jatropha maniot, Indian bread.
Nymphtea lotus, Egyptian lotus.
Sagittaria fagittifolia, common arrowhead.
Solanum tuberofum, common potatoes.
Yucca gloriofa, Adam's needle.
Polygonum divaricatum, eajlern buckwheat.
Se£h 2. Roots occafionally eaten as Condiments, or
for other family purpofes.
Amomum zingiber, common ginger.
Allium cepa, common onion. A. afcalonicum,yZ>fl//0/.
A. fcordoprafum, rokambole.
Apium petrofelinum, commonparjley.
Bunium bulbocaftanum, earth nut or pig.nut.
Beta rubra, red beet.
Braflica rapa, common turnip. B. rapa punicea, pur¬
ple-rooted turnip. B. rapa flavefcens, yellow-rooted tur¬
nip. B. rapa oblonga, long-rooted turnip.
Campanula rapunculus, rampion.
Cochlearia armoracia, horfe-radijh.
Carum carui, caraway.
Cyperus efculentus, rujlj nut.
Daucus carota, carrot.
Eryngium maritimum,ye« holly, or eryngo root.
Guilandina maringa, Ceylon guilandina.
Helianthus tuberofus, Jerufalem artichoke.
Ixia chinenfis, /pottedixia. I. bulbifera, bulb-bear¬
ing ixia.
Lathyrus tuberofus, earth nut.
Orobus tuberofus, heath peas.
Orchis mafcula, male orchis.
Paftinaca fativa, the parfnip.
Raphanus fativus, the radifl).
Scorzonera hifpanica, viper's grafs.
Stum fifarum, Jkirrets.
Lilium martagan, martagan lily.
Tulipa gefneriana, common tuljp.
Tragopogon pratenfe, yellow goat's-beard. T. porri-
folium, purple goat's-beard.
IL SHOOTS, STALKS, SPROUTS, Efculent
ftioots,
ftalks, &e.
AND PITHS.
Se£L 1. Shoots and Stalks.
Afparagus officinalis, afparagus.
Anethum azoricumj/tuee/ azorian fennel.
Angelica archangelica, angelica.
Arftium lappa, burdock.
Afclepias fyriaca, greater Syrian dogsbane.
Apium graveolens, fmallage. A. dulce,
celery.
garden
Campanula
Parti. MATERIA
,Pictet!Campanula-pentagonia, Thracian bell-flower.
v Cynara cardunculus, cardoon, or chardoon.
Carduus marianus, milk th 'flle.
Cnicus cernuus, Siberian nodding cnicus.
Chenopodium bonus henricus, Englijh mercury.
Convolvulus foldanella, bindweed.
Cucubalus behen,^!//;;^-P°PM-
Epilobium anguftifolium, rofebay willow herb.
Humulus lupulus, wild hops.
Onoperduna acanthium, cotton thiflle.
Rheum rhaponticum, rhapontic rhubarb.
Smyrnium olufatrum, common a/exanders. S. perfo-
liatum, round-leaved alexanders.
Saccharum oiEdiwiLXwm, fugar-cane.
Sonchus alpinus, mountain fow-thiflle.
Tamus communis, black briony.
Iragopogon yellowgoafs-beard. T. porri-
folium, purple goat's-beard.
Se<ft. 2. Sprouts and Piths.
Areca oleracea, cabbage-tree.
Arundo bambos, bamboo-cane.
Braffica oleracea, common cabbage. B. O. virldis
green favoy cabbage. B. O. fabauda, whitefavoy cab¬
bage. B. botrytis, cauliflower. B. B. alba, white cau¬
liflower. '&.¥>. black cauliflower. B.fabellica,
Siberian brocoli. B. praecox, early batterfea cabbage.
B. rapa, common turnip.
Cyperus papyrus,/)/7/xrr rufh.
Cyrcas circinalis,yi7|-o palm-tree.
Portulaca oleracea, purflane. P. latifolia, broad¬
leaved garden purflane.
Smilax afpera, red berry, rough pine-weed.
Efcuient ni. ESCULENT LEAVES.
leaves.
Sedl. i. Cold Salads.
Apium petrofelinum, parjley. A. crifpum, curled,
leaved par [ley.
Allium cepa, common onion. A. fchsenoprafum, c/i/Ar.
A. oleraceum, wild garlic.
Artemifia dracunculus, taragon.
Alline media, common chick-weed.
Borago officinalis, borage.
Cacalia ficoides,y% marigold-leaved cacaliad
Cichorium endivia, endive. C. endivia crifpa, curled¬
leaved endive.
Cochlearia officinalis,yirz/n/y grafs.
Eryfimum alliaria, Jack by the hedge. E. barbarea
winter crefs or rocket.
Fucus faccharinus, fweet fucus or flea belts. F. pal-
matus, handed fucus. T. fingered fucus. F.
efculentus, edible fucus.
Hypochaeris maculata^o/W hawk-weed.
Laftuca fativa, lettuce.
Leontodon taraxacum, dandelion.
. Lepidium fativum, garden crefs. L. virginicum, Vir¬
ginian fciatic crefs.
Mentha fativa, curled mint. M. v\x\&s,fpearmint.
Oxalis acetofella, woodforrel.
Poterium fanguiforba, garden burnet.
1 nroula veris, common cowflips, or paigles.
Rumex fcutatus, round-leaved forrel. R. acetofa
common forrel. ' ‘ ’
Salicornia emoytz, jointedglafiwort, orfaltwort.
VOL. XII. Part II.
MEDTCA, &c. 697
Sc&n&\xcexzid\i\im,commonchervil. S.odoratajyxu^ Dietetics.
cicely. —y—
Sedum reflexum, yellow flonecrop. S. rupellre, St
Vincent's rock flonecrop.
Sifymbrium nafturtium, water-crefs.
Sinapis alba, white muflard.
Tanacetum balfamita, coflmary.
Valeriana locufta, lamb's lettuce.
Veronica beccabunga, brooklime.
Ulva lactuca, green laver.
Se6I. 2. Boiling Salads.
Amaranthus oleraceus, efcuient amaranth.
Arum efculentum, Indian kale.
Atriplex hortenfis,garden orach. A. hortenfis nigri¬
cans, dark green garden orach. A. hortenfis rubra, ;W
garden orach. -
Ar\et\iximic£.nicx\\vLm}Commonfennel. A. dulce fweei
fennel.
Braffica oleracea, cabbages. B. napus, colewort.
Chenopodium bonus henricus, Engliflj mercury.
Cnicus oleraceus, round-leaved meadow thiflle.
Corchorus olitorius, common Jews mallow.
Crambe maritima,yeo cotewort.
Jatropha maniot, cajfava.
Malva rotundifolia, dwarf mallow.
Mentha v\x\d.\%,fpearmint. See Sett. i.
Phytolacca decandra, American nightjhade.
Ranunculus ficaria, pilcwort.
Raphanus fativus, common radifh.
Salvia fclarea, garden clary.
Spinacia oleracea, common fpinach. S. O. glabra
fmooth fpinach.
U hea bohea, bohea tea. T. viridis, green tea.
Urtica dioiea, common flinging nettle.
Sett. 3. Pot Herbs.
^ Apium graveolens, celery. A. petrofelinum, par-
Allium porrum, leeks.
Braffica oleracea, cabbages.
Beta vulgaris alba, xvhite beet.
Crithmum maritimum, rock famphire
Hyflbpus officinalis, common hyffop.
Oxalis acetofella, woodforrel.
Ozymum bnhWcum^fweet-fcenteJ bafll.
Origanum marjorana, common marjoram. O. mar-
jorana ttrwxxioXx^flfine-leaved fweet marjoram. O. he-
racleoticum, winter fweet marjoram. O. onites fiot
marjoram. ’ ‘
Picris echioides, common ox-tongue.
Kofmarinus officinalis, common rofemary. R, hor¬
tenfis, garden rofemary.
Salvia officinalis, green and redfage. S. minor, tea
foge. _ , ’
Satureja hortenfis, fummerfavory. S. montana, win¬
ter Javory.
Scandix cerefolium, common chervil. S. odorata
fweet cicely. ’ '
Sonchus oleraceus, common flow thiflle.
Thymus vulgaris, common thyme, f. maftichinus,
majtic thyme.
IV. ESCULENT FLOWERS.
Calendula officinalis, common marigold.
4 T Caltha
86
Pot herbs.
-hicuient
flowers.
698
Dietetics.
SS
Efculent
berries.
C. hor-
Caltha paluilris, marfh marigold.
Capparis fpino*a, coper bufh.
Carthamus tinftorius, faffiower.
Carlina acaulis, dwarf carline thi/ile.
Cvnara cardunculus, cardoon.
Cynara fcolymu", green or French artichoke*
tends, globe artichoke.
Cercis filiqualtruVn, common Judas-tree.
Helianthus annuus, annualfunflower.
Onopordum acanthium, cotton thjlle.
Tropieolum majus, Indian crefs. T. minus, fmallcr
Indian crefs.
V. ESCULENT BERRIES.
Seft. 2. Indigenous or Native Berries.
Arbutus uva urfi, bear-bernj. A. alpina, mountain
Jlrawberry. A unedo, common f rawberry.
Berberis vulgaris, common barberry.
Crataegus aira, white beam tree. C. terminalis, maple¬
leavedfervice or forb.
Fragaria vefca vel fylveftris, wood Jlrawberry. F.
northumbrienfis, Northumberland Jlrawberry. F. im-
perialis, royal wood Jlrawberry. F. granulofa, minion
wood flrawberry. F. pratenfis, Swedijh green Jlraw¬
berry. F. mofehata. hautboy Jlrawberry. F. mofeha-
ta rubra, red blo/fomed Jlrawberry. F. mofehata her-
rnaphrodita, royal hautboy. F. chinenfis, Chinefe draw-
berry. F. virginiana, Virginian fcarlet Jlrawberry.
F. V- coccinea, Virginian fcarlet-blofomed ftrawberry.
F. V. campeftris, wi/d Virginian Jlrawberry. F. chi-
loenfis, Chili Jlrawberry. F. C. devanenfis, Devonfhire
Jlrawberry.
Juniperus communis, common or Eng/ijh juniper. J.
arbor, Swtdijh juniper.
Ribes rubrum et album, red and white currants.
R. nigrum, black cun-ants. R. groffularia, goofeber-
ries.
Rofa canina, dog's rofe, or hep-bujh.
Rubus idaeus, rafpberry. R. I. albus, white rafp-
berry. R. I. laevis, fmoothjlalked rafpberry. R. coe-
lius, dewberry. R. fruticofus, common bramble. R.
chamaemorus, cloudberry. R. arfticus, JhrubbyJlraw¬
berry.
Vaccinium myrtillus, blackworts, or bilberry. V.
vitis idaea, redworts. V. oxycoccos, cranberry.
Se£I. 2. Foreign Berries, often raifed in gardens
and ftoves.
A. reticulata, cujlard
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Crateva marmelos, Bengal quince.
Diofpyros lotus, Indian date plum. D. virginiana,
pifhamin plum.
Ficus carica, common fig. F. humilis, dwarf fig.
F. caprificus, hermaphrodite-fruited fig. F. fruftu fulco,
brown-fruited fig. F. Fruttu violaceo, purple-fruited
fig. F. {ycomoxvi'i, fycamore, or Pharaoh's fig.
Garcinia mangotlana mangofieen.
Morus nigra, black-Jruited mulberry. M. rubra, red-
fruited mulberry. M. alba, white-fruited mulberry.
Mufa paradiiaica,tree. M. fapientum, ba¬
nana, or fmall fruited plantain.
Mefpilus germanica, medlar.
Mammea americana, the mammee.
Malpighia glabra, Jmooth-ieaved Barbadoes cherry\
M. punicifolia, pomegranate-leaved malpighia.
Paffidora maliformis, apple-fhaped granadilla. P.
laurifolia, bay-leaved pajjion flower.
Plidium pyriferura, pear guava, or bay plum. P.
pomiferum, apple guava.
Solanum lycoperfieum, love apple. S. melougena,
mad apple. S. fandtum, Palefime mghtfhade.
Sorbus domeftica, trueJervtce tree.
Trophis americana, rea fruited bucephalon.
Vitis vinifera, common grapes. V. apyrena, Corin¬
thian currants.
Part I.
Dietetics.
B. ananas pyramida-
B. karatas, the pen-
C. triangularis, true
Annona muricata, four fop.
apple. A. fquam0fa, Jweet fop.
Bromelia ananas, pine apple.
to fruftu, fugar-loaf pine-apple,
guin.
C^dtus opuntia, prickly pear,
prickly pear.
Capficum annuum, annual Guinea pepper. C. fru-
tefeens, perennial Guinea pepper.
Carica papaya, the papaw or popo. C. pofopofa,/>£’tfr-
Jhaped papaw.
Chryfophyllum cV\s\?\c>,Jlar-apple. C. glabrum,_/2r-
padilh, or Mexican medlar.
Citru1- medica, common citron. C. limon, common
lemon. C. americana, the lime tree. C. aurantium,
common orange. C. d u cu man us, yZWr/c'f .£ orange.
VI. ESCULENT STONE FRUIT.
Sedl. 1. Stone Fruit of Europe.
Amygdalus perfica, the peach. A. nuciperfica, the
nectarine.
Cornus mafcula, male cornel, or cornelian cherry.
Olea Europea, manured olive. O. fylveitris, wild
olive.
Prunus armeniaca, the apricot. P. cerafus, wild red
cherry. P. domeftica, the plum tree. P. infititia, the
bullace tree.
Rhamnus zizyphus, common jujube.
Sedl. 2. Stone Fruit exotic,
Chryfobalanus icaco, cocoa plum,
Coccoloba swxiex^^eafide grape.
• Cordiamyxa, clujlered febefien, or fiJJyrian plum.
C. febeftena, rough-leaved febefien.
Corypha umbraculifera, umbrella palm.
Elais guineenfts, oil palm.
Eugenia jambos, Malabar plum.
Grias cauliflora, anchovy pear.
Laurus perfea, avigato pear.
Mangifera indica, mango tree.
Phoenix dadtylifera, r-owwow -
Rhamnus jujuba, Indian jujube.
Spondias lutea, yellow Jamaica plum.
VII. ESCULENT APPLES.
Sedl. 1. Apples of Herbaceous Plants.
Cucumis melo, mufk melon. C. melo albus, Spanifij
white melon. C. M. laevis, Jmooth green-fiejhed me¬
lon. C. M. flavus, yellow winter melon. C. M. par-
\Wn,fimalt Portugal mujk melon. C. M. pilolus, hairy-
Jkinned melon. C. M. reticulatus, nettedjliinned melon.
C. M. ftriatus, late fmall firiated melon. C. M. tube-
rofus.
Scj
Efcule.nt
ftone-fruifc
po
Efculent
apples.
Fart I.
Dietetics, rofus, waned cantaloupe. C, M, turbinatus, top-fhaped
W~*'_ melon, C. M. virens, green-rinded melon,
Cacurais cbale, Egyptian melon. C. fativus* common
prickly cucumber. C. iativus albus, white prickly cu¬
cumber. C. S. longus, long prickly cucumber, C.
flexuofu?, green Turkey cucumber,
Cucurbita lagenaria, bottle gourd, C. citrullus, wa¬
ter melon. C. pepo, common pompion. C. P. oblon-
gus, long pompion. C. verrucofa, wanted gourd. C.
xnelopepo, Spanijb melon.
Melothria pendula,' [mail creeping cucumber.
Sect. 2. Apples, of Trees.
Acbras fapota, oval fruitedfapota.
A-Verrhoa carambola, goa apple. A. bilimbi, bilim-
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
699
Dietetics,
9*
liegumin-
ms plants.
t.. 9*
Elculent
grains and
ecds.
bin.
Punica granafum, pomegranate tree.
Pyrus communis, pear-tree. P. malus, the crab-
tree. P. cydonia, quince-tree,
VIII. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.
Se£l. 1. Pods and Seeds of Herbaceous Plants.
Arrachis hypogsea, American ground nut.
Cicer arietinum, the chick pea.
Dolicbos foja, Eaft India kidney bean.
Ervum lens, lentil.
Lotus edulis, incurved podded bird's-foot trefoil. L.
tetragonolobus, Jquare-podded cnmfon pea.
Lupinus albus, whitefioWering lupine.
Phafeolus vulgaris, common kidney bean. P. V. coc-
tcineus, fcarlet-flowering kidney bean. P. albus, white¬
flowering kidney bean.
Pifum fativum, common garden pea. P. umbella-
tum, crown pea. P. quadratum, angular-flalked pea.
P. maritimum, fea pea,
Vicia faba, common garden bean.
Seft. 2. Pods and Seeds of Trees.
Caffia fiftula, fweel caflia, or pudding-pipe tree.
Ceratonia filiqua, carob, or St John's bread.
Coffea Arabica, Arabian coffee. C. occidentals,
American C.
Cytifus cajan, pigeon pea.
Epidendrum vanilla, fweet-fcented vanilla.
Hymensea courbaril, baflard locufl tree. ,
Tamarindus indica, the tamarind.
IX. ESCULENT GRAINS AND SEEDS.
Triticum ■si.ft\xwrc\,fummer or fpring wheat, T. hy’-
bernum, winter ox common wheat. T. turgidum,yZw£
thick fpiked wheat. T. polonicum, Poland wheat. T.
ipelta, German or fpelt wheat. T. monococcum, St
Peter's corn.
A vena fativa, manured black oat. A, nuda, naked
oat. \
Hordeum vulgare, common barley. H. diftichon,
long-eared barley. H. hexa{[\c\\or\, fquare barley. H.
£eoeriton, battledore or fprat barley.
Secale cercale. Common rye.
Coix. lacbryma jobi, Job's tears.
Cynofurus cerocanus, Indian cock's foot grafs.
Feftuca duitans, flote fefcue grafs.
Holcus forgbum, Guinea corn, or Indian millet.
93
Nympb.cea nelumbo, Egyptian bean,
Oryza fativa, rice,
Panicum miliaeeum, common millet. P. Italicum,
Italian millet.
Phalaris canarienfis, canary grafs, or canary feed.
Polygonum fagopyrum, buck wheat.
Quercus efculus, cut-leaved Italian oak, Q. phellos,
carolinean willow-leaved oak.
Sefamum orientale, eaflern fefatnum. S. Indicum,
Indian fefamum.
Sinapis nigra, black muflard. S. arvenfis, wild muf-
tard or charlock.
Zea mays, Maize, or Indian wheat.
Zezanea aquatica, water %e%ania.
X. ESCULENT NUTS. , Efcufent
Amygdalus communis, fweet and bitter almond.
Anacardium occidentale, cajhew nut.
Avicenna tomentofa, eaflern anacardium, or Malac¬
ca bean,
Corylus avellana, hazel nut.
Cocos nucifera, cocoa nut.
Fagus caftanea, common chefnut.
Juglans regia, common walnut. J. nigra, black Vir¬
ginian walnut. '
Jatropha curcas, Indian phjflc nut. J, multifida,
French phyfic nut.
Pinus pinea, flone or manured pine.
Pillacia vera, piflachia nut. P. narbonenfis, trifoli¬
ate-leaved turpentine tree.
Theobroma cacao, chocolate nut.
Trapa natans, Jefuil's nut.
XL ESCULENT FUNGUSES.
. . n . _ fungufes.
Agaricus campeitris, common mufljroom. A. praten-
fis, the champignion. A. chantarellus, chantarelle aga¬
ric. A. deliciofus, orange agaric. A. cinnamomeus,
brown mufhroom. A. violaceus, violet mujhroom.
Lycoperdon tuber, the truffle^
Phallus efculentus, the morel.
For the botanical arrangement and charafters of
thefe plants, fee the article Botany. For a particular
account of the individuals as articles of diet, we mud
refer our readers to Bryant’s Flora Dietetica, Cullen’s
Materia Medica, vol. i. the fynopfis of Materia Ali-
mentaria and Materia Medica, and Sir John Sinclair’s
Code of Health and Longevity, vol. i. The prepa¬
ration and ufe of bread have already been treated of
at confiderable length under that article. The ufe
and beft methods of preparing potatoes are given under
Agriculture, N° 288, &c.
94
Efculent
~ • 93
Dnnki
B. DRINK.
Drinks may be divided into common water, vege¬
table infufions or deco&ions, fermented liquors, animal
fluids, and animal infufions or decodtions. The two
laft have been already fpoken of, and water will be
confidered hereafter. We dial] here only make a few
obfervations on the fecond and third heads.
The vegetables employed for infufions or deco&iens
ufed as drink, are chiefly tea, coffee, and choco¬
late.
All the various kinds of tea imported into this coun-Tea.
4 T 2 try,
9$
:00
MATERIA MEDICO, &c.
Part T.
try, come under the denominations of bohea and green j
’ and even thefe are fuppofed to be the produce of the
fame fpecies of plant $ though Linnaeus has defcribed
them as fpecifically different, founding the diftinftion
• on the number of their petals. Others have obferved a
difference in the leaves. Still, however, it is uncertain
whether thefe are not merely accidental differences,
occafioned by diverfity of foil, fituation, and culture.
While the prefent narrow and jealous policy of the Chi-
nefe continues, many interefling particulars refpefting
the natural hiftory of this plant muft remain unknown
to Europeans.
It had been well for the inhabitants of Great Bri¬
tain, if the tea-leaf had never found its way to this
country ; they would not then have been tormented,
as thoufands of them now are, with an incurable train
of nervous fymptoms, with ifomachic and bowel com¬
plaints, with headach, &c. To the abufe of tea¬
drinking may be afcribed, in a great meafure, the in-
crealed frequency of eonfumptions ; and many of the
diforders of children, and efpecially hydrocephalus,
tabes mefenterica, rickets, &c. may be traced to the
fame fource.
The tea-leaf, when frefli from the tree, is evidently
poifonous. It is true that it lofes fome of its acrimony
by drying : but even in the date in which it is fent to
this country, it retains much of its narcotic nature.
What ferious mifchief, then, are they bringing upon
themfelves, who, as is the cafe with too many of the
lower clafs of fociety, make it a principal part of their
daily fublillence ! The money which Ihould go to pur-
chafe wholefome and fubftantial food, is fquandered
away in procuring what of itfelf affords no nourilhment
at all; for whatever nourifhment is derived from the
infufion of tea, is owing to the fugar and milk which
are added to it; and were it not for thefe additions, its
deleterious effedls would be much fooner and much
more powerfully felt.
The time, it is to be hoped, is not far diftant, when
the poor (hall be enlightened upon this important point.
The next generation will hardly believe that their pre-
deceffors lavifhed away fo much money, and took fuch
extraordinary delight in defrauding their bodies of
their proper and natural aliment, and in bringing upon
themfelves infirmity and difeafe. Let the rich and the
intemperate indulge, if they choofe, in the narcotic
draught ; to their heated and oppreffed' flomachs it
may not do harm ; it may even afford momentary re¬
lief. But let the poor abftain from it. They are not
furcharged with high-feafoned food. They have no
feverifh thirft, no feverifh heat to allay, after their
noon day repaft. To them it is totally unneceffary as a
help to digeftion, and as an article of fuftenance it is
worthlefs and improper. They would, therefore, be
better, infinitely better, without it.
Befides its narcotic quality, there is another proper¬
ty of the tea-leaf which renders its continued ufe inju¬
rious to the contlitution •, we mean its aftringency. Add
to thefe the warm water, and we have, in this unna¬
tural beverage, the infufion of tea, three different powers Dietetics,
concurring to diforder firff the organs of digeftion, and '*~v**J
ultimately the whole fyitem.
If it be alke d, what are they who have been long
accuftomed to tea to fubftkute in its place j we anfwer
milk, milk-porridge, gruel, broth, cocoa, or the like
for breakfalt ; and in the afternoon, milk and water,
orgeat, or lemonade in the lummer, and coffee in the
wdnter.
It Ihould be underftood, that the preceding remarks
apply to the general abufe of tea as an article of fufte¬
nance j for its occafional employment in a dietetical
and medicinal way in fome kinds of ficknefs, is often of
ufe. Thus, the limple infufion, without lugar or milk,
is a good diluent and fedative in ardent fevers j and as
it promotes perfpiration and urine, it is frequently
drunk wdth advantage in colds, catarrhs, rheumatifm,
headach, &c. It is alfo ferviceable in cafes of furfeit * Synopfu
and indigeftion *. of Materia
For the ufe and abufe of coffee, fee the article Cof- A!menta~
FEE.
91
Chocolate is more nourifhing and lefs heating than Chocolate,
coffee. It is commonly made too thick, but when of
a proper degree of ftrength, it is a very palatable and
wholefome beverage, though on account of its oily qua¬
lity it proves oppreflive and cloying to fome ftomachs.
See Chocolate. 5s
Cocoa is in fa<3: only a weak chocolate ; and being Cocoa,
lefs pure than the former, weak chocolate might pro¬
perly be fubftituted for it.
Of fermented liquors we ftiall mention only malt li¬
quors, wine, and ardent Ipirits.
Well fermented malt liquors, whether from barley Malt
or other grain, provided they be not too ftrong, are llcluor3‘’
wholefome, refrelhing, and ftrengthening drinks. As
thefe liquors are very nutritious, they are chiefly fuit-
ed to perfons who lead a bufy and aftive life. With
fedentary and bilious perfons they do not agree fo well j
and they are improper for the corpulent and afthmatic,
and thofe who are liable to giddinefs or other com¬
plaints of the head. They are better when of a mid¬
dle age, than when kept very long. Beer made from
the infufion of malted groats, or malted rye, is lighter
and more diuretic than the common barley beer.
Spruce beer is a powerful diuretic and antiicorbutic $
it is, how'ever, too cold for fome conftitutions. Bottled-
beer is, on account of the fixed air which it contains,
more refrefhing than the barrelled. It is frequently
prefcribed as an antifeptic and reftorative in low fevers
and convalefcencies j but care muft be taken, during
the ufe of it, that it do not operate too freely by ftool.
London porter, with the common properties of malt-
liquor, poflefs fuch ftomachie and diuretic qualities, as
give it a preference over common beer and ale, in
many cafes. Being ftrongly impregnated with bitters
of a narcotic kind, it is apt to induce drowfinefs, and
confequently is improper wherever there is a tendency'
to cephalagia, apoplexy, or other affe&ions of the
head (a).
A
f a) We cannot pretend to decide whether the prejudices that have for fome time prevailed againft the whole-
fomenefs of London porter are well founded or not *, but if its compofition be luch as given under the article
Brewing, we are decidedly of opinion that it is a liquor quite unfit for conftant drink.
Part I.
Dietetics.
ICO
Wine.
TCI
Perry and
cyder.
102
Ardent
fpirits.
* PraEli-
cal Synopfis
of the Ma¬
teria Ali¬
ment aria.
103
Condi¬
ments.
Salt.
104
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
701
A temperate ufe of wine is conducive to the health.
All the fun&ions, both of body and mind, are roufed
and facilitated by it. It has a powerful effeft upon the
organs of digeftion, upon the circulation, and upon the
nervous fyftem, promoting digeftion, ftrengthening the
a6tion of the heart and arteries, and raifing the fpirits.
Such is its beneficial operation, when taken fparingly.
In exceffive quantities it has oppofite effects, deftroying
the itomach, inducing emaciation and debility, andoc-
cafioning inflammation and obftru£tion in the liver,
lungs, &c. whence gout, palfy, dropfy, confumptions,
diabetes, &c.
In a diatetical view, wines are to be confidered as
they are, either acid or fweet, foft or auftere. 1 he
acid wines, of which the Rhenilh and Hock are the moft
noted, are the leaft heating, and the moft diuretic.
The fweet, fuch as the Frontiniac, Malaga, Tent,
Cape, are heating and fudorific. The foft, or aeido-
dulcefcent wines, fuch as Champagne, Claret, Burgun¬
dy, Madeira, &c. are lefs ftimulating than the fweet,
and more cordial than the acid wines. Of the auftere
and aftringent, that which is moft ufed in this country
is the red Port, which, when it has not been mixed
with too large a proportion of brandy, is a generous
and ftomachic wine, well fuited to the generality of
Britifh conftitutions.
Perry and cyder hold a middle place between wine
and malt liquor. They are lefs nutritious than the
latter, and lefs cordial than the former.
In fmall quantities ardent fpirits are a powerful cor¬
dial and corroborant, raifing the pulfe, ftrengthening
the ftomach, promoting digeftion, and preventing fla¬
tulence. Taken fparingly, and diluted with water,
they fupply the place of wine, and with fome conftitu¬
tions agree better, as they are not like wine, difpofed
to create acidity. The abufe of them is produftive of
the fame pernicious effefts as thofe which arife from an
exceflive indulgence in wine, but in a greater degree.
French brandy is the moft bracing and ftomachic j gin
and rum the moft diuretic and fudorific. Arrak, which
is diftilled from rice, is more heating than the two laft.
Whilky is confidered as a lighter fpirit than any of the
former, from its containing lefs elfential oil, and it
therefore agrees better with moft ftomachs. The qua¬
lities of all thefe feveral forts of fpirits are improved by
long keeping *.
On the general fubjedl of drink, fee the article
Drink.
C. CONDIMENTS.
Condiments are thofe fubftances which are taken
with our food, to promote digeftion, or to correft
fome hurtful property in the food taken. They are
ufually divided into faline, faccharine, aromatic, and
oleaginous.
Of the faline condiments, the principal are common
fait and vinegar.
Common fait, by its ftimulant aftion on the throat,
gullet, and ftomach, feems to promote the fecretion of
laliva and of the gaftric juice, and thereby facilitates
digeftion. It alfo appears, when taken in ('mail quan¬
tity, to increafe the folubility of moft foods but when
taken too plentifully, it renders the food hard and dif-
1
ficult of folution. Salted meats and fiih are unwhole- Dietetics.^
fome when made a conftant article of diet. ic”. *
Vinegar in final! quantities is a grateful and falutary vinegar,
ftimulus to the ftomach, corredling the putrefcency of
animal food, and the flatulency of vegetable. Its ufe
is improper in many valetudinary cafes, efpecially for
calculous and gouty perfons 5 in confumption and chlo-
rofis ; to rickety patients and young children.
Pickles may be confidered as merely receptacles for
vinegar, except in as far as the vegetables of which
they are compofed are in their nature warm and aro¬
matic, as the onion. iC<S
Sugar is nutritious, antifeptic and laxative, and is Sugar,
confidered as promoting the lolution of fat in the fto¬
mach j but as it is very fermentable, it is apt, in many
conftitutions, to produce flatulence, heat, and thirft.
Its unlimited ufe feems to be one caufe of the increafed
and increafing frequency of bilious and" hypochondria¬
cal diforders. Chlorotic girls, rickety children, hyf-
terical women, and all who are troubled with acidity
in the ftomach and bowels, fhould abftain from it; and
thofe who are anxious to preferve their teeth white and
found, Ihould not make free with it. To thefe obfer-
vations, however, there are fome conftitutions which
furnilh exceptions. Thus we are told, that one of the
duk^s of Beaufort took, for the fpace of 40 years,
nearly a pound of fugar every day •, yet it neither dif-
ordered any of the vifeera, nor injured the teeth, and he
lived to attain the age of 70. IO-,
The aromatic condiments confift chiefly of the fo- Spices.’
reign fpices, as pepper, Cayenne pepper, cinnamon,
nutmeg, cloves, ginger, and of a few garden roots and
feeds, fuch as garlick, leek, onion, horfe-radilh, and
muftard. Of thefe w-e {hall take notice under their
proper heads in the Materia Medica.
The oleaginous condiments confift merely of olive
oil and butter. j0g
Oil when ufed as a feafoning to raw vegetables, Oil.
checks their fermentation in the ftomach, and thereby
prevents them from proving too flatulent. Ufed in
this manner, in fmall quantities, it proves a help to di¬
geftion ; but when taken in confiderable quantities, it
has an oppofite effeft, and lays the foundation for bi¬
lious complaints. I09
The moderate ufe of melted butter with boiled vege- Melted
tables, is, in general, by no means unwholefome •, but butter,
it frequently difagrees with bilious and hypochondriacal
people.
The proper method of preparing food, conftitutes
the art of cookery, on which we {hall prefent our
readers with the following general remarks, taken
from Sir John Sinclair’s Code of Health and Longe-
vity. IIO
The primeval inhabitants of the earth certainly ate Cookery,
both their vegetable and animal food raw ; and to this
day fome of the African nations, the Efquimaux In¬
dians, the Patagonians and Samoeides, devour raw flefli
and filh, and drink the blood of the animals. Raw
flefli produces great bodily vigour, ferocity of mind,
and love of liberty.
In general, however, animal food undergoes fome
preparation before it is confumed. It is hardly to be
credited the fliifts wdiieh fome tribes have been put to,
in order to obtain that objedt, as puttting heated ftones
in-'
*]02
Dietetics,
111
Simple
cookery.
U2
Roalling.
in the bellies of pigs to roaft them, or burning the itraw
in order to parch the grain. From thefe humble
attempts, the great refinements of cookery, which is
properly a branch of chemiftry, originated.
- It is certain that cookery is an ufeful art. By it
many articles are rendered wholefome, which could
not otherwife have been eaten ; but by it, at the fame
time, it muft be acknowledged, that fome articles are
rendered unwholefome, which would otherwife have
produced nourilhing food.
By cookery, our foods are rendered more palatable
and digeftible, and when prepared in a fimple manner,
more conducive to health.
Cookery may be confidered under two general heads,
the fimple, and the refined or compound.
I he fir!!, though apparently eafy, requires a con-
fiderable degree of attention and experience ; and the
fecund is an art of fo diverfified and extenfive a nature,
that it. is rarely carried to any confiderable degree of
perfection, and it would have been no lofs to human
nature if it had never been invented.
Simple cookery includes the following modes of dref-
fing meat: i. Roafting. 2. Boiling. Stewing.
4. Broiling. 5. Frying. 6. Baking j and, 7. Digett-
ing.
1. Roajhng wms certainly the firft mode invented to
prepare animal food ^ for boiling is a more complicated
procefs, and required the art of manufacturing vefiels
that could withftand the effeCt of heat. Roafting, it is
well known, requires a greater proportion of heat than
boiling, and more fkill in the preparation. By the
application of fire, a confiderable proportion of watery
lubftance is exhaled from the meat. In order to be
done properly, the roafting ftiould be condufted in a
gradual manner, and the heat moderately but fteadily
applied, otherwife exficcation rather than roafting, takes
place. Roafted meat is certainly the beft means of
confuming tbe.fleOi and tailing the natural juices of
the meat. It is alfo peculiarly calculated for birds of
every fort, and for young and tender meat, taking off
its vifcidity, and giving it a firmnefs and drynefs that
otherwife it would not poffefs.
Roafted meat, at lead of the larger kinds, as beef,
mutton, and venifon, is preferred in England, and boil¬
ed or baked meat in France. The meat of England
has not, perhaps, the fame flavour as that of Fiance,
but it is larger, richer, and fatter, and appears to more
advantage in a roafted ftate. Befides, coal fires are
better adapted for that procefs of cookery than wood or
psat. It is found,.indeed, that meat, roafted by a fire
of peat or turf, is more fodden than when coal is em¬
ployed for that purpofe.
Our meat in England (Cadogan afferts) is generally
over-done., and particularly over-roafted. In regard to
over-roafting, the aCtion of fire, if continued too long,
has a tendency to change mild animal flefh into fome-
thmg of. another quality j the fat, in particular, be¬
comes bitter and rancid. The lefs, therefore, that all
Hein meat undergoes the power of the fire, the milder
anc. wholelomer it is. This doClrine, however, is de»
med by Falconer. He admits, that meat little dune
is the molt foluble, but at the fame time contends, that
it is exceedingly alkalefcent, and runs quickly into
putrefaction. . Hence the French, who live in a warm
climate, find it neceffary not only to eat a great quan-
MATERIA MEDICA, fee. part T>
tity of bread, to prevent the putrefying effeR of animal Dietetics,
food, but alio to have their meat thoroughly boiled and —v-~~J
roafted.
2. Boiling is alfo an excellent mode of preparing ani- Boiling
mal food, rendering it more foluble, without deftroyiog,
if properly done, its nutritious qualities, and being
peculiarly calculated for weak ftomachs. But however
ufeful moderate boiling may be in thefe refpe&s, yet,
when carried to an extreme, every thing foluble is exv
traded, the nutritious parts are conveyed to the liquor,
and the meat itfelf is left behind infipid, denfe, and unfit
for nourifliment.
Young and vifeid food, as veal, chickens, partridges,
&c. are more wholefome when roafted than boiled, and
eafier digefted ; but beef and mutton are eafier digefted
when boiled than roafted ; confequently boiling fueh
meat is better calculated for weak ftomachs. Boiling
is particularly applicable to vegetables, rendering them
more foluble in the ftomach, and depriving them of
a confiderable quantity of air, fo injurious to weak
flomachs.
The ufual mode of preparing fifh for the table is by
boiling, roafting rendering them more indigeftible.
It is proper to obferve, that thofe who are trained
to athletic exercifes, have their meat roafted or broiled,
and not boiled ; as it is fuppofed, that, when boiled, a
great part of the nutritive juices of the meat is loft in
the water. ‘ Jra
3. Stewing is reckoned the mode by which the great-Stewiifg.
eft quantity of nourifhment is derived from the meat.
By this plan the texture of the meat is rendered more
tender, its foluble parts are not fully extracted, and it
is left in a ftate abundantly fapid and nourifhing, while
the foup alfo, or fluid, contains a fufficient proportion
of the animal extrafl.
.4. Broiling, confifts in expofing meat te the near ap- Broilirfg.
plication of a naked fire, by which means its outer fur-
face immediately hardens, before the beat has penetra¬
ted the whole. This prevents any excels of exhalation ;
and the meat, when done, is rendered fufhciently
tender. It is peculiarly fuited for fleaks, which are,
comparatively fpeaking, eaten in a juicy and almoft in
a raw ftate. ^
5. Frying is a procefs that renders meat more indi- Frying,
geftible than any other, and indeed, might be included
under the head of compound cookery. It is performed
by cutting meat into thin flices, and putting it into a
veffel over the naked fire. As the low er furface of the
meat would thus be burnt or hardened, fome fluid mat¬
ter, generallyof an oily nature, is introduced, which
acquires, from the heat, a burnt or empyreumatic tafte,
and becomes hardly mifcible' with the fluids in the
ftomach. It requires, therefore, the addition of ftimu-
lants to enable the ftomach to digeft it.
6. Baking confifts in the application of heat in a dry Baking,
form, but in a veffel covered with a pafte inftead of its
being expofed to the open air. Any confiderable ex¬
halation is thus prevented, and the meat, by the reten¬
tion of all its juices, is rendered more fapid and tender.
But baked meat fits heavy on fome ftomachs, from the
greater retention of its oils, which are in a burnt ftate.
It requires, therefore, the additional ftimulus of fpices
and aromatics, to render it lighter, and to increafe the
power of the ftomach to digeft it. n3
7. Digejling is the laft difeovered procefs of fimple Digeftin#
. cookery.
Fart I.
Dietetics.
119
Jellies.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
7°3
no
Hompound
eeokery.
* Code of
Health and
Longevity,
vol. i.
121
Diet of
fick and
convalef-
cent per-
fons.
cookery. It is performed in a elofe veflel, and refem-
bles boiling, being conduced in a very high tempe¬
rature, while, from the clofenefs of the veffel, the ad¬
vantages of ftewing are procured. It is not, however,
much in ufe.
Befides thefe various fimple modes of preparing ani¬
mal food, there is another, which it may here be pro¬
per to take notice of, namely, when animal food is dif-
folved in water, and formed into a gelatinous folution
or jelly. This fubftance is of a vifcid nature, and
though it contains much nourilhment, yet is difficult of
digeftion, and of courfe lefs calculated for difeafed or
weak ftomachs than is commonly imagined. Nor are
thofe jellies, which are the mucilaginous extrafts of
certain parts of animals, as hartffiorn, very digeftible j
indeed, a too liberal ufe of them has often proved inju¬
rious. They can only be recommended for the fick, ac¬
companied with a quantity of Itale bread. To thofe who
require an article of that fort, more efpecially if their
ftomachs are weak, fimple beef tea, properly prepar¬
ed, is the moft nutritive balfam that can be admini-
ftered.
It may alfo be proper to obferve, that even after pro-
vifions have been dreffed in the kitchen, they have of¬
ten to undergo fome operations of cookery at the table j
this is principally by the addition of fome of the various
forts of feafoning or condiments.
One would imagine, that all the various modes of
preparing food above enumerated, might fatisfy the molt
luxurious appetite ; but, inllead thereof, the ingenuity
of man has been exerted to difcover a number of other
preparations. Hence, a fyltem of refined or compound
cookery has been invented, more flattering to the pa¬
late than favourable to the heakh.
It would be improper to touch upon proceflfes which
it is impoffible for any writer on dietetics to mention
with any degree of approbation. Some difhes may be
prepared, varioufly compounded, which may occafionally
be tailed, and plain fauces may be a ufeful addition to
fiih and vegetables ; but the generality of ragouts,
made diffies, and the like, are of a poifonous quality,
and cannot be too anxioufly avoided by thofe who
entertain any anxiety for the prefervation of their
health *.
The foregoing obfervations on diet are adapted chief¬
ly to perfons in health ; but it is of great importance
for a medical man to know what is the moll proper diet
for the fick and for convalefcents. To treat this fub-
jefl properly would occupy more room than we can al¬
lot to it, we ffiall, therefore, only infert here the follow¬
ing remarks by the late Dr Heberden, with which we
lhall conclude this part of the article.
“ Many phyfieians appear to be too Uriel and par¬
ticular in the rules of diet and regimen, which they
deliver as proper to be obferved by all who are felicit¬
ous either to preferve or recover their health. The
common experience of mankind will fufficiently ac¬
quaint any one with the forts of food which are whole-
fome to the generality of men ; and his own experience
will teach him which of thefe agrees bell with his par¬
ticular conllitution. Scarcely any other directions be¬
fides thefe are wanted, except that, as variety of food
at the fame meal, and poignant fauces, will tempt moll
perfons to eat more than they can well digelf ; they ought
therefore to be avoided by all who are afflicted with
any chronical diforders, or wilh to keep from them. Dietetics.
But whether meat Ihould be boiled or roalled, or dref- ^
fed in any other plain way, and what fort of vegetables
Ihould be eaten with it, we never yet met with any per-
fon of common fenfe who did not appear fitter to choofe
for himfelf than we could direCl him. Small beer, where
it agrees, or water alone, are the properelt liquors at
meals. Wine or fpirits mixed with water have gradu¬
ally led on feveral to be fots, and have ruined more
conllitutions than ever wTere hurt by fmall beer from
its firll invention.
“ In fevers a little more reftraint is neceffary, but
not fo much as is often enjoined. The ftronger forts
of meat and fiffl are moft ufually loathed by the fitk
themfelves, nor could they be eaten without offending
the ftomach, and increafing the diftemper, while it is
at all confiderable j but in its decline the fick are often
defirous of fome of the milder forts of meat, and no
harm follows from indulging their defire. The Eng-
liffl are faid to eat more meat when they are well than
moft other nations •, but were remarkable, fo long ago
as the time of Erafmus, for avoiding it more fcrupulouf-
ly when they are fick than any other people. How
high loever the fever be, the fick may be fafely nourilh-
ed with weak broths and jellies, and with any vegeta¬
ble fubftances, if we except the acid and aromatic, or
wfith the infufions or decoftions prepared from them j
and we know no reafon for preferring any of thefe to
the reft. Eggs and milk have been, we know not by
what authority, forbidden in all fevers j but as far as
our experience goes, they both afford innocent food in
the worll, where they are grateful to the patients.
“ The feverifti thirft is beft allayed by pure water,
which may be drunk either warm or cold, at the option
of the lick perfon, and he may drink as much as he
pleafes; but we fee no advantage in penuading him to
gorge himfelf with liquids, as is often done, againft his
inclination and ftomach. If water be deemed too infi-
pid, currant jelly, and a variety of fyrups, may he dif-
lolved in it \ or apples fliced or roafted, tamaritids, fage,
or baum, or toafttd bread, may be infufed in it; or
decodlions may be made of oatmeal, barley, or rice ;
or the water may be made into an emulfion with the
oily feeds; all wdiich, with a variety of fimilar fubftan¬
ces, merely correft its infipidnefs, but in other refpuffs
leave it juft what it was.
“ There is fcarcely any diftemper, in every fiage of
which it may not be iafely left to the patient’s own
choice, if he be perfefUy in his fenfes, whether he w ill
fit up, or keep his bed. His firength and his cafe are
chiefly to be attended to in iettling this point; and who
can tell fo well as himfelf, what his eafe requires, and
what his ftrength will bear ?
“ Doubts are often raifed about the propriety of
changing the linen in ficknefs, juft as there have been
about changing the foul air of the fick chamber by any
of the means which could purify and refrefh it, 1 here
can be very little reafon to fear any mifehief from the
cold which the fick may feel while their clean linen is
putting on ; for their attendants, with common care,
will do this as fafely as many other things which mult
neceffarily be done for them. But fome have a ftrange
opinion of harm from the fmell of the foap perceivable
in linen after it has been waffled, and therefore allow
not their patients, when they change their linen, even
tc>
704 MATERIA MEDICA, &c. part ]T
'iherapeu- to put on frefti, but fuch only as have been worn, or
i u^' lain in, by other pbrfons. By this contrivance indeed
the fmell of the foap might be taken off j but few
cleanly people would think they gained any advantage
by the change. Now, if a faint fmell of foap were
noxious, then foap-makers and laundry fervants mud: be
remarkably unhealthy, which is contrary to experience; Therapeu-
nor is it lefs fo, that the lick are injured by the clean- tlts-
nefs of what they wear ; on the contrary, the removing
of their foul things has often diffufed over them a fenfe
of eafe and comfort, which has foon lulled them into a
quiet aad refrefhing deep * Heber-
den's Com-
mentaries.
part. II. OF THE GENERAL- ACTION OF REMEDIES AND THEIR
CLASSIFICATION.
122
Action of WE fliall not attempt any new or original difquifi-
remedies. tJon on the aftion of remedies, but fliall merely Hate
the molt generally received opinions on the fubje6l.
We fliall begin with the doftrine of the difciples of
Cullen, which has been well exprefled by Dr Percival
12^ in the following propofitions.
Medicines !• Medicines may act on the human body by an imme-
a<ft by an diate and peculiar imprejjion of the flomach and bowels,
immediate either in their proper form, in a fate of decompqfition, or
liar iirp'e ' a c^anSe ^ie arrangement of their parts.—The fym-
fion on the Pathy of the ftomach with the whole animated fyftem is
alimentary fo obvious to our daily experience, that it cannot re-
canal. quire much illuftration. After falling and fatigue, we
feel that a moderate quantity of wine inftantly exhila¬
rates the fpirits, and gives energy to all the mufctilar
fibres of the body. It has been known even to pro¬
duce a fudden and large augmentation of weight, after
much depletion, by roufing the abforbent fyftem to vi¬
gorous a6lion. Such power is peculiar to living me-
chanifm ; and is properly denominated by phyficians,
the vis medicatrix naturce. But apparent as is the fym-
pathy of the ftomach, the laws by which it is governed
are very infufficiently underftood; and we have hitherto
learned only from a loofe induftion of faffs, that the
nerves of this delicate organ feem to be endowed with
diverfified fenfibilities ; that impreflions made by the
fame or different fubftanees, have their appropriate in¬
fluence on different and diftant parts ; and that the fto¬
mach itfelf undergoes frequent variations in its ftates of
irritability. A few grains offulphate of copper, taken
internally, excite inftantly the moft violent contraffions
of the abdominal, and other mufcles concerned in vo¬
miting. A dofe of ipecacuanha, as foon as it produces
naufea, abates both the force and velocity of the heart,
in its vital motion ; and affefts the whole feries of blood
veffels, from their origin to their minuteft ramifications,
as is evident by the palenefs of the fkin under fuch cir-
cumftances, and by the efficacy of emetics in Hopping
haemorrhages. I he head, when difordered with ver¬
tigo, fometimes derives fudden relief from a tea-fpoon-
ful of ether, adminiftered in a glafs of water. An in-
ceffant cough has been known to attack the lungs, in
confequence of the ftimulus of a pin, which had been
unwarily fwallowed. Of the aflion of medicines on the
ftomach, under decompofition or recompofition, we
have an example familiar to every one, in carbonate of
magnefia. For this earth, by neutralizing the acid in the
prwue vice, acquires a purgative quality, and at the
fame time yields a gas of great falubrity, as an anti¬
emetic, tonic, and antifeptic.
2 Medicines may pafs into the courfe of circulation in
$ne or other of thejlates above deferibed^ and being convey¬
ed to different anddifant parts, may there produce certain Medicines
appropriate effects.—Chemiftry furnilhes us with num-produce ef.
btrlel's cafes in which lubftances undergo changes, and on di¬
take new forms more remarkable than can be effefted ltant Parts
by digeftion, retaining Hill the materiaprima, and be-^°^
ing capable of refuming the original arrangement ofiation. *
their particles, and confequently their original qualities.
Now, a body altered in its texture by digeftion, and
carried into the fyftem with aliment, may acquire fpe-
cific powers of adting on particular found or difeafed
parts. Thus, if we fuppofe cantharides to be changed
in form and texture, when mixed with the chyle, the
lymph, or the blood, they may ftill, in that form and
texture, be peculiarly adapted to excite ftrangury in
the urinary pafiages, or, we may conceive that this
new modification of their particles may again be alter¬
ed, and their original compofition reftored by a fubfe-
quent chemical change in the kidneys. The fenfible
qualities of any body are no certain marks of its medi¬
cinal action. Peruvian bark does not owe its efficacy in
fevers to its bitternefs, for ftronger bitters are not pof-
feffed of its febrifuge powers. Antimony, though infi-
pid, produces a violent attion on the nerves of the fto¬
mach, and yet if applied to the eye, an organ equally
fenfible, it is altogether inert. To what perceptible pro¬
perty in opium are we to aferibe its narcotic powers ? or
is there in the fweet tafte of acetate of lead, any indi¬
cation of a deadly poifon ? Numberlefs inftances may
be adduced to prove the uncertainty of reafoning other-
wife than from obfervation, concerning the aftion of
medicines, and the peculiar fenfibility of different parts
of our fyftem to their impreflion. Following experience,
therefore, as our guide, let us notice a few facts that
may elucidate the fubjeft before us. It is well known
that madder root, when taken by an animal, carries its
tinging qualities to the bones, affefting neither the fldn,
the mufcles, the ligaments, nor the fat. Confequently
this tinging quality is left unchanged by digeftion ; or
perhaps it is again recovered, when arrived at the
bones, by fome new arrangement of parts produced by
the chemiftry of nature. Extraft of logwood, taken
internally, fometimes gives a bloody hue to the urine.
But the aftringency of it does not feem to accompany
its colouring matter. We recoiled! no inftance where¬
in the milk either of a nurfe, or of an animal, was
tinged with madder or logwood. This affords fome
prefumption, that the pigment does not fubfift in its
proper form, in the blood ; but that it is recovered by
a fubfequent change in the difpofition of its conftituent
particles. And if one fubftance ftain the bones, by
being carried into contadl with them, another may, in
an analogous manner, produce in them fragility or dif-
folution.
Pat II.
MAtERtA
Therapeu- folution. In the dlfeafe termed by the French ergot,
t,cs- and which, with foEne probability is afcribed to the ufe
L" ~¥of a fpecies of unfound corn, the bones lofe the earthy
matter that enters into their texture ; the gums become
loft, and are eafily broken. This effect is gradual, and
probably arifes from fotne unknown quality in the corn,
which is either not taken away by digeftion, or is re¬
fumed in the j uices that circulate through the offeous
veiYels. A change in the procefs of vegetation may
communicate a folvent power to an efculent feed. Mu-
ftard acquires this by its natural growth, and is capa¬
ble of rendering even ivory foft and fragile. How
far it would produce fuch an effeifb on the bones of a
living body, if ufed as the chief article of diet, we have
no experience on which to ground any fatisfadlory con-
clufion.
Sulphur, whether externally or internally ufed, pro¬
duces a cure in the itch. In each way, therefore, we
may prefume its operation to be fimilar. But when ta¬
ken into the ftomach, there can be no doubt that it un¬
dergoes a change in the modification of its parts, and
that it does not circulate through the blood veffels ei¬
ther in the form or with the properties of fulphur.
Yet when conveyed to the furface of the body, it evi¬
dently appears to recover its original powers, communi¬
cating its peculiar odour to the perfpiration, tinging
filver, and curing cutaneous defoedations. The fame
holds true of the fulphuric acid, when adminiitered in
large dofes. It feems to lofe oxygen in the animal bo-
dy, and to pafs off by the pores, as hepatic air, or as
volatilized fulphur. Even when given to nurfes, it
proves an effeftual remedy for the itch, both in them
and the children whom they fuckle. Mercury com¬
bined with fulphur into the black fulphuret, has fre¬
quently been regarded as inert. In dances, however,
have occurred in which, under this form, though accu¬
rately prepared, it has produced falivation ; an evident
proof, according to Dr Percival, of a chemical change
in the fulphuret, by which the mercury was reftored to
its original powers. That mercury is capable of being
reduced to the metallic form, and of collecting in con-
fiderable quantity in the human body, is proved by the
concurrent teftimony of many authors, who inform us
that fluid mercury has been found in the carious bones
of venereal patients. A falivation is fometimes produced
by antimony. Dr James affured Sir George Baker,
that he knew fix inflances of its being produced by his
febrile powder, though he had left mercury out of its
compofition long before they occurred. Indeed, as the
patients thus affedted had neither their teeth loofened,
nor their breath rendered offenfive, there is no reafon
to fuppofe that the falivation was owing to a mixture of
mercury in the powder.
Moft perfons have experienced the effedts of afpara-
gus on the urine. This takes place very fpeedily and
ffrongly, though only a fmall quantity has been eaten.
The fmell is much more difagreeable than afparagus it-
felfj and as the odorous particles conveyed to the kid¬
neys muft be greatly diluted in their paffage, it is pro¬
bable that a new combination of particles takes place in
the urinary organs; and that, the odorous part of the
fecretion differs in its form and quality from what fub-
fifted both in the chyle and in the blood.
There are certain medicines which, when fwallowed,
quickly manifeft themfelves in the difcharges, with
Vol. XII. Part IT.
MEDICA, Ac. 705
fome of their original qualities. A flrong folution of i’herapeu-
potafh, when taken in confiderabie quantities, renders tics‘
the urine alkaline and lithontriptic, and the fame ex- v
cretion becomes impregnated with carbonic acid, if
water impregnated with that acid be drunk freely. Dr
Percival fpeaks of a patient to whom fix grains of bal-
fam of Tolu were given thrice a day, and whofe urine
was ftrongly fcented by this fmall quantity. Garlick
affedts the breath, though it be applied only about the
wrifts j and the milk of a nurfe is ealily tainted with it.
A purgative given to a woman that fuckles will fome¬
times produce no effeft on her bowels, but will operate
ftrongly on thofe of her infant. A ftill more convin¬
cing proof that there may be a renovation of the origi¬
nal qualities of a body, after it has undergone the pro¬
cefs of digeftion, and other fubfequent changes, is de-
ducible from thefe fadls; that butter is often impregna¬
ted with the tafte and fmell of certain vegetables on
which the cows have paftured 5 that the milk of fuch
cows difcovers no difagreeable flavour, any more than
the whey or cheefe prepared from it. Now, butter is
formed, firft by a fpontaneous feparation of cream, and
fecondly, by a fermentation of it; that is, by a twofold
and fucceftive new arrangement of its elementary parts.
By thefe changes, the originally offenfive materials in
the food of the cow feem to reaffume their proper form
and nature.
After venefe&ion the ferum of the blood has fome¬
times appeared as w'hite as milk, whilft the craflamen-
tum retained its natural colour. This whitenefs has
been (hewn toarife from oleaginous particles floating in
the circulating fluids, and may ferve to explain a fa£t
recorded by a writer of good authority, on the natural
hiftory of Aleppo, that in certain feafons when oil is
plentifully taken, the people become difpofed to fevers,
and infarftions of the lungs, which fymptoms wear off
by retrenching this indulgence. Some years ago cod-
liver oil was annually difpenfed amongft the Tick of the
Manchefter hofpital, to the amount of 50 or 60 gal¬
lons. The tafte and fmell are extremely nauleous, and
it leaves upon the palate a favour like that of putrid
fifti. This remedy is more falutary when it operates '
by perfpiration ; and the fweat of thofe to whom it is
adminiftered, always becomes ftrongly tainted with it.
An oil of the fame kind forms no inconfidetable part of
the food of many northern nations; and it is faid to
penetrate and imbue the deepeft receffes of the body.
Dr Wright relates an experiment to prove that cha-
lybeates do not enter the blood. He forced a dog
that had fafted 66 hours, to fwallow a pound of bread
and milk, with which had been mixed an ounce and a
half of fulphate of iron. An hour afterwards he open¬
ed the dog, and colledted from the thoracic dud: about
half an ounce of chyle, which affumed no change of
colour when tindure of galls was dropped into it,
though it acquired from the fame tindure a deep pur¬
ple, when a quarter of a grain of fulphate of iron was
diffolved in it. This experiment is ufually deemed de-
cifive in fupport of the opinion, that chalybeates exert
their operation folely on the ftomach, and that the vi¬
gour they communicate to the fyfttm arifes exclufively
from their tonic powers on the alimentary canal, and
from the fympathy of the ftomach with various other
parts of the body. Dr Percival wras of opinion, that
the tonic adien and fympathy above mentioned, did
4 U not
7c6
Therapeu- not preclude the imir'ediate agency of the fteel on the
ocf. remote parts of the human frame, as this remedy, in
0j.|ier furms capable of being introduced into the
circulation, may exert confide table energy as a ftimu-
lant or aftrlngent j and in his opinion, the experiment
adduced proves that the iron did not exiit in the chyle,
in the ftate of a fait capable of ftriking a black colour
with galls. Neither does the oxide of iron, nor the
glafs of iron, poffefs this power, yet, though changed,
they are both capable of being reftored to the metallic
Rate. Perhaps with equal reafon it might be prefumed
by one ignorant of chemiftry, that the fulphate of iron
contains no iron, becaufe it is not adted on by the
magnet.
With the foregoing experiments of Dr Wright, Dr
Percival contrafts thofe made by the celebrated Dr
Mufgrave, who injedled into the jejunum of a dog that
had, for a day before, but little meat, about 12 ounces
of a folution of indigo in fountain water, and, after
three hours, opening the dog a-fecund time, he obfer-
ved feveral of the lafteals of a bluifti colour, which, on
Rretcbing the r.iefentery, did feveral times dil'appear,
but was molt cafily difcerned when the mefentery lay
Joofe ; an argument that the bluilh liquor was not pro¬
perly of the vefiels, but of the liquors contained in it.
A few days after this, repeating the experiment in an¬
other company, with a folution of Rone blue in foun¬
tain water, and on a dog that had been kept falling
q6 hours, he faw feveral of the ladteals become of a
perfcdt blue colour, within very few minutes after the
injedtion. For they appeared before he could few up
the gut.
About the beginning of IV+nrch following,, having
kept a fpaniel falling 36 hours, and then lyringing a
pint of deep decodtion of Rone blue with common wa¬
ter, into one of the fmall guts •, and after three hours,
opening the dog again, he faw many of the ladteals of
a deep blue colour : ftveral of them were cut, and af¬
forded a blue liquor, feme of the decodtion running
forth on the mefentery. After this he examined the
dvBus thoracicus, and faw the reeeptaculum ehyli, and
that ductus, of a bluiRi colour ; not fo blue indeed as
the ladteals, from the folution mixing, in or near the
receptaculum, with lympha, but much bluer than the
duBus ufed to be, or than the lymphatics under the
liver were, with which he compared it.
Stone blue is a preparation of cobalt, potaRi, and
-white lead, which being converted into glafs, is ground
into line powder. If fuch a fubRance can pervade
the ladteals, wre may conclude that they are permeable
to other- bodies, betides thofe defigned for nutrition,
and capable of atlimilation with the blood. This argu¬
ment from analogy, receives great additional force from
thr- known fadt that mercury, and various other adtive
remedies, may be conveyed into the body through the
abforbents of the fkin, a fyflem of veffels fimilar to
thofe above mentioned, in their flrudiure, ufes, and
termination. In a cafe of hydrocephalus viternus, on
which Dr Percival was confulted, a child under one year
of age received, by fucceffive fridlions, 4 ounces 6
drams and 2 fcruples of flrong mercurial ointment be¬
tween the 8th of February and the 7th of April 1786.
One fcruple was adminiRered each time ; the operation
took up more than half an hour, and the part to which
the ointment was applied, was always previoufly bathed
Part II,
with warm water ; precautions which feemed to fecure Theiapeu-
the full abforption of the mercury. The child reco^ tus-
vered without any fymptoms of, lalivation, and conti- —1
nued perfedtiy well. The dodlor repeatedly obferved,
that very large quantities of. mercurial ointment may
be uled in infancy and childhood, without aftedling the
gums, notwithRanding the predifpolition to a flux of
laliva, at a period of life incident to dentition.
Whence is it that a medicine fo irritating as mercury',
can be conveyed into the courie of circulation, when
even milk, or the mildeft liquors, it transtufed into the
blood veffels, have been found to produce convulfions
and death ?■ Is it that whatipaffes by the lymphatic and
ladteals is carried into the thoracic dudt, and there
mixed with a large portion, of the chyle and lymph, by
which its acrimony is flieathed and diluted, or its che¬
mical properties changed, before it enters the mais of
blood ? For the abforbents of the Ikin, and of the in-
teflines, feem to require a capacity to bear the flimulus
of thefe extraneous bodies to which, in both fituations,
they are expofed. JJ„
3. Medicines introduced into the courfe of circulation Medicines
may affeB the general conjhtution of the fluids ; produce adt on flu-
changes in their particular qualities ,* Juperadd tit w ones ; 'c^3,
or counteraB the morbflc matter with width th y may
be occaflonally charged.—By obfervations on the hae¬
morrhages which have been ful&ined without deftruc-
tion to life j from experiments made on animals, by
drawing forth all th^ir blood $ and’ by a computation
of the bulk of the arteries and veins, the mats of circu¬
lating fluids has been eflimated at 50 pounds in a mid-
dle-fized man, of which 28 pounds are fuppofed to be
red blood. Fluids bearing fo large a proportion to the
weight of the whole body, have affuredly very import¬
ant offices in the animal economy. Endued with the
common properties of other fluids, they are fubjtcf to
mechanical laws; being varioufly compounded, they
are incident to chemical changes j and, as they are
contained in a living vafcular fyflem, their motions be¬
come fubjedl to the influence of nervous energy *See Per^
The followers of Dr Browrv explain the operation of rival'i Ef-
medicines on the principle of their all adfing as flimu-A)^ vo1, “•
lants in a greater or lefs degree. This dodlrine, with
fome modification, is thus detailed by Mr Murray.
“ Medicines, in general, operate by flimulating the MU!Tay’s
living fibre, or exciting it to motion. This propofition act0UI)t 0f
has even been Rated as univerlal, and was received as the adtioa
an axiom, in a fyflem fuperior, perhaps, to any, in con-otme<h-
veying juR and precife ideas on the nature of life, andcines*
the affedfions to which it is fubjedt. Medicines, in
common with all external agents, are, according to this
fyflem, incapable of diredtly altering the Rate of the
vital power : they can only excite the parts poffeffed of
that power to adlion j and however diverfified their
effedfs may appear to be, iuch diverfities are to be re¬
ferred merely to the different degrees of force in
which they exert the general ftimulant power they
poffefs.
“ This propofition cannot, however, be received in
an unlimited fenfe. From the exhibition of different
medicines, very different effedfs are produced, which
cannot be fatisfadlorily explained from the caufe aflign-
ed,—the difference ifi the degree of ftimulant operation.
They differ in hind fo far, that even in the greater num¬
ber of cafes, one remedy cannot by any management of
MATERIA MED1CA, &c.
Parr XL
Therapeu- dofe or adminiftration, be made to produce the effefts
tics; which refult from the a&ion of another.
V ■ “ It is therefore neceflary to admit of fome modifi-
'cations of the general principles above ftated, and the
following are perhaps fufficient to afford grounds for
’explaining the operation of remedies, and for eftabliih-
ing a claffification of them fufficiently juft and compre-
henfive.
“ i. Stimulants are not to be regarded as differing
meriely in the degree of the ftimulant operation which
"they exert. An important diftinflion exifts between
them, as they are more or lefs diffufible and permanent
in their a&ion. A ftimulus is termed diffufible, which,
whenever it is applied, or at leaft in a very (hort time
aftf>r, extends its aftion over the whole fyftem, and
quickly produces its full exciting effeft. A diffufible
ftimulus is generally alfo tranfient in its aftion •, in
other words, the effeift, though foon produced, quickly
'ceafes. There are others, on the contrary, which,
though equally powerful ftimulants, are flow and per¬
manent. Thefe varieties, which are fufficiently efta-
blifhed, ferve to explain the differences in the power of a
^number of the moft important medicines j and they lay
the foundation for the diftinflion of two great claffes,
narcotics and tonics, with their fubordinate divifions of
antifpafmodics and aftringents, both confiftingof power¬
ful ftimulants', the one diffufible and tranfient, the other
flow and permanent in their operations.
“ There is a difference between ftimulants, in their
a&ions being directed to particular parts. Some, when
received into the ftomach, quickly aft upon the general
fyftem ; others have their aftion confined to the fto¬
mach itfelf, or at leaft, any farther ftimulant effeft they
may occafion, is flow'and inconfiderable j while a third
clafs confifts of thofe which operate on one part, often
without producing any fenfible effeft on the ftnmach or
general fyftem. Some thus aft on the inteftinal canal,
others on the kidneys, bladder, veffels of the fkin, and
other parts ; the affeftion they excite in thefe, being
the confequence, not of any ftimulant operation equally
extended over every part, but of one more particular¬
ly determined. 'Phis difference in the aftion of ftimuli
is the principal foundation of the diftinftions of medi¬
cines into particular claffes. Cathartics, far inllance,
ere thofe medicines which, as ftimuli, aft peculiarly on
the inteftinal canal', diuretics, thofe which aft on the
fecreting veffels of the kidneys ; emmenagogues, thofe
which aft on the uterine fyftem ; diaphoretics, thofe
vffiich exert a ftimulant aftion on the veffels of the fkin.
With thefe operations, medicines, at the fame time, aft
more or lefs as general ftimulants, by which each indi¬
vidual belonging to any clafs is thus rendered capable
of producing peculiar effefts ; and many of them, by a
peculiarity of conftitution in the patient, or from the
mode in which they are adminiftered, frequently aft on
more than one part of the fyftem, by which their effiefts
are ftill farther diverfified. Medicines, when thus de¬
termined to particular parts, arefometimes conveyed to
thofe parts in the courfe of the circulation ; more gene¬
rally their aftion is extended from the ftomach, or part
^ „ to which thev are applied, by the medium of the ner-
tf Material 'V-flem V . . , .
Medico. Whatever medical lyftem we may adopt, it is nbvi-
and Hhar- ous that medh-mes can aft on the human fyfiem only in
»iacy, vol. i<two general modes j either as it is compofed of inert
P* 95*
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. 7°7
matter, or as it forms a living organifed fyftem. In the Therapeu-
firft mode, medicines may aft either mechanically or K^'
chemically j in the fecund, they aft entirely through the
medium of the vital principle. 127
The order in which the feveral fubjefts cf the mate- Arranae-
ria medica have been confidered, is very different in fueut of re-
different writers 5 and which is the moft proper, hasme ,es'
been difputed about, while many are of opinion that it
is of little confequence which of them is followed. It
has been generally thought proper to follow a plan, in
which the fubjefts are, according to a certain affinity,
brought together, fo that a number of them might be,
for the purpofe of medicines, confidered under the fame
view. Thus, Dr Boerhaave confidered them in the
order of the botanical fyftem he had formed, and Lin¬
naeus in the order of his own fyftem, in which he is fol¬
lowed by Bergius. xa8
It has been thought proper to follow' the botanical Botanical
affinities, in fo far only as they can be thrown into na-arian«e*
tural orders j and tl^s, therefore, has been attemptedmen
by the learned Profeifor Murray of Gottingen: but from
the imperfeftion of the botanical affinities in pointing
out a fimilarity of medicinal virtues, this plan will not
alwrays unite fubjefts in the latter point of view 5 and
when wre confider that there are yet many plants which
do not enter into any natural order, thefe muft be dif-
pofed of in an arbitrary manner, and probably in an un-
connefted ftate. It muft be owned, however, that
though the fcheme of botanical affinities dots not en¬
tirely anfwer the purpnfe, yet it will ftill go a certain
length, and ought not to be neglefted in the fubdivifion
of any general plan that may be dffumed. 129
It has been fuppofed by fome to be a more eligible Arraage-
plan to unite the feveral fubftances, as they happen tonieI'j ac_
be related by their fenfible qualities*, this method Car-ta
theufer and Gleditfch have attempted. This certainly quaiuicj>
may have its ufe ; but from what is faid above refpeft-
ing the imperfeftion of this fcheme for inveftigating
virtues, it will appear that it will not always unite fub¬
jefts that ought to be united under the fame view; and
it will be found, that in the authors mentioned, who
have executed it in thebeft manner poffible, the defiled
effeft is by no means produced. T.Q
From the difficulty of rendering any of thofe plans -Upimbeti-
tolerably exaft and perfeft, fome writers have deferted cal arrange*,
all of them, and thought it beft to throw the feveral ar-ment*
tides into an alphabetical order, as Newmann and
Lewis have done. If, however, there can be any ad¬
vantage from bringing fubjefts of fome affinity toge¬
ther, this alphabetical order is the moft unfit for the
purpofe, as by feparating fimiiar fubftances, it rnuft be
perpetually diftrafting to the ftudent. It can therefore
have no advantage but that of a diftionary, in referring
readily to any particular fubjeft that may be enquired
after; but this advantage can be obtained in every
plan by means of an index, which cannot be laved
even in an alphabetical work, as the different names
under w’hich the fame fubftances are known neeef-
farily requires an index comprehending all thofe differ¬
ent names.
Simil sr to thofe of the alphabetical order, are thofe
plans which, after arranging the feveral articles of the
materia medica according to the part of the plant em¬
ployed, as roots, leaves, &c. have thrown thele again
into an alphabetical order, as Aliton and Vogel have
a U 2 done ;
?o8
The rape u
tics.
Arrange¬
ment ac¬
cording to
medical
eft'edts.
~ .*32
Cullen’s ar
Eangement.
done’ 5 but it is obvious that this eftabliflies no con-
nexion between the fubjefts that follow one another,
and can have no advantage over the alphabetical order.
Further, by feparating the confideration of the feveral
parts of vegetables, it will both feparate fubje&s that
ought to be conlidered together, and will occalion un-
neceflary repetition.
Dr Cullen was of opinion that, as the ftudy of the
materia medica is truly the ftudy of the medicinal
virtues, fo the plan that arranges the leveral fubftances
according to their agreeing in feme general virtues,
will be the beft adapted to acquiring the knowledge of
thefe, and will moft readily inform the praftitioner
what different means he can employ for his general
purpofe. It will alfo inform him how far the feveral
fimilar fubftances may differ in their degree of power,
or how far, from the particular qualities afligned to
each, he may be diredled or limited in his choice.
As it feems proper that every praftitioner ought, as
far as poffible, to pradtife upon general indications $ fo
it is evident that his ftudy of the materia medica is
efpeeially to know the feveral means that can anfwer
thefe. Such a plan, therefore, muft be the moft proper
for giving a ftudent inftruftion j and if, while medicines
are arranged according as they anfwer general indica¬
tions, the particulars be likewife thrown together as
far as poftible according to their fenfible qualities and
botanical affinities, this plan will have the advantage
of any other that has been propofed for prefenting toge¬
ther the fubjedts that ought to be confidered at one and
the fame time, and give the beft means of recolledling
every thing that relates to them.
Dr Cullen’s plan of arrangement is as follows.
He firft divides all the fubftances contained in the
materia medica into two general heads, the firft com-
prifing alimentary fubftanc'es, or meats, drinks, and
condiments; the fecond comprifing medicines properly
fo called, ihefe latter he confiders as they ad! on the
folids or the fluids. Thofe which ad! on the folids he
diftinguifhes into fuch as adt on the fimple folids, under
which he ranks aftringents, tonics, emollients, and
efcharotics; and thofis which adt on the living folids,
under which he daffies ftimulants, fedatives, including
narcotics, refrigerants, and antifpafmodics. Of thole
medicines which adt on the fluids, he conceives that
fome operate by producing a change on their fluidity,
as attenuants and infpiffants •, or, on the mixture of their
component parts, by corredting acrimony, either in
general, as demulcents, or in particular as antacids,
antalkalines, and antifeptics. Others he fuppofes to
adt by producing an evacuation of fuperabundant fluids;
and under this head he includes errhines, fialagogues,
expedtorants, emetics, cathartics, diuretics, diaphoretics,
and emmenagogues.
In his general claffification, Dr Cullen has been
followed by feveral writers on the materia medica and
therapeutics. Some of the titles of .his claffes have
indeed become oofolete, and bis order has been almoft
totally changed by fucceeding writers.
_ Of thofe who have copied Dr Cullen’s arrangement
with fome modification, there is perhaps none that de-
ferves more attention than the anonymous author of the
“ Thefaurus Medicaminum,” and a “ Pradtical fynopfis
of the materia alimentaria and materia medica.” This
3
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. part IL
author diftributes the articles of the materia medica Therapeu.
into 12 dalles; I. Evacuants, compriling errhines, ^ t*l-s<
fialagogues, expdorants, emetics, cathartics, diuretics, '    
diaphoretics, emmenagogues; 2. Emollients, comprifing Arrant,
diluents and emulcents ; 3. Abforbents ; 4. Refrige-ment of th®
rants; 5. Antifeptics; 6. Aftringents; 7. Tonics; 8.Pradt'cal
Stimulants; 9. Antifpafmodics; 10. Narcotics;
Anthelmintics; and, 12. Heteroclites; this laft being
formed to include thofe articles that could not properly
be reduced under the former heads.
On this claffification we may remark, that the gene¬
ral term of evacuants might have been omitted, and
its fubdivifions might have properly been made diftindt
claffes, as the articles they contain frequently adt a more
important part, than merely producing an evacuation of
fluids. The clafs of abforbents includes thofe which
Cullen calls antacids, and perhaps this latter term is to
be preferred, as it is more explicit and better under-
ftood. The clafs antifeptics might alfo have been omit¬
ted, and the lubftances it contains might more properly
have been arranged under other heads.
Mr Murray’s arrangement, which is very ingenious, Mr M^r-
is founded principally on the dodtrine of univerfal ftimu- ray’s ar-”
lus, and he thus explains the principles on which it is rangemeat.
eftablilhed.
“ Thofe ftimulants, which exert a general adtion on
the fyftem, may firft be confidered. Of thefe there are
two well-marked fubdiviftons, the diffufible and the per¬
manent ; the former correfponding to the ufual claffes
of narcotics and antifpafmodics; the latter, including
likewife two claffes, tonics and aftringents. In thefe
there is a gradual tranfition paffing into the one from
the other, from the moft diffufible and leaft durable
ftimulus, to the moft flow and permanent in its ac¬
tion.
“ The next general divifion is that comprifing local '
ftimulants ; fuch are the claffes of emetics, cathartics,
expedtorants, fialagogues, errhines, and epifpaftics.
Thefe all occafton evacuation of one kind or other, and
their effedts are in general to be aferibed, not to any
operation exerted on the whole fyftem, but to changes
of adtion induced in particular parts.
“ After thefe, thofe few' medicines may be confidered
whofe adtion is merely mechanical or chemical. To
the former belong diluents, demulcents, and emollients.
Anthelmintics may perhaps be referred with propriety
to the fame divifion. To the latter, or thofe which
adt chemically, belong antacids or abforbents, lithon-
triptics, elcharotics, and perhaps refrigerants.
“ Under thefe claffes may be comprehended all thofe
fubftances capable of producing falutary changes in the
human fyftem. Several elaffes are indeed excluded
which have fometimes been admitted ; but thefe have
been rejedted, either as not being fufficiently precife or
comprehenfive, or as being eftablifhed only on erroneous
theory.
“ The fubdivifions of thefe claffes may fometimes be
eftabliftied on the natural affinities exifting among the
fubftances arranged under each ; on their chemical com-
pofition \ their refemblance in fenfible qualities; or,
laftly, on diftindtions in their medicinal virtues, more
minute than thofe which form the charadters of the
clafs. In different claffes one of thefe methods will fre¬
quently be found preferable to any of the others.”
Part II.
Therapeu- Mr Murray’s arrangement will belt be underftood
tICS- from his own table.
U—v——'
A. General Stimulants.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
IV. Water, river-water, fpring-water,
709
calcareous Therapeu-
a. Diffufible.
B. Local Stimulants.
* Murray's
Elements.
135
Darwin’s
arrange¬
ment.
C Narcotics.
\ Antifpafmodics.
f>. Permanent, y
L Aftringents.
Emetics.
Cathartics.
Emmenagogues.
Diuretics.
Diaphoretics.
Expeftorants.
Sialagogues.
Errhines.
Epifpaftics.
Refrigerants.
Antacids.
Lithontriptics.
Efcharotics.
D. Mechanical Remedies. Anthelmintics.
Demulcents.
Diluents.
Emollients *.
C. Chemical Remedies.
It would be improper here to omit the claflification
of the ingenious Dr Darwin, which was publilhed in
his Zoonomia. He diftributes the articles of the mate¬
ria medica under feven heads, according to his opinion
of their mode of operation. They are as follows.
1. Nutrientia, or thofe things which preferve in their
natural ftate the due exertions of all the irritative mo¬
tions.
2. Incitantia, or thofe things which increafe the ex¬
ertions of all the irritative motions.
3. Secernentia, or thofe things which increafe the ir¬
ritative motions which conftitute fecretion.
4. Sorbentia, or thofe things which increafe the irri¬
tative motions which conftitute abforption.
5. Invertentia, or thofe things which invert the na¬
tural order of the fucceflive irritative motions.
6. Revertentia, or thofe things which reftore the na¬
tural order of the inverted irritative motions.
7. Torpentia, thofe things which diminilh the exer-
I3(J tions of all the irritative motions.
TSTutnentia. The nutrientia he thus enumerates according to what
he conceives to be their degree of nouriftring power.
1. I. Venifon, beef, mutton, hare, goofe, duck,
woodcock, fnipe, moor-game.
2. Oyfters, lobfters, crabs, (hrimps, mulhrooms, eel,
tench, barbolt, fmelt, turbot, foie, turtle.
3. Lamb, veal, fucking-pig.
4. Turkey, partridge, pheafant, fowl, eggs.
5. Pike, perch, gudgeon, trout, grayling.
II. Milk, cream, butter, butter milk, whey, cheefe.
III. Wheat, barley, oats, peafe, potatoes, turnips,
carrots, cabbage, afparagus, artichoke, fpinach, beet,
apple, pear, plum, apricot, nectarine, peach, ftraw-
berry, grape, orange, melon, cucumber, dried figs,
raiftns, lugar, honey. With a great variety of other
soots, feeds, leaves, and fruits.
earth. _ . , ,
V. Air, oxygen, azote, carbonic acid gas.
VI. Nutritive baths and clyfters, transfufton of
blood.
VII. Condiments.
Under incitantia (or ftimulants) he ranks the follow¬
ing articles.
I. Papaver fomniferum, poppy, opium. Incitantia.
Alcohol, wine, beer, cyder.
Prunus lauro-cerafus, laurel; diftilled water from the
leaves.
Prunus cerafus, black cherripi diftilled w ater from the
kernels.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco ? the effential oil, decoc¬
tion of the leaf.
Atropa belladonna, deadly nightjhade ; the berries.
Datura ftramonium, thorn apple ; the fruit boiled in
milk.
Hyofcyamus reticulatus, henbane; the feeds and
leaves.
Cynogloffum, hounds-tongue.
Menifpermum, cocculus, Indian berry.
Amygdalus amarus, bitter almond.
Cicuta, hemlock. Conium maculatum
Strychnos nux vomica ?
Delphinum ftaphifagria ?
II. Externally, heat, ele&ricity,
III. Ether, effential oils.
IV. Oxygen gas.
V. Paflions of love, joy, anger.
VI. Labour, play, agitation, fridlion.
138
The fecernentia he diftinguifhes into diaphoretics, fta- Secernen-
lagogues, mild diuretics, mild cathartics, mild er-tia.
rhines, which, as they will be enumerated prefently, it
is unneceffary to mention here •, and befides thefe, he
enumerates the following circumftances adding on the
other fecretions.
Secretion of mucus of the re£tum is increafed by can-
tharides, by fpirit of turpentine.
Secretion of fubcutaneous mucus is increafed by
blifters of cantharides, by application of a thin flice
of the frefh root of white briony, by finapifms, by
root of horfe-radifh, cochlearia armoracia, volatile al¬
kali*
Secretion of tears is increafed by vapour of diced
onion, of volatile alkali. By pity, or ideas of hopelefs
diftrefs.
Secretion of fenforial power in the brain is probably
increafed by opium, by wine, and perhaps by oxygen
gas added to the common air in refpiration.
The forbentia he divides into thofe which affeid the Soibentia^
Ikin, as fulphuric or muriatic acids, various acid fruits,
and opium ; and the oxides of lead, zinc, and mercury,
applied externally.
II. Such as affeft the mucous membranes, as the juice
of floes and crab-apples, cinchona, and opium, internal¬
ly j and externally the fulphate of copper.
III. 1. Such as affedl the cellular membrane, as Pe¬
ruvian bark \ wormwood, artemijia maritima, artemijia
abfynthium ; worm-feed, artemijia fantonicum ; chamo¬
mile, anthemis nobilis ; tanfey, tanacetum ; bogbean, me-
nyanthes trifoliata ; centaury, gentiana centaurum; gen¬
tian*.
7*0
Therapeu
140
luvertentia
141
Reverten-
tia.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c
tian, gentiana lutea; artichoke leaves, cynara fcolymus ;
hop, hutnulus lupulus.
2. Orange peel, cinnamon, nutmegs, mace.
3. Vomits, fquill, digitalis, tobacco.
4. Bath of warm air, of fleam.
IV. Such as affeft the veins, as water-erefe, 7%^*
brium najlurtium aquaticum ; muftard, ; fcurVy-
grafs, cockle aria hortenjis ; horfe radifh. cochlearia hr-
moracia; cuckoo flower, cardcmine; dog’s-grafsj dande¬
lion, leontodon tar ax aeon; celery, opium; cabbage,
brajjica. Chalybeates, bitters, npium, after fufficient
evacuation j and externally vinegar, fri&ion, and elec-
tricity.
V. Such as affeft the inteftines, including feveral
aftringents, and of the antacid earths,
VI. Such as afteft the liver, ftomach, and other vif-
cera, as oxide of iron, filings of ircVn, fulphate of
iron, fulphate of copper, fulphate of ^inc, calomel, tar¬
trate of antimony and potafh, acetate of lead, and white
arfenic.
VII. Sudh as affe& venereal ulcers, including vari¬
ous preparations5 of mercury.
VIII. Such as a®e£t the whole fyftem, as evacua¬
tions by venefe£Hon: and cathartics, followed by the ex¬
hibition of opium.
IX. External forbentia, as folutions of mercury, zinc,
lead, copper, iron, arfenic, or metallic oxides applied
in dry powder. Bitter vegetables in decoctions and in
dry powders, applied externally j as Peruvian bark,
oak bark, leaves of wormwood, of tanfey, chamomile
flowers or leaves. EleCtric fparks or fhocks.
X. Bandage fpread with tmplajlrum e minio, or
with carpenter’s glue mixed with one-twentieth part of
'honey.
XI. Portland’s powder, and the life of hops in beer,
both of which, when continued, are pernicious.
Under the clafs of invertentia Dr Darwin ranks the
ordinary emetics, violent cathartics, violent errhines
and fialagogues \ violent diuretics, and cold fudorifics,
filch as poifons, fear, and approaching death.
His catalogue of revertentia is as follows :
Inverted motions which attend the hyfteric difeafe,
are reclaimed, 1. By mufk, caflor. 2. By afafeetida,
galbanum, fagapenum, ammoniacum, valerian. 3. Ef-
fential oils of cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, infufion of
pennyroyal, mentha pu/egium, peppermint, mentha pi¬
perita, ether, camphor. 4 Spirit of hartftiorn, oleum
animate, fponge burnt to charcoal, black fnuffs of can¬
dles, which confifl principally of animal charcoal, wood-
foot, oil of amber. 5. The incitantia, as opium, alcohol,
vinegar. 6. Externally the finoke of burnt feathers,
oil of amber, volatile fait applied to the noflrils, blif-
ters, finapifms.
II. Inverted motions of the ftomach are reclaimed
by opium, alcohol, blifters, crude mercury, finapifm,
camphor and opium externally, clyfters with afafoe-
tida.
III. Inverted motions of the inteftinal lymphatics
are reclaimed by mucilaginous diluents, and by intef¬
tinal forbentw, as rhubarb, logwood, calcined hartf-
horn, Armenian bole j and, laftly, by incitantia, as
opium.
IV. Inverted motions of the urinary lymphatics are
reclaimed by cantharides, turpentine, rofin, the forben-
Part II,
tia, and opium, with calcareous earth, and earth of rherapeu-
alum, by oil externally, warm bath. tics.
V. Inverted motions of the inteftinal canal are re-
claimed by calomel, aloe, crude mercury, blifters, warm
bath, clyfters with afafoetida, clyfters of ice water 5 or
of fpring water further cooled by fait diffolved in water
contained in an exterior veflel ? Where there exifts an
introfufeeption of the bowel in children, could the pa¬
tient be held up for a time with his head downwards,
and crude mercury be inje&ed as a clyfter to the quan¬
tity ef two or three pounds ?
The torpentia he divides into 13 general heads. I.Torpentis.
Venefedlion and arteriotomy j 2. Cold water, cold air,
and the refpiration of air with a diminiftied proportion
of oxygen $ 3. Vegetable mucilages $ 4. Vegetable
acids j 3. Animal mucus, hartlhorn jelly, veal and
chicken broth, and perhaps oil, fat and cream ? 6. Mi¬
neral acids j 7. Silence and darknefs j 8. Invertentia
in fmall dofes, as nitre, emetic tartar, and ipecacuanha,
given fo as to induce naufea j 9. Antacids, as foap,
alkalies, and earths ; 10. Medicines preventive of fer¬
mentation, as fulphuric acid j II* Anthelmintics; 12.
Lithontriptics; and, 13. Various external remedies, as
the warm bath, poultices, oil, fat, wax, plafters, oiled
fifk, and carbonic acid gas on cancers and other ul¬
cers.
We were for fome time at a lofs what arrangement
we ihould follow in the prefent article. It was evidently
neceffary to adopt one that thould, as much as poffible,
prevent repetition j and it therefore appeared improper
to treat particularly of the articles of the materia medica
under the ufual claffes. The alphabetical order would
prevent repetition but it feemed little adapted to the
plan of a fyHematic treatife. On the whole, we have
judged it beft to arrange the individual articles in two
methods j ill, Into claiTes according to their fuppofed
operation on the fyftem •, and in this view confidet their
general ufes j and, idly, To treat of them more parti¬
cularly under an arrangement fimilar to that of Lin¬
naeus. In the remainder of this part of the article, we
ftrall therefore confidei'-the general afiion and ufe of
the various claffes of remedies, adopting, frith the ex-
clufion of emmenagogues, the arrangement followed in
Dr Kirby’s Tables of the Materia Medica', and in a
fucceeding part we fliall cotrfider the individual articles
under the four heads of animal, vegetable, mineral, and
gafeous fubfiances.
Class I. EMETICS.
*43
144
Table of
Emetics are fuch medicines vs are calculated to eX-Definition
cite vomiting, and thus difeharge the contents of the 01 emetics,
ftomach.
Tjble of Emetics.
I. AnimaT Products. e
Murias ammonise, muriate of ammonia.
Aqua carbonalis ammonite, water of carbonate of
ammonia.
II. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, chamomile flowers.
Afarum europeum, afarabacca.
Centaurea benedifla, holy thijlle.
Cephaelis
’art IT.
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
71 r
rhf rapeu- Cephaells ipeeaatamJia, ipecacuanha.
<ltSl Vinum ipeca-cuariibce^ ipecacuanha wine,
Nicotiana tabacum, Tobacco in clysters.
Olea europea, dive or/.
Soil la m ariti ms, fquill'.,
Acetum Icillse marutimae, vinegar off quills.
Sinapis alba, mujlard.
III. Mineral Products.
Sulphas cu\>x\yfu!phate rf copper.
Sulphuretum antimonii.,.^///)//?/re/ of antimony.
Oxidum antimonii curm fulphure vitrificatum, vitri¬
fied oxide of antimony wild fulphur.
Vinum andmonii, antimonial wine, L.
Tartris antimonii, tarlrite of antimony.
Vinum tartritis antimonii, wine of tartarifed anti¬
mony.
Sulphas zii\c\,fulphate of sainc.
145
:ffe<£ts and The general effedls produiced by emetics are, a fen-
fesof eme-fatxon of uneafinefs in the ft.omach, followed by lick-
:C5, nefs, retching and vomiting. During the naufea, the
pulfe is feeble, quick, and fometimes irregular, and the
countenance is pale; but when the vomiting comes on,
the pulfe grows quicker, and the face flulhed. After
the vomiting has ceafed, the ficknefs or naufea com¬
monly goes off entirely, though it fometimes remains in
a diftreffing degree. The patient feels languid, heavy,
and difpofed to Ueep. The (kin ufuaily feels moift, and
the pulfe continues weak for fome time, but gradually
grows fuller and flower.
To confider emetics merely as evacuants of the flo-
mach, would be to take a v<?ry contrafled and imper-
fefl: view of their effedls; for if traced through the
whole of their operation in the various difeafes in which
they are employed, their influence over the human bo¬
dy appears fo manifold and extenfive, that they may be
juftly reckoned amongft the moft powerful inftruments
which the Materia Medica affords. Hence, befides
their ufe as cleanfers of the alimentary canal, they ferve
to induce fweating in fevers ; to favour expe&oration in
diforders of the lungs; to promote abforption in cafes
of dropfy ; and to remove certain obftrudled conditions
of the vifcera, fuch as jaundice and fuppreflion of the
menfes; alfo in cafes of glandular and lymphatic ob-
£lru<EHons, and in fome cafes of pulmonary confump-
tion. By meins of their peculiar a£lion on the ner¬
vous and vafcular fyftem, they allay the fpafms in
afthma, and check the difcharge of blood in haemor¬
rhages from the lungs and uterus. In the firft of thefe,
viz. in fpitting of blood, they have been given with
advantage by Dr Robinfon, and ftill more lately by
Dr Stoll of Vienna ; who fays, that in fuch cafes ipe¬
cacuanha fometimes afts like a charm, feeming to clofe
the open veffels of the lungs fooner and more effeftual-
ly than any other remedy. In the other, viz. in ute¬
rine hemorrhagy. fmall dofes only of thefe medicines,
fo as to excite ficknefs, but not vomiting, are found to
anfwer beft. But* in both thefe inftances they ffiould
be adminiftered with caution, fince it fometimes hap¬
pens that they do more harm than good. Dr Cullen
once met with an accident of this kind, in which the
vomiting increafed the hemorrhagy to a great and dan¬
gerous degree.
Dyfentery is to be added to the number of difeafes
in which emetics have a peculiarly beneficial effett.
When there is much vifceral inflammation ; where
there are lymptoms of great accumulation in the veffels
of the head ; in the advanced ftages of pregnancy, and
in cafes of inleftinal hernia, medicines of this clafs are
to be avoided. And, in general, perlbns w’ho have
weak and delicate ftomachs Ihould be cautious of em¬
ploying them too freely, fince, as Dr Cullen has re¬
marked, frequent vomiting renders the ftomach lefs fit
to retain what is thrown into it, and even weakens its
powers of digeftion
Class II. EXPECTORANTS.
Therapeu¬
tics
* Thefau-
rut Me di¬
cam umm,
3d edition,
P 32*
Thofe medicines are called expeftorants, that are Definition
employed to promote the excretion of pus or mucus °^exPe^0"
from the windpipe and lungs. In general they arerants*
emetics given in fmaller dofes, though there are feveral
medicines, efpecially fome of the gum refins, that are
confidered to a£t in this way, without any tendency to
excite vomiting.
The following articles are ufually employed in thisT.b e of
country as expectorants. expecto¬
rants*
I. Vegetable Products.
, Cephaelis ipecacuanha, ipecacuanha.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco.
Scilla maritima,yya/’//.
Acetum feillee maritimte, vinegar offquilL
Syrupus fcillse maritimae, off quills.
Oxymel fcilke, oxymel of fquitl.
Tin&ura fcillae, tinBure offquill.
Pilulse fcilliticfe,y^wz7/pills.
Conferva fcillae, conferve of fquilL
Allium fativum, garlic.
Syrupus ?i\X\\,fyrup of garlic.
Ammoniacum, gum ammoniac.
Lae,‘ammoniaci, milk of ammoniac.
Arum maculatum, wake-robin.
Conferva ari, conferve of arum.
Colchicum autumnale, meadow foffron.
Syrupus colchici autumnalis,^rz/^ of colchicum,
Oxymel colchici, oxymel of colchicum.
Ferula afafoelida, affcetida.
Lac afafoetida, mdk of afafcetida.
Hyflbpus officinalis, hy[fop.
Marrubium vulgare, horehound.
Myrrha, myrrh.
Pimpinella anifum, anifefeed.
Oleum volatile pimpinellae anifi, oil of anifefeed.
Poly gal a fenega,yez7ria root.
Decoftum polygalte fenegse, decod ion offeneha.
Styrax benzoin, benjamin.
Acidum benzoicum, bentsoic acid.
Tinftura benzoes compofita, compound iindure of
benjamin..
Alcohol,^frzV of wine.
./Ether fulphuricus,y//^arz’c cether.
II. Mineral Products.
Sulphuretum ^xsiXvs^vXx^fulphuret of antimony.
Tartris
yi2 MATERIA
Tlierapeu- Tartris antimonii, tartrite of antimony.
.  . Vinum tartritis antimonii, wine of tartrite of anti-
^ many.
Sulphuretum antimonii precipitatum, precipitated
fulphuret of antimony.
Sulphur fublirnatum^isu’fr.r offulphur.
Sulphur fublimatum lotum, wafhedfowers of ful¬
phur.
Oleum {uXfhuratvim, fu/phurated oil.
Petroleum fulphuratum, petroleum.
Trochifci fulphuris,y«^ar lozenges.
III. Gaseous Products.
Gas hydrogenium, hydrogen gas.
Gas hydroge^ium carbonatum, carbonated hydro¬
gen gas.
Vaporis aquae calidse inhalatio, inhaling the fleams
warm water.
X4S
Effedts and The mode in which expectorants promote the excre-
ufesofex- tion of pus or mucus from the lungs, does not appear
pe orants. £0 jjg we]j unJej-ftood, Some fuppofe that thofe which
are properly emetic, operate by the fympathy that ex-
ifts between the ftomach and lungs, and that the reft
operate by fome fpecific aCtion. Mr Murray fuppofes
that there are various modes of operation by which cer¬
tain remedies will appear to promote expeftoration, and
which will give them a claim to the title of expe&o-
rants.
Ihus, in certain difeafes the exhalant veffels in the
lungs feem to be in that ftate, by which the exha¬
lation of fluid is leflened, or nearly flopped, and in
fuch cafes expe&oration muft be diminiftied. Any me¬
dicine capable of removing that conftrifted ftate, will
appear to promote expeCloration, and will at leaft re¬
lieve fome of the fymptoms of the difeafe. It is appa¬
rently by fuch a mode of operation, that antimony, ipe¬
cacuanha, fquill, and fome others, promote expectora¬
tion in pneumonia, catarrh, and afthma, the principal
difeafes in which expectorants are employed.
There is a cafe of an oppofite kind, that in which
there is a redundance of mucus in the lungs, as occurs
in humoral afthma, and catarrhus fenilis. In thefe af-
leClions, certain expeCtorants are fuppofed to prove ufe-
iul. If they do fo, it is probably by being determined
more particularly in their aCtion to the pulmonary vef-
lels, and by their moderate ftimulus diminifliing the
lecretion, or increafing the abfsrption, thus leffening
the quantity of fluid, and thereby rendering the expec¬
toration of the remainder more ealy. The determina¬
tion of thefe fubftances to the lungs is often perceptible
by their odour in the air expired. A fimilar diminu¬
tion of fluid in the lungs may be effeCted by determin¬
ing to the furface of the body j and thofe expeftorants
which belong to the clafs of diaphoretics probably aft
in this manner.
ExpeClorants,^ then, are to be regarded, not as me¬
dicines which direCtly aflift the rejeftion of a fluid al¬
ready fecreted, but rather as either increafing the na¬
tural exhalation where it is deficient, or diminilhing the
* Murray'AV^ere ^ too copious, either by fti-
Elements, “olatmg the pulmonary veffels, or by determining to
voi. i. the lurface. In both cafes expectoration will appear to
p. 325. be promoted or facilitated *.
tics.
MEDICA, &c. part
The definition of thefe remedies points out the cafes Therapeu.
to which they are applicable, viz. thofe in which an
accumulation of pus or mucus takes place in the bron¬
chial cells, as catarrh, pneumonia in its fuppurative
ftage, peripneumonia notha, afthma, and phthifis pul-
monalis or confumption.
Class III. DIAPHORETICS.
Diaphoretics are thofe remedies that are intended to Definition
promote, keep up, or reftore the excretion of perfpir-°.t lbaPll0r--
able matter from the Ikin j and of thefe ibme aCt buttlGS‘
feebly, and only increafe the infenfible perfpiration,
while others aCl more powerfully, and under favourable
circumftances, excite fweating. Hence we may divide
them into two orders.
A. THE MILDER DIAPHORETICS.
I. Animal Products.
Murias ammoniae.
Aqua carbonatis ammonhe.
Carbonas ammoniac, carbonate of ammonia.
Alcohol ammoniatum, atnmoniated alcohol.
III. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, chamomile tea.
Centaurea benediCla, holy thillle tea.
Myrrha.
Allium fativum,
Acidum acetofum, acetous acid or vinegar.
Acidum acetum deftillatum, diflilled vinegar.
Aqua acetitis ammoniae, water of acetated am¬
monia.
ArCtium lappa, burdock decoction.
Artemifia ?ibxotSiTmvn,fQuthern-wood tea.
Ariftolochia ferpentaria,y«rtL?-ro0L
TinCtura ariftolochiaeferpentari9e,//«C?wr£<9/]/fltf£<?.
root.
Daphne mezereum, mtzereum.
Deco&um daphnes mezerei, decotlion of mezereum.
Dorftenia contrayerva, contrayerva.
Pulvis contrayervae compofitus, compound powder
of contrayerva.
Fumaria officinalis,yb/m/cry.
Laurus fai£zir?is}fijfafras tea.
Salvia officinalis,tea.
Sambucus nigra, elder.
Succus bacci fambuci fpiflatus, infpiffatedjuice of
elder.
Smilax farfaparilla,y2ny<7/><7n'//b.
Decodtum fmilacis farfaparilloe, decoBion of far-
faparilla.
Solanum dulcamara, bitter fweet decoBion.
Supertartras ^o\.2tSx,fupertartrate of potafh^ or cream
of tartar.
B. STRONGER DIAPHORETICS, OR SH-
DORIFICS.
I. Animal Products.
150
Table of di¬
aphoretics.
Mofchus mofchiferus, mufk.
Miftuxa mofchata, mujk mixture.
II. Vegetable
Part II.
MATERIA
II. Vegetable Products.
Aconitum neomontanum, aconite.
Succus fpiffatus aconiti napelli, infpiffated juice of
aconite.
Guaiacum officinale, guaiacum wood and rejin.
Decoftum guaiaci officinalis compofitum, com¬
pound deco&ion of guaiacum.
Tin&ura guaiaci officinalis, tinBure of guaia¬
cum.
Tinftura guaiaci ammoniata, ammoniated tinBure
ofguaiacum.
Laurus camphora, camphor.
Miftura camphorata, camphorated mixture.
Emulfio camphorata, camphorated emulfion.
Papaver fomniferum, opium.
Tinftura opii, tinBure of opium.
Tin&ura opii camphorata, camphorated tinBure of
opium.
Tindlura opii ammoniata, ammoniated tinBure of
opium.
Pulvis ipecacuanhae et opii, powder of ipecacuan
and opium.
Rhododendron chryfanthum, yellow-flowered rhodo¬
dendron.
III. Mineral Products.
Sulphuretum antimonii,ytt^^w;v/ of antimony.
Tartris antimonii, in fmall doles.
Vinum tartritis antimonii.
Sulphuretum antimonii praeparatum.
Sulphur ftibii fufcum, brown fulphuret of anti¬
mony.
Oxidum antimonii cum phofphate calcis, oxide of
antimony with phofphate of lime, or James's powder.
Antimonium calcinatum, white oxide of anti¬
mony.
Calx ftibii prsecipitatum. D. Precipitated oxide
of antimony, or powder of Algaroth.
Sulphur {ublimatum,iy?0'uw.r of fulphur.
Sulphur fublimatum lotum.
Sulphur praecipitatum, precipitatedfulphur, or milk
offulphur.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Hydrargyrum purificatum, purified mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri, vel calomelas, fubmuriate
if mercury, or calomel.
Balneum calidum, hot bath.
Balneum vaporis, vapour bath.
MEDICA, &c. 713
creafe the aftien of the abforbents, and thus remove the Therapeu-
fpafmodic conftriftion of the fubcutaneous vefiels. , tlcs‘
"Ihe cafes to which diaphoretic medicines are beft ' ’" v
adapted, are inflammatory fevers, rheumatifm, afthma,
dyfpepfia, obftinate diarrhoea, and protrafted dyfentery.
They are injurious in typhus fever, elpecially towards
its commencement.
Where the force of the circulation is very great,
it is proper, before the exhibition of diaphoretics, to
premife the ufe of fome other evacuation, as bleeding
or purging.
Class IV. DIURETICS.
is®
Thefe are fuch medicines as promote or increafe the Definition
excretion of urine. 01 ^lureths*
The principal diuretics are thefe.
151
Sffedfs and Diaphoretics aft in one of two ways ; fome by ex-
ufes of oia- citing an increafed aftion of the exhalant veflels of the
phoretics. flan immediately, or by fympathy with other parts, as
the application of heat, the warm bath, friftion, &c. j
while others promote perfpiration, by increafing the ge¬
neral force of the circulating fyftem, and thus afting
on the exhalaot veffels of the fldn.
The aftion of diaphoretics is affifted by moderate
warmth and by tepid diluent liquors frequently taken.
The immediate effefts of thefe medicines are partly
a diminution of the quantity of fluids in the body, but
principally a change of the determination of blood
from other parts to the furface. They perhaps alfo in-
Vol. XII. Part II.
I. Animal Products.
Lytta veficatoria, cantharides.
Tinftura meloes veficatorii, tinBure of cantharides.
Onifcus afellus, millepedes, or wood-lice.
II. Vegetable Products.
Afarum europaeum, afarabacca.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco.
Scilla maritima,y^»///.
Tinftura fcillae, tinBure of [quill.
Colchicum autumnale, meadow fajfron.
Syrupus colchici,of colchicum.
Oxymel colchici, oxymel of colchicum.
Acetum colchici, vinegar of colchicum.
Polygala {er\zg?t,feneka root.
Decoftum polygalse fenegse, decoBion of feneka.
Acetum acetofum, acetous acid.
Acetas potaffas, acetate of potafh.
Daphne mezereum, mczereum.
Decoftum daphnes mezerei, decoBion of mexereum.
Smilax farfaparill£e,y2?r/^/>y7ryy/a.
Decoftum farfaparillae compofitum, compound de¬
coBion offarfaparilla.
Solanum dulcamara, bitterfweet.
Supertartras fupertartrate of potafh.
Allium cepa, onion.
Ciflampelos pareira, pareira brava.
Cochiearia armoracia, horfe-radifh.
Copaifera officinalis, balfam of Copaiba.
Cynara fcolymus, artichoke.
Digitalis ^\x^\xxz2i, foxglove.
■ Juniperus communis,
Spiritus juniperi communis compofitus, compound
fpirit of juniper.
Oleum juniperi communis, oil of juniper.
Juniperus lycia, olibanum.
Leontodon taraxacum, dandelion.
Pinus fylveftris, common turpentine.
Oleum volatile pini puriffimum, purified oil of tur¬
pentine.
Pinus larix, Venice turpentine.
Spartium fcoparium, green broom.
Ulmus campeftris, elm bark.
Decoftum ulmi, decoBion of elm bark.
4x . m.
*53
Table of
diuretics.
/
III. Mineral Products.
*54 ,
Effetfts and
Hydrargyrum, mercury. f
Murias hydrargyri, corrojtvd muriate of mer¬
cury.
Nitras potaffae, nitrate of fiotajh.
Nitrum purificatum, purified nitre.
Acidum nitrofum, nitrous acid.
Spiritus eetheris nitrofi, fpirit of nitrous cether.
The operation of diuretics is greatly promoted by
ufesofdm- plentiful dilution, which {huuld by no means be with-
retics. prom dropfical patients, though, tor many years
pad, the contrary method has too much prevailed.
The medical world is much indebted to Sir F. Mil-
man, for the pains he has taken to {hew the propriety
of indulging fuch patients in the free ufe of liquids.
In confirmation of the propriety of this method, the
©bfervation of the late Dr Cullen may be added. He
has remarked that he always thought it abfurd in phy-
ficians to employ diuretics while they enjoined an ab-
ftinence from drink, which is almott the only means of
conveying thefe diurelics to the kidneys. Whenever,
therefore, he employed diuretics, he at the lame time
advifed drinking freely j and he was perfuaded that
drinking largely often contributed to the cures he
made.
It is obvious, fays Mr Murray, that a diuretic effeifl:
will be produced by any fubitance capable of ftimulat-
ing the fecreting veffels of the kidneys. All the faline
diuretics feem to aft in this manner. They are receiv¬
ed into the circulation, and palling off with the urine,
llimulate ihe veffels, and increafe the quantity fecreted.
There are other diuretics, the effeft of which .ap¬
pears to arile not from direft application, but from an
aftion excited in the ftomach, and propagated by nerv¬
ous communication to the fecreting urinary veffels.
The diuretic operation of fquill, and of feveral other
vegetables, appears to be of this kind.
There is Hill, perhaps, another mode in which certain
fubftances produce a diuretic effeft, that is, by promo¬
ting abforption. When a large quantity of watery fluid
is introduced into the circulating maff, it ftimulates the
fecreting veffels of the kidneys, and is carried off by the
urine. If, therefore, abforption be promoted, and if a
portion of ferous fluid, perhaps previously ( ffufed, be
taken up, the quantity of fluid fecreted by the kidneys
will be increafed. In this way digitalis fee ms to aft.
Its diuretic effeft, it has been laid, is greater when
exhibited in dropfy, than it is in health.
On the fame principle may probably be explained
the utility of mercury in promoting the aftion of feveral
diuretics.
The aftion of thefe remedies is promoted by drink¬
ing freely of mild diluents. It is alio influented by
the ftate of the furface of the body. If external heat
be applied, diurefis is frequently prevented, and dia-
phorefis produced. Hence the dofes of them fhould be
given in the courfe of the day, and the patient, if pof-
lible, be kept out of bed.
Ihe direft effefts of diuretics are fufficiently evident.
They difeharge the watery part of the blood, and by
% Murray'difeharge they indireftly promote abforption over
Eletnenis. the whole fyftem *. * ~ i
MATERIA MEDTCA, &c. Part II.
Diuretics are now feldom employed, except in cafes Therapeu-
of dropfy, and here they not unfrequently fail of fuc-
cefs. They are, however, occafionally ufed in calcu¬
lous or gravelly complaints, in gonorrhoea, to diminifti
plethora, or check profufe perfpiration.
tics.
Class. V. CATHARTICS.
*55
tics.
Cathartics are thofe medicines which promote or in-Defmitio*
creafe the evacuation of excrementitious matter, or ofcat^ar*
ferous fluids, from the bowels.
There are two principal objefts which modern phy-
ficians have in view in the adminiftration of cathartics j
one is, merely to empty the bowels, and bring off the
excrementitious matter contained in them, which is al¬
ready out of the courie of circulation j the other, to
ftimulate the exhalant veffels of the bowels, and thus
promote an increaied fecretion of ferous fluids which
they pour into the alimentary canal; in this way
diminiffiing the general mafs of fluids in the body.
Hence thele medicines are naturally divided into laxa¬
tives and purgatives, the latter of which are oftwi term¬
ed drallie purgatives. It is true that thefe orders of
cathartics differ only in degree of power, as fueh a quan¬
tity of a laxative may be given as to induce purging,
while the dofe of a purgative may be fo diminifiied
to prove only gently laxative. As, however, the di-
vifion is ufeful in fome refpjfts, we {hall here preferve
it, and {hall diftribute our lilt of cathartics into laxatives
and purgatives.
A. Laxatives.
I. Animal Products.
Mel, honey.
Mel deipumatum, clarified honey.
II. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, differs of chamomile decoction.
Glea europsea, otive oil.
Supertartras polaffae, Jupertartrate of potafh.
Tartras potaffie, tartrate of potafh.
Tartras poiaffae et fodee, tartrate of polafh and
foda, or Rochelle fait.
Caflia fittula.
Eleftuarium csfliae, eleBuary of caffia.
Caflia fenna, fenna.
Pulvis fennse compofitus, con.pound powder of
fenna.
Eleftuarium cafliae fennss, eleBuary offenna.
Infufum fennae fi m pi t x, ftriple injufon of fenna.
Infuium fennae tartarilatum, tartarifed infufion of
fenna.
Infufum tamarindi cum fenna, infufion of tama¬
rinds w th fenna.
Tinftura fennae compofita, compound tinBure of
fenna.
Ficus carica,yff.r.
Fraxinus ornus, manna.
Syrupus mannae, of manna.
Prunus domeftica, prune.
Rofa damafeena, damafk rofe.
Syrupus rofae centifolige. fyrup of datnafk rofes.
Saccharum ofEcinarum, brownfugar.
156
Tab e of
cathartics.
Tamarinflus
Part IT,
Therapeu¬
tics.
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c. 715
Tamanndus Indjca, tamarinds. Tinflura rhei et gentianae, tinBure of rhubarb Therapeu-
Viola odorata, fweet violet. and gentian. tics.
Syrupus violae odoratse, fyrup of violets. Ricinus communis, caflor oil. -y—w
III. PiIineral Products. Stalagmitis cambogioides, gamboge.
Sulphur fublimatum, flowers offulphur.
Sulphur fublimatum lotum.
Sapo hifpaous, Caflile flap.
B. Purgatives.
I. Animal Products.
Cervus elaphus, hart [horn.
Phofphas fodte, phofphate offlda.
II. Vegetable Products.
Nicotiana tabacum, clysters of tobacco^ or of tobacco
fmohe.
Sambucus nigra, elder.
Pinus fylveftris, 7 / y
larix I c bsters turpentine.
Aloe perfoliata,yocco/r/w? aloes.
Pulvis aloes cum canella, powder of aloes with
amelia.
Pilulae aloeticse, aloetic pills.
Pilulse aloes cum colocynthide, pills of aloes with
colocynth.
Vinum aloes foccotrinse, aloes wine.
Tin&ura aloes foccotrinae, tin&ure of flccotrine
aloes.
Bryonia alba, bryony.
Convolvulus jalapa, jalap.
Pulvis jalapae -compolitus, compound powder of
jalap.
.Extra&um jalapae, extraEl of jalap.
Tinftura convolvuli jalapae, tmBure of jalap.
Convolvulus fcammonia, fcammony.
Pulvis fcammonii compofitus, compound powder
offcammony.
Puivis fcammonii cum aloe, powder offcammoni/
with aloes. 7
Eledluarium fcammonii, ele&uary of fcammony.
Cucumis colocynthis, colocyruh, or bitter apple.
Extraclum colocynthidis compofitum, compound
extract of colocynth.
Graliola officinalis, hedge hifflbp.
Helleborus niger, black hellebore.
Extradlum hellebori nigri, extracl of black helle¬
bore.
Helleborus foetidus, finking hellebore.
Iris pfeudacorus, common flag.
Linum catharticum, purging flax.
Momordica elaterium, w/d cucumber.
Succus fpifiatus momordici elaterii, elaterium.
Rhamnus catharticus, buckthorn.
Syrupus rhamni cathartici, fyrup of buckthorn.
Rheum palmatum, rhubarb.
Iniufum ihei palmati, wftfion of rhubarb.
Vinum rhei palmati, rhubarb wine.
7 inftura rhei palmati, tincture of rhubarb.
i indlura rhabarbari compofita, compound tmfture
of rhubarb.
1 iiiclura rhei et aloes, tinfture of rhubarb and
aloes.
III. Mineral Products.
Sulphuretum antimonii, fulphuret of antimony.
Tartris antimonii, in very fmall dofes.
Hyd rargyrum, mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri, fubmuriate of mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri praecipitatus, precipitated
fubmuriate of mercury.
Pilulae hydrargyri, mercurial pills.
Nitras potalfae.
Sulphas potaflae, fulphate of potafh.
Murias fodse,y£d fait.
Sulphas fodae, fulphate of foda, or Glauber's
fait.
Sulphas magnefiae, fulphate of magnefla^ or Epflm
fait.
157
The operation of a purgative medicine on the intef- Effects and
tinal canal, may be confidered as threefold : Firlt, itufesofca“
Simulates the mulcular fibres of the inteftmes, cjuickens
their adbion, and thus increafes the natural periftaltic
motion of the bowels, in confequence of which their
contents are more quickly difeharged. Secondly, the
exhalant veffels are ftimulated by it, which terminate in
the inner coat of the inteftines, and it excites them to
pour forth a greater difeharge of fluids, as well as the
mouths of the excretory dudts of the mucous glands, by
which the natural mucus of the inteftines is greatly
augmented j and hence the evacuations by ftool are not
only quicker, but the excrementitious matter is thinner
and more copious. Thirdly, the ftools are rendered
ftill more abundant, by an additional portion of the
fluids furniffied by the neighbouring vifeera, the liver,
pancreas, &c. to which the ftimulus of a purgative, of
the more afiive fort in particular, extends. It is proba¬
ble that thefe effe&s are communicated to the whole
range of the inteftinal canal, from the upper orifice of
the Aomach to the lower extremity of the reftum or
anus.
From the view we have now taken of the pri¬
mary effefts of cathartics on the bowels, we may eafi-
ly underfland how far they may prove ufeful in fome
difeafes, and injurious in others ; and how we may vary
the degree of their a&ivity under different circum-
ftances.
When we confider the great length of the alimenta¬
ry canal, with the numerous vefiels an'd mucous folli¬
cles, as well as the hepatic and pancreatic dudls, which
open on its internal iurtace, it will be evident that pur¬
gatives, even though they be not very ftimulant, may
occafion a great general evacuation, and confequent di¬
minution of the mafs of fluids, by opening at once all
thofe outlets. From this it appears, that, next to blood-
letting, purging will form ope of the moft aftive reme¬
dies in acute inflammatory difeafes, where wre wiffi to
avoid an over difteniion of the veffels, and reftrain the
preternatural mcreafe of the powers of the circulation
fyftem. Accordingly, purging conftitutes a principal
part of what is termed the cooling regimen. In thefe
cafes the more draftic purgatives are to be avoided, as
4X2 their
<
*ji6
Therapeu- their ufe would be attended with fo much ftimulating
i-'115, effe£t on the fyttem in general, as to counterbalance
v the advantage we Ihould derive from their diminilhing
the mafs of fluids. Again, the change in the diftribu-
tion of the blood from other parts of the fyftem to the
bowels, is' another circumftance attending the ufe of
purgatives, which renders them of conliderable impor¬
tance in feveral difeafes. It feems to follow, that if an
evacuation be made from one fet of vefiels, the afflux
of fluids to thefe will be increafed in order to fupply it,
and, conftquently, the afflux to other parts of the fyf¬
tem will be diminifhed. Upon this principle, Dr Cul¬
len explains the utility of purgatives in diforders of the
head, which originate from over-fulnefs or over-aftivity,
and in mental affections, mania, phrenfy, headach, &c.
The afflux of fluids in the veffels of the abdomen, which
fupply the inteflines, being increafed by purging, the
afflux will be proportionally diminifhed in the veifels
which carry blood to the head, and both the quantity
and impetus of the blood in the head will thus be lef-
fened.
The good effeCts of cathartics in the fmall pox, and
fome ether inflammatory affeCtions of the fkin, are
probably to be attributed chiefly to their removing local
irritation, and producing a confiderable depletion, and
thus diminifhing the general fever that ufually attends
thofe difeafes.
When the contents of the bowels are morbidly retain¬
ed, either in confequence of their periftaltic motion be¬
ing unufually flow from a torpid ftate of the mufcular
fibres, or from a relaxed flate of the bowels, favouring
an accumulation of faeces, from a deficiency of bile, or
from habitual negleCt, the ufe of cathartics in indicated,
to prevent more ferious complaints that may be the con¬
fequence of this coftivenefs. The kind of cathartics to
be employed depends on the nature of the caufe produ¬
cing the conftipation, or particular circumftances at¬
tending it. If, for example, the coftivenefs be attend¬
ed with a debilitated habit, with fyraptoms of great
nervous mobility, flatulence, or other figns of a debili¬
tated flate of the alimentary canal, fome of the warmer
aromatic cathartics will be proper, as aloes, rhubarb, or
fuch preparations of thefe as contain an aromatic in
their compofition. If the coflivenefs feems to arife from
a deficiency of bile, the aloetic and mercurial purgatives
are indicated.
In cafes where the coftivenefs has arifen from fome
accidental caufe, as in colic, dyfentery, enteritis, it
will be neceffary to. vary the cathartics according to the
nature of the affeflion, o^ the caufe by which it has been
produced. S<?e Colic, Dysentery, and Enteritis,
Medicine Index.
Cathartics exert a particular aftion on the abfor-
bent veflels, by which thefe are enabled to take up a
greater quantity of fluid than in tdieir natural flate.
Hence the. ufe of draftic purgatives in dropfy. The ac¬
tion of cathartics in this way does not appear to be well
underflood. Dr Cullen, treating of this fubje6l, obferves
that, as in every cavity of the body there is an inhala¬
tion and exhalation conflantly going on, it is prefumed
that there is fome balance conflantly preferved between
the fecretory and abforbent powers j fo that if the for¬
mer are increafed, the latter will be alfo; and, there¬
fore, that w hen the fecretions are, upon occafion, much
Part n.
increafed, the a£lion of the abforbents may be parti- Therapeu.
cularly excited. This explains, why purging often ex- .
cites the aliion of the abforbents, to take- up more co-
pioufly the fluids that were otherwife flagnant in the
adipofe membrane, or other cavities of the body, and
thereby often proves a cure of dropfy. This explana¬
tion is perhaps little more than an implicit flatement of
the faft. It is certain, however, that a/cites, or dropfy
of the abdomen, has been often afft£ted by means of
acrid draflic purgatives, fuch as gamboge, fcammony,
&c. when diuretic remedies have failed. But it is ob¬
vious that thefe remedies can only be adminiflered to
thofe who retain confiderable flrengthof conflitution, de¬
bilitated neither by inveterate intemperance, old age?
nor a long difeafe.
The attention of praflitioners has been lately particu¬
larly dire&ed to the ufe of purgatives in feveral difeafes,
in which they w'ere formerly either not employed at all,
or not ufed to any extent, in confequence of a valuable
publication by Dr James Hamilton, fenior phyfician of
the Edinburgh infirmary. Dr Hamilton having ob-
ferved that in feveral fpafmodic difeafes, efpecially in
chorea, or St Vitus’s dance, there was commonly a con¬
fiderable colletlion of black offenfive faeces in the
bowels, was led to conceive that this mull prove a very
powerful irritating caufe in protra&ing^hefe difeafes j
and as, in common with other praftitioners, he had ex¬
perienced great want of fuccefs from the ufual admini-
llration of tonic medicines in thefe affections, he was
led to try the effect of purgatives given to fuch an ex¬
tent as to produce complete evacuation of the bowels.
The plan fucceeded entirely to his fatisfadtion, and by
this treatment he finds chorea is fpeedily cured, general¬
ly in 10 days or a fortnight. Befides chorea, Dr Ha¬
milton has been very fuccefsful in the adminiftration of
purgatives in cafes of typhus, fcarlatina, fever, maraf-
mus, chlorofis, hematefmus, hyfteria, tetanus, and feve¬
ral other chronic affections. He was originally in¬
duced to purfue his new method of treating typhus, by
obferving that the antimonials, which were formerly fo
largely employed in this difeafe, appeared to be mod
ferviceable when they operated upon the bow els. This
led him to fufpedl, that any purgative medicine might
be fubftituted in their place, and that the debilitating
effedt of vomiting and fweating might thus be avoided.
Experience has fully confirmed thefe conjedlures, and
after a trial of fome years he is thoroughly perfuaded,
that the full and regular evacuation of the bowels re¬
lieves the oppreffion of the ftomach, and mitigates the
other fymptoms of fever. He has accordingly almoft
entirely given up the adminiilration of other remedies,
and trulls to the exhibition of frequent and copious pur¬
gatives. It might have been apprehended, that this
plan of treatment would have aggravated the debility,
which conftitutes a linking fymptom of typhus 5 but
ample experience has proved that this is not the cafe.
The purgatives which Dr Hamilton * has employed in * See Ha-
fever are calomel, calomel and jalap, jalap and cryllals 0,rl
of tartar, aloes, folutions of mild neutral falls, infufion of
fenna^and fometimes the two laft medicines conjoined.
Cathartics are among the moll efficacious remedies
that are employed with a view to promote or reftore
the menllrual evacuation j and accordingly they form
the chief part of thofe remedies that are commonly call¬
ed
MATERIA MEDICA, &e.
Part II. MATERIA
Therapeu- ed emmenagdgues. With this view the draftic purga-
. tlC;<‘• tives are chiefly given, as aloes, bryony, black hellebore,
"* and fome of the preparations of mercury.
There is another ufe of cathartics that may be re¬
ferred to a mechanical operation, viz. their expelling
worms from the bowels. See Anthelmintics*
Class VI. ERRHINES.
j eg
Definition Thofe medicines are termed errhines that are employ-
of errhines. ed to promote an increafed difcharge of mucus from
the noftrils. The principal errhines are the following.
I. Vegetable Products.
Afarum europium, afnrabacca.
Pulvis afari europaei compofitus, compound pow¬
der of afarabaccaj
Cephalic fnuff. „
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco.
The ordinary fluffs.
Iris florentina, Florentine orris.
Lavandula fpica, lavender flowers.
Origanum majoranajym?^ marjoram.
Rofmarinus officinalis, rofemary.
Teucrium marum, maflich.
Veratrum album, white hellebore.
II. Mineral Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Subfulphas hydrargyri flavus,
of mercury, or turbeth mineral.
Eft'etfls and evacuation produced by the action of errhines
ufes ofx is fometimes procured without any fneezing, but fre-
srrhines. quently attended with it. This, however, implies no
difference, but merely that of ftronger or weaker fti-
mulus in the medicine employed. The fneezing that
occurs may have particular effefts by the concuffion it
occafions; but it does not vary the evacuation induced
by the medicine, excepting that with fneezing there is
commonly a larger evacuation produced.
This evacuation often goes no further than to reffore
the natural evacuation when interrupted j but it com¬
monly goes farther, and increafes the evacuation be¬
yond its ufual meafure •, and that not only for fome
time after the medicine has been applied, but alfo for
fome following days.
This evacuation not only empties, but alfo produces
a larger excretion from the mucous follicles of the
fchneiderian membrane j but, agreeably to the laws of
the circulation, this muff produce an afflux of fluids
from the neighbouring veffels, and in fome meafure em¬
pty thefe. By this it often removes rheumatic conge-
ftions in the neighbouring veffels, and particularly thofe
in which the toothach often confifts.
But not only the more nearly adjoining veffels are
thus relieved, but the effect may extend further to the
whole of the branches of the external carotid ; and we
have known inftances of headachs, pains of the, ear,
and ophthalmias, cured or relieved by the ufe of er-
rhines. How far their effedts may extend, cannot be
exadtly determined but it is probable that they may
operate more or lefs on the whole veffels of the head,
as even a branch of the internal carotid paffes into the
nofej and independent of this, it is not improbable
I
yellow fubfulphate
*59
Table of
errhines.
MEDICA, &c. 717
that our errhines may have been of ufe in preventing Therapea-
apoplexy and palfy j which at lealt is to be attended f
to fo far, that whenever any approach to thefe difeafes *
is fufpedted, the drying up of the mucous difcharge Materia
ftiould be attended to, and if poflible reftored *. Medica,
vol. ii.
Class VII. SIALAGOGUES. p'35<
j6r
Thefe are employed either to promote an increafed Definition
flow of faliva, or to produce fuch an adtion on the gums,of p,ala"
as fhall indicate their having been received in fufticient ^°^ueS'
quantity into the circulation. Under the former divifion
are ranked feveral vegetable fubftances; under the latter
are included only mercury and its preparations.
\6z
I. Vegetable Products. Tab,e of
fialagogues.
Daphne mezereum, me%ereum.
Amomum zingiber, ginger.
Anthemis pyrethrum,of Spain.
Piftacia lentifcus, maflich.
II. Mineral Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Hydrargyrum purificatum, purified mercury.
Submurias hydxargyv\,fubmuriate of mercury.
Murias hydrargyri, tnuriate of mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri praecipitatus, precipitated
fubmuriate.
Pilulae hydra rgyrae, mercurial pills.
Oxidum hydrargyri cinereum, cinereous oxide of
mercury.
Unguentum hydrargyrum, mercurial ointment.
Hydrargyrus calcinatus, red oxide of mercury.
Acetis hydrargyvi, acetate of mercury.
Hydrargyrus fulphuratus ruber, red fulphurate of
mercury.
Sulphuretum hydrargyri nigrum, black fulphuret
of mercury.
The vegetable fialagogues are commonly called ma-Ufes of fia-
fticatories, becaufe they produce their effedt by being lagogues.
chewed in the mouth.’• They are employed in fimilar
cafes with the errhines, more efpecially in toothach.
The ufe of the mercurial fialagogues will be explained
hereafter in our account of mercury.
Class VIII. EMOLLIENTS.
The medicines commonly called emollients confift ei- Definition
ther of diluting liquors, formed of Ample water, or cer-0ferno1- .
tain vegetable infufions, or mucilaginous and oily mat-^lents*
ters that have the mechanical prope rty of defending the
parts to which they are applied, from the adtion of ac-
crimoriious fubftances that pafs over them j or of foften-
ing and relaxing the {kin and other external parts. The
firft of thefe are commonly called diluents, the fecond
demulcents, and the third Amply emollients. We {hall
enumerate them together under the general term of
emollients, referving an account of their particular ufes
for the individual articles.
I. Animal: Products.
Accipenfer hufo, fturio, &e. iflnglafs.
Ovis aries, mutton fuel.
Phyfeter macrocephalus^fr/zrareft.
Sus fcrofa, hogs-lard.
155
Table of
emollients.
Llnimentum
7i S
Therapeu-
Llnimentum Htriplex, Jimple liniment.
Unguentum {implex, Jimple ointment.
Unguentum adipis fuillae, ointment of hogr-fard.
Unguentum fpermatis ceti, fpermaceti ointment.
Unguentum ceras, wax ointment.
Ceratum fimplex, Jimple cerate.
Ceratum fpermatis ceti, fpermaceti cerate.
II. Vegetable Products.
MATEPvIA MEDIC A, &c.’
The following are the principal refrigerants enume-
rated by the various writers on the materia medica.
I. Vegetable Products.
Acidum acetofum, acetous acid.
Acetis potaffae, acetate of potafh.
Aqua acetitis ammoniae, water of acetate of ammo-
Part II,
Therape«.
tics.
163
Table of
refrige¬
rants.
ma.
Cera alba et flava, white and yellow wax.
Olea Europsea.
Althea officinalis, mnrfhmaliow.
Decoftum althtae officinalis, decoBion of marfh-
mallow.
Syrupus al these, fyrup of marfhma/low.
Amygdalus communis, almondt and oil of almonds.
Emulfio amygdali communis, almond emuljion.
Oleum amygdali communis, oil of almonds.
Aftragalus tragacantha, gum tragacanth.
Mucilago ailragali tragacanthi, mucilage of tra¬
gacanth.
Pulvis tragacanthi compofitus, compound powder
of tragacanth.
A vena fativa, oat meal.
Cocos bjutyracea, palm oil.
Eryngium maritimum, eryngo root.
Glycyrrhiza glabra, liquorice root, and cxtraB.
Trochifci glycyrrhizae, liquorice lozenges.
Hordeum diftichon, barley.
Deco&um hordei diftichi, barley water.
Deco&um hordei compofitum, compound decoBion
of barley.
Lilium candidum, white lily root.
Linum ufitatiffimum, lintfeed.
Oleum lini ufitatitfimi, lintfeed oil.
Malva fylveilris, common mallow.
Supertartras potallae, f/pertartrate of potajb.
Tumarindus indita, tamarinds.
B'-rberis vulgaris, bat berry.
Citru" medica, lemon.
Syrupus citri medicse, fyrup of lemon juice.
Citrus aurantia, orange.
Cochlearia officinalis,^7/rtiygraft.
Sulcus cochlearcompofitus, compound juice of
feurvy-grafs.
Moms nigra, mulberry.
Syrupus fruftus mori, fyrup of mulberry juice.
Oxalis acetoiella, woodJorrel,
Conferva acetofcllee, conferve offorrel.
Ribes nigrum, black currants.
Suceus i pi flat us ribls nigri, infpijfatedjuice of black
currants.
Syrupus fucci ribis nigri, fyrup of black currant
juice.
Ribes rubrum, red currants.
Rofa canina, dog rofe or hips.
Conferva rofae caninse, conferee of hips.
Rubus idasus, rafpberry.
Syrupus frudtus rubi fyrup of rafpberry juice.
Rumex acetofa, common forrel.
Veronica beccabunga, brooklime.
II. Mineral Products*
Decoftum pro enemate, decoBion for clysters.
Melifla officinalis, balm.
Mimofa mlotica, gum arabic.
Mucilago mimofae niloticse, mucilage of gum arabic,
Emulfio mimofae niloticse, common emuljion.
Trochifci gummofi, gum lozenges.
Penaea iarcocolla, far cocolla.
Pyrus cydonia, quince feed.
Mucilago feminis cydonii mail, mucilage of quince
jeeo. '
Triticum hibernum, wheat andJlarch.
Mucilago amyli, mucilage off arch.
iroehifei avaqYx, Jlarch lozenges.
Vitis vinifera, railins.
166
tlfes of Diluents are chiefly employed to abate thirft in fe-
emoliients. ver and inflammatory afleftions, or to promote the ac¬
tion of other remedies, particularly diaphoretics and
diuretics.. Demulcents are chiefly ufed in catarrh,
pneumonia, dyfentery, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea ; and ex¬
ternal emollients are employed chiefly in cafe of fprains
and bruifes, or to defend the furface of ulcers from the
dreffings and bandages.
Class IX. REFRIGERANTS.
167
Defini ion Under this term are comprehended thofe remedies
®t reirige- which are employed with a view to diminifh the pre-
rams. ter naturally increafed heat that takes place In the body
during fevers and feveral inflammatory afleclions.
Sulphas zinci, fulpkate of %inc.
Nitras potafias, nitrate of potafh.
Acidum nitrofum, nitrous acid.
Spiritus aetheris nitrofi, fpirit of nitrous ether.
I rochifci nitratis potaflse, nitre lotatnges.
Murias fodae, muriate of fada.
Acidum muriaticum, muriatic acid.
Acidum fulphuricum, fulohuric acid.
Acidum fulphuricum dilutum, diluted fulphurk'
acid.
Plumbum, lead.
Superacetas pi u m b i, fupera cetate or fugar of lead.
Aqua lithargyri acetati, water of aceiatedlitharge,
or Goulard^s extraB.
Aqua lithargyri acetati compofita, compound wa¬
ter of acetated litharge.
Unguentum acetitis plumhi, ointment of acetate of
lead,
Ceratum lithargyri acetati compofitum, compound
cerate of acetated litharge.
Aft ufion of cold water.
. . 169
Refrigerants appear to aft chemically, but in what Effetfs and
precife manner they diminifh the heat of the human bo- uftsofre-
dy, is not well underftood. On this fubjeft Mr Mur- *n£erant!‘
ray expreff s himfelf in the following manner.
“ Keeping in view the very inconfiderable aftion of
thofe remedies, it may perhaps be pofiible from the
confideration of the mode in which animal temperature
Part H. MATEBIA
Therapeu- Is generated, to point out how their trivial refrigerant
^ t‘;3' effe£ts may be produced.
“ It has been fufficiently eftablifhed, that the eon-
fumption of oxygen in the lungs is materially influenced
by the nature of the ingeita received into the ftomach ;
that it is increafed by animal food and fpirituous liquors,
and in general by whatever fubltances contain a fmall
quantity of oxygen in their compofition. But the tem¬
perature of animals is derived from the confumption of
oxygen by refpiration. An increafe of that muft occa-
fion a great evolution of caloric in the fyitem, and in¬
creafe of temperature, while a diminution in the con¬
fumption of oxygen muft have an oppofite effeff. If,
therefore, when the temperature of the body is mor¬
bidly increafed, fubftances be introduced into the fto-
maeh containing a large proportion of oxygen, efpecial-
ly in a ftate of loole combination, and capable of being
affimilated by the digeftive powers, the nutritious mat¬
ter received into the blood muft contain a larger por¬
tion of oxygen than ufual ; lefs of that principle will
be confumed in the lungs, by wh'ch means lefs caloric
being evolved, the temperature of the body mull be re¬
duced j and this operating as a redutfion of itimulus,
will diminifh the number and force of the contractions
of the heart.
“ It might be fuppofed that any effect of this kind
muft be trivial, and it a&ually is fo. It is, as Culltn
has remarked, not very evident to our fenfes, nor eafily
* or ^ fubjefted to experiment, and is found only in confe-
*f^Vence °f frequent repetitions*.”
Refrigerants are confidered by Mr Murray as acting
chemically, but we are not certain how far his opinion
is com ft. That fome of them do operate in cooling the
human body, merely as chemical agents, cannot be de¬
nied ; but feveral leem to produce this effe£l by fome
particular aftion on the nervous lyftem, that is not well
underftood.
170
Definition
of aitnn-
gents.
171
Table of
‘ftringems.
Class X. ASTRINGENTS.
Aftringents are defined by Dr Cullen to be fuch fub¬
ftances as when applied to the human body produce a
condenfation and centra&ion of the foft folids, and
thereby increafe their denfi.y and force of cohefion. If
they are applied to longitudinal fibres, the*contra£lion
is made in the length of thefe ; but if applied to circu¬
lar fibres, the diameters of the velfels, or the cavities
which thefe furround, are diminilhed.
The principal fubftances that acl in this way are
taken from vegetables, and confift of the barks of fe¬
veral trees, certain roots and infpilTated juices ; but a
few of them are derived from minerals, efpeciallv the
ftronger mineral acids, a few metallic and earthy falts,
and, according to fome writers, alcohol. We ftiall enu¬
merate the following.
I. Vegetable Products.
Haematoxylum campechianum, logwood.
Extradtum ligni htematoxyli campechiani, extraB
of loqvjood.
Juglans regia, walnut.
Eucalyptus refinifera, hino.
Tinftura kino, tinBure of k no.
Mimofa catec hu, catechu, or Japan earth.
Infufum mimofse catechu, iafufon of catechu.
MEDICA, &c.
Tin&ura mimofse catechu, tinBure of catechu.
Eledtuarium catechu, cleBuary of catechu.
Polygonum biftorta, bfort.
Potentiila reptans,potcntilla.
Prunus fpinofa,y?0<?.
Conferva pruni fylveftris, eonferve of floes.
Pterocarpus draco, dragon's blood,
Punica gxsmWsm, pomegranate, balaufines.
Quercus cerris, gall nut.
Quercus robur, common oak.
Rofa gailica, red rofe.
Infufum ro!se gallicae, infu/ion of rofes.
Conferva rolse gallicse, corferoe oj red rofes.
Syrupu.s rofse gallicse,^ri//> of red rofes,
Mel roise, honey of rojes.
Tormentilla eiedia, to/mentil root.
Vitis vinifera, red Port wine.
II. Mineral Products.
Acidum fulphul ieum, fulphuric acid.
Acidum muriaticum, muriatic acid,
Ferrum, von,
Ti&dtura muriatis ferri, tinBure of muriated iron.-
Plumbum, lead.
Superacetas plumb}, fuper acetate of lead.
Sulphas cwpnfju/phate oj copper.
Solutio fulphatis cupri, futut.on offulphate of cop-
719
Therapeu¬
tics.
pe
Eiquor cupri ammoniati,, liquor of ammoniatedcop¬
per
Sulphas zmc\, ft phate of xinc.
Aqua zii ci vitriolati cum camphora, water of
Vitrio/cted aanc with campho'-
. Solutio acititis zmci, fo/ution of acetate of 'zinc.
Superfulphas aluminse et \Mtzttvd,fuperfulphate of alu¬
mina and potafh, or alum.
Sulphas aluminas exficcatus, driedfulphate of alu¬
mina.
Pul-vis fulphatis aluminae compofitus, compound pow¬
der ofjulphate of alumina.
j s qua aluminis comnofita, compound alum water.
Cataplalma aluminis, catapiafin of alum.
It is of fome confequente that the precife meaning of
the term aftringent, ufed as a medicine, ftiould be un¬
derftood.
1 he ufual method of dete&ing aftringency is, by the Nature of
corrugating of the tongue, and the peculiar rough and aftringents.
harlh lenfation communicated to the palate by the touch
of an aftringent fubftance ; and in general,* all bodies
may be called aftringents, that have the property of
communicating thefe fenfations. Molt of the vegetable
aftringents have befides the property offtriking a black
colour when mixed with a folution of fulp! ate of iron
and this property has been conftantly eonfidered as one
of the fureft Celts of aftringency in vegetable fubftances.
Now modern chemiftry has Ihewn, that this property is
owing to a peculiar acid, viz. the gallic, and not to
tannin or the. aftringent principle properly fo called.
It fo happens that in molt vegetable aftringents the gal¬
lic acid and tannin are found united •, but in a few, efpe-
cially catechu, the aftringent principle exills without the
gallic acid, and confequently no black colour is pro¬
duced when a folution of catechu is mixed with a folu¬
tion of iron. Hence the pharmaceutic chemift fhould
bs
A
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
■73
Effedts and
ufes.
174
Definition
©f tonics.
ns
'I able of
tonics.
be aware that tbe above property is not a fure teft of
vegetable aitringeney. A more certain chemical teft is
animal jelly ; for, when a folution of this is added to a
folution of vegetable aftringent, a copious precipitate is
produced, which in fa£l: is leather.
Aftringents appear to act nearly in a fimilar manner
on the dead animal fibre as on the living folid, in both
cafes thickening and hardening : when applied to the
living folid, they produce increafeof tone and ftrength,
reftrain inordinate actions, and check exceflive dif-
charges from any of the veflels or cavities j and to
the dead fibre occafion denfity, toughnefs, imperviouf-
nefs to water in a greater or lefs degree, and infufcep-
tibility to the common caufes of putrefaction. See
Tanning.
Aftringents are largely employed in medicine, and
their ufe is attended with confiderable advantage. The
cafes in which they are moft beneficial, and in which
their effe6l feems moft unequivocally owing to the
aftringent principle, are diarrhoeas, leucorhcea, and
gleets. They have alfo been employed with fuccefs
for reftraining profufe evacuations where they could 1
not be immediately applied to the affefted part, as
in the above cafes j for example, in hemoptifis and
epiftaxis ; but here their operation feems to be lefs
attributable to their aftringency than to their tonic
power.
Such aftringents as are employed externally to check
hemorrhage from divided veffels, are ufually called
ftyptics.
Class IX. TONICS.
Tonics are thofe medicines which are fuited to coun¬
teract debility, or to give ftrength and energy to the
moving fibres. They are taken partly from vegetables,
and partly from minerals.
I. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, chamomile Jlowers.
Centaurea benediCta, holy thi/lle.
Marrubium vulgare, horehound.
Myrrha, myrrh.
Pulvis myrrhas compofitus, compound powder of
myrrh.
Dorftenia contrajerva, contrayerva.
Pulvis contrayervse compofitus, compound powder
«f contrayerva.
Vitis vinifera.
Vinum rubrum lufitanum, red port wine.
iEfculus hippocaftanum, horfe-chefnut bark.
Anguftura, anyujlura bark.
Chironea centaureum, leffer centaury.
Cinchona officinalis, Peruvian bark.
Infufum cinchonse officinalis, infujion of cin¬
chona.
DecoCtum cinchonse officinalis, decoBion of cin¬
chona.
TinCtura cinchonae officinalis, tinBure of cin¬
chona.
TinCtura cinchonae compofita, compound tinBure
of cinchona.
TinCtura cinchonae ammoniata, ammoniated tinc¬
ture of cinchona.
Part II.
extracl of cin- Therapeu¬
tics.
Extraftum cinchona: officinalis,
chona.
Cinchona caribaea, Caribean cinchona.
Colomba, Colombo root.
TinCtura colombae, tinBure of colomba.
Croton eleutheria, cafcarbla bark.
TinCtura cafcarillte, tinBure of cafcarilla.
ExtraClum cafcarillae, extraB of cafcanlla.
Gentiana lutea, gentian root.
Infulum gentianae compofitum, compound infujton
of gentian.
TinCtura gentianae compofita, compound tinBure
of gentian.
Vinum gentianae compofitum, compound witte of
gentian.
ExtraCtum gentianae, extraB of gentian.
Menyanthes trifoliata, marfh trefoil.
Quaffia excelfa, quafjia.
Quaffia fimaruba,7?/«<7r07/&tf.
Salix fragilis, fragile willow bark.
Salix alba, white willow bark.
Swietenia mahagoni, mahogany tree bark.
Swietenia ithniuga, febrifuge fwietenia.
Tanacetum vulgare, common tanfey.
II. Mineral Products.
Sulphas cupri, fulphate of copper.
Ammoniaretum cupri, ammoniaret of copper.
Pilulae ammoniareti cupri, pills of ammoniaret of
copper.
Zincum, ‘zinc.
Sulphas zinci, fulphate of zinc.
Solutio fulphatis zinci, folution of fulphate of
zinc.
Oxidum zinci, oxide or flowers of zinc.
Nitras potaffae, nitrate of potajh.
Acidum nitrofum, nitrous acid.
Ferrum, iron. ' -
Carbonas ferri, carbonate of iron.
Carbonas ferri prsecipitatus, precipitated carbonate
of iron.
Aqua ferri aerati, water of aerated iron.
Sulphas ferri, fulphate of iron.
Vinum ferri, wine of iron.
Tinftura muriatis ferri, tinBure of muriate of
iron.
Sulphas ferri exficcatus, dried fulphate of iron.
Oxidum ferri rubrum, red oxide of iron.
Emplaftrum oxidi ferri rubri, plafler of red oxide
of iron.
Ferri limaturae purificatae, purified flings of
iron.
Oxidum ferri nigrum purificatum, purified black
oxide of iron.
Murias ammoniae et ferri, muriate of ammonia
and iron.
Tindtura ferri ammoniacalis, tinBure of ammo-
niacal iron.
Tartras ferri et potaflae, tartrate of iron and
potajh.
Tindtura ferri acetati, tinBure of acetated iron.
Acidum fulphurieum, fulphuric acid.
Acidum fulphuricum dilutum, diluted fulphuric
Acidum
Part IT.
Therapeu- Acidutn fulphuricum aromaticum, aromatic ful-
tiCS' phuric acid.
L " * ' Argentum, Jilver.
Nitras argenti, nitrate of fiber, or lunar caujlic.
Arfenicum, arfenic.
Carbonas barytae, carbonate of baryta.
Carbonas caleis, carbonate of lime or chalk.
Solutio muriatis ealcis, folution of muriate of
lime.
Sulphas barytas, fulphate of baryta.
Murias barytas, muriate of baryta.
Solutio muriatis barytas, folution of muriate of
baryta.
Aquas minerales ferrum continentes, chalybeate mi¬
neral waters.
III. Gaseous Products.
Gas oxigenium, oxygen gas.
Balneum frigidum, cold bath.
tics.
Equitatio, riding on horfeback.
Eiiedts and Moft tonics a£l immediately on the ftomach, and
uies ot to- hence on the fyftem at large. They inereafe the appe¬
tite, quicken digeftion, and add vigour to the body.
Hence they are ufeful in moft cafes of debility ; but
when ufed improperly or for too long a time, they
predifpofe to apoplectic and paralytic diforders.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. >]2i
Carbonas ammonias, carbonate of ammonia. Therapeu-
Aqua carbonatis ammonia;, water of carbonate of
ammonia.
Oleum ammoniatum, ammoniated oil.
Linimentum ammonias, liniment of ammonia.
Linimentum volatile, volatile liniment.
Alcohol ammoniatum arbmaticum, aromatic am¬
moniated alcohol.
Spiritus ammonias fuccinatus, fuccinated fpirit of
ammonia.
Mofchus mofehiferus, mufk.
Miftura mofehata, miijk mixture.
Cervus elaphus, hartfhorn.
Liquor volatilis cornu cervi, volatile liquor of
hartjhorn.
Sal cornu cervi, fait of hartfhorn.
Lytta veficatoria, cantharides.
TinCtura meloes veficatorii, tin&ure of cantha¬
rides.
Unguentum infufi meloes veficatorii, ointment of
infufion of cantharides.
Unguentum pulveris meloes veficatorii, ointment
ofpowder of cantharides.
Ceratum cantharidis, cerate of cantharides.
Emplaftrum meloes veficatorii, plafer of cantha¬
rides.
Class XII. STIMULANTS.
~ ’77
Definition
and effects
ftimu-
l&aii.
* Sympjis
f Materia
Vtedica.
'ol. ii.
). 154.
178
'able of
iimulants
Moft of the articles of the Materia Medica might,
in an extended fenfe, be called fimu/ants; but this
term is, by the general confent of phyficians, reftric-
tively applied to thofc medicines which poffefs the
power of fuftaining or inereafing the vital energies of
railing and invigorating the adion of the heart and ar¬
teries—and of reftoring to the mufcular fibre, when af-
feCled with torpor, its loft fenfibility and power of mo¬
tion. Hence the ufe, under proper regulations, of the
various articles belonging to this clafs in cafes of gout,
palfy, and malignant typhoid fever : butlet it be re¬
peated, under proper regulations j for we cannot but
remark that medicines which give additional aftivity to
the circulation, and which augment the heat and fenfi¬
bility of the fyftem throughout, are often abufively em¬
ployed, being adminirtered too early, as well as too
freely in the above-mentioned and fome other fimilar
diforders. In the beginn ing of typhous fever, in particu¬
lar, it cannot be doubted that a hafty and lavilh exhi¬
bition of fuch medicines has, in numerous inftances, ag¬
gravated every fymptom, and brought the patient, who
would otherwife have had the difeafe in its mildeft
form, into confiderable danger *.
The clafs of ftimulants is exceedingly numerous, and
might, perhaps, with advantage, be fubdivided into
feflions ; but as this fubdivifion would admit of much
difpute from the different acceptation of the termfli-
mulant, we Ihall here only give a table of ftimulants
diftributed as ufual into animal, vegetable, and mineral
produfts.
I. Animal Products.
Murias ammoniac, muriate of ammonia.
Aqua ammoniae, water of ammonia.
Alcohol ammoniatum, ammoniated alcohol.
Vol. XII. Part II.
II. Vegetable Products.
Sinapis alba, mufardfeed.
Cataplafma finapios, mufard cataplafm.
Allium fativum, garlic.
Arum maculatum, wake-robin.
Conferva ari, conferve of arum.
Pimpinella anifum, anifefeed.
Oleum volatile pimpinellse anifi, volatile oil of
anife feed.
Styrax benzoin, benjamin.
Acidum benzoicum, ben%oic acid.
Tincfura benzoes compofita, compound tinEiure
of benjamin.
Alcohol.
ALlher fulphuricus, fulphuric cether.
Aither fulphuricus cum alcohole, fulphuric cether
with alcohol.
Aither fulphuricus cunv alcohole compofitus, com¬
pound fulphuric cether with alcohol.
Oleum vini, oil of wine.
Acidum acetofum, vinegar.
Acidum acetoium forte, frong acetous acid.
Acidum acetofum camphoratum, camphorated ace¬
tous acid.
Acetum aromaticum, aromatic vinegar.
Ariftolochia ferpentaria,y//fl^-roo/.
Tin&ura ariftolochiaeferpentarige, tintture offnake-
root.
Daphne mezereum, mezereum.
Deco&um daphnes mezerei, decoElion of mezer¬
eum.
Guaiacum officinale, guaiacum.
Decoftum guaiaci officinalis, decoBion of guai¬
acum.
Tinfrura guaiaci officinalis, tinBure of guaiacum.
Tinftura guaiaci ammoniata, ammoniated tinBure
of guaiacum.
Papaver fomniferum, opium in fmall dofes.
4 Y* Tin&ura
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
722
Therapeu- Tln&'ura opli, tinfture of opium.
^cs- Tinftura opii camphorata, camphorated tinBure of
^ v opium.
Tinftura opii ammoniata, ammoniated tinBure of
opium.
Confeftio opiata, opiate confeBion.
Cochlearia armoracia, horfe radijh.
Copaifera officinalis, balfam of copaiba.
Pinus fylyeftris,7 turpentine anirofin.
Finus lanx, j r
Oleum volatile pini puriffimum, purified oil of
turpentine.
Unguentum refini flavi, ointment of yellow ro-
Jin.
Ceratum refini flavi, cerate of yellow rojin.
Emplaftrum cerae, wax plafler.
Unguentum picis, pitch plafler.
Unguentum picis burgundicae, ointment of bur¬
gundy pitch.
Arnica montana, leopard's bane.
Bubon galbanum, ga/hanum.
Pilulae galbani compofitae, compound pills of gal¬
banum.
Emplaftrum galbani compofttum, compoundplqfier
of galbanum.
Juniperus fabina, favme.
Oleum juniperi fabinae, oil of favine.
Juniperus Lycia, ohbanum.
Paftinaca opoponax, opoponax.
Veratrum album, white hellebore.
Unguentum hellebori albi, ointment of white hel¬
lebore.
Decoftum hellebori albi, decoBion of white helle¬
bore.
Acorus calamus, calamus aromaticust or fweet
fog.
Amomum zingiber, ginger.
Syrupus amomi zingiberis, fyrup of ginger.
Tinftura amomi zingiberis, tinBure of ginger.
Amomum repens, leffier cardamom feeds.
Tinftura amomi repentis, tinBure of carda¬
mom.
Tindlura cardamomi compofita, compound tinc¬
ture of cardamom.
Amyris gileadenfis, balm of gilead.
Amyris elemifera, gum elemi.
Unguentum elemi, elemi ointment.
Anethum fceniculum, Jweet fennelfeed.
Oleum volatile foeniculi dulcis, oil of fennel.
Aqua foeniculi dulcis, fennel water.
Anethum graveolens, dill feed.
Aqua anethi, dill water.
Angelica archangelica, angelica.
Apium petrofelinum, parfley root andfeea.
Arbutus uva urfi, whortle berry.
Artemifia maritima, fea wormwood.
Conferva abftntbii maritimi, conferve of fea worm¬
wood.
Decoftum pro fomento, decoBion for fomenta¬
tion.
Canella alba, white canella.
Capficum annuum, capficum, Cayenne pepper,
Carum carvi, caraway feeds.
Oleum carvi, oil of caraway.
Spiritus cari carvi, fpirit of carraway.
Ciftus creticus, ladanum.
Emplaftrum ladani, ladanum plafler.
Citrus aurantium, Seville orange peel.
Oleum volatile citri aurantii, effence of orange-
peel.
Aqua citri aurantii, orange peel water.
Tin£tura aurantii corticis, tinBure of orange-
peel.
Syrupus citri aurantii, fyrup of orange peel.
Conferva citri aurantii, conferve of orange-peel,
Coriandrum fativum, coriander Jeed.
Crocus fativus, faffron.
Syrupus croci, fyrup of faff’ on.
Tinftura croci, tinBure of faffron.
Cuminum cyminum, cummin Jeed.
Cataplafma cumini, cummin cataplafn.
Emplaftrum cumini, cumminplajler.
Curcuma longa, turmeric.
Daucus carota, wild carrot feed, carrot root.
Dianthus caryophyllus, clove July flower.
Syrupus caryophylli rubri, fyrup of cloves.
Eugenia caryophyllata, cloves.
Oleum volatile caryophylli aromatici, oil of
cloves.
Hypericum perforatum, St John's wort.
Inula helenium, elecampane root.
Koempferia rotunda, %edoary.
Lavandula fpica, lavender flowers.
Oleum volatile lavandulae fpicse, oil of laven¬
der.
Spiritus lavandulae fpicae, fpirit of lavender.
Spiritus lavandulae compofitus, compound fpirit of
lavender.
Laurus cinnamomum, cinnamon.
Oleum volatile lauri cinnamomi, oil of cinna¬
mon.
Aqua lauri cinnamomi, cinnamon water.
Spiritus lauri cinnamomi, fpirit of cinnamon.
Tin&ura lauri cinnamomi, tinBure of cinna¬
mon.
Tinftura cinnamomi compofita, compound tinc¬
ture of cinnamon.
Pulvis aromaticus, aromatic powder.
Eleftuarium aromaticum, aromatic eleBuary.
Laurus caffia, caffia bark.
Aqua lauri caffiae, caffia water.
Laurus nobilis, bay tree.
Lobelia lyphilitica, blue cardinalflower.
Melaleuca leucadendron, cajeput oil.
Mentha fpearmint.
Oleum menthae fativae, oil of mint.
Aquae menthae fativae, mint water.
Spiritus menthae {■A.iwve,, fpirit of mint.
Mentha piperita, peppermint.
Oleum volatile menthae piperitae, oil of pepper¬
mint.
Aqua menthae piperitae, peppermint water.
Spiritus menthae piperitae, fpirit of peppermint.
Mentha pulegium, pennyroyal.
Oleum volatile menthae pulegii, oil of penny¬
royal.
Aqua menthae pulegii, pennyroyal water.
Spiritus menthae pulegii, fpirit of pennyroyal.
Myriftica
Part II.
Therapeu.
tics.
I
Part II. MATERIA
Therapeu- Mynftlca mofchata, nutmeg.
. tlcs‘ , Spiritus myrilticse mofchatas^/nV of nutmeg,
" ¥ " Myroxylon Peruiferum, balfam of Peru.
I'indura balfami Peruviani, tinEiure of balfam
of Peru.
Myrtus pimenta, pimento, or Jamaica pepper.
Oleum volatile myrti pimentae, oil of pimento.
Aqua myrti pimentae, pimento water.
Spiritus myrti pimentae, fpint of pimento.
Origanum vulgare, origanum.
Oleum origani, oil of origanum.
Panax quinquefolium, gmfeng.
Parietaria officinalis, peitito^if of the wall.
Pinus balfamea, balfam of Canada.
Piper nigrum, black pepper.
Piper cubeba, cubebs.
Piper longum, long pepper.
Piftacia terebinthus, Chio turpentine.
Rhus toxicodendron, poifon oak.
Styrax officinale, forax.
Styrax purificata, f rainedftorax.
Toluifera balfamum, balfam of Tolu.
Tindlura toluiferae balfami, tinBure of balfam
of Tolu.
Syrupus toluiferae balfami, fyrup of balfam of
Tolu.
Trigonella foenum graecum, feenugreek feed.
Urtica dadwiL, flinging nettle.
Wintera aromatica, winter's bark.
III. Mineral Products.
mp:dica, &c. ' 723
Therapeu-
IV. Gaseous Products. . ^ .
Gas oxygenium, oxygen gas.
Gas oxidum azotii, gafeous oxide of a%ote.
Eie&rifatio et galvaniiatio, eleBricity and gahanifm.
Balneum calidum, the hot bath.
The fubftances enumerated in the above table have
been varioufly denominated, according to their real or
fuppofed medical virtues. Of the internal ftimulants,
moft have been called cordials, from the effect they
have in railing the fpirits *, fome have been termed car¬
minatives, (fee carminatives'), under which head rank
moft of the aromatic herbs,- roots, and feeds. Of the
external ftimulants many are called rubefacients, from
the effe£l they have in irritating and confequentiy red¬
dening the Ikin 5 and of thefe the principal are muftard,
cantharides, and the flinging nettle.
Class XIII. ANTISPASMODICS.
Thofe medicines which have been found by experi- Definifion
ence to put a flop to convulfive motions, or fpafmudic of aBtifpai-
contradtions of the mufcular fibres, are called antifpaf- bodies.
modics. Moft of them are ftimulants, fome narcotics,
and fome are confidered as Ipecific antifpafmodics.
Table of Antispasmodics.
I. Animal Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Unguentum oxidi hydrargyri rubri, ointment of
red oxide of mercury.
Unguentum nitratis hydrargyri, ointment of ni¬
trate of mercury.
Unguentum nitratis hydrargyri mitius, milder oint¬
ment of nitrate of mercury.
Nitras potaffae, nitrate ofpotafh.
Acidum nitrofum, nitrous acid.
Acidum nitricum, nitric acid.
Unguentum acidi nitrofi, ointment of nitrous a-
cid.
Sapo Hifpamrs, Cajlilefoap.
Tindtura faponis, tinBure of foap.
Tindtura faponis et opii, tinBure of foap and
tpium.
Ceratum faponis, foap cerate.
Emplaftrum faponis, foap plafler.
Murias fodse, muriate of foda.
Murias fodae exficcatus, dried muriate of foda.
Acidum {\Ay\\\sx\cxva\, fulphuric acid.
Acidum arfeniofum, arfenious acid.
Bitumen petroleum, petroleum.
Oleum petrolei, oil of petroleum.
Subboras {>Ayi,fubborate of foda, or borax.
Subacetas cu^xi, fubacetate of copper, or verdigrife.
Oxymel feruginis, oxymei of verdigrife.
Unguentum acetitis cupri, ointment of fubacetate
of copper.
Calx, quicklime.
Linimentum aquae calcis, liniment of lime wa¬
ter.
Murias ammoniae, muriate of ammonia. See table Table of
of Stimulants. antifpaf-
Mofchus mofehiferus, mufk. modics.
Miltura mofchata, mujk mixture.
Cervus elaphus.
Oleum animale, animal oil.
Caftor fiber, caftor.
Tindtura caftorei, tinBure of caflor.
Tindtura caftorei compofita, compound tinBure of
cafor.
II. Vegetable Products.
Cephaelis ipecacuanha, ipecacuanha.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco fmoke.
Ferula afafeetida, afafetida.
Alcohol ammoniatum feetidum, fetid ammoniated
alcohol.
Pilulse afafeetidse compofitse, compound pills of
afafetida.
Emplaftrum afafoetidse, afafetida plqfter.
Alcohol.
iEther fulphuricus, fulphuric cether.
Laurus camphora, camphor.
Emulfio camphorata, camphorated emulfion.
Miftura camphorata, camphorated mixture.
Tindtura camphora;, tinEiure of camphor.
Linimentum camphorae compofitum, compound
liniment of camphor.
Papaver fomniferum, opium.
Tindtura opii, tinBure of opium.
Tindtura opii camphorata, camphorated tinBure of
opium.
4 Y A Tindtura
724
Therapeu¬
tics.
181
£iFe<£l‘ and
yl'es of anti-
fpafmodks.
Tinftura opii ammoniata
opium.
Eleftuarium opiatum, opiate eleBuary.
Pilulae opii, opium pills.
Bubon galbanum, galbanum.
Tinftura galbani, tinElure of galbanum.
Pilulae galbani compofitae, compound pills of gal-
la anum.
Vitis vinifera.
Vinum rubrum lufitanum, red Port wine.
Citrus aurantium, orange leaves.
Artemilia abfynthium, common wormwood.
Sub-earbonas potaffae impurus, impure fubcarbonate
ofpota/h.
Aqua potaflae, water of potajh, or foap ley.
Cardarmne pratt-nfis, ladiesjmock.
Coniurn maculatutn, hemlock.
Succus ipiffatus conii maculati, infpiffatedjuice of
hemlock.
Fuligo ligni combufti, wood foot.
Hyofcyainus niger, henbane.
buccus ip flatus hyolcyami nigri, infpiffaied juice
of heobane.
Vale riana officinalis, valerian.
Tindtura Valerianae, tinBure of valerian.
Tinctura Valerianae ammoniata, ammoniated tinc¬
ture of valerian.
Extra&um Valerianae fylveftris refinofum, ref nous
extraB of wild valerian.
III. Mineral Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
For mof preparations of mercury, fee table of Sialo-
gogues.
Bitumen petroleum, petroleum.
Oleum petrolei, oil of petroleum.
Succinum, amber.
Oleum fuccini, oil of amber.
Oleum fuccini puriffimum, purifed oil of am¬
ber.
Sal fuecini,yfl/r of amber.
Spiritus ammonise fuccinatus, fuccinated fpirit of
ammonia.
All thofe fubftances which, whether introduced into
the body or applied to its furface, have been found by
experience to put a Hop to convullive movements or
rigid contractions of the mufcular fibres, are termed
antifpalmodics. Of thefe fubltances there are many
which differ from each other very widely, both in re-
fpeft of fenfible qualities and chemical compofition j
vhich indeed is not furprifing, when it is confidered
that fpafmodic affections occur in various and even op-
pofite ftates of the body 5 a eireumflance which calls
for nice diferimination on the part of the practitioner
in the ufe of thefe remedies. Some of them being con-
fiderably fhmulant in their operation, aggravate rather
than alleviate fpai'm, when afiociated with plethora or
obttruftion. It is therefore of great importance to at¬
tend carefully to the ftate of the patient’s body, previ-
oufly to the exhibition of tbefe medicines j to premife
and accompany their ufe in epilepfy, chorea, and hy-
fteria, by proper evacuations •, and to felea from the
great variety of articles which this clafs contains, fuch
MATERIA ME DIO A, &c. Part II.
ammoniated tinBure of as are bell adapted to the particular form of fpafm Therapeu-
which it is our bufinefs to cure.
Class XIV. NARCOTICS.
I S2
This term has been ufually applied to thofe remedies Definition
whiqh are calculated to relieve pain and procure fleep. ot narcotics.
They have alfo been termed anodynes and hypnotics,
and moll of them were formerly ranked in the clafs of
fedatives.
Table of Narcotics.
I. Vegetable Products.
Table of
narcotics.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco.
Vinum nicotianae tabaci, tobacco wine.
Aconitum neomontanum, aconite.
Succus fpiffatus aconiti napelli, infpiffated juice of
aconite.
Papaver fomniferum, opium; white poppy heads.
Tinilura opii, tinBure of opium.
Tinctura opii camphorata, camphorated tinBure of
opium.
Syrupus of\\,fyrup of opium.
Extra&um papaveris iomniferi, extraB of white
poppy heads.
Pulvis opiatus, opiate powder.
Eledluarium opiatum, opiate eleBuary.
Pilulae ojuy opium pills.
. Rhododendron chryfanthum, yellow fowered rhodo¬
dendron.
Digitalis purpurea,
Tindtura digitalis purpureae, tinBure of foxglove.
Arnica montana,bane.
Rhus toxicodendron, pofon oak.
Conium maculatum, hemlock.
Succus fpiffatus conii maculati, injpijfatedjuice of
hemlock.
Hyofcyamus niger, henbane.
Succus fpiffatus hyofeyami nigri, infpiffated juice
of henbane.
Tindtura hyofeyami nigri, tinBure of henbane.
Atropa belladonna, deadly nightjhade.
Datura fframonium, thorn-apple.
Humulus lupulus, hop.
Ladiuca virofa, wild lettuce.
Papaver rheeas, wild poppy.
Syrupus papaveris erratici, fyrup of wild pop-
pyf
Siam nodiflorum, creeping fkerrit.
There is no clafs of medicines in the adminiftrationEffedbamt
of which more judgment and diferimination are requi- ufes of nar-
fite than in the admi’dllration of thole which are termed codcs*
narcotics. When given in full dofes, much good or
much mifehief is fure to follow, according as they are
prudently or miftakingly pielcribed. What a common
pradtice it is to give them whenever a patient complains
of pain, without duly invefligating the caufe of that
pain ; whether it be the confequence of high inflam¬
matory adlion, of a plethoric condition, or of a fhppref-
fion of fome periodical or habitual difeharge ! In thefe
cafes to prelcribe any of the medicines belonging to this
clafs,.
Part II.
Iherapeu- clafs, in a full or eonfiderable dofe, before the remedies
, luited to remove inflammation, plethora, and obltruftion
had been reforted to, would only ferve to aggravate the
dileafe. And even where there is no condition of the
body which contraindicates the ufe of narcotics, it is of
great importance to adapt the dofes not only to the age
and confutation of the patients, but likewife to the par¬
ticular form of the dileafe. For inflance, in tetanus,
hemicrania, and colica piftonum, opium, and other
narcotic medicines, may be given in large dofes with
excellent effe£l ; but in phthifis pulmonalis, typhus fe¬
ver, and fome other dates of debility, (mail dofes, re¬
peated at proper intervals, are found to anfwer bed.
In the adminidration of narcotics, it is moreover pro¬
per to confider whether in the particular cafe in which
they appear to be indicated, they fhould be prelcribed
alone, or in combination with other medicines 5 and if
in the manner lad mentioned, with what fort of ad-
-junffs.. i hus, in cafes of fynochus, acute rheumatifm,
and the early dage of dyfentery, they fhould be given
in combination with calomel and antimonials; in cafes
of adhma and phthifis pulmonalis, with ammoniacum,
fquill, and other expectorants j in cafes of cholera, with
diluents and demulcents 5 in cafes of diarrhoea, with
adringents and aromatics j in hemorrhagic cafes, with
fulphate of zinc and other dyptics 5 in hyderia, with
the volatile alkali, ether, and foetids ; in convulfive af-
*Synopjis fe&ions, efpecially fuch as occur in children, with mag-
s/ Materia nefia and other antacids *.
Medica,
Class XV. ANTHELMINTICS.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
rol. ii.
p. 22S.
‘S5
Definition
Df anthtl-
nintics.
186
''able of
nthelmin-
ics.
Thofe medicines which are employed with a view to
expel worms from the bowels, are called anthelmin¬
tics.
Table of Anthelmintics.
I. Animal Products.
Murias ammoniae, muriate of ammonia.
Aqua carbonatis ammonite, water of carbonate of
ammonia.
II. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, chamomile flowers.
Extra&um anthemidis nobilis, extraB of chamo¬
mile.
Nlcotiana tabacum, tobacco in clyders.
Olea europaea, olive oil in clyders.
Allium fativum, garlic.
Ferula afafoetida, afafetida in clyders.
Convolvulus jalapa.ja/a/*.
Convolvulus [c?imvnc>viva.,fcammony.
Pulvis fcammonii compodtus, compound powder of
fcammony.
Helleborus foetidus, /linking hellebore.
Rheum palmatum, rhubarb in fmall dofes.
Ricinus communis, caflor oil.
Stalagmitis cambogioides, gamboge.
Ruta graveolens, rue.
Oleum volatile rutae, oil of rue.
Juglans regia, walnut rind.
Tanacetum vulgare, tanfey.
Valeriana officinalis, valerian.
Artemifia fantonica, worm feed.
Dolichos pruriens, cowhage.
Geoffroea inermis, cabbage-tree bark.
Polypodium filix mas, male fern root.
Spigelia marilandica, Carolina pink.
III. Mineral Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Subrfmrias hydrargyri, fubmuriate of mercury.
Murias lodae, muriate ofjoda.
Ferrum, iron.
Carbonas fern", carbonate of iron.
Sulph as fulphate of iron.
lerri limaturae purificatte, purifud iron filings.
Tartris ferri et potaflte, tartrate of iron and
potafh.
Calx, lime.
Aqua calcis, lime water in clyders.
Stannum, tin.
Stanni pulvis,/icWer of tin.
725
Therapeu¬
tics.
"V*
13 T
Of the medicines which belong to this clafs, fome Effedband
dedroy the different fpecies of worms which breed in u^es °f an-
the alimentary canal, by their chemical, others by their
mechanical affion upon thofe animals ; but by far the
greater number of anthelmintic or vermifuge medi¬
cines operate in no other manner than as draftic purges,
bringing away the morbid accumulation of dime from
the intedmes, and wuth the dime, the worms which
were lodged in it. After the worms have been brought
away by thefe remedies, the bowels ihould be drength-
ened by bitters and other tonic medicines j and the ufe
of green vegetables, or much garden duff of any kind,
and of malt liquor, diould be forbidden.
Class XVI. CHEMICAL REMEDIES.
i ss
Several of the fubdances that have been enumerated Chemical''
in the foregoing tables, aft alfo on the animal fydemreirie(l‘es*
merely as chemical re-agents, either by counterafting
acidity, diffolving calculous concretions, dedroying fun¬
gous excrelcences, &c. We ffiall here enumerate all
the fubdances that may be confidered as chemical reme¬
dies, and ihall afterwards clafs them according to their
particular aftion.
Table of Chemical Remedies.
I. Animal Products.
Mui ias ammoniae, muriate of ammonia. .
Aqua ammoniae, water of ammonia. chemical
Carbnnas ammoniae, carbonate of ammonia. remedies.
Aqua carbonatis ammoniae, water of carbonate of
ammonia.
Sal cornu czxv\,fa/t of hart/horn.
Cervus elaphus, hartfhorn.
Phofphas calcis, phofphate of lime.
Cornu cervi uitum piseparatum, burnt hartfhorn.
Cancer adacus, crabs eyes.
Cancer pagurus, crabs claws.
Chelae cancrorum praeparatae, prepared crabs
claws.
Pulvis e chelis cancrorum compolitus, compound
powder of crabs claws.
Gorgonia nobilis, red coral.
Corallium rubrum praeparatum, prepared red co¬
ral.
Odrea
Oflrea edulis, oyfler Jhells.
Teflge oftrege pr&epai at;e, prepared oyjier Jhells.
Spongia officinalis, fponye.
Spongia ufta, burnt Jponge.
II. Vegetable Products.
Carbonas potaffie, carbonate of fiotafh.
Aqua potaffae, water of potajh, or caufic ley.
Potaffia, potafh.
Potaffa cum caloe, potafh with lime.
Carbonas potaflae, carbonate ojpotafh.
Carbonas potaffae puriffimus, purified carbonate of
potafh.
Aqua carbonatis potaffae, water of carbonate of
potafh.
Aqua fupercarbonatis potaffae, water of carbonate
ofpotajh.
III. Mineral Products.
Sulphas cupri, fulphate of copper.
Sulphuretum antimonii, fulphurate of antimony.
Murias antimonii, muriate of antimony.
Sulphur fublimatum, flowers of julphur.
Sulphuretum potaffae, fu/phuret of potajh.
Hydrofulphuretum ammoniae, hydrofuiphuret of
ammonia.
Nitras potaffae, nitrate of potajh.
Acidum nitrofu'm, nitrous acid.
Acidum nitricum, nitric acid.
Sapo hifpanus, Caflile foap.
Murias fodae, muriate of foda.
Acidum muriaticum, muriatic acid.
Sulphas magnefiae, fulphate of maynefia.
Carbonas magneliae, carbonate of magnefia.
Magnefia, magnefia.
Trochifci magnefiae, loxenges of magnejia.
Acidum fulphuric acid.
Acidum fulphuricum dilutum, diluted fuphuric
acid.
Superfulphas aluminse et fuperfulphate of alu¬
mina and potafh, or alum.
Sulphas aluminae exficcatus, driedfulphate of alum.
Argentum, Jilver.
Nitras argenti, nitrate of Jilver.
Oxidum arfeniofum, arfenious acid.
Calx, quicklime.
Aqua calcis, lime water.
Bolus gallicus, French bole.
Carbonas calcis, carbonate of lime, chalk.
Carbonas calcis praeparatus, prepared carbonate of
dime.
Pulvis carbonatis calcis
powder of carbonate of lime.
Trochifci carbonatis calcis, lozenges of carbonate
of lime.
Potio carbonatis calcis, potion ef carbonate of
lime.
tics.
(hells, ufes of che-
Aqua aeris fixi, water of fixed air.
Carbonas fodae im purus, impure carbonate of foda.
Carbonas fodae, carbonate of foda.
Aqua fuper-carbonatis (odae, water of fupercarbo-
nate of foda.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. Part II.
Of the fubftances above enumerated, fome a£l as ant-Therapeu-
acids, corre&mg morbid acidity in the (tomach and
bowels ; as mod of the preparations of ammonia, burnt
hartfliorn, crabs eyes and claws, coral, egg
carbonates of potaffi and foda with their prepara lions, mical reme.
magnefia, lime, and carbonate of lime. Thefe have11105'
been often called abjorbents. ^ *9}
Several of the chemical remedies aft in a greater or An
lefs degree as lithontriptics, or fuch medicines as are Lithontrip.
capable of diffolving urinary calculi. The principal tics,
lithontriptics are, folutions of cauftic potalh, foap, iul-
phuric and muriatic acids, and carbonate of foda.
“ From the exhibition of alkaline remedies,” fays
Mr Murray, “ the fymptoms arifing from a (lone in the
bladder are very generally alleviated ; and they can be
given to fuch an extent that the urine becomes fenfi-
bly alkaline, and is even capable of exerting a folvent
power on thefe concretions. Their adminiltration can¬
not, however, be continued to this extent for any con-
fiderable length of time, from the (Irong irritation they
produce on the ftomach and urinary organs. The ufe,
therefore, of the alkalies as folvents, or lithontriptics, is
now fcarcely ever attempted j they are employed mere¬
ly to prevent the increafe of the concretion, and to pal¬
liate the painful fymptoms, which they do, apparently
by preventing the generation of lithic acid, or the fe-
paration of it by the kidneys j the urine is thus render¬
ed lefs irritating, and the furface of the calculus is al¬
lowed to become fmooth.
“ When the alkalies are employed with this view,
they are generally given faturated, or even fuper-fatu-
rated with carbonic acid. This renders them much lefs
irritating. It at the fame time diminiffies, indeed, their
folvent power •, for the alkaline carbonates exert no ac¬
tion on the urinary calculi} but they are dill equally
capable of correfting that acidity in the primee vice,
which is the caufe of the depofition of lithic acid from
the urine, and therefore ferve equally to palliate the
dileafe. And when their acrimony is thus leffened,
their ufe can be continued for any length of time * Murray's
From the inconfiderable aftion which mod of the li-
thontriptics can with fafety be made to exert, when gi-p.
ven by the mouth, it was fome years ago propofed to f See
apply them direftly to the calculus, by injefting them FoorAr
through the urethra into the bladder f. In this way
it is evident that their aftion mud be much greater,
and when the fubdances are ufed in a date of fufficient^r^
dilution, the praftice is faid to be perfeftly fafe. 193
Several of the chemical remedies are employed ex-^IL^arotlcs’
ternally as caudics or efcharotics, to dedroy fungous
or callous parts of the body j to open an ulcer, or to
change the difeafed furface of a fore. The principal
efcharotics are, fulphuric and muriatic acid when con¬
centrated ; pure potaffi, nitrate of filver, muriate of an¬
timony, fulphate and fubacetate of copper, corrofive
muriate of mercury, and arfenious acid.
A few are employed both externally and internally,
to check putrefaftion, or to correft the unpleafant fmell
of particular fecretions, or of ulcers. The principal of
thefe are charcoal, and carbonic acid, though the mi¬
neral acids have allb this effeft.
compofitus, compound
PART
■
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part III.
Principles of
pharmacy.
PART m. PRINCIPLES OF PHARMACY.
727
Principles of
Pharmacy.
Chap. I. General Operations of Pharmacy.
THE operations of pharmacy are either mechanical
or chemical. By the firft the various articles employed
in medicine are reduced to a proper Hate for exhibition,
by cutting, rafping, grinding, pounding, &c.; and by
the fecond they are fubjefted to various complex opera¬
tions, which produce certain chemical changes in their
nature and properties.
T-o the firft of thefe heads we may refer the collec¬
tion and prefervation of fimples. This chiefly refers to
thofe articles that are of a vegetable nature, and which
I94 are either ufed frelh, or in a dried ftate.
Colledlion Vegetables (hould be gathered chiefly from thofe
and prefer- f0iis Jn which they naturally delight, or in which they
fimples° are f°unc* moft commonly to rife fpontaneoufly ; for
though many of them may be raifed, and made to grow
with vigour in very different foils, their virtue general¬
ly fuffers by the change. A variation of feafons occa-
fions alfo differences confiderable enough to require
often an allowance to be made in the quantity ; plants
in general proving weaker, though more luxuriant, in
rainy than in dry feafons. Herbs and flowers are to be
gathered in a clear dry day, after the morning dew is
gone off from them. Leaves, for the moft part, are in
their greateft perfection, when come to their full growth,
juft before the flowers appear: flowers, when moderate¬
ly expanded •, feeds, when they begin to grow dry, be¬
fore they fall fpontaneoufly ; woods and barks, as is
fuppofed, in the winter; annual roots, before the (talks
begin to rife ; biennial roots, in the autumn of the firft
year : perennial roots, in the autumn after the leaves
have fallen, or early in the fpring before they begin to
vegetate.
Of the vegetables which lofe their virtue in being
dried, the greater number, perhaps all, may be prefer-
ved for a confiderable length of time, by impeding the
exhalation of their natural moifture j for fo long as they
retain this, they feem to retain alfo their medical acti¬
vity. Thus, roots have thejr virtue preferved by being
buried in fand, which (hould be dry, that they may not
vegetate; leaves and flowers, of a more corruptible na¬
ture than roots, by being beaten with about thrice their
weight of fine fugar to prevent their corruption, and
kept in a clofe veffel.
Plants which bear drying, are commonly hung in a
warm airy place, defended from the fun. The colours
of herbs and flowers are for the moft part changed or
deftroyed in drying, by the fun’s beams; but that their
medicinal virtue fuffers a like diminution, does not ap¬
pear. This much is certain, that the heat of a culinary
fire, equal to that of the fun in fummer, does them no
injury in either refpeft ; and that both flowers and
leaves, when thus haftily dried by fire, preferve the
livelinefsof their colour, and their fmell and ta le, more
perfectly than by flow drying. The leaves of mode¬
rately juicy plants are reduced, by drying, to about
one-fourth of their original weight.
I
Some roots, and fome other parts of vegetables, how
thoroughly foever they have been dried, are liable, in
keeping, to grow mouldy and carious. This inconve¬
nience might probably be obviated by dipping them,
when dried, in boiling fpirit of wine, or expofing them
to its vapour in a clofe veffel. It is faid, that fome of the
oriental fpices are made lefs perilhable, by being dipt
in a mixture of lime and water*. * Lewis's
The drawers in which vegetable drugs are kept,
(hould be made of fuch materials as are not likely to
impart to them any unpleafant tafte or fmell j and the
better to avoid this, they (hould be lined with paper.
Such matters as are volatile, or which are likely to fuf-
fer from expofure to the air, or from infeCts, (hould be
kept in glafs veffels well (lopped. Such fruits and oily
feeds as are liable to become rancid, by being too
warm, (hould be preferved in a dry cool place.
As moft vegetable fubftances lofe much of their fen-
fible properties by long keeping, or acquire others
which render them lefs proper for being ufed as inter¬
nal medicines, they (hould be frequently replaced. l9(.
One of the moft common operations to which dry pulvenza~
drugs are fubjeCled, is that of being reduced to pow-t'on.
der, by which they are rendered more efficacious, and
are more conveniently exhibited. The pulverization
of thefe matters is ufually performed by means of peftles
and mortars. Thefe (hould be made of fuch materials
as are not likely to impart to the powdered fubftance
any noxious properties, and (hould at the fame time be
fufficiently hard, not to be broken or worn away during
the operation. For the powdering of barks, roots, and
fimilar fubftances, caft-iron mortars are the moft conve¬
nient j and for fuch articles as are of a more brittle na¬
ture, mortars of glafs or marble are commonly employ¬
ed. All thofe made of copper, or any of its alloys,
(hould be carefully avoided, as when the fubftance is
very hard, or of fuch a nature as to a6l chemically on
the metal, fome portion of copper may be mixed with
the medicine, and render it a virulent poifon. For ma¬
ny purpofes mortars made of common ftoneware anfwer
very well; but the beft mortars of this kind are thofe
made of well-baked clay, commonly called Wedgewood's
mortars. The bottom of all thefe mortars fhould be
hollow on the infide, and flat on the outfide, and their
(ides (hould be moderately inclined. Thofe which are
employed for reducing to powder fuch fubftances as pro¬
duce much dull, (hould be provided with covers, both
to prevent the lighter parts of the powder from being
loft, and to defend the operator from being injured by
fuch fubftances as are of a corrofive or poifonous nature.
In general, viooden covers that have a rim to prevent
their Aiding off, and a hole fufficiently large to admit
of the introduction of the peftle, anfwer very well; but
where it is of confequence that no part of the article *
fhould efcape, it is better to tie round the mouth of the
mortar, and round the peftle, a piece of pliable leather,
fufficiently large to admit of the free motion of the lat¬
ter. Where this is not done, it will be proper for the
operator to cover his mouth and nofe with a handker¬
chief-
728
ri incfplesofchref or wet clotli, and to Hand in fuch a fituation as
Pharmacy. t]iat a current 0f aJr f]ia]i diredt the acrid powder from
' ^ 'him.
To avoid lofing much of thefe light dry powders, a
little fpirit of wine, or oil, is fometimes put into the
mortar, to prevent the lighter parts of the powder from
rifing. Care fhould, however, be taken, that the fub-
flance is of fuch a nature as not to be diffolred by the
fpirit, nor injured by the rancidity that the oil is likely
to acquire 5 and in every cafe, as little as polfible of ei¬
ther Ihould be employed.
It is obvious that in reducing drugs to powder, too
much of the article fhould not be put at once into the
mortar.
Several fubftances require previous preparation before
powdering ; barks, woods, roots, fhould be perfeftly
dry, and fhould be either fliced or rafped before put¬
ting into the mortar; and fuch roots as are covered
with a very fibrous bark, fhould be fhaved after this
has been removed, to take away fuch hairy filaments as
are ufually found between “the bark and the wood.
Gummy refinous fubftances, fuch as myrrh, which are
liable to become foft when heated, fhould be powdered
in very cold weather 5 and it is better, firft to reduce
them to a coarfe powder, and expofe this to the air for
a day or two, before completing the pulverization,
which will then be more eafily effedled. Some fubflan-
ces cannot be reduced to powder without the addition
of feme other matter j thus, camphor requires a little
alcohol or oil ; the emulfive feeds require the addition
of fome dry powder, and for aromatic oily fubftances,
the addition of a little fugar is proper.
Sifting. In order to feparate the finer powder from the reft
of the fubftance, apothecaries employ fieves of various
forms. For fuch articles as require to be kept clofe,
the fieve is compofed of three parts ; a middle part,
which is properly the fieve for feparating the finer part
of the powder, a bottom for receiving the powder, and
a top for preventing the efcape of the finer duft.
When as much of the powder as is fufficiently fine,
has paffed through the fieve, the reft is to be returned
into the mortar, and the pulverization continued and
repeated, till as much as ppflible has paffed the fieve.
All the parcels of powder are then to be intimately
mixed together, by rubbing them for a confiderable
197 time in the mortar.
Trituration. Trituration confifts in rubbing dry fubftances that are
already pretty fmall in order to reduce them to a very
fine powder, or to mix them intimately together. In
the fmall way it is performed in the ufual mortars ; in
the large way by means of a roller moved by water or
19S by horfes.
Levigation. When it is required to reduce dry fubftances to a
very fine, or what is called an impalpable powder, re-
courfe is had to the operation called levigation, which
is nothing more than rubbing the fubftance for a long
time in a broad flat mortar, or upon a hard ftone, with
a muller, adding from time to time a little water or al¬
cohol, fo as to reduce the fubftance operated on to a
kind of pafte. This pafte is rubbed till it is as fmooth
as poflible, and h then fpread on a ftone or flat cak'e of
chalk, till it is fufficiently dried. Sometimes levigated
powders are made up into little conical lumps, and
dried in that form. Ihe fubftances on which leviga-
Part III,
are chiefly earths and metallic PrincipleSof
s Pharmacy.
For the purpofe of reducing metals into minute par- v——«*
tides, they are either filed or granulated. It would r*99,
not be improper that apothecaries fhould always prepare tion.
their own iron filings, as thofe procured from a fmith’s
fh°P are generally very impure. The granulation of
metals is effefted by melting the metal, and either ftir-
ring it briikly with an iron rod till it is cold, or pour¬
ing it into water and ftirring it as before j or laflly, by
pouring it into a covered box, having its infide well
rubbed with chalk, in which it is well fhaken till cold,
when the adhering chalk is to be wafhed away.
r m0de °f Procuring the foeft particles of elation,
iuch lubftances as are not foluble in water, is by what
is termed elutriation, which is performed by diffufing
in water the powder or pafte to which they have been
reduced by pulverization or levigation, and after the
coarfer particles have fubfided, pouring off the water
that holds in fufpenfion the finer parts. The operation
of levigation and fubfequent diffuficn is repeated, till
as much as is required of the fine powder is obtained.
This is afterwards to be feparated from the water, ei¬
ther by decantation or filtration. ’ 20I
When the powder is fo heavy as readily to fall to theDecanta-
bottom of the veffel, it is moft conveniently feparated
by decanting off the water, either by pouring it gently
off as long as it comes over clear, or by means of a
crooked glafs fyphon fixed in a board that goes over
the mouth of the veffel to keep it fteady, as reprefent-
ed at fig.
When the powder does not readily fubfide, it is beft Filtration,
feparated by filtration, which is performed by means of
a cone of common blotting paper, inferted into a fun¬
nel, or by means of a cloth or flannel bag. After all
the fluid has paffed through the filter, the powder that
remains on the paper is to be carefully dried.
Decantation and filtration are more commonly em¬
ployed to obtain any liquor clear from the powdery or
other matters with which it is mixed.
For obtaining the juices of vegetables or fruits, orExoreffio*,
the oils of feeds,. &c. recourfe is had to exprejfwn. ' ?
’I he plants or fruits are put into bags or wrappers made
of haircloth, and fubjefled to ftrong preffure by means
of a fcrew prefs, the plates of which fliould be made of
wood or tin, and by no means of lead. The preifure
employed fliould at firft be gentle, and fhould be in-
creafed gradually. I lie oily feeds or nuts are preffed
between iron plates, which are ufually warmed j but
when ufed cold, the oil is milder and not fo liable to
become rancid.
Befides the mortars mentioned above, there are feve-
ral other inftruments employed in the operations of
pharmacy, on which it is proper to make a few re¬
marks.
Funnels ought to be made of tinned iron, or of glafs 5 Funnels,
or of the fame fort of baked earth or clay as the mor¬
tars, or of filver or of block tin. 205
Veffels ufed for preparing infufions, or for evaporat-^fafing
ing liquors, or for putting decotftions or other liquorsveffels*
into, to cool, ought to be made either of porcelain, or
of ftoneware, or of baked clay, or of earth fuch as
the mortars are made of, or of glafs j or fuch veffels as
are not afted upon either by acid or alkaline liquors.
For
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
tion is performed
oxides.
Part III.
206
Meafures
and
weights.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Principles of For the fame reafons, meafures of all forts, from the
Pbannacy. dram to ^ qUart> OUgllt to be made of tinned iron, or
"" of ftoneware, or of the baked earth or clay, or of
glafs ; filver might be employed for the fmaller mea-
fures of drams and ounces, and if taken care of, would
in the end prove cheaper than the others : if other me¬
tallic veflels are ufed, the metal ought to be of fuch a
fort as not to be affefted by acid or alkaline, or other
liquors ; and they ought at all times to be kept ex¬
tremely clean.
In dirtilling, in melting, and in calcining different
bodies, no veffels ought to be employed which may be
afted upon by, and give a noxious quality to, the fub-
ftances to be prepared.
Moft colleges of phyficians in Europe formerly di-
redted, that both weights and meafures (liould be em¬
ployed for difpenfing medicines, ordering folid fubftan-
ces to be prepared by weight, fluid by meafure ; and
they gave tables of the weights and meafures they wifh-
ed (hould be ufed, in the beginning of their different
difpenfatories : but it having been found that the pro-
mifeuous ufe of weights and meafures gave fometimes oc-
cafion to miftakes, the colleges of Edinburgh and of
Stockholm have, in the laft edition of their pharmaco¬
poeias, rejected entirely the ufe of meafures, and order¬
ed both fluid and folid fubftances to be prepared by
weight. It is to be wifhed that all the colleges in Eu¬
rope would follow their example.
Mealures made to contain a certain determined
weight of water are certainly veryufeful in pharmacy j
but if fuch are allowed they ought to be employed only
for meafuring w'atery liquors, as the fpecific gravities of
other fluids differ fo much from one another.
In every country, all weights and meafures ufed for the
preparation of medicines ought to be made according to
the drreftions of the college of phyficians 5 ftandards of
them ought to be kept in proper places, and all thofe
ought to be ftamped, to fhew that they were made ac¬
cording to the ftandard.
The principal chemical operations of pharmacy may
be arranged under the following heads.
1. The infufing certain fubftances in cold or in hot
water, or in wine, to extract their faline or light gum¬
my parts, together with fome of their fine volatile prin¬
ciples, which are mifcible with water.
2. The boiling them in water to extract the fame
principles, together with others that are more fixed, or
which are capable of being diffolved by heat, and after¬
wards of being kept fufpended by the gummy and
mucilaginous parts which have been diffolved in the
water j thus a certain proportion of refin is found to be
fufpended in decoftions of the bark, of opium, and of
other drugs.
3. The evaporating watery infufions and decofticns,
and the expreffed juices of many vegetables, to obtain
their fixed parts which have been diffolved in a watery
menftruum. In this manner jellies, robs, and extradls,
are prepared.
4. The infufing or digefting certain vegetable fub¬
ftances in pure vinous fpirit to extraft their fine volatile
oils and their refinous parts \ or in fpirit mixed with
water, called proof-fpirit, to extraft along with thofe
principles, fome of their gummy parts.
5. The evaporating of fuch tindlures to obtain their
refinous and more fixed parts ; in which way refinous
Vol. XII. Part II.
720
from
opium,
and Principles of
Pharmacy-
207
Infufing.
s' 208
Boiling.
209
Evapora
mg.
210
Digefting.
extradls are got from bark, jalap,
from other fubftances.
6. I he diftilling fragrant vegetable fubftances with 2ij
wrater, iw order to procure their fine volatile principles, jj^iilation
which come over with the water into the vefi'els placed
to receive it. In this manner the fimple diftilled waters
(as they are called), which have the flavour and tafte of
the fubftances from which they are diftilled, are pre¬
pared 5 and the fine effential oils of the plants which
have been diftilled are found either floating on the top
of the water, or funk to the bottom of it, according
as they are fpecifically lighter or heavier than water.
7. The diftilling of the fame fubftances in vinous
fpirit to obtain the fame fragrant volatile parts, inti¬
mately united with the fpiri( j in which manner are
made the fpirituous liquors improperly called fpirituous
waters. 1
In diftilling, care ought to be taken to make the
vapours which arife condenfe properly in the veffels fet
to receive them when they have affumed the form of a
liquor ; which is to be effetted, r. By regulating the
fire, and never raifing the degree of heat beyond what
is neceffary ; and, 2. By making the vapours pafs
through fuch a cool medium, as will condenfe them in¬
to a liquid.
1. The degree of heat is regulated by the figure of
the furnace in which the fire is placed, and' by the
quantity of wood or of coal that is ufed. Where a
great degree of heat is wanted, the veffels are put in
an open fire, placed in a reverberatory furnace. Where
a lefs degree of heat is fufficient, they are put into fand
contained in an iron pot, below which the lire is light¬
ed in a common furnace. Where a ftill fmaller degree is
required, the vtffel is put into a pot with fand, and a
lamp in place of coals fixed below it. At other times
the retort, or veffel with the liquor to be diftilled, is
put into a veffel full of water or other liquor, fet over
a fire, fo that it cannot be heated beyond a certain de¬
gree.
2. Ihe condenfation of vapours arifing from fub¬
ftances fubjeded to diftillation is effeaed, as before
obferved, by making the vapour pafs through fuch a
cool medium, as will condenfe it into a liquor before it
reaches the bottom of the veffels fet to receive it.
In dirtilling medicated waters orfpirits, the herbs or
other vegetable fubftances, and the water or the fpirit,
are put into a ftill placed in a proper furnace, on which
is fixed a large head, with a long crane-necked or cur¬
ved tube coming from the top of it, which after defeend-
ing and going off a little to one fide, enters into the
upper end of a long fpiral pipe, called a worm, which
is fixed in a large calk, called the worm-tub or re¬
frigeratory, with its two ends piercing the c alk ; and to
its lower end is fixed a proper vefftl for receiving the
diftilled liquor. The worm-tub, which has a cock at
tne lower part of it for letting out water occafionally,
is filled with cold water before the diftillation begins’
and is renewed in the courfe of the diftillation if it bel
gins to heat, by drawing it off by means of the cock,
and pouring frefh cold water into the worm-tub. After
every thing is fitted, the fire is lighted, and the diftil-
lation is continued fo long as the water comes over fuf-
ficiently impregnated with the vegetable ftibftances put
into the ftill.
In the diftillation of vegetable or animal fubftances
4 ^ with
73°
MATERIA
JPrm' iplesof with water, or with fpirit, it ought to be obferved,
Pharmacy, there ought to be put into the Hill fuch an ad-
^jtjcnaj qUantity of water as will prevent the lolid fub-
itances which are fubjeCl to the diftillation from being
burnt, as this*additional water dues not at all weaken
the produce j for th* mnft volatile parts of the fubjeft
rife firlt. and impregnate the liquor which firft comes
over, and the water remains behind in the Hill. 2. T hat
a g> nth fiie, fuch as is juft capable of keeping the li¬
quor boiling, is preferable to a ftrong fire, particularly
towards the end of the procefs. 3. That the diftilla-
tion is to be continued fo long as the liquor comes over
fully impregnated with the volatile parts of the vege¬
table, fubiiances which are the fubjeds of the diftilla-
tion ; but is to be put an end to, fo foon as it is perceiv¬
ed to become weak, which is known by tailing from
time to time the liquor which comes over.
8. The diftilling of vegetable or animal fubftances
in retorts without water, in order to make them rife,
and bring over by the force of fire, their watery parts,
an acid, or volatile alkaline fait, according to what
nature the fubftances are of, and an empyreumatic oil,
into the receiver ; and to get the more fixed, earthy,
and oily parts, which are left behind in the retort.
In diftilHng fubftances which require a greater de¬
gree of heat to raife their volatile parts, than the li¬
quors above mentioned, or which are of fuch a nature
as to ad upon, and corrode the veffels employed in
thefe proceffes juft mentioned, it is neceffary to ufe the
vefiels made of glafs or of earth, which have been call¬
ed retorts, from their neck being bent on one fide.
Such retorts are employed in pharmacy for diftilling
the mineral and the vegetable acids, and the prepara¬
tions made from them ; in diftilling animal and vege¬
table fubiiances by themfelves to procure their watery,
faline, or oily parts; for purifying quickfilver, and pre¬
paring the muriate of antimony, &c. and they may be
ufed as fubliming glaffes for making mercurial and
other preparations.
In diftilUng with retorts, the matter to be diftilled is
put into the retort which is commonly placed in fand,
contained in sn iron pot, fixed above a furnace, into
which the fire is put ; but on fome particular occafions,
where only a fmall degree of heat, not exceeding that
of boiling water, is wanted, the retort is placed in a
water bath.
After the retort containing the matter to be diftillt^l
is fixed, the end of it is either put immediately into the
mouth of another long-necked veflel called a receiver
(from its being placed to receive the diftilled liquor), and
the two veffels are luted together by means of a proper
cement ; or it is firft put into the end of a long glafs
tube called an adopter, which is luted to it, and the
other end of the tube is put into the mouth of the re¬
ceiver, and fixed to it by means of a cement.
The receivers are either made round like a decanter,
without any other opening than the mouth ; or they are
made with a tube coming out from their bottom, or
from the fide near it, to which another receiver may be
fixed, and when they are thus made they are called
tubulated receivers, and are very convenient for per¬
forming proceffes wT'-re the matter put into the retort
yields produ£ls of different kinds, as in the diftillalion
of fpirit with the mineral acids ; for the receiver or
bottle fixed to the tube may be changed as the differ-
MEDICA, &c. Part III,
ent produds come over, fo that each of them may be Principle? of
obtained feparately. And in diftilling fubftances which Pharmacy,
yield very volatile produds, one tubulated retort may
be put after another fo as to enlarge the Ipace for the
condenfion of vapours ; and in diftilling thefe very vo¬
latile fubftances it is fometimes neceffary to make a
fmall pundure into the lutes between the retort and
the receiver, to allow fome of the vapour to efcape to
prevent its burfting the veffels.
The ufe of the long intervening tube called an
adopter, which is put often between the retort and the
receiver, is to increafe the diftance from the retort (that
is immediately expofed to heat) to the receiver ; fo that
the receiver may be in lefs danger of being heated,
and that the vapour may be cooled in its paffage
through this tube, and condenfe more readily in the re¬
ceiver. It is likewife of another ufe, which is to give
us an opportunity of feeing the vapour in its paffage
from the retort to the receiver, fo that we may know
how the diftillation is going forward, and when it is
proper to change the receivers, when the different li¬
quors come over from materials which yield produdsof
different kinds. 2I2
9. The burning vegetable fubftances in an open vef- Incinera-
fel to obtain a fixt alkaline fait.
10. The burning the bones of animals, or the ftiells
of fifties, to procure their earthy parts ; in which manner
the calcined hartfhorn, the powder of crabs claws, and
of oyfter fhells, are procured. *13
11. The mixing acid and alkaline falts in a fluid ^eutra^*
ftate, to form the neutral falts, which may be feparated zaUon*
from the water either by evaporating, with a flow heat,
fueh a quantity of the water as to allow the falts to
ftioot into cryftals when fet in a cool place, or by
continuing the evaporation till the falts become dry.
12. The diffolving certain metallic fubftances, or
certain earths, in au’d liquors, for obtaining metallic
and earthy falts, which may be got in a folid form in
the fame manner as the neutral lalts. 214. .
13. The evaporating the purified expreffed juices ofCryftalli-
certain vegetable fubftances to the confidence of azatl0n‘
cream,* and then fetting them by for months, in a cool
place, to allow the effential acid falts to concrete into
cryftals. See Crystallization.
14. The diftilling in proper veffels vitriol or other
fubftances which contain the lulphuric acid, in order to
get it feparate from them ; and the burning of fulphur
mixed with a fmall portion of nitre, under particular
vefiels, fo contrived, and fo placed, as tocolle£l the fame
acid.
15. The diftilling nitre, or fea fait, mixt with a cer¬
tain portion of the lulphuric acid, in order to obtain
pure the nitric or muriatic acid.
16. The fubliming certain fubftances that become Sublitna*
volatile by the application of heat, into proper veffels tion.
and either to unite tw'o of them together for the forma¬
tion of a third, as is done in the preparation of the cor-
rofive fublimate of mercury, when the muriatic acid is
united to the quickliiver, or to feparate the volatile
parts of any fubftance from the fixt, as is done in the
fublimation of volatile alkaline falts and of the acid of
benjamin. 21<y
17. The melting by the force of fire fuch fubftances Melting,
as become fluid by the application of heat, fo that they
may be feparated from or united to other bodies. Thus
by
217
Oxidation
218
Roaitmg.
Part III. MATERIA
Principlesofby particular management and tiie addition of certain
pharmacy, fubftances, metals are feparated from their ores. And
* rolin and bees-wax are intimately united together j or
they are diflolved' in fluid oils, for the preparation of
plafters, ointments, liniments, &c. And lulphur is
united to quickfilver far the making of a black or red
fulphuret.
18. The applying of heat to metals, either to oxidate
them, or to feparate certain volatile fubftances with
which they are combined, or to purify them from more
oxidable metals with which they are alloyed. Thus
mercury is reduced to a red oxide merely by the con¬
tinued application of heat and air ; the fulphuret of an¬
timony is deprived of its fulphur by roafting, and filver
is feparated from lead by being expofed to fuch a heat,
as, while it only fufes the filver, reduces the lead to an
oxide. See Chemistry.
Chap. II. Of the principal forms in which Medicines
are exhibited.
219
Officinal The principal officinal preparations of the fimple me-
forms. dicines, for the m king of which direftions are given in
the Pharmacopoeias, confifi of powders, pills, troches,
eleSuarics, infp ffated juices, extraEls, infujions, decoc¬
tions, mucilages, emutjions and mixtures, fyrups, tinc¬
tures, wines, for internal exhibition ; and catap/afns,
liniments, ointments, cerates, and plajlers, for external
application.
220
Powder.
111
-Pill.
The form of powder is one of the moft fimple, and
very convenient for the exhibition of a variety of me¬
dicines. It is of courfe adapted only to fuch fubftances
as are eafily reduced to powder, and fuch as are not
too bulky to be taken in a moderate dofe. Hence
emollient and mucilaginous herbs and roots are impro¬
perly ordered in the ftate of powder, as they are too
bulky ; alkaline falls, whether fixed or volatile, are im¬
proper, as they in general either deliquefce in the air,
or ev&porate. Such articles as are of a very difagree-
able taftc, or offenfive odour, are alfo more convenient¬
ly given in fome other form.
In preparing compound powders, care fliould be
taken that the feveral ingredients ftiould be intimately
mixed together. Some of them may in general be
moft properly powdered feparately, but it is often of
advantage to powder them together. They ftiould be
kept in a clofely flopped phial, and fuch as are apt to
lofe part of their virtue by long keeping, (hould be pre¬
pared in fmall quantities.
The dofe of powders ftiould be fo regulated as fel-
dom to exceed a dram. The fubftance in which they
are to be taken ftiould be of fuch a nature as to mix
properly with them, fo that they neither float at the
top, nor fink too rapidly to the bottom of the veffel.
The form of pill is moft convenient for fuch articles
as do not require to be given in a large dofe, and are
fo unpleafant in tafte or fmell, that they cannot be
conveniently given in the form of powder. As many
patients can fwallow pills, who cannot take medicines
in a lefs folid form, thofe fubftances which are ufually
ordered in powder, are not unfrequently formed into
pills, when their bulk is not fo great as to render the
pills too numerous for a Angle dofe.
The moft ufual fubftances that enter into the com-
pofition of pills are refins, gum-refins, cxtra&s, and
MEDIC A, &c. 711
fimilar medicines. Deliquefcent falts are ufually im- Prmnp e-of
proper except in (mail quantity, and. then they ftiould “‘_uJ'iU'y'.
be combined with fome gummy powder. Such ialls as
are efflorefcent, as carbonate of foda, may enter into the
compofition of pills; but they ftiould be previoufly ex¬
pofed to the air, fo as to fall into powder. 1 he li¬
quid fubftances employed to form the pills into a proper
mafi, mult be varied according to the nature or the
more folid ingredients. Powders require fyrup, muci¬
lage, balfams, foap, conlerve, or honey. Gum refins
and extracts are fometimes lufficiently f ft without any
addition j but when this is required, a little (pint or
wine is the moft proper. When the mais is to be com-
pofed of a mixture of gum refins and powders, the term¬
er Ihould be firft moiltened with the prefcribed liquid,
then the powders added, and the whole beaten well to¬
gether, till they are reduced into a uniform plaitic
mafs.
A dram of the pilular mafs is generally divided into
about twelve pills, fo that each pill may weigh about
five grains.
The mafles for pills ftiould be kept in bladders,
thefe Humid be moiftened now and then, either with a
little wine, or with fome of the fame liquid that was em¬
ployed in forming the mafs.
Troches or lozenges are hard, round, flat cakes, Troches,
formed of fueh fubftances as are intended to be gra¬
dually diflblved in the mouth, and thus pafs by degrees
into the ftomach, or in their paffage thither adl on ihe
throat or larynx. They fliould be formed of tuch fub¬
ftances as are foluble in the faliva, and are not of a
difagreeable tafte. They ufually contain a great deal
of fugar, and fome gummy matter to render them co¬
herent. 223
Eledluaries are lefs folid than pills, being of fuch a fcle<ftuaries*
confiftence that they may be rolled up into a bolus, fo
as to be eafily fwallowed. They are chiefly compofed
of powders mixed up with fyrup. or honey. The tub-
ftancesthat enter into the compofition of eledluaries are
chiefly the milder alterative medicines, or gentle laxa¬
tives. The ftronger cathartics, emetics, and fuch fub¬
ftances as are of an unpleafant tafte, fuch as bitters, the
fetid gum-refins, and very heavy powders, are impro¬
per. The liquid employed to form eledluaries is ufually
fyrup or honey, the proportion of which is regulated by
the nature of the more folid ingredients, but is ufually
of nearly equal weight. 224
Confedtions are now confidered as fynonymous with Confedionsj
eledluaries, as they differ from ordinary eledluaries in
nothing but being compofed of more aromatic ingre¬
dients. 225
Conferves may be confidered as eledluaries formed of Conferve?'
only two ingredients, one of which is fugar, and the
other the pulp of fome fruit, the petals of flowers, or
the outer rind of Seville oranges. 226
Extradls and refins are pharmaceutical preparations, Extracts
the rationale of which is very little underftood. X)r and refine
Andrew Duncan junr. has given an excellent account
of them, which we ftiall here copy.
“ Extract in pharmacy has long been ufed, in the
common and true acceptation of the term, to exprefs a
thing extradled, and therefore it was applied to fub¬
ftances of all kinds which w ere extradled from hetero¬
geneous bodies, by the adfion of any menftruum, and
again reduced to a confiftent form, by the evaporation
4 Z 2 of
732
Principles of of that rnenftruum. Lately, however, txtrad has been
Ihaimacy. ufecj jn a djifert.at anc} nmch more limited fenie, as
the name for a peculiar principle, which is ufien indeed
contained in extra£ta, and w'hich before had no proper
appellation. It is in the former iente that we employ
it here, and in which we wilh it to be only tiled, while
a new word Ihould be invented as the name ot the new
fubltance. lill a better be propoted, we thall call it
extraihve.
“ Extra<5ts are of various kinds, according to the na¬
ture of the fubftanbes from which they are obtained,
and the menliruum employed ; but they commonly
confift of gum, fugar, extractive tannin, cinchonin,
gallic acid, or relin, or feveral of them mixed in vari¬
ous proportions. The menftrua molt commonly em¬
ployed are water and alcohol. The former is capable
of extracting all the fubltances enumerated, except the
relin, and the latter all except the gum. Wine is alfo
fometimes employed, but very improperly ; for as a iol-
vent it can only aCt as a mixture of alcohol and water,
and the principles which it leaves behind on evapora¬
tion are rather injurious than of advantage to the ex-
traCt.
“ Water is the menltruum molt commonly employed
in making extraCts, as it is capable of diffolving all
the aCtive principles except relin, and can have its fol-
vent powers affilted by a eonliderable degree of heat.
“ Watery extraCts are prepared by boiling the fubjeCt
in water, and evaporating the drained decoCtion to a
thick confidence.
<4 ft is indifferent wfith regard to the medicine, whether
the lubjeCt be tiled frtlh or dry 5 fince nothing that can
be preferved in this procefs will be lod by drying.
With regard to the facility of extraction, however, there
L a very confiderable difference; vegetables in general
giving out their virtues more readily when moderately
dried than when fnHi.
“ Very cnmpaCt dry fubltances Ihould be reduced into
exceedingly imall parts, previom to the affufion of the
mendruum.
“ 1 he quantity of water ought to be no greater than
is nectffary for extracting the virtuts of the lubjeCt.
I his point, however, is not very eafily afeertained •, for
although fome of the common principles of extraCts be
foluble in a very fmall proportion of water, there are
others, fueh as tannin, of which water can diffolve only
a fmall proportion, and cannot be made to take up
more by any lengih ot boiling 5 befides we have no
very good method of knowing when we have uied a
fuffic lent quantity ot water; for Vegetable fubllanees
will continue to colour deeply fui ceffive portions of wa¬
ter boiled with them, long after they are-yielding no¬
thing to it but colouring matter. Perhaps one of the
belt methods is to boil the lubjeCt in fucctflive quanti¬
ties of water, as long as the decoCtions form a confider¬
able precipitate with the telt which is proper for de¬
tecting the fubftance we are extracting, inch as a fo-
lution of gelatin for tannin, of alum fur extractive, &c.
I he decoCtions are to be depurated bycolature, and
afterwards fuffered to itand for a day or two, when a
confiderable quantity of fediment is ufually found at the
bottom. If the liquor poured off clear be boiled down
a little, and afterw’ards fullered to cool again, it will
depofit a frefh fediment, from which it may be decanted
before you proceed to finilb the evaportion. The de-
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c. Part III.
coCtions of ver) refinous fubffances do not require this Principles of
treatment, and are rather injured by it, the relin fub- Pharmacy,
fiding along with the active dregs. —y——*
“ V\ e would advile the decoCtions to be evaporated
after they have been filtered boiling hot, without any
further depuration ; becaule lome of the molt aCtive
principles ot vegetable lubltances, luch as tannin, are
much more foluble in boiling than in cold water, and
becaufe almolt all of them are very quickly aft'eCted Dy
expomre to the atmplphere. Therefore, it a boiling
decoCtion, faturaied with tannin, be allowed to cool,
the greateit part of the very principle on which the ac¬
tivity of the fubltance depends will ieparate to the bot¬
tom, and according to the above directions, will be
thrown away as fediment. The lame objection applies
more itrongly to allowing the decoCtion to cooi, and
depofite frtlh lediment, atter it has been partially eva¬
porated. Leiides, by allowing the decoCtions to hand
feveral days before we proceed to their evaporation,
we are in faCt allowing the aCtive principles contained
in the decoCtion to be altered by the aCtion of the air,
and to be converted into lubltances, perhaps inaCtive,
which alio are thrown away as iedmient.
“ I he evaporation is molt conveniently performed in
broad fhallow veflels; the larger the lurface ot the li¬
quor, the looner will the aqueous parts exhale. This
effeCt may likewife be promoted by agitation.
“ When the matter begins to grow thick, great care
is neceffary to prevent its burning. This accident, al¬
molt unavoidable if the quantity be large, and the fire
applied as uiual under the evaporating bafon, may be
effeCtuall) prevented, by carrying on the inlpifiation,.
after the common manner, no further than to the con¬
fidence of a fyrup, when the matter is to be poured in¬
to lhallow tin or ear hen pans, and placed in an oven,
with its door open, moderately heated ; which aCting
uniformly on every part of the liquid, will loon reduce
it to any confidence required. This may like wile be
done, and more let ureiy, by letting the evaporating
veffel in boiling w ater ; but the evaporation is in this
way very tedious.
“ Alcohol is by far too expenfive to be employed as
a menflruum for obtaining extraCts, except in thofe
cafes where water is totally inadequate to the purpofe.
Thcfe tales are,
“ 1 .When the nature of the extraCt is very perifliable
when diffolved in water, lo that it is liible to be
decompnled before the evaporation tan be ci mpleted,
elptcially if we cannot proceed immediately to the eva¬
poration.
“ 2. When water is totally incapable of diffolving the
fubltance to be extracted, and
“ 3. When the iubltance extracted can bear the heat
of boiling alcohol without being evaporated, but would
be diffipated by that of boiling water ; that is, when it
requires a heat greater than 176°, and leis than 212°,
for its evaporization.
“ In the laft cafe, the alcohol muff be perfectly free
from water, becaufe the heat neceffaiy to evaj oiau it
at the end ot the procefs would fruftrate the whole ope¬
ration. Hence, alfo, the fubjeCt itfelf ought alwajs to
be dry ; thofe fubffances which lofe their virtue by dry¬
ing, lofe it equally on being fui.mitted to this treatment
with the pureft alcohol.
“ In this w ay the alcoholic extraCt of fome aromatic
fubffances.
Part Ml.
MATERIA
Prin'-iplesofrubftances, as cinnamon, lavender, rofemary, retain a
Pharmacy. Con{iderable degree of their fine flavour.
* “ In the fecund cafe, the alcohol need not be fo very
ftrong, becaule it is ftill capable of diflbiving refinous
fubftances, although diluted with a conflderable propor¬
tion of water.
“ In the firft cafe, the alcohol may be ftill much
weake , or rather, the addition of a fmall proportion
of alcohol to water w ill be fufticient to retard or pre¬
vent the decompofition of the decodlion.
“ The alcohol employed in all thele cafes ftiould be
perfeftly free from any unpleafant flavour, left it be
communicated to the extraiil.
“ The infpiffation ftrould be performed, from the be¬
ginning, in the gentle heat of a water-bath. We netd
not fuffer the alcohol to evaporate in the air ; the great-
eft part of it may be recovered by colle&ing the va-
pou in common diftilling veffels. If thr diftilled fpi-
rit be found to have brought over any flavour from the
fubjeft, it may be advamageoufly referved for the lame
pui poles again.
“ When diluted alcohol is employed, the diftillation
Ihould only be continued as long a> alcohol comes over j
and the evaporation ftiould befiniihed in wide open vef¬
fels.
“ Pure refins are prepared, by adding to fpirituous
tindlures of relinous vegetaDles, a large quantity or wa¬
ter. The refin, incapable of remaining diflblved in the
watery liquor, feparates and falls to the bottom ; leav¬
ing in the menftruum fuch other principles of the plant
as the fpirit might have extrafted at firft along with it.
* Duncan's But this is only praftifed for the purpofe of analy fis
New if Of infulions and decodfions it i-> unneceffary for us
pnifit tory, j.0 nia}ie any farther remarks, after what was obierved
chav vx* v.. 0 J ,
in N 200. and 201.
Mucilages are folutions of the pure gums, or of fimi-
lar fubftances, in water. They (hould not be made too
thin, as they are then more readily decompofed on ex-
pofure to the air.
Mixtures are liquid preparations compofed of fub¬
ftances that are not loluble in water, as various pow ders,
barks, roots, &c. Emulfions differ from mixtures in
being compofed of oily or refinous ingredients, fuipend-
ed in water by means of yolk of egg, honey, or muci¬
lage Both thefe preparations {hould be made as they
are required, as few of them keep wr. 11.
Syrups are foluttons of lugar, either in plain water,
in the juice of fome fruit, or in fome vegetable infufion
or decoftion. They are employed chiefly to render
mixtures or other liquid medicines mart palatable, or
to mix up powders and other folid ingredients into pills,
eledluaries, or troches. The proportion of fugar tm
ployed in the making of fyrups thould be fo regulated,
as to preserve the fyrup in the fame ftate as when firft
made. If too little fugar has been employed, the iy-
rup will fuffer decompofition, and ferment; if too much,
part of the fugar will feparate in cryftals, leaving the
remainder too weak.
Formerly the term tincture was employed to denote
any traniparent folution, whether in w ter or fpirit, that
was coloured. At prefent it is commonly applied to
folucions made by digeition in alcohol, or in proof fpirit,
though it is frequently extended to folutions in ether,
227
Muc.xdges
228
Mixtures
aH emul¬
fions.
229
Syrups.
230
Tindtures.
MEDICA, &c. 733
or in ammoniated alcohol. For the adiion of alcohol Prmdp|esot
as a menftruum, fee Chemistry. Pharmacy.
In making alcoholic tinctures, we muft obferve that
the virtues of recent vegetable matters are very imper-
fedtly extradted by fpirituous menftrua. 'They muft
therefore be previoufly carefully dried, and as we can¬
not affiit the folution by means of heat, we mult facili¬
tate it by reducing the folvend to a ftate of as minute
mechanical divifion as poflible. To prevent lofs, the
folution is commonly made in a clofe veffel, and the
heat applied muft be very gentle, left it be broken by
the expanfion of vapour.
The adtion of tindlures on the living fyftem is always
compounded of the adtipn of the meniiruum and of the
matters diffolved in it. Now, thefe adtions may either
coincide with, or oppofe each other ; ard as alcohol is
at all times a powerful agent, it is evident that no fub-
ftanet flmuld be exhibited in the form of a tindlure,
whole adtion is differeru from that of alcohol, unlefs
it be capable of operating in fo imall a dofe, that
the quantity of alcohol taken along with it is inconfi-
derabie. '
Tindtures are not liable to fpoil, as it is called, but
they muft neverthelefs be kept in well clofed phiah, ef-
pecially when they contain adtive ingredients, to pre¬
vent the evaporation of the menftruum.
i hey generally operate in dofts fo fmall, that they
are rarely exhibited by themtelves, but commonly com¬
bined with tome vehicle. In choofing the latter, we
muft ieleci fome fubftance which does not decompnfe
the tindfure, or at It alt feparate nothing from it in a
palatable form.
The London college diredls all tindlures, except that
of muriate of iron, to be p epared in clofe phials.
The Dublin college explain, that when any other
fubftapices are to be digebed, they mean it to be done
with a low degree of heat ; and when they are to be
macerated, it F to be done with a degree of heat be-* ^Uf}C&n s
tw-e n 6.° and 900*. tcfv't™?-
Medicated wines and medicated vinegars differ from >Xic.
tindtures in nothing but the rmnftruum. 231
Of the external applications, the preparations of(j'ataP^H^tns*
which are given in the Pharmacopoeias, cataplafms or
poultices may be confidered as extemporaneous, being
never kept ready made.
Liniments, ointments, and cerates, are compofitions Lmirnenis,
of fatty matters, either animal or vegetable, or both,ointments,
employed as external emollients. They differ only in and cerates,
confitience, liniment1- being very foft, or nearly fluid ;
ointments fufficiently hard not to melt in the ordinary
temperaturo of the atmofphere ; and cerates being of
fuch a confi enee as to be readily fpread on cloth, &c.
without the aflitla’ ce of heat. Thefe laft commonly
contain a confiderable proportion of wax, wdience their
name.
Plailers are more folid than cerates, and ufually re-piafters.
quire the aid of h at to fpread them on the proper fub¬
ftance for application, which is ufually leather. Plaf-
ters fometimes contain powders in their compofition,
and in preparing thefe it is proper firft to melt the fatty
ingredients, and fprinkle in the powder when the melt¬
ed matter is beginning to cool.
2
PART
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
734
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
PART IV. A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE ARTICLES OF THE MATERIA
MEDICA, WITH THEIR OFFICINAL .PREPARATIONS.
Part IV.
Hiftory of
Simple ai!a
Officinal
Medicines,
Chap. I. Animal Subjlances.
334
Phofphorus. I. PHOSPHORUS, fee CHEMISTRY Index.
Some daring praftitioners have lately ventured to
recommend the internal ufe of this adtive inflammable
in the advanced ftage of typhus, in palfy and other cafes
of great debility. Taken into the ftomach in a mode¬
rate quantity (below a grain) it produces heat in that
organ, accelerates the pulfe, promotes perfpiration, and
is faid to give unufual vigour to the body. In larger
quantity it produces inflammation of the ftomach and
bowels, followed by gangrene and death. Dofe one-
eighth to one-fourth of a grain in ether, or incorporated
with mucilage.
The internal ufe of this fubftance appears to us to be
more than doubtful; but we think we have experienced
fome benefit from it externally, when dilfolved in oil,
in paralytic and rheumatic cafes.
Muriate of 2- Murias Ammontae, E. SAL AMMONIA-
ammema. CUS, L. D. Muriate of ammonia. Sal ammoniac (d).
The pureft muriate of ammonia of commerce is that
prepared by fublimation, and which is formed of large
convexo-concave cakes, firm and elaftic, not eafily
broken, and difficult to be cut. It is of a yellowiffi
white colour, of little fmell, and of a very ftiarp faline
tafte.
It is found native in the neighbourhood of volcanoes;
but is ufually prepared for medical purpofes either from
the dung of animals that feed on fait marlhes ; or by
decompofing fulphate of ammonia by muriate of foda,
or by immediately combining ammonia with muriatic
acid.
Internally it is fometimes given as a ftimulant in
typhus fevers in dofes of 20 or 30 grains mixed with
camphorated mixture $ but it is principally employed
externally in lotions and embrocations, either as a refri¬
gerant to cool the furface in fprains and inflammations,
or as a ftimulant to difperfe tumors or morbid accumu¬
lations of fluids, or to quicken the circulation, as in
chilblains, &c.
2^6 Officinal Preparations.
Waterof a. Aqua Ammonite, E. AQUA AMMONITE
ammonia. pUR^ L LIquOR ALKALI VOLATILIS
CAUSTICUS, D. Water of ammonia. Water of pure
ammonia. Cauflic folution of volatile alkali. Strong
fpirit of fal ammoniac.
This is prepared by decompofing muriate of ammo¬
nia by means of quicklime with the addition of water,
and afterwards diftilling off the ftrongeft portion with a
gentle heat. The preparations of the different colleges
vary a little, the Edinburgh Pharmacopseia ordering
one pound of muriate of ammonia to one pound and a
half of quicklime ; the London one pound to two
pounds; and the Dublin 16 ounces to two pounds. No
great quantity of water is neceffary. The lime is firft
flaked with part of the water, and after it is cold, the
fait and reft of the water are added, and the diftillation
carried on in well clofed veffels. The Edinburgh col¬
lege diredls Woolf’s apparatus to be employed as a re¬
ceiver, and orders all the feparate liquors to be mixed
together.
The folution of ammonia (hould be perfectly limpid
and tranfparent, ftiould have an extremely pungent
odour, fhould not effervefce with acids, and ffiould pro¬
duce no precipitate on the addition of alcohol or lime
water. It {hould be kept in fmall bottles well ftopt
with ground ftoppers, and ftiould ftand in a very cool
place.
This preparation is a very powerful ftimulant, irri¬
tating and inflaming the fkin and noftrils, when applied
externally or fnuffed up the nofe. Hence its ufe as a
rubefacient in rheumatifm, cynanche, paralyfis, and as
a general ftimulus in fyncope, hyfteria, &c. It is
fcarcely ufed internally. See below.
237
b. Alcohol ammoniatum, E. SPIRITUS AM-Ammoniat.
MONDE, L. SPIRITUS ALKALI VOLATILIS,ed alcoh»1'
D. Ammoniated alcohol. Spirit of ammonia. Spirit
of volatile alkali.
This, as prepared by the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia,
is merely a folution of ammonia in alcohol, and is pre¬
pared by decompofing eight ounces of muriate of am¬
monia by 12 ounces of quicklime, with the addition of
eight ounces of water and 32 ounces of alcohol, and
diftilling off the alcohol. The preparation of the Lon¬
don and Dublin colleges is made by mixing four ounces
of muriate with fix ounces of potaffies and three pints of
alcohol. The latter therefore contains much carbonate
of ammonia, and is not fo ftrong as the former.
c. Carbonas Ammonia, E. AMMONIA PRE- Carbonate
PAR AT A, L. ALKALI VOLATILE MITE, D.ofa m0'
Carbonate of ammonia. Prepared ammonia. Mild™'
volatile alkali.
This is prepared by mixing together one pound of
muriate of ammonia, and twelve pounds of pure carbo¬
nate of lime or chalk, after being reduced to powder
feparately, and afterwards fubliming.
This preparation, as it occurs in the (hops, is compo-
fed of irregular maffes of a very white, nearly opaque
fait, of a ftrong pungent odour, and ftiarp alkaline
tafte. It requires to be kept ciofely flopped from the
air, by the adftion of which it crumbles into powder,
and its volatile part is diffipated. When pure, it fhould
be entirely volatilizable by heat, but if any thing re¬
mains,
(d) The letters E. L. D. affixed
London, or Dublin Pharmacopoeias.
to the articles in this part denote that they are articles of the Edinburgh,
4
23S>
.Vater of
arbonate
if ammo-
tia.
Part IV. MATERIA
Hiftory of mains, there is reafon to fuppofe that carbonate of pot-
jimpie and or 0f iime js mixed with it; and thofe impurities are
Medicines. mo^ to t)e Pr^^nt if it is purchafed in the form
of a powder.
Carbonate of ammonia in its medical properties re-
fembles the folution of ammonia, but it is not fo ftrong.
It is chiefly employed for fmelling bottles, which are
ufed in cafes of hylteria or fyncope, and is often formed
into a neutral fait with the juice of lemons, (citrate of
ammonia^ and given as a gentle diaphoretic. It is
fometimes given alone, or mixed with aromatics, in the
form of a bolus, as a diaphoretic or ftimulant. Dofe
five to ten grains.
d. Aqua Carbokatis Ammonia, E. AQUA AM-
MONI^;, L. LIQUOR ALKALI VOLATILIS
MITIS, D. Water of carbonate of ammonia. Liquor
of mild volatile alkali.
This is merely a folution of carbonate of ammonia in
water, and might be properly prepared by diiTolving a
certain proportion of that fait in diftilled water. The
colleges of Edinburgh and Dublin direct it to be made
by mixing together 16 ounces of muriate of ammonia,
and the fame quantity of carbonate of potalh, pouring
upon them two pounds of water, and diftilling to drynefs.
In the London Pharmacopoeia, the proportions are one
pound of the muriate, a pound and a half of potalhes,
and four pints of water, drawing off" two pints by dif-
tiilation with a flow fire.
This folution fliould be tranfparent and colourlefs;
fhould produce a ftrong coagulum on the addition of
alcohol, and ftiould efFerveice with acids.
It is often employed in medicine, both internally
and externally. Internally it is given, firft as an erne-
tic, in a dofe of from I to 2 drams : fecondly, as a dia¬
phoretic ; dofe about 50 drops : thirdly, as a ftimulant,
20 drops to a dram : fourthly, as an antifpafmodic, in a
fimilar dofe : fifthly, as an antacid : and fixthly, as an
anthelmintic combined with oil into an emulfion.
240
Vater of
cetate of
mmonia.
541
lydroful-
huret of
mraonia.
e. Aqua Acetitis Ammonl®, E. AQUA AM¬
MONITE ACETA l AL, L. LIQUOR ALKALI
VOLATILIS ACETATI, D. SPIRITUS MJN-
DERERI. Water of acetite of ammonia. Water of
acetated ammonia. Liquor of acetated volatile alkali.
Minder erases fpirit.
This is a fecondary fait, formed by neutralizing car¬
bonate of ammonia with diftilled acetous acid.
It forms a tolerably tranfparent folution, commonly
of a greenilh caft, of little Imell, and of a weak fa-
line tafte. It thould fliew no figns of effervefcence on
the addition of either acetous acid or carbonate of am¬
monia.
This medicine afls as a gentle diaphoretic, of confi-
derable ufe in low fevers, and feveral inflammatory com¬
plaints. It may be given in a dofe of 3—6 drams, in
the form of a draught or julep. It Ihould be aflifted by
warm clothing, and warm diluent liquors.
f. Hydrosulphuretum Ammonite, E. Hydroful-
phuret of ammonia.
This preparation has been newly introduced into
medical praftice, by the Edinburgh college, who diredl;
it to be nrepared by fubjedting 4 ounces of water of
jjmmonia to a ftreanj of ga§ arifing from a mixture of
MEDICA, &c. 735
4 ounces of fulphuret of iron, and 8 ounces of muriatic Hiftory of
acid, previoufly diluted with 2^ pounds of water. ^Officinal
This preparation forms a tolution of a dark green co- jvieriiciiies.
lour and very fetid odour. It Ihuuld more properly » .m^
be called fulphureted hydrogenet of ammonia. It a£is
powerfully on the living fyftem. It induces vertigo,
drowfinefs, naufea, and vomiting, and leifens the ac¬
tion of the heart and arteries. It therefore teems to be
a direct fedative. According to the do&rine of the
chemical phyliologifts, it is a powerful difoxygenizing
remedy. It has only been uied in diabetes by Dr
Rollo and others, under the name of hepatized ammo- * Duncan's
nia, in doles of five or ten drops twice or thrice a- Difpenfa-
day*
g. Oleum ammoniatum, E. LINIMENTUM Ammoniat-
AMMONLE, L. D. LINIMENTUM VOLA-^oii.
TIL b. Ammoniated oil. Liniment oj ammonia. Vola¬
tile liniment.
Ammoniated oil is properly a foap, formed by com¬
bining a folution of ammonia, or of carbonate of am¬
monia, with olive oil. The Edinburgh college directs
it to be prepared by mixing together two ounces of
olive oil and two drams of water of ammonia. The
London college has two preparations of this kind ; a
ftronger, formed of one ounce of water of pure am¬
monia, mixed with two ounces of olive oil ; and a
weaker, of half an ounce of water of ammonia and one
ounce and a half of oil.
This preparation is feldom kept ready made, as by
Handing it becomes thick, and is diminilhed in ftrength.
It is of a light yellow colour.
Ammoniated oil is a ufeful external application in
cafes of cynanche and rheumatifm, being either rub»
bed on the affe&ed part, or applied to it ipread on flan¬
nel, and changed oceafionally.
243
h. Alcohol ammoniatum aromaticum, E. SPI- Aromatic
RITUS AMMONI/E COMPOSH Ub, L. bPIRI- ammomat-
TUS ALKALI VOLATILIS AROMAT1CUS, D.ed alcoho1'
Aromatic ammoniated alcohol. Compoundfpirit of am¬
monia. Aromatic fpirit of volatile alkali. Sal volatile.
This is a compolition of ammoniated alcohol with va¬
rious aromatic oils. In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia
it is prepared by diflulving one dram and a half ot oil
of rofemary, and one dram of oil of lemon peel, in eight
ounces of ammoniated alcohol: by the London college
we are diredled to prepare it of two pints of fpint of
ammonia, and two drams of oil of lemon, and of oil of
cloves ; and by that of Dublin, of two pounds of Ipirit,
and of oil of lemon and oil of nutmeg, each two drams.
It is of a light amber colour, and of a very fragrant
fmell. It is more palatable and lefs acrimonious than
the other preparations of ammonia, and is W'ell fuxt-
ed to fpafmodic complaints, faintnefs, and weak-
nefs of the ftomach. Dofe from twenty drops to a
dram.
244
1. LINIMENTUM VOLATILE, D. Volatile Liniment o/Vdatile
the Dublin college. liniment.
A compound of one part of the above preparation
and two parts of the Dublin foap liniment, of which
hereafter. A ftimulating external application.
245
k. Spiritus Ammonia sycciNATUS, L. SuccinatedSuccmated
fpirit of ammonia. <pim of
This ammonia“
<
736 MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Hiftory of Tliis is prepared by diflbiving a fcruple of reftified from 30 drops to a dram.
(>^ amijer>.dn^ ten ^rain-> of ioap, in an ounce weight
Medicines. (il^ alcohol, and then adding four meafured ounces of
». . y—water of pure ammonia.
It is at iirit of a mdkv colour, but gradually be¬
comes more or Ids tranfparent by (landing. It is
conlidered as much the fame with the French eau
de luce.
It is an ufeful antifpafmodic, whether fnuffed up the
nofe or rubbed on the temples.
/. Alcohol ammoniatum foetioum, E. SPI-
RITUS AMMONI/E FCET1DUS, L. SPIRITUy
ALKALI VOLAT1LIS FOETIDUS, D. Fetid
ammoniated alcohol. Fetidfpirit of volatile alkali.
A folution of afafoetida in fpirit of ammonia, which
is prepared according to the Edinburgh college by di-
gefting half an ounce of afafoetida in eight ounces of
fpirit of ammonia for 1 2 hours, and dillilling off the
fpirit. The London college direfts fix pints of proof
fpirits, a pound of fal ammoniac, four ounces of afa¬
foetida, and a pound and a half ef potalh, to be mixed
together, and five pints to be diililled off with a flow
fire,
An excellent antifpafmodic, particularly fuited to
hyfterical cafes. Dole from 30 drops to a dram.
Part IV.
It is fometimes ufed as an Hiftory of
externa! application in ear-ach 5 equal parts of this and SimPle and
tin&ure of opium being dropped into the ear.
b. Tinctura Castorei composita, E. Compound
tindlure of caitor.
49
Con; pound
This is prepared by digefting an mince of powdered *in^ure of
246
Fetid am¬
moniated
alcohol.
Ruflian callor, and half an ounce of afafoetida, in a
pound of ammoniated alcohol, for feven days, filtering
the liquor through paper.
A more powerful antifpafmodic than the former j
dofe from 20 to 40 drops.
4. MOSCHUS MOSCH1FERUS, E.
MOSCHUS, L. D. Mufk.
The mufk animal. Mu(L
247
Caftor.
Particular Animal Subfiances.
Class MAMMALIA. Order Glires.
The beaver. CASTOR-
3. Castor fiber, E.
EUM, L. D. Cajlor.
This is a fubftance fecreted in a follicle fituated near
the anus of the beaver, perhaps the inguinal gland.
It is of a dark brown colour, friable, of a pungent bit¬
ter tafte, and a very flrong unpleafant fmell. It is con¬
tained in a roundifh or flattened membranous bag.
Bouillon la Grange has found by analyfis, that it con-
fifts of mucilage, bitter extraft, refin, a peculiar volatile
oil, and a flaky cryftalline fubftance ref mbling adpo-
cire. Its volat ile parts come over by diftillation with
water, and great part of the fubftance is foluble in al¬
cohol.
The beft caftor comes from Ruffla, but a great deal
is brought from Canada. The Ruflian caftor is in larger,
rounder bags, and is of a much itronger fmell than the
Canadian.
Caftor is one of our moft eftabliftted antifpafmodics,
and was much efteemed and extolled by Dr Cullen.
It is chiefly prefcribed in hyfteria, but feidom alone
nr in fubftance. Dofe from 10 to 30 grains in a
bolus.
ra48
Tincfture of
caitor.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Tinctura Castorei. Tinfture of caftor.
The London and Dublin colleges direft two ounces
of powdered Ruflian caftor to be digefted ten or feven
days in two pints (London), or two pounds (Dublin),
.of proof fpirit. According to the Edinburgh formula,
an ounce and a half of Ruftian caftor is to be digefted
for feven days in a pound of alcohol, and the tin dure
{trained through paper.
This tinfture is of a dark brown colour, and poflefles
all the valuable properties of the Ample drug. Dofe
Mufk is a refinous matter fecreted in a receptacle
fituated near the navel of the mulk animal. See Mam¬
malia Index.
This fubftance is, when dry, of a reddifti brown or
rufty black colour, fomewhat unftuous, and of a more
or lefs granulated appearance : it has a bitterifti and
rather acrid tafte \ a fragrant fmell, agreeable at a
diftance, but fo ftrong as to be highly unpleafant when
fmelt near to. So violent indeed is the fmell of mufk,
when frefh taken from the animal, or from quantities
put up by the merchants for fale, that it has been known
to force the blood from the nofe, eyes, and ears, of
thofe who have imprudently inhaled its vapours j and
we are aflured by Chardin, that whenever he engaged
in the purchafe of mufk, he found it always neceffary to
cover his face with feveral folds of a handkerchief, in
order to be fufficiently fecure againft the hidden effects
of the fmell.
As mufk is an expenfive drug, it is frequently adultera¬
ted by various fubftaneeH *, and w e are aflured that pieces
of lead have been found in fome of the receptacles, in-
ferted in order to increafe the weight. The moft ufual
mode of adulterating it is by taking the mufk from the
bag, and mixing it with dried blood coarlely powdered.
This may in general be dete&ed by obferving that the
bag has been opened ; by the fetid fmell which the
fubfta • ce emits ivhen heated, and by the fmell of am-
moniacal gas which is perceived when the adulterated
mufk is rubbed with potafh.
This fubftance is particularly efficacious, and there
is fcarcely any fubftitute for it in particular cafes.
When properly adminiftered it fometimes fucceeds in
the moft defperate cafes. It raifes the pulfe without
producing much heat j it removes fpafmodic affections,
and is found to have confiderable effeCt on the nervous
fyftem, increafing the powers of thought, fenfation, and
voluntary motion.
It may be employed in all cafes of typhus fevers ;
ih particular, where there is much delirium, fubfultus
tendinum, &c. It is alfo employed in febrile eruptions,
and in many fpafmodic difeafes, as the chincough, epi-
lepfy, tetanus, &c.
Vol
kin
Officinal Preparations.
a. Tinctura Moscha:, D. Tinfture of mufk.
This is prepared by macerating two drams of mufk
in a pound of reflified fpirit of wine for feven days, and
draining (he liquor.
The tinClufe of mufk may be "given in dofes of a
dram
Tincture W
mulk.
Part IV.
Hiftory ef dram or two. It {3 befi: mixed with honey or fyrun, as
SOfficina'|d t,ne acldition of water Anders it turbid.
Medicines. / n/r
«   b- Mistura MOSCHATA, L. Mufk mixture.
Mufk mix- , Is d’re<^:e<^ by the London college to be made
tore. ^ rubbing two loruples of mulk, firlt with one dram
of double refined fugar, then with the addition of the
fame quantity of powdered gum arabic, and fix ounces
of roie water, added by degrees.
The mulk mud be well rubbed with the fugar and
gum, before the rofe water be added, otherwife a fe-
paration will take place. It is belt to make this
preparation only when required, as it does not keep
well.
Mulk mixture is given in molt of the cafes in which
the limple drug is indicated. Dofe, an ounce or an
ounce and a half.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
253
Hartfliorn,
5. Cervus Eeaphus, E. the Stag. CORNU CER-
VINUM, L. D. Hart/h orn.
I he horn of the Itag differs little from bone, except
in containing more cartilage. It was formerly employ¬
ed in the preparation of ammonia, whence that alkali
was denominated hartjhorn, and at prefent there are
two or three modifications of ammonia that are direfted
to be prepared from this fubftance. It is alfo burnt to
form pure phofpbate of lime.
Officinal Preparations.
*54
Phofphate a. Phosphas Calcis, E. CORNU CERVI VEL
of lime. CERVI NUM USTUM, L.D. Phofphate of lime.
Burnt hartjhorn.
737
carbonate, except in containing a quantity of empyreu- Hiftory of
malic oil. They are in faft lefs pure than the above-
mentioned preparations of ammonia, and might be en- Medicines
tirtly fet afide. They are chiefly ufed to Imell to in ——y—.
cafes of fainting or hyfteria.
Thefe preparations may be made from the bones or
horns of any animal, where hartfliorn cannot be conve¬
niently procured.
258
c. Oleum animale, L. OLEUM CORNU Animal'0*,*
CERVINI RECTIFICATUM, D. Animal oil.
Rett fed oil of hartjhorn. DippePs oil.
_ This is made by diflilling the oil of hartlhorn that
rifes in the preceding operation, twice or three times,
either by itfelf, or with the addition of water.
Animal oil was formerly much employed as a power¬
ful antilpafmodic. Dofe 1 j—30 drops. When given
fix hours before the acceflion of a paroxyfm of an inter¬
mitting fever, on an empty fiomach, it is faid to have
kept off the paroxyfm.
6. Ovis Aries, E. the Sheep. SEVUM QVIL-MtUton
LUM, L. D. Mutton fuet. tufct-
Mutton fuet is employed in the preparation of feveral
ointments and cerates, which will be mentioned here¬
after.
Order 6. Bellua:.
25o
7. Sus scrofa, E. the Hog. ADEPS SUILLUS,HoSs ^rd.
L. D. Hogs lard,
Ufed alfo in the preparation of liniments, ointments,
&c. and fometimes employed alone as an external
emollient.
255
Volatile
liquor of
hartftiorn.
256
Salt of
hartftiorn.
257
Oil of
hartfhorn.
The Edinburgh college dire&s this to be pre¬
pared by burning pieces of hartfliorn till they be¬
come perfe£Uy white, and then reducing them to a fine
powder.
Burnt hartfliorn was formerly given as an antacid j
but its efficacy in that way appears to be trifling, as the
phofphoric acid is not eafily feparated from the lime,
and of courfe the latter will not neutralife the acid mor¬
bidly fecreted in the alimentary canal. Of late pure
phofpbate of lime has been recommended as a remedy
for rickets, with the view of fupplying folid matter to
the bones. Dofe about ten grains.
b. Liquor volatilis Cornu Cervi, L. D. Vo¬
latile liquor of hartfhorn. Spirit of hartjhorn.
c. Sal Cornu Cervi, L. D. Salt of hartjhorn.
d. Oleum Cornu Cervi, L. D. Oil of harts¬
horn.
Thefe are all made from one chemical operation. A
quantity of hartfhorn is put into a retort, and fubmit-
ted to a heat that is gradually increased. Firft the
volatile liquor comes over, then the fait, and la illy the
oil. After the fait and oil are feparated from the
liquor, this is diflilled again twm or three times
with a moderate heat, by which it is rendered more
pure.
The fait is purified by mixing it with an equal weight
of prepared chalk, and then fubliming.
The volatile liquor and fait of hartfliorn differ little
from the water of carbonate of ammonia, and the folid
Vol. XII. Part II.
Order 7. Cete.
' 2<5r
8. Physeter macrocephalus, E. Spermacetispermaceti-
Whale. Sperma Ceti, L. D.
This is a white flakey fubftance, that is found in
certain cells in the head of the fpermaceti whale. See
Cetology, N° 66, and Chemistry, N° 2860.
As an emollient, fpermaceti is employ’ed both inter¬
nally and externally. Internally it is given in the
form of emulfion mixed with mucilage or yolk of egg,
or mixed with fyrup into a linftus, in cafes of catarrh!
ardor unnee, &c. As an external application, it enters
into the compofition of the following
Officinal Preparations. ^
a. Unguentum Spermatis Ceti, L. D. Sper-(?",tment
maceti ointment. °*
ceti.
I his ointment is prepared by melting together fix
drams of fpermaceti, two drams of white wax, and three
ounces of olive oil, over a flow fire, ftirring them con-
ftantly till they are cold.
*63
b. Ceratum Spermatis Ceti, L. D CERA sPermacet*
TUM SIMPLEX, E. Spermaceti cerate. Simple^'
Cerate. White Cerate.
In the preparations of this cerate, the proportions of
the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia differ from thole directed
by the colleges of London and Dublin. The former
orders fix parts of olive oil, three of white wax, and
one of fpermaceti j the two latter, half an ounce of
fpermaceti, two ounces of white wax, and four ounces
5 A 0f
738
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
264
Goofe-
greafe.
'2.6-
266
Ifinglais.
of oil. They are made in a fimilar manner with the
ointment.
Thefe preparations are ufed principally for drefling
ulcers, or to form more compounded ointments or ce¬
rates.
Class II. BIRDS. Order 1. Anseres.
9. Anas Anser, the goofe. ADEPS AN3ERIN-
US, D. Goofe greafe.
This fat is now rarely ufed in medicine, as it feems
to poffefs no fuperior properties to hog’s lard, which is
more conveniently procured.
Order 2. Gallinte.
10. Phasianus Gallus, thedomeftic fowl. OVUM
EJUSOUE PUTAMEN. Egg, and egg-Jhells.
The yolk of egg is employed in pharmacy for ren¬
dering oils and refins mifcible with water. For this
purpofe it is fcarcely preferable to common vegetable
mucilage, and has the difadvaniage of fooner becoming
putrid, and the white is ufed in making alum cataplafm.
Egg-fhells prepared, i. e. levigated, are fometimes em¬
ployed as an antacid, but they do not feem better in
that refpedt than common carbonate of lime, or mag-
nefia.
Class IV. FISHES. Order 6. Chondrofterygii.
_ 1 r. Accipenser Huso, E. Ifinglafs filh. Ichthyo-
colla, L.D. IJinglafs. See the article Ichthyocolla.
Part IV.
mities, but alfo in that which is occafioned by an over- Hiftory of
diftenfion of the bladder, thefe flies have been admini-S>mP!e and
ftered internally with evident relief. The fame benefi- ,?^-clnal
cial effects have followed their ufe in ifchuria veficalis,
or fuppreflion of urine from over-diftenfion of the blad¬
der. They are recommended as an excellent remedy
in gleets by Mead and IVerlhof, and the laft-mentioned
phyfician prefcribed them in cafes of hydrophobia.
The internal ufe of cantharides in gleets and leucor-
rhoea has of late been much extended by Dr John Ro-
bertfon; but for an account of the circumftances which
led him to fuch a free ufe of this medicine, and for his
mode of exhibiting it, we mult refer to his late work
on the fubjeft, and a paper publifhed by him in the fe-
cond volume of the Edinburgh Medical Journal.
When thefe Simulants are adminiftered internally,
they are prefcribed either in powder or in tindlure.
The dofe in fubftance (which is the moft certain form
of internal exhibition) is from half a grain to one or
two grains every fixth hour, made into pills. Of the
tinfture, the dofe is from 10 to 30 drops. During the
ufe of either, the patient (hould be direfted to drink
of mucilaginous decoflions, emulfions, &c. Camphor
is thought by fome praftitioners to moderate the too
ftimulating aftion of cantharides, and is accordingly
combined with them or their tinftures whenever they
are given internally. Others join nitre with them, as
well as camphor.
Of the external ufe of cantharides by way ofblifter,
we fhall fpeak prefently under the preparations that are
employed for that purpofe.
267
Canthari¬
des.
Employed as an emollient, and faid to be the prin¬
cipal fubftance ufed in making court plajler.
Class V. INSECTS. Order 1. Coleoptera.
12. Lytta vesicatoria. MELOE VESICA-
TORI US, E. CANTHARIS, L.D. Cantharides.
Spanijh files.
For the natural hiftory of this infe£t, fee Entomo¬
logy, p. 169 j and for its chemical analyfis, fee Che¬
mistry, N° 2875.
Cantharides are ftimulant and virulent to fo great a
degree, that their internal exhibition requires to be
conduced with the utmoft caution, otherwile inflamma¬
tion in the ftomach, inteftines, or urinary paffages, may
be the confequence. When taken in confiderable quan¬
tity, they produce inflammation and ulceration of the
ftomach and bowels, attended with mucous or purulent
ftools, fetid breath, violent pains in the belly j and thefe
fymptoms, if not tirmly relieved, are followed by faint-
nefs, giddinefs, and death. Applhd externally, they
inflame and excoriate the (kin, and if continued for a
fufficient time, produce a large vefication, filled with
acrid ferum. Their external application is not unfre-
quently followed by difirefling ftrangury.
Internally they have been exhibited as a diuretic in
dropfical cafes, in a dofe from half a grain to a grain.
They are frequently employed in weaknefs of the uri¬
nary organs: in incontinence of urine proceeding from
paralyfis vefiese, in gleets, fluor albus, diabetes, and
other difeafes of the urinary paflages, originating in, or
connefted with debility. Not only in the incontinency
of urine which accompanies a palfy of the lower extre-
1
Officinal Preparations.
268
a. TlNCTURA Mf.LOES VESICATORII, E. TINGTU-Tin<fture of
RA CANTHARIDIS, L. T. CANTHARIDUM,cantharides.
D. Tindfture of cantharides.
The Edinburgh tinfture is dire&ed to be made, by
digefting for feven days a dram of powdered cantha¬
rides in a pound of diluted alcohol j and that of the
Dublin college is prepared with the fame proportions.
The London timfture is made by digefting two drams
of bruifed cantharides, and half a pound of powdered
cochineal, in a pint and a half of proof fpirit for eight
days.
Thefe tindlures differ a little in point of ftrength.
When given internally, the dofe of the Edinburgh or
Dublin tinflure may be from 20 to 30 dropsthat of
the London tincfture from 10 to 20 drops. They are
employed externally as a rubefacient in cafes ef palfy,
angina, gaftritis, &c.
b. Ceratum Cantharidis, L. D. Cerate of can¬
tharides.
269
Cerate of
cantharides.
This cerate is prepared by mixing a dram, or four
fcruples, of powdered cantharides, with fix drams, or
an ounce, of Ipermaceti cerate.
It is chiefly employed to promote the running of if-
fues.
270
c. EMPLASTRUM MeLOES VESICATORII, E. EM- Plaftcr of
PLASTRUM CAN'IHARIDIS, L. EMP. CAN-canthande5‘
THARIDUM, D. Plafter of cantharides. BUJiering
plafier.
According to the Edinburgh college, this plafter is
to
Fart IV.
MATERIA
Hiftory of to be prepared by firft melting together equal weights
^Offi'nnT' mutton ^uet’ yellow wax, and white rofin 5 and
Medicines. "r^en thefe are removed from the lire, fprinkling in an
u—y-—- equal proportion of powdered cantharides. The propor¬
tions of the London and Dublin colleges are 1 pound of
finely powdered cantharides, 2 pounds of wax plafter,
and half a pound of hog’s lard, and the ingredients are
mixed in a fimilar manner.
271
Compound
plaiter of
cantharides.
272
Ointment
of cantha¬
rides.
. 273
Ointment
oi infufion
of cantha¬
rides.
. 274
Ointment
of cantha¬
rides pow¬
der.
MEDICA, &c. . 739
refinous ointment, and one part of powdered canthari- Hiftory of
des. 1 simple and
All thefe ointments, befides being ufed for keeping Mtdicines.
open blilters, are occalionally employed for iffue oint- * — v.n .,i
ments.
For more on the fubjeft of blillers, the reader is re¬
ferred to Percival’s Elfays, vol. i. and Withers on the
ufe and abufe of Medicines.
d. Emplastrum Meloes Vesicatorii Composi-
TUM, E. Compound plafter of cantharides.
This is made of Burgundy pitch, Venice turpentine,
cantharides, each 12 parts j yellow wax, 4 parts; fub-
acetate of copper, 2 parts ; muftard feed and black pep¬
per, each I part. Having firft melted the pitch and
wax, the turpentine is to be added, and while thefe in¬
gredients are ftill fluid, the other articles in fine powder
are to be mixed with them, and the whole conftantly
ftirred till cold.
This laft-mentioned plafter of Spanifh flies is too
compound, and being of a corrofive quality, is rarely
prefcribed. The other more Ample forms ©f canthari¬
des plafter are in frequent ufe for exciting vefications in
various acute and chronic difeafes, particularly in inter¬
nal inflammations and pains, as well as in many fpaf-
modic affe&ions. Bliftering has been recommended by
fome phyficians in the advanced and finking ftage of
typhus fever ; but the propriety of fuch a pra&ice is
extremely queftionable. We would further remark,
that in the febrile diforders of children, a good deal of
caution is requifite in the application of blifters ; a
fpreading erythematous inflammation, and even gan¬
grene, being fometimes the confequence. In fome of
the above-mentioned diforders much benefit is obtained
by keeping the bliftered part open, or in an ulcerated
ftate for a confiderable length of time. This is done by
any of the following ointments.
e. Unguentum Cantharidis, L. UNG. CAN-
THARIDUM, D. Ointment of cantharides.
This is prepared by taking pulverized Spanifti flies,
two ounces ; diftilled water, eight ounces ; ointment of
yellow refin, eight ounces. The Spanifh flies being
boiled in the water, this is reduced to half the original
quantity, the liquor is ftrained, and the ointment of
yellow refin added. The mixture is then placed in a
water bath, faturated with fea fait, and evaporated to
the confiftence of an ointment.
/ Unguentum Infusi Meloes vesicatorii, E.
Ointment of infufion of cantharides.
To prepare this ointment, the Edinburgh college di-
re<Ts one part of cantharides to be macerated for a
night in four parts of boiling water ; the expreft and
ftrained liquor to be boiled with two parts of hogs lard
till the water is evaporated, then one part of yellow
wax, and the fame proportion of white rofin to be add¬
ed ; and when the whole is melted, and removed from
the fire, two parts of Venice turpentine are to be mixed
with it, and the whole ftirred till cold.
g. Unguentum Pulveris Meloes vesicatorii,
E. Ointment of cantharides powder.
This is prepared by mixing together feven parts of
Order 2. Hemiptera.
*75
13. Coccus Cacti, E. COCCINELLA, L. D . Cochineal.
Cochineal. See Entomology Index.
This is employed in medicine merely as a colouring
matter.
Order 5. HymenoPtera
A^is Mellifica. The bee.
14. MEL. Honey.
Befides being ufed as an article of diet, honey is Honey,
often employed medicinally, either for the preparation
of eleftuaries, or for making a kind of fyrups, called
axymels or medicated honeys. It generally proves gent¬
ly laxative, but is apt to difagree with the ftomach,
producing ficknefs and griping. It might probably
be entirely fuperfeded by fugar, which is not attended
with thofe unpleafant effetls.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Mel despumatum. Clarified honey.
For the purpofe of clarifying honey, the colleges of
London and Dublin direct that it fhould be melted in
a water bath, removing the fcum as it rifes.
In this way the honey is rendered more beautiful to
the eye, but is fcarcely lefs liable to difagree with weak
ftomachs.
277
Clarified
honey.
278
b. Mel acetatum, L. OXYMEL SIMPLEX • Acetated
Acetated honey. Simple oxymel. honey.
Two pounds of clarified honey are boiled in a glafs
veffel over a gentle fire, with one pound of diftilled
vinegar, till they are reduced to the confiftence of a
fyrup.
This is a ufeful remedy, diluted with water and em¬
ployed as a gargle, in coughs and fore throats.
Order 7. Aptera.
15. ONISCUS ASELLUS, E. MILLEPEDA, I*• Millepedes.
D. Millepedes or Woodlice.
Formerly employed as a diuretic in the form of pills,
that weye made either of the living animals, or of thefe
killed by fpirit of wine and powdered.
16. CaNC^R astacus, E. The craw-fifh. Con- Crabs^yes.
crorutn lapilh. Crabs eyes. See CHEMISTRY, N°
2882.
Officinal Preparation.
281
a. CaNCRORUM LAPILLI PR^PARATI, E. Prepared Prepared
crabs eyes. trabs eyes.
5 A 2 Formerly
740
H liory of
Simple :tnrl
Officinal
Medicine?.
Formerly much employe'd as an antacid, though not
at all fuperior to common carbonate of lime.
17. Cancer pagurus, E. The black-clawed
crab. CHELiE CANCRORUM, L. Crabs claws.
MATERIA MEDICA,
Part IV. P^,
Officinal Preparations.
2S3
Prepare (1
crabs claw:
a. Chelae Cancrorum pr;eparaT;E, L. Prepared
crabs claws.
284
Compound
powder of
crabs claws.
2*5
Leeches.
286
Oyfter
fhells.
2S7
Prepared
oyfter
ftiells.
2S9
Prepared
red coral.
290
Sponge.
291
Burnt
fponge.
Reduced to powder like the former, by levigation,
diffufion, filtration, and drying. Of limilar properties.
b. Pulvis Chelarum Cancri COMPOSITUS, L.
Compound powder of crabs claws.
A mixture of one pound of prepared crabs claws,
with three ounces of prepared chaik, and the fame pro¬
portion of prepared red coral.
Class VI. WORMS.
18. Hirudo medicinalis.
Helminthology Index,
Order 2. Mollusca.
Medicinal leech. See
Order 3. Testacea.
19. Ostrea edulis, E. OSTREA, L, D. Oy¬
fter. See Conchology Index. TESTAE OSTRE-
ARUM. Oyster Jhells. See Chemistry, N° 2883.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Ostrearum Test.® praiparata:, L. Prepared
oyfter fhells.
Prepared in the fame way as Crabs claws, poffeffing
fimilar properties.
Order 4. Zoophyta.
288
lied coral.
20. Gorgonia nobilis. Isisnobilis,E.
LIUM RUBRUM, L. X). Red coral.
misery, N° 2886.
CORAL-
See Che-
Officinal Preparation.
a. CORALLIUM RUBRUM PRjEPARATUM.
red coraL
Prepared
As above.
21. Spongia OFFICINALIS, E. SPONGIA,
D. Sponge. See Helminthology Index.
L.
In its natural ftate, fponge is employed by furgeons,
for cleanfing wounds and ulcers, for making tents, and
for flopping hemorrhagies from fmall divided blood
veffels.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Spongia usta, L. D. Burnt fponge.
Sponge is burnt in a clofe iron veflel, after being
cut into fmall puces and bruifed to free it from earthy
and flony matter, ihe burning is continued till the
fponge becomes black and triable, and it is then reduced
to a fine powder.
5
Burnt fponge has been long employed as a remedy H ftory 0f
in fcrophulous affe&ions. It fee ms to owe its beneficial and
operation (moftly flight and uncertain) in thefe dif- inal
orders, partly to its alkaline and partly to its carbona M£dlclRa;-[
ceous nature. Perhaps the firit mentioned may contri- ""^ V
bute to the folution and diffufion (in the human body)
of its coaly matter. It is given (made into a bolus, or
lozenge) in doles of a fcruple, or half a dram, twice a-
day.
It is likewife faid to be a remedy for the bronchocele,
in which cafes it has been adminiflered with fuccefs in.
the following manner. The ftomach and bowels ha¬
ving been duly cleanfed by a vomit and purge taken
two days before, the patient, on going to bed, is to
place a bolus con lifting of half a dram of burnt fponge,
and as much honey as is neceflary, in the mouth, under
the tongue, and as it gradually diffolves to fwallow it.
This bolus is to be repeated for fix. nights. A bitter
powder made of five grains of chamomile flowers, gen¬
tian root, and the lefftr centaury tops, is to be taken
every feventh day during the ufe of the bolus, and on
the eighth day the purge is to be repeated. Others
have employed fponge in thefe cafes in the form of a
lozenge, which is certainly more, conveniently held in
the mouth than a bolus *,
Chap. II. Vegetable Subjlances.
^Thefaunii,
Medicami-
num.
Sect. I. Vegetable produBs that are procured from
plants in general, or from fuch as are imperfectly
known.
22
STRY
Garbo Ligni, E.
Index.
Charcoal. S(
ChEMI* Charcoal.
For medical purpofes charcoal fhould be frefh burned,
or fhould be kept carefully excluded from the air. Its
chief ufe is as an antifeptic, corre&ing putridity j hence
it is employed as a tooth-powder, either alone or mixed
with aftringents and aromatics, and is fometimes given
internally in diarrhoea and dyfentery, where the matters
evacuated are very offenfive. It is alfo faid to a'ft as a
gentle laxative.
Fuligo Ligni combusti. Wood foot.
293
23. w oou iooi. Wood foot.
This differs from charcoal in containing a confiderable
quantity of empyreumatic oil, to which the properties
attributed to it as an antifpalmodic are to be aferibed.
It is now fe.ldom ufed.
24. Alcohol, E. SPIRITUS VINOSUS REC-CommJu
TI FI CAT US, L. SPIRITUS ViNi R EC IT FI-alcohol.
CA I US, D. Alcohol. Rectified Jpira of wine.
For the ufual preparation, hiftory and chemical pro¬
perties of alcohol, fee Chemistry, Chap. xi. left. i.
The only certain mode of afcertaining the pur.ty of
alcohol and its preparations is by taking their fpecific
gravity, for the manner of doing which fee Hydrody¬
namics. The fpecific gravity of reftified Ipint flmuld
be 835.
Aicohol is one of the moft violent ftimuli with which
we are acquainted. Applied externally it corrugates
the folid parts of the body, and coagulates all the
albuminous and gelatinous fluids with which it comes in
contaft. By violently contrafting the fmaller veffels, it
checks
Viti
Part IV.
MATERIA
Hiftory of checks pa Hive hemorrhagies, and by deftroying the fen-
SOffiana|d °* t^e extrem>^es of nerves it alleviates pain,
Medicines an^ *n ^onie ca^es removes fpafm. Taken undiluted in-
u—v—I0- the ftomaeh, it adls in a limilar manner, contrafting
the folids, and dellroying nervous fenfibility. If the
quantity is conliderable, it brings on apoplexy and
pnlfy, followed by death. Sufficiently diluted alcohol
acls as a tonic and gentle ftimulus, exhilarating the fpi-
rits, increafing the appetite, and promoting digellion ;
but a too frequent ufe of ardent fpirits is attended with
dangerous confequences. See N° 102. It is a ufeful
application to recent burns and fcalds, preventing veli-
cation.
It muft be remarked, that what the Edinburgh col¬
lege have called alcohol is not pure alcohol.
295
Pure alco¬
hol
296
Vitriolic
ethereal
liquor.
, *297
Spirit of
vitriolic
ether.
Officinal Preparations,
a. Alcohol, L. D. Alcohol.
The procefs for obtaining pure alcohol given by the
London college is fomewhat different from that of the
Dublin college. The former diredts a gallon of redti-
fied fpirit of wine to be mixed with an ounce of pure
kali, and afterwards a pound of hot prepared kali to be
added. The mixture is to be well ffiaken and fet by
for 24 hours, when the fpirit is to be poured off, mix¬
ed with half a pound more prepared kali, and diliilled
in a water bath. The diftilled alcohol Ihould have the
fpecific gravity of 815.
The procefs of the Dublin pharmacopoeia is as fol¬
lows. Five pounds of reddified fpirit are mixed with
one ounce of cauftic vegetable alkali, and then with one
pound of pearl-affies dried over the fire and Hill warm.
This mixture is digefted for three days, (baking it fre¬
quently ; and then the fpirit is poured off, and diftilltd
till three pounds have come over. The Dublin alcohol
has the fpecific gravity of 820, and is confequently
weaker than that of the London pharmacopoeia.
Pure alcohol h not employed in medicine, and there¬
fore the college of Edinburgh have given no formula
for its preparation.
Vitriolic
Sul- iuric
ether.
b. Liquor ^ethereus vitriolicus, D.
ethereal liquor.
This is prepared by putting 32 ounces of reddified
fpirit of wine into a retort that is capable of fupporting
a hidden heat, and pouring on it in a continued llream
32 ounces of fulphuric acid, mixing them gradually",
then placing the retort in heated fand, and diftilling off
16 ounces into a cool receiver, taking care fo to regu¬
late the heat that the mixture may boil as foon as poffi-
ble. The fpecific gravity fhould be about 753.
In a fimilar manner is prepared the
Spiritus iETHERls vitriolici, L. Spirit of vitri¬
olic ether.
This preparation is an impure effier, and, when pu¬
rified, as diredted below, it forms the officinal Julphuric
ether.
It is employed as a ftimulant in low fevers and fe¬
brile eruptions. Dofe from 6o to 100 drop-.
c. /Ether sulphuricus, E. /ETHER VITRI¬
OLICUS, L. D. Sulphuric ether. Vitriolic ether.
MEDICA, &c. 741
The colleges of London and Dublin direcd their ful- Hiftory of
phuric ether to be prepared by reddifying, the former
preparation by means of potath. According to the jy^iciiies.
former, two pounds of fpirit of vitriolic ether are to be ——
mixed with one meafured ounce of water of pure kali,
and the mixture diftilled with a gentle heat, till 14.
meafured ounces have come over. In the Dublin for¬
mula 16 ounces of vitriolic ethereal liquor are mixed
with two drams of powdered cauidic vegetable alkali j
and 10 ounces are dildilled off.
The Edinburgh college diredd 32 ounces of alcohol,
and the lame quantity of fulphuric acid, to be mixed
together in a proper retort, and 16 ounces to be diidil-
led over from a fand heat fuddenly applied. To the
diidilled liquor are then to be added two drachms of
potafh, and from a very high retort 10 ounces are to
be diidilled with a gentle fire.
On the chemical nature and properties of fulphuric
ether, fee Chemistry, Chap. XI. Sedd. II. Its fpeci¬
fic gravity ffiould be about 739.
The medical ufes of ether are thus deferibed by Dr
Duncan. “ As a medicine taken internally, it is an
excellent antifpafmodic, cordial, and ftimulant. In
catarrhal and afthmatic complaints, its vapour is inhaled
with advantage, by holding in the mouth a piece of fu-
gar, on which ether has been dropt. It is given as a
cordial in naufea, and in febrile difeafes of the typhoid
type, as an antifpalmodic in hyfteria, and in other
fpafmodic and painful difeafes } and as a ftimulus in fo-
porofe and apoplectic affections. Regular practitioners
feldom give fo much as half an ounce, much more fre¬
quently only a few drops, for a dofe } but empirics
have fometimes ventured upon much larger quantities,
and with incredible benefit. When applied externally,
it is capable of producing two very oppofite efftdds, ac¬
cording to its management ; for if it be prevented from
evaporating, by covering the place to which it is ap¬
plied clolely with the hand, it proves a powerful ftimu¬
lant arid rubefacient, and excites a fenfation of burning
heat. In this way it is frequently ufed for removing
pains in the head or teeth. On the contrary, if it be
dropt on any part of the body expofed freely to the
contact of the air, its rapid evaporation produces an in-
tenfe degree of cold ; and this is attended with a propor¬
tional diminution of bulk in the part to which it is ap-^ ^ ,
plied : in this way it has frequently facilitated the vt- j^ijpenj\^S
dudfion of ftrangulated hernia uny.
300
Oil of wine.
d. /Ether sulphuricus cum Alcohole, E. Sul- Sulphuric
phuric ether w ith alcohol. ether with
'This is prepared by mixing together one part of ful-
phurtc ether, and two parts of alcohol. In nature and
properties it agrees w ith the fpiritus ceihens mtriotici of
the London Pharmacopoeia.
e. Oleum Vini, L. Oil of wine;
This preparation is made by mixing together one
part of alcohol, and the fame quantity of fulphuric
acid, and diftiliing, taking care that no black troth
pals into the receiver. The oily part of the diftilled
liquor is to be feparated from the volatile acid j and to
the former is to be added as much water and pure kali,
as is fufficient to corredl the fulphureous fmell. Then
a gentle heat is to be applied to diitil off the little ether
that
742 ' MATERIA MEDICA, See.
Hiftory of (.hat the liquor contains j and the oil that floats on the
Suople and remaining fluid is to be feparated and preferved for
Medicines. U^e’ . . , , i . n • i p i
. Inis is employed chiefly as an ingredient in the roi-
lowing preparation ; though it is fometimes given alone
as a ftimulus, in a dofe from 10 to 20 drops.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Acidum acetosum destillatum, E.
TIM DISTILLATUM, L. D.
ACE-
Part IV7.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
303.
Aromatic
fulphuric
ether with
alcohol.
. 304
Diluted al¬
cohol.
301
Compound f. SPIRITUS tT/EHERIS VITRIOLICI COMPOSITES, L.
fpirit of vi- Compound fpirit of vitriolic ether.
triolic
ether. Prepared by mixing two pounds of fpirit of vitriolic
ether, and three drams of the oil of wine.
It is employed as an antifpafmodic in fimilar cafes, and
dofes, as fulphuric ether.
302
Oily ethe- g' LlQUOR 2ETHEREUS OLEOSUS, D. LIQUOR
real liquor. HOFFMANNI ANODYNES. Oily ethereal li¬
quor. Hoffmann's anodyne liquor.
Made by diftilling to one half the liquor that re¬
mains after preparing the Dublin vitriolic ether.
Similar in its properties to ether, but weaker. It is
much the fame as the former.
h. AEther sulphuricus cum Alcohole aromati-
cus, E. Aromatic fulphuric ether with alcohol.
This is prepared by digefting, for feven days, an
ounce of bruifed cinnamon, an ounce of bruifed leffer
cardamom feeds, and two drams of powdered long pep¬
per, in two pounds and a half of fulphuric ether with
alcohol.
A powerful flimulant and tonic. Dofe 30 drops to a
dram.
25. Alcohol dilutum, E. SPIRITUS VINO-
SUS TENUIOR, L. SPIRITUS VINI TE-
NUIOR. D. Diluted alcohol. Weaker fpirit of wine.
Prooffpirit.
This is rectified fpirit lowered with water to what is
called proof flrength, having a fpecific gravity of about
935. In all its effential properties it refembles com¬
mon fpirits, and either whilky or Britifli fpirit may be
ufed for it. The proof fpirit of commerce is ufually
diftilled either from molaffes or grain.
In pharmacy it is employed as a menftruum for mak¬
ing various tinftures.
26. Acidum acetosum impurum. ACETUM
VINI, D. ACETUM, L. Impure acetous acid.
Vinegar.
As the vinegar commonly met with is made from
other fermented liquors befides the juice of the grape,
we have inferted it here among the vegetable princi¬
ples. On the produ&ion and properties of vinegar,
fee Chemistry, N° 649 and 2310. Common vinegar,
befides diluted acetous acid, contains tartaric acid, tar¬
trate of potalh, fupertartrate of potalh, and mucilage.
It Ihould be tranfparent, of a pale yellow colour, fra¬
grant pungent fmell, and an agreeable {harp tafte. It
is feldom employed in medicine before it is purified by
diftillation or other proceffes to be immediately men¬
tioned. Vinegar is a good family remedy as a refrige¬
rant in fevers, as a ftimulant external application in
bruifes, fprains, &c. and vinegar whey made by coa¬
gulating warm milk by means of good vinegar, is one
of the beft auxiliary diaphoretics with which w e are ac¬
quainted.
3°5
Common
acetous
acid.
306
Diftilled
The Edinburgh college directs eight pounds of com-ac?tous
mon acetous acid to be diflilled in a glafs veflel with aaad’
gentle heat, fettingafide the firft two pounds that come
over, and preferving the next four pounds. The Dub¬
lin college directs 10 pounds of vinegar to be put into
the Itill, and fix pounds to be drawn off at once ; and
the London college, from five pounds, directs that there
Ihould be diftilled off as much as comes over free from
empyreuma.
Diftilled vinegar is freed from the falts and mucilage
contained in common vinegar, and therefore is purer
and keeps better j but it is much weaker than good
vinegar. If it has been diftilled in glafs veffels it can
have acquired no metallic impregnation ; but it is
fometimes, as well as common vinegar, adulterated
with fulphuric acid to make it appear ftronger. This
fraud may be detedted by adding muriate of baryta,
which will produce a white precipitate if fulphuric acid
be prefent.
It is employed for gargles, for preparing various ace~
tales, and other officinal medicines. It is alfo given as
a refrigerant diluted with water in feverilh diforders,
and is applied externally.
307
b. Acidum acetosum Forte, E. ACIDUM A-strong
CETOSUM, L. Strong acetous acid. Radical vi-^-^om
negar. Acetic acid. acid*
By the Edinburgh procefs, a pound of dried ful-
phate of iron is to be rubbed with 10 ounces of ace¬
tate of lead ; the mixture is then to be put into a re¬
tort, and diftilled as long as any acid comes over.
The London college diredfts two pounds of coarfely-
powdered verdigris, well dried by means of a water
bath, faturated with fea fait, to be put into a retort
and diftilled, repeating the diftillation with the liquor
that comes over.
On the produftion and properties of this acid, fee
Chemistry, N° 652, et feq. Its fpecific gravity
Ihould be about 1060. It is fometimes contaminated
with fulphurous acid or with lead. The former may
be difeovered by the unpleafant tickling cough it then
occafions when fnuffed up the nofe ; and the latter by
adding fulphuret of ammonia, by which, if lead be pre¬
fent, the liquor will be tinged of a dark brown.
This preparation is employed chiefly as a ftimulant to
be fnuffed up the nofe in lyncope, byfteria, and fimilar
affeftions : externally it afts as a rubefacient. Both this
and the two following may be ufed as fumigations to
correft the bad fmell of lick rooms.
E.
30 s
Aromatic vinegar. Aromatic
. vinegar.
c. Acetum aromaticum,
Vinegar of the four thieves.
Made by macerating four ounces of dried rofemary
tops, four ounces of dried fage leaves, two ounces of
dried lavender flowers, and two drams of cloves, in
eight pounds of diftilled acetous acid for feven days,
and draining.
Sometimes given as a ftimulus, diluted with water in
typhus.
d. Acidum
Part IV.
Hiftory of f . _
Simple and O. ACIDUM ACETOSUM CAMPHORATUM, E.
Officinal phorated acetous acid.
Medicines.
Cam-
309
Campho¬
rated ace¬
tous acid.
310
Syrup of
acetous
acid.
Prepared by diffolving half an ounce of camphor, re¬
duced to powder by being rubbed with alcohol, in fix
ounces of ftrong acetous acid.
This fhould be kept in glafs phials with ground Hop¬
pers. It is an excellent ftimulus for fnuffing up the no-
itrils.
MATERIA MEDICA, Sec. 7+3
lowing it to Hand till cold, when molt of the fulphate Hiftory of
of potath is feparated in cryflals. ^Offidna*!^
This alkaline carbonate is employed as a diuretic, Medicines,
mixed with infuiion of chamomile and fpirit of juniper,
in a dofe of about a fcruple repeated occafionally j and
as an antacid. It is alfo employed in combination
with citric acid, to relieve naufea and check vomit-
ing.
e. Syr.upus Acidi acetosi, E. Syrup of acetous
acid.
This is prepared by boiling together two pounds and
a half of acetous acid (common vinegar), and three
pounds and a half of double refined fugar.
Ufed in the fame cafes as acetated honey, (fee N°
277.) to which it is preferable.
b. Aqua
MITE, D.
Kali prtEparati, L.
Water of prepared kali.
3!4
LIXIVIUM Water of
Mi/d ley. prepared
kali.
This is made by allowing fubcarbonate of potafh to
deliquefee in a moift atmofphere, and ftraining it j or,
by diffolving it in an equal weight of water.
It poifeffrs the fame properties as the dry car¬
bonate, and is employed chiefly for decompofing other
falts.
Acetate of Acetas Potassa:, E. KALI ACETATUM,
potaffi. L. ALKALI VEGETABILE ACETATUM,
D. SAL DIURETICUS. Acetate of potafh. A-
cetated kali. Acetated vegetable alkali. Diuretic fait.
This fait is made by boiling any quantity of fubcar¬
bonate of potafh with diftilled acetous acid, firlt ufing
about five times its weight, and, during the boiling,
gradually adding more till all effervefcence ceafes,
flowly evaporating to drynefs, fufing the dry fait, then
diffolving it in water, and flowly evaporating the folu-
tion till there remains a dry white faline mafs, \yhich is
to be kept well ftopt from the air, in which it deli-
quefees. See CHEMISTRY, N° 987.
Acetate of potafh is employed as a diuretic in a dofe
of from one to four fcruples, and in a dilute folution as
a refrigerant in fevers, &c.
312
Impure fub- 27. SuBCARBONAS PoTASSAl IMPURUS. CARBO-
carbonate NAS POTASSiE IMPURUS, E. CINERES
efpotath. CLAVELLATI, L. ALKALI FIXUM VE¬
GETABILE, D. Impure fubcarbonate of potafh.
Potajhes. Pearl ajhes. Fixed vegetable alkali.
For the produ&ion and nature of this alkaline fub-
ftance, fee Chemistry, Chap. XII. Se£L I. It is fel-
dom employed in pharmacy, except as the bafis of fome
officinal preparations.
3*3
Subcarbo- a. SuBCARBONAS PoTASSJE. CARBONAS POT-
nateotpot-Ass^E, E. KALI PRiEPARATUM, L. AL-
^ KALI VEGETABILE MITE, D. Subcarbonate
of potafh. Carbonate of potafh. Prepared kali. Mild
vegetable alkali.
c. Aqua Carbonatis Potassje. AQUA SUPER-Water of
CARBONATiS POTAS yE, E. LIQUOR AL- carbonate
KALI VEGETABILIS MITISSIMI, D. Wa-otPotafl1,
ter of carbonate of potafh. Solution of mildef vegetable
alkali.
This is properly a neutral fait, and is prepared by dif¬
folving fubcarbonate of potafh in water, and faturating
it with carbonic acid, by pafling through it a ftream of
this gas, arifing from the decompofition of carbonate of
lime by diluted fulphuric acid.
On the nature of this fait, fee Chemistry, N° 109,
174.
By this means the alkaline carbonate is better adapt¬
ed for internal ufe, as it is rendered not only more plea-
fant to the tafte, but is lefs apt to offend the ftomach.
Indeed it is the only form in which we can exhibit
potafh in fuffieient dofes, and for a fufficient length of
time, to derive much benefit from its ufe in calculous
complaints. It has certainly been frequently of advan¬
tage in thefe affedtions, but probably only in thofe in-
ftances in which the ftone confifls of uric acid, or urate
of ammonia j for though fuperfaturated with carbonic
acid, yet the affinity of that acid for potafh is fo weak,
that it really operates as an alkali.
Six or eight ounces may be taken two or three times
a-day. It in general proves powerfully diuretic, and
fometimes produces inebriation. This laft effedt is
aferibed to the carbonic acid.
d. Aqua Potassae, E. AQUA KALI PURI, L.Waterof
LIXIVIUM CAUSilCUM, D. Water of potafh.potaffi.
Water of pure kali. Cauftc ley.
This is ufually prepared from the former fubftance,
which is purified by burning it in a crucible, then dif¬
folving it in water, filtering and evaporating to drynefs
in a clean iron pot, ftirring the mafs as it dries, to pre¬
vent its coalefcing into one cake.
This fait appears in fmall white grains of fcarcely
any perceptible fmell, but of a hot alkaline tafte.
When pure, it fhould diffolve entirely in cold water,
and fhould deliquefee in moift air into a limpid tranfpa-
rent fluid.
As ufually made, it contains a confiderable propor¬
tion of fulphate of potafh, which may be feparated from
it by mixing it with its own w'eight of water, and al-
The following is the Edinburgh procefs for obtain¬
ing a folution of pure potafh.
Take of newly prepared lime, eight ounces; carbo¬
nate of potafh, fix ounces. Put the lime into an iron
or earthen veffel, with 28 ounces of warm water. Af¬
ter the ebullition is finifhed, inftantly add the fait, and
having thoroughly mixed them, cover the veffel till
they- cool. When the mixture has cooled, agitate it
well, and pour it into a glafs funnel, whofe throat muft
be obftrudled with a piece of clean linen. Cover the
upper orifice of the funnel, and infert its tube into an¬
other glafs veffel, fo that the water of potafh may gra¬
dually drop through the rag into the lower veffel. As
744
H ftory of foon as it ceafes to drop, pour into the funnel fome
iimni.-: am . . r . . . 1 • n ^
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part IV.
S;mple an
Offi Inal
JWedict' es
317
Fotafli.
3lS
Potalh with
lime.
3T9
Bees wax.
ounces of water, but cautioufly, fo that it may fwim
above the matter. The water of poialh will again be¬
gin to drop, and the atfufion of water K to be repeated
in the fame manner, until three pounds have dropped,
which will happen in the fpaCe ot two or three days ;
then mix the fuporior and inferior parts of the liquor
together by agitation, and keep it in a well-ttopped
phial.
From this procefs thofe of the London and Dublin
colleges do not materially differ. For other methods
of procuring pure poiafh, fee Chemistry, N° 905,
etJ^\
This preparation was formerly much employed in
calculous dilorders. From 10 to 40 drops were given
in gruel, milk, or broth, twice or thrice a-day ; but
even in thefe doles it has often proved highly injurious,
when long continued, to the organs of digefiion.
Ht nee it has been juldy fuperfeded by the folution of
carbonate of potalh above mentioned.
e. Potassa, E. KALI PURUM, L. ALKALI
VEGE i'ABILE CA USTICUM, D. LAPIS IN¬
FERN A LiS. Potaih. Pure koii. Caujhc vegetable
a.kail. Common Jh onger caujiic.
This is made by evaporating any quantity of the fo¬
lution of potalh in a very clean covered iron Veffel, till
on the ebullition ceafing, the laline matter flows like
oil, wh ch happens before the veffel becomes red. The
mafs is then to be poured out on a fmooth iron plate,
till it be divided into fmall pieces before it hardens,
when it muff be depofiled in a well-ftopt phial.
This has been long employed by furgeons as a cauf-
tic j but its life in this way is inconvenient, as from its
rapid deliquefcence it is not eafily confined.
f Potassa cum Calce, E. CALX CUM KALI
PURO. L. CAUSTiCUM MITIUS, D. Potalh
with lime. Lime w.t/i pure kj/i. Milder caujiic.
Made by evaporating in a covered iron veffel any
quantity of folution of potalh till ic is reduted to a
third, and then gradually adding as much newly flaked
or powdered lime as is lufficient to form a thick mafs
which is to be kept in a clofely flopped veiled. This is
employed as a cauftic, and is milder in its operation,
and more manageable than the laft.
28. Cera, Bees wax.
Though wax is generally obtained from honey¬
combs, we have here introduced it as a vegetable prin¬
ciple, fince modern chemiftry has Ihown that it may be
obtained by certain proceffes from molt vegetables.
S Chemistry, N° 2432.
I wo varieties of wax are employed in medicine, cera
fava, yellow wax, which is the wax as it is naturally
procured from the comb, and cera alba, white wax,
bleached by art. They do not differ in their fVnfible
properties, and the white wax is only preferable to the
yellow, from its making ointments, &c. of a more deli¬
cate colour.
Wax is feldom employed internally, though it is
fometimes admmiftered as an emollient bv way of
emulfion in diarrhoea and dyfentery. It is ufed chief¬
ly for preparing ointments, liniments, and cerates.
Officinal Preparations,
a. Linimentum simplex, E. Simple liniment
Made by melting together one part of white wax, and
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
four of olive oil.
b. Unguentum simplex, E.
324
Atnn onia-
.32o.
Simple lini-
me! t.
Simple ointment. 321
This differs from the laft, only in its proportions,ment.
being eompofed of two parts of white wax, and four of
olive oil.
c. Unguentum GEkEUM, L. D. Wax ointment. Wax3omt.
Made by melting together four ounces of white wax, mUlt’
three ounces of fpermaceti, and a pint of olive oil.
ff. Emplastrum simplex, E. EM PL ASTRltM sim.T3
CER^Ll, D. EMPLASTRUM CERAE COMP0-piatfer.
SlTU.Vl. L. Simple plaiter. Wax p.ajier. Com¬
pound wax plajler.
The Edinburgh preparation is compofed of three
parts of yellow wax, and of mutton luet and white ro-
fin each two parts ; that of London and Dublin col¬
leges is formed from yellow wax and mutton fuel, each
three pounds, and yellow rofin one pound.
29. Ammoniacum. Gum ammoniac.
1 his is a common concrete, gummy, refinous juice "um*
from the Eaft Indies, generally in large maffes, com-
poled of little lumps or tears, of a milky whitehefs :
the external parts of the mafs are commonly yellowifh
or browniih, and the white tears change to the fame
colour on being expofed for fome time to the air. Of
the plant from which it is extracted, we have no further
knowledge, than what is learnt from th.e feeds found
among the tears, which referable thofe of dill, except
that they are larger, and apparently belong to a plant
of th e umbelliferous kind.
Ammoniacum has a ffrong fmeli, and a naufeous
fweetilh tafte, which is followed by a bitter one. It is
frequently made ufe of in aflhmas, in menftrual fup-
preffions, and cachectic indifpofitions* In obflruftions
of the breaft it is accounted the moft eftVdlual of the
aperient gums : in hyfterie -cates, fome of the others
are preferred or joined to it, on account, chiefly, of
tneir more powerful (mell. It is moft commodioufly
taken in the form of pills ', the dole is a fcruple or half
a dram every night or oftener : in larger dofes, as a
dram, it generally loofens the belly. Applied exter-
nally, it is fuppoled to diicufs hard indolent tumours.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Ammoniacum purificatum. Purified gum am¬
moniac.
Ammoniacum is purified by melting it in hot water,
fqueezing it through linen, and evaporating to a proper
confiftence.
‘ 325
Purified
gum amma»
mac.
b. Lac Ammoniaci,
monia.
L. D.
326
Emulfion of gum am- Emu lion of
glim am-
Made by triturating two drams of ammoniac with
half a pint of diftifled water till an emulfion is formed.
Given in moft cafes where ammoniac is ufed as an
eXpeftorant. Dofe an ounce or two, repeated oc-
Cctfionally.
c. Emplastrum
Part IV.
c. Emplastrum gummosum.
Gum plafter.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines. Made by melting together eight parts of plafter of
' v*■” femivitrified oxide of lead, one part of gum ammoniac,
and the fame proportion of galbanum and yellow wax.
Employed to form adhelive plafters.
327
Myrrh. 30 MyRRHA. Myrrh.
Myrrh is a gum refin brought from the Eaft Indies,
or from Abyffinia. The belt myrrh is in the form of
tears. It ftiould be of a yellow, or reddilh yellow co¬
lour, becoming redder when breathed on, light, brittle,
of an unftuous feel, pellucid, fhining, prefenting white
femicircular ftriae in its fra&ure; of a very bitter aro¬
matic tafte, and a ftrong, peculiar, not unpleafant
odour. It is not good if whitilh, dark-coloured, black,
refinous, ill-fmelled, or mixed with impurities, which
is too commonly the cafe.
Neumann afcertained that water and alcohol are both
of them capable of taking up the whole of the tafte and
fmell of the myrrh, the extraft made by either after the
other being infipid. The alcohol diftilled from the
tincture elevated none of the flavour of the myrrh ; but
during the infpiffation of the decoftion a volatile oil a-
rofe, containing the whole of the flavour of the myrrh,
and heavier than water, while the extrafl was merely
bitter. From 7680 parts of myrrh he got 6oco w atery
extraft, 180 volatile oil, and 720 alcoholic-, and in-
yerfely, 2400 alcoholic, and 4200 watery. Dr Duncan
junior has obferved that the tindure is tranfparent, and
when poured into water, forms a yellow opaque fluid,
but lets fall no precipitate, while the watery folution is
always yellow and opaque and that myrrh is not fufi-
ble, and is difficultly inflammable. Mr Hatchett found
, it foluble in alkalies.
Myrrh is a heating ftimulating medicine. It fre¬
quently occafions a mild diaphorefis, and promotes the
fluid fecretions in general. Hence it proves ferviceable
in cache£licdifeafes,arifingfrom inaftivity of the fyftem,
and is fuppofed to acf efpecially upon the uterine fyftem,
and to refift putrefadftion.
It is exhibited in fubftance; in the form of powder,
or made up into pills, in doles of 10 to 60' grains j
diflblyed in water, as in Griffith’s famous, but un-
* chemical, myrrh mixture j and diffolved in alcohol*.
Mfpenfa-
r^' Officinal Preparations.
Tindture of a. TlNCTURA Myrrhas. Tindure of myrrh
myrrh. J
This tindure is made by digefting three ounces of
powdered myrrh in about 26 ounces of alcohol, mixed
with 10 ounces of water, according to the Edinburgh
procefs; half a pint of alcohol, with a pint and a half
of proof fpirit, according to the London college ; or
two pounds of alcohol according to that of Dublin, for
feven or eight days.
_ Tindure of myrrh is feldora given internally, its prin¬
cipal ufe being as an external application, either as a
gargle, or as a lotion for cleanfing foul ulcers, and pro¬
moting the exfoliation of carious bones.
329
Compound b. Pulvis Myrrhs compositus, L. Compound
powder of powder of myrrh.
myrrh.
Made by rubbing together into a powder equal
Vol. XII. Part II.
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c. -745
parts of myrrh, dried favine, dried rue, and Ruffian Hidory of
caftor. Simple and
Given as a ftimulus in uterine obftrudions. Dofe
from a fcruple to a dram feveral times in the day.
Officinal
Medicines.
31. Sagapenum. See Chemistry, N° 2495. Sa^ane-
3di
Sagapenum is employed as a ftimulant and antifpaf-
modic, chiefly in combination with other gum refins, to
be mentioned hereafter.
32. Angustura. CORTEX ANGUSTUR^E-An§u"ftui'a-
Anguftura bark.
This bark was fome years ago introduced into this
country from the Weft Indies. It is not certainly-
known of what tree it is the produce, but it is probable
that it is a fpecies of cinchona. It it thus defcribed by
Mr Brande. “ There is a confiderable variety in the
external appearance of the anguilura bark, owing, how¬
ever, probably, to its having been taken from trees of
different fizes and ages, or from various parts of the fame
tree, as the tafte and other properties perfectly agree.
Some parcels (fays Mr Brande), which I have ex¬
amined, confift chiefly of flips torn from branches which
could not have exceeded the thicknefs of a finger.
Thefe are often fmooth, three feet or more in length,
and rolled up into frnall bundles. In others, the pieces
have evidently been, for the greater part, taken from
the trunk of a large tree, and are nearly flat, with quills
of all fizes intermixed.
“ I he outer furface of the anguflura bark, when good,
is in general more or lefs wrinkled, and covered with a
coat of a grayifh-white, below which it is brown, with
a yellow caft : the inner furface is of a dull browniftiyel-
low colour. It breaks fliort and refinous. The fmell
is Angular and unpleafant, but not very powerful; the
tafte mteniely bitter, and (lightly aromatic j in fome
degree refembling bitter almonds, but very lading,
and leaving a fenfe of heat and pungency in the throat.
This bark, when powdered, is not unlike the powder
of Indian rhubarb. It burns pretty freely, but with¬
out any particular fmell * see
It is employed as a tonic, generally in fubftance ;
dofe from 15 to 30 grains. It"may alfo be given in the A”gn-
the form of infufion, decoftion, tinfture, or extraft/"'"
It is well adapted to cafes of debility of the alimentary
canal.
33. Colomba. RADIX COLOMBO. ColomboColumbo
ro°t- root.
This root is brought from Columbo, a town in the
ifland of Ceylon, to which it was originally tranfplanted
from the continent of India. It is called by the Portu-
guefe Raijs de Mofatnbique. We are as yet unaquaint-
ed with the vegetable of which it is a part.
Columbo root comes to us in circular pieces, which
are from half an inch to three inches in diameter, and from
two inches to a quarter of an inch in length. The Tides
are covered with a thick wrinkled bark, of a dark
brown colour externally, but of a light colour within.
The fuifaces of the tranfverfe feftions appear very un¬
equal, higheft at the edges, with a concavity towards
the centre. On paring off this rough furface, the root
is feen to confift of three laminae, the cortical, ligneous,
and medullary. This laft is much the fofteft, and,
when chewed, feems very mucilaginous. A number of
frnall fibres run longitudinally through it, and appear
5 B on
74<5 MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Hiftory of on the furface. The cortical and ligneous parts are di-
Simpleand by a circular black line. All the thicker pieces
McT'C'nes ^iave tloles drilled through them, for the conve-
i ^  nience of drying.
This root has an aromatic fmell, but is difagreeably
bitter and pungent to the taile, relembling muitard ieed
long kept.
This is an excellent bitter tonic, ufeful in debilities
of the ftomach and inteflinal canal, in bilious diar¬
rhoeas, in bilious fevers, in which it fometimes agrees
when Peruvian bark fails ; in the naufea and vomiting
attending pregnancy. It is ufually given in fubilance,
in a dole from 15 grains to half a dram, or by way of
infulion.
Part IV.
grains. It has fometimes been ufed with advantage as Hiiknyof
a mafticatory in ft ruinous affections of the tonfils. It is
often pretcribed in the form of a watery infufion, made ;y|t(^cme5<
by fleeping two ounces of the bruiftd root in one pint c —'y... ^
of boiling water. A imall wine glafs full of inch an
infufion,' taken warm three or four times a day, has
aft'oided great relief in many cafes of gouty dyf-
pepfia.
Officinal Preparations.
Officinal Preparation.
Tjnctura Colombo, E. L. TinCture of Columbo.
353 .
Tindture of The Edinburgh college direCl this tincture to be
columbo. by deeding for eight days two ounces of columbo
root in two pounds of diluted alcohol. Ihe London
tinClure is ftronger than this, being made with two
ounces and a half of the root to two pints of proof
fpu-it. This tinfture may be given in a dofe of a dram
or two.
. For fome valuable obfervations on the nature and ufe
of columbo root, fee Percival's Effiayr, vol. ii.
Sect. II. Medicinal Vegetables, arranged according to
the Syflem oj Linnceus.
a. Tinctura Zingiberis, L. TinClure of ginger. Tii.dture of
This is made by digefting two ounces of powdered §inStr'
ginger in two pounds of proof fpirit, for eight days.
It may be given in a dofe of two or three drams, mixed
with water.
/ _ 338
b. Syrupus Amomi Zingiberis, E. SYR UP US Syrup of
ZINGIBEKIS, L. Syrup of ginger. goiger.
The Edinburgh fyrup is made by macerating three
ounces of beaten ginger in four pounds of boiling water
for 24 hours in a covered veffel, and then forming the
fyrup by adding feven pounds and a half of double re¬
fined fugar. The fyrup of the London college is made ✓
with four ounces of bruiled gingtr to three pints of
boiling diililled water, adding a fufficient quantity of
double refined fugar to make a fyrup.
A ufeful addition to ftimulating mixtures, and em¬
ployed in pharmacy as a conilituent in feveral eieClua-
ries and pills.
334
Round ze-
dosiy.
335.
Turmeric
root.
Class I. MONANDRIA. Order 1. Monogynia.
34. K/EMpferia rotunda. ZEDOARIA, L.
Round zedoaiy root.
This is a fpicy root brought from the Eaft Indies, in
pieces about an inch Iona, rather rough on the furfaee,
and commonly terminating in a point. It is feldo m
employed except as an ingredient in an aromatic
eleftuary to be afterwards mentioned.
35. Curcuma longa. CURCUMA, L. Tur¬
meric root.
This is brought from the Eaft Indies, where it is
employer) as a fp'ce. The roots are tuberous, long,
knotty, and wrinkled *, of a pale yellow colour exter¬
nally, and a fhining faffron brown within •, of a weak
aromatic fmell, and a warm, {lightly bitter tafte.
Seldom employed in th s country as a remedy, but
much ufed in the comp ifition of curry powder.
736
Gin-er. 36. Amomum zingiber, E. ZINGIBER, L. D.
Ginger root. See Botany, p. 76.
This is the lead acrimonious of all the foreign aro¬
matics. It may be taken in confidtrable quantities, ei¬
ther with food or a^ a medicine. It is an excellent ftimu-
lant, peculiarly fuited to the conflitutions of thofe whofe
ftomachs are fubjedf to flatulency, atonic gout, and
other diforders maiked by want of energy in the organs
of digeftion. In thefe cafes it may be given either by
itfelf, or combined with bitters and other tonics. It is
alfo joined with antacids. It is a common and ufe¬
ful addition to cathartic medicines, particularly to in-
fufior.s and tinfluresof the vegetable cathartics, ferving
to moderate their irritating adlion on the bowels. The
pulverized root may be given in dofes from JO to 30
37. Amomum Zedoaria, D. Long zedoary root.Long zed«-
A fpicy root brought from the Eaif Indies, efpecially arj*
from Ceylon, much refembling the ktempferia in pro¬
perties, but rather itronger.
34®
38. Amomum Cardamomum. AMOMUM RE-Cfi rcar*
PENS, E. CARDAMOMUM MENUS, L.
Lefl'er cardamom feeds.
It is uncertain whether thefe feeds are the produce
of the amomum cardamomum or repens. They are
brought from the Eaft Indies, and form a very grateful
aromatic, frequently employed in practice as a ftimu-
lant. They are brought to us in little whitifh, round-
ifh, tiiangular, pointed pods. Ihe feeds are of a dark
brown colour, of a fragrant fmell, and pungent, rather
faltifti tafte. The hulks are leparated from the reft by
beating them in a mortar.
Officinal Preparations.
341
a. Tinctura Amomi repentis, E. TINCTUR A Tindture of
CARDAMOMI, L. D. Tincture of cardamom cardamom
r , . " feeds,
feeds.
The Edinburgh tin&ure is made by digefting for
feven days, four ounces of bruifed cardamom feeds in
two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol. In the Lon¬
don formula, three ounces of the feeds are digefted for
eight days in two pints of proof fpirit. Dofe two or
three drams.
b. Tinctura Cardamomi composita, L. D. Com- compound
pound tinfture of cardamom feeds. tindture of
Made by digefting two drams of leffer cardamom^4*
feeds powdered, the fame quantity of powdered ca¬
raway
Part IV,
HUtory of raway feeds (and in tlie London formula, of cochineal)
^Offiona!^ an ounce ^ruifed cinnamon, and four ounces
Medicines d°ned raifins, in two pints, (or according to the
Dublin college, two pounds), of proof fpirit for 14
days,
A very grateful aromatic tinfdure, fometimes given
alone as a cordial, in a dofe of three or four drams, but
more commonly added to ftimulant draughts and juleps,
to which it gives a fine rich colour.
343
Galangal 39. MaRANTA GalANGA. GALANGA. Galan-
root. gat root.
Sometimes employed as a warm aromatic, in a dofe of
about a fcruple.
7n
London college, a pound and a half, of rofemary tops, Hifh ;> ol
with a gallon of diluted alcohol, and a iufficienl quan-a'j^
tity of water to prevent burning, diitilling off a gal- '^es.
Ion.
Chiefly .employed to form fome compound tinflures,
or as an external ftimulant, in which way it is com¬
monly ufed under the name of Hungary water.
349
43. Salvia officinalis, E. SALVIA, L. D. Sage.
Sage leaves.
An infufion of fage leaves is fometimes employed as
a refrefliing drink in fevers, and has been recommend-
rd as a tonic in nervous debilities and dyfpepfia. It
forms a good fubftitute for Chinefe tea.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Class II. DIANDRIA. Order 1. Monogynia.
344
Oliveod. 40. Olea Europ/ea, E. OLIVA, L. D. The
olive tree. OLEUM OLIViE. Olive oil.
Pure olive oil fliould have a fine rich greenifli yellow
colour, with fcarcely any perceptible tafte or fmell j
fhould be perfeftly tranfparent, and fhould congeal at
about 38° of Fahrenheit. It is brought to us from the
fouth of France, from Italv, and the Levant. The beft
is fuppofed to come from Florence.
Olive oil is chiefly employed as an emollient, both
externally and internally. Internally it U fometimes
employed as a gentle laxative, and to moderate the ac¬
tion of acrid fubilances, efpecially poilons. It has been
given as an anthelmintic, either alone or formed into
an emulfion with ammonia.
345
Hedge hyf- 41. Gratiola OFFICINALIS, E. GRATIOLA,
l0i5* L, Hedge hyflbp.
This plant, when dried, is for,retimes employed as a
draftic purgative and anthelmintic, given in fubftance,
in a dole of from 20 to 30 grains, or by way of infu-
iion, to the extent of 3 drams. Its ule requires cau¬
tion.
346
Rofewury. 42. Rosmarinus officinalis, E. ROSMARI¬
NUS, L. D. Rofennary.
The tops of rofemary are ufed as a ftimulant, and
form an ingredient in fome tin<Rures. Rofemary owes
its ftimulating powers to its eflential oil, which is very
fimilar to camphor.
0 'Preparations.
Volatile a‘ ^LEU1Vf VOLATILE RoRISMARINI OFFICINALIS,
«i! of rote- E. OLEUM ROillSMARlNI, L. Volatile oil
mary. of rolemary.
This oil, like mod of the other volatile oils of aro¬
matic plants, is obtained by diftilling the plant with a
fufficient quantity of water to prevent burning, and fe-
parating he oil that floats on the furtace of the diftilled
liquor, by means of a funnel with a long capillary
tube.
Oil of rofemary is feldotn employed'alone, but it
may be given in a dofe of a few drops as a ftimu¬
lant.
Spirit3!* SPIRITUS RoRISMARINI OFFICINALIS, E. SPI-
rofemary. RO US RORI MARINI, L, Spirit of rofemary.
Made by diftilling 2 pounds, or, according to the
yo
44. Veronica Recabunga. BECABUNGA, L. Srookfime.
D. Brooklime. See Botany, p. 84.
A common fucculent plant that has been recom¬
mended as an excellent antilcorbutic.
Order 3. Trigynia.
45- PiPER nigrum. Black pepper. Black'pep.
This is brought from the Eait Indies, being culti-Per-
vated chiefly in Jaya and Malabar. White pepper is
the fame fruit, with the black bark taken off.
Pepper is one of the molt heating fpices, and is Lid
fometimes to act violently on the kidneys, fo as when
taken in large quantities to excite nephritis. It is not
frequently given internally as a flimulant, efpecially in
the form of powder. A few grains of white pepper
fwallowed whole, are recommended by fome pradilion-
ers, as a remedy in the debility of the digeftive or¬
gans.
46. Piper Cubeba. CUBEB A, L. Cubebs. Cubebl
Thefe are fcarcely to be diftinguilhed by the eye
from common pepper, except in being furnilhed with a
long flender ftalk. They are brought from Java. In
ftimulating properties they referable pepper, but are
much weaker, and are feldom ufed.
47. Piper Longum. Long pepper. Long pep-
Long pepper appears in fmall round grains, difpofedper‘
fpirally in a long cylindrical head. It is extremely
pungent, and has a kind of falulh tafte. It is employ¬
ed chiefly as an ingredient in an aromatic eleduary
and tinduie.
Class III. 1RIANBRIA. Order 1. Monogynia.
48. Valeriana officinalis, E. VALERI
ANA SYLVES1R1S, E D. Valerian root.
V aleriam
root.
I his root confifts of a number of firings or fibres, of
a pale brownilh colour, proceeding from a common
flock, and matted together. It has a very ftrong, un-
plealant fmell, and a warm, bitterilh, acrid tafle. It
imparts its fmell to water diftilled from it, and moft of
its properties may be imparted to alcohol. Valerian
grows commonly in Britain, and the beft is that which
grows in jiigh, dry fituations. The roots ftrould be
tak'm up in autumn or winter.
Valerian is a valuable antnpafmodic, and is properly
ranked among the moft powerful of that clafs of reme¬
dies. It has been found efficacious in epilepfy, in which
it fliould be given in fubftance, in large dofes, to the
J £ 2 extent
748
Hiftory of extent of a dram or two feveral times a day. It is
*n hyfteria# an<^ in cafes of great nervous fenfibi-
Medicines ^ fometimes united with cinchona in the form
y—— of an eleftuary. 7'he ufual dofe is from 15 to 30
grains. Its unpleafant flavour is mofl: effe&ually con¬
cealed by the addition of a little mace.
MATERIA MED1CA, See. Part IV.
into flueds, in 15 ounces of diluted alcohol for feven Hiftory of
days, and [training the tinfture. ^‘iri^.le. ant*
By fome praftitioners this is confidered as a pood re- ,, ,.cina
medy in chronic weaknefs, and is given in the dofe of a . v__.
table fpoonful undiluted, every morning.
360
50. Iris Florentina, E. IRIS, L. Florentine Florentiae
Officinal Preparations.
Tindiure of a- Tinctura Valeriani, L. Tin&ure of va-
vaienan. lerian.
This is made by digefting four ounces of valerian
root in coarfe powder in two pints of proof fpirit for
eight days, with a gentle heat.
This tinfture is given in the fame cafes in which va¬
lerian is ufefui in fubflance, in a dofe of from two to
four drams ; but it is not fo efficacious as the powder,
or the following tindhire.
b. Tinctura Valeriani ammoniata,
Ammoniated timSlure of valerian.
L. D.
Made by digefting for eight days, in a clofely cover¬
ed veffel, four ounces of powdered valerian root in two
pints of compound fpirit of ammonia.
This is perhaps the bell form in which valerian can
be given, as its antifpafmodic virtues are much improv¬
ed by the addition of ammonia. Eofe a dram or two,
which is bell taken in water a little warmed.
356
Refinous C- ExTRACTUM VALERIANI SYLVESTRIS ReSIN-
extr. dl of osum, D. Refinous extract of wild valerian,
wild vale¬
rian. 'I his extrafl is made by digefting for four days a
pound of powdered valerian in four pounds of redlified
fpirit of wine ; then pouring off the tinflure, and boil¬
ing the refiduum in 12 pounds of water to two pounds.
The two liquors are to be ftrained feparately ; the de-
codlion is to be boiled, and the tindlure diftilled, till
both are fufficiently thick, and they are then to be mix¬
ed together.
Of the effeefs of this extraft we have had no expe¬
rience j but we believe an extract made by infpiffating
the ammoniated timElure, has been given with fuccefs
in the form of pills.
357
Saffron. 49. Crocus Sativus, E. CROCUS, L. D. Saf¬
fron.
Saffron is made from the ftigmata of the above fpe-
cies of the crocus, which is cultivated for that purpofe
in fome parts of England, efpecially in Effex. Saffron
is alfo brought from abroad, but that of our own pro¬
duce is confidered as the beft. See Botany, p. 100.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Syrupus Croci, L. Syrup of faffron.
Ihis is made by infufing an ounce of faffron in a
pint of boiling diftilled water for 12 hours, and boiling
the ftrained infufion with a fufficient quantity of double
refined fugar to form a fyrup.
Syrup of faffron is chiefly ufed as a pleafant addition
to draughts and juleps, to which it imparts a fine yel¬
low colour.
Tin<3ure of b‘ T™CTURa Croci, E. Tinfture of faffron.
A «Y'.
Made by digefting an ounce of Engliffi faffron cut
3
35s
Syrup of
faffron.
This is brought from Italy in white, flattifh, knotty
pieces, that are very difficult to break or powder. It
has an agreeable fragrant fmell, and a (lightly bitter
tafte. It is employed chiefly as a perfume.
51. Iris Pseudacorus.' IRIS, D. Water flag. Water
See Botany, p. 100.
Order 2 Digynia.
363
52. Saccharijm Officinarum. Sugar. SAC-Sugar.
CHARUM NON PURIF1CATUM, E. L. SAC- 36,
CHARUM RUBRUM, D. Brown fugar. SAC-Refined
CHARUM PUR1FICATUM, L. D. SACCHA-fu§ar‘
RUM PURISSIMUM, E. Refined lugar.
On the chemical properties of fugar, fee Chemistry.
Brown fugar is fometimes employed as a gentle laxa¬
tive, efpecially in clyfters. Refined fugar is ufed chiefly
in making fyrups and conferves, and in giving an agree¬
able tafte.
3%
Simple
fjrup.
3<5S
Officinal Preparation.
a. Syrupus simplex, E. Simple fyrup.
Made by diffolving 15 parts of double refined fugar
in 8 of water, by a gentle heat.
53. Avena sativa, E. AVENA, L. Oats. Oats.
Oats are employed in medicine chiefly to form gruel,
which is made either from groats or oatmeal, and is an
ufefui diluent in febrile and inflammatory affe&ions,
and is alfo ufed in clyfters as an emollient. Poultices
are fometimes made of oatmeal, mixed with other fub-
ftances according to the nature of the cafe.
54. TRITICUM I I Common wheat. Common
FARINA. Flour. AMYLUM Starch. wheat*
367
Flour and ftarch are fometimes ufed as emollients, Starch,
efpecially the latter, in the form of clyfters or troches,
in cafes of diarrhoea, dyfentery, &c.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Mucilago Amyli, E. L. Mucilage of ftarch. Mu^ge
Made by triturating half an ounce of ftarch with one01 ^arc*!*
pound of water, and then boiling the liquor till it be
fufficiently thick.
b. Trochisci Amyli, L. Troches of ftarch. Trochfs cf
Compofed of an ounce and a half of ftarch, fix drams ftarch*
of extradt of liquorice, half an ounce of powdered Flo¬
rentine orris root, and one pound and a half of double
refined fugar, made into a mafs for troches, with muci¬
lage of gum tragacanth.
Thefe troches are employed as demulcents, to allay
the irritation of tickling coughs.
55. Hordeum
Part IV. MATERIA
Smfpleand 55- HORDEUM DISTICIION, E. D. HORDEUM,
Officinal L. Common barley.
Medicines.
37°
Common
bailey.
371
Decodlion
Common barley freed from the hulks, and formed
into what is called pearl barley, is ufed in medicine as
an emollient in the form of decoftion, or barley water.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Decoctum Hordei distichi,E. DECOCTUM
oi barley. HORDEI, L. Decobtion of barley.
MEDICA, &c. 749
of from 30 to 40 grains 5 and a deeo&ion of it, ufed as Hiftory of
a gargle, has been recommended in putrid fore throat. Sofficinal
n . • Medicines.
Officinal Preparation. —v - a
376
a. PuLVIS CoNTRAYERViE COMPOSITES, L. Com- ComPol*nd
pound powder of contrayerva. conuayer
This is made by mixing together five ounces ofva'*
powdered contrayerva, and one pound and a half of
powder of crabs claws. Dofe about a dram, repeated
every three or four hours.
The making of barley water requires more nicety
than is ufually fuppofed. The following is the method
direfted in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.
Take of pearl barley two ounces j water five pounds.
Firft walh off the mealy part which adheres to the
barley with fome cold water ; then extrafl the colour¬
ing matter by boiling it a little with about half a pound
of water. Throw this decoftion away, and put the
barley thus purified into five pounds of boiling water,
which is to be boiled down to one-half, and ftrain the
decoftion.
37*
Compound b. Decoctum Hordei compositum, L. Com-
decodhon of pound decoflion of barley.
barley.
Made by boiling two pints of the decoftion of barley,
two ounces of fliced figs, half an ounce of liquorice
root fliced and bruifed, two ounces of ftoned raifins,
in one pint of diftilled water, boiled to two pints and
{trained.
Thefe decoftions may be ufed as common drink, in
pneumonia, and fimilar alfedtions of the breaft.
Class IV. TETRANDRIA. Order x. Monogynia.
Sarcocol. 56. Penlea sarcocolla. SARCOCOLLA, L.
Sarcocol. See Chemistry, N° 2493.
374
Madder 57. RuBIA TINCTORUM, E. RURIA, L. D. Mad-
*oet* der root.
This root has been long reputed a fpecific in uterine
obftruftions, but we believe without any good founda¬
tion. It is recommended in the atrophy of children,
given in fubftance, in dofes of a fcruple or half a dram
feveral times a-day. Its property of tinging the bones
of animals has been already mentioned.
375
Contrayer- 58. Dorstenia CONTTRAJERVA, E. CONTRAYER-
va. VA, L. Contrayeiva root.
The root of this plant is knotty, an inch or two
long, about half an inch thick, of a reddilh brown
colour externally, and pale within. From all fides of
it there flioot out long, rough, flender fibres, generally
loaded with knots. It has a peculiar kind of aromatic
fmell, and its tafte is fomewhat aftringent and bitterifti,
with a light fweetiih kind of acrimony, when chewed
for a confiderable time. The fibres have little or no
tafte or fmell, therefore the tuberous parts alone ftiould
be chofen.
This plant is perennial, and grows in South America
and fome of the Caribbee iflands.
Contrayerva has been employed as a ftimulant dia¬
phoretic, in typhus fever, given in fubftance, in a dofe
Class V. PENTANDRIA. Order i. Monogynia.
59. Anchusa tinctoria, E.
Alkanet root.
ANCHUSA, D. Alkanet
root.
This root is employed merely to give colour to an
ointment.
37S
60. Spigelia marylandica, E. SPIGELIA, Carolina
L. D. Carolina pink root. pink root.
From 1 o to 20 grains of the root of this plant have been
given twice a-day to children between 2 and 12 years
of age, when troubled with worms. It generally ope¬
rates as a purgative ; but when it does not produce this
effeft in a fufficient degree, proper dofes of rhubarb,
jalap, or calomel, ftiould be given with it. As the. fpi-
gelia may be eafily overdofed, and in that cafe produces
alarming fymptoms, it fhould perhaps be erafed from
the catalogue of vermifuge medicines, of which there
is a fufficient number without it, that are at leaft equal¬
ly efficacious, and much fafer in their operation.
379
61. Menyanthes trifoliata, E. TRIFOLIUM Marni tro
PALUDOSUM, L. D. Marffi trefoil.
This plant operates by purging and vomiting, in a
dofe of a dram. It has been recommended in fevers
and intermittents, but is feldom employed.
■jSo
62. Convolvulus scammonia, 'E. SCAMMO-Scammony.
NIUM, L. D. Scammony.
This is a gum refin which is brought from Syria,
Myfia, and Cappadocia. The roots of this plant,
which are very long and thick, when freffi contain a
milky juice. To obtain this, the earth is removed from
the upper part of the roots, and the tops of thefe are
cut obliquely off. The milky juice which flows out, is
collefted in a fmall veflel funk in the earth at the low'er
end of the cut. Each root furnilhes only a few drams,
but it is colle&ed from feveral veffels, and dried in the
fun. This is the true and unadulterated fcammony.
It is light, of a dark gray colour, but becomes of a
whitiffi yellow when touched with the wet finger, is
fliining in its frafture, has a peculiar naufeous fmell,
and bitter acrid tafte, and forms with water a greenifli
milky fluid, without any remarkable fediment. In this
ftate of purity it feldom reaches us, but is commonly
mixed with the expreffed juice of the root, and even of
the ftalks and leaves, and often with flour, fand, or
earth. The beft to be met with in the ffiops comes
from Aleppo, in light fpongy maffes, having a heavy
difagreeable fmell ; friable, and eafily powdered ; of a
fliining afh colour, verging to black j when powdered
of
75°
Hiitory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines
* Dr T)un-r
cav'< D/f'
penfatory,
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part IV.
381
Compound
powciei ot
fcamtuony.
of a light gray or whitifli colour. An inferior fort ia
brought from Smyrna in more compaft ponderous
pieces, not fo friable, with lefs fmell, and lefs eafily
powdered, of a darker colour, not fo refinous, and full
of fand and other impurities*. See Chemistry, N°
24S8.
Scammonv is one of the mod draftic purgatives, and
as fuch is fometimes given in dropfy, in a dofe of from
? to 15 grains. It is alfo one of the mod common an¬
thelmintics; but in this latter cale is generally combin¬
ed with a mercurial.
Officinal ^reparations.
a. Pulvis Scammoni/E COMFOSITUS, L. E. D. Com¬
pound powder of fcammony.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Pulvis Jalapas compositus, E,
powder of jalap.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
Compound — '
3S6
Compound
This is prepared by grinding together one part of P°wder of
powdered jalap and two parts of fupertartrate of potalhjalilP'
into a fine powder.
The fupertartrate of potafh in this preparation is ufe-
ful chietly for afliifing in reducing the jalap to a finer
powder, and thus rendering its operation milder. Dofe
from half a dram to one dram.
b. Extractum Convolvuli Jalap®, E. EX- Exrrad of
TRAC L'UM JALAPII, L. EXTRACTUM JA-jalap.
LAPTE, D. Extraft of jalap.
The London powder is compofed of fcammotiy,
hard extract of jalap, of each two ounces ; ginger, half
an ounce: powdered feparately, and then mixed to¬
gether. »
This powder in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is di-
refled to be eompofed of fcammouy, fupertartrite of po-
tafli, equal parts rubbed together to a fine powder.
The Dublin formula direfls of fcammony and vi'rio-
lated vegetable alkali, each two ounces, and ginger
half an ounce, powdered feparately, and then mixed to¬
gether.
As the ftrength of thefe powders is different, their
dofes mufi varv : from to to 30 grains of the Edinburgh
powder, and from 8 to 15 of the others, may be given
for a dofe,
3s*
Com ounti b. PULVTS SCAMMONIT COMPOSITUS CUM ALOE, L.
pow'tei of Compound powder of fgammony with aloes.
Icammony 1
with aiocs. 7'his is eompofed of fix drams of fcammony, hard
extraff of jalap, focotorine aloes, of each one ounce
and a half, of ginger half an ounce, powdered fepa¬
rately and mixed together.
Dofe from 5’to 1 j grains.
383
Powder of c. PuLVTS ScAMMONI1 CUM CaLOMELANE, L. PoW-
fcamm my (jgj, fcgtumony ^ calomel,
with caio- J ,
mel. Thi s is compofed of fcammony half an ounce, calo¬
mel, double refined fugar, of each two drams, powder¬
ed feparately and then mixed together,
Th,is is well fuited to cafes of worms, and may b©
given from 12 to 20 grains.
384
Ehauary d. ElECTUARIUM SCAMMONII, L. D. Elefluary of
of fc&nuqo- fcammony,
ny.
Prepared of an ounce and a half of powdered fcam¬
mony, cloves, gWer, of each fix drams, effential oil
of carawav half a dram, and fvrup of rofes or orange
peel, a fufficient quantity to form an eleftuary
A brilk warm purgative, dofe from 15 to 30 grains.
3S5
Jalap, 63. Convolvulus Jalapa, E. JALAPJUM, L.
JALAPA, D. Jalap root,
'The botanical and medical hiflory of this fimple
has been already fufficiently detailed under the ar¬
ticle Botany, p, 132. It remains here only to notice
the
'Phis extraft, according to the Edinburgh procefs, is
made by digefting one pound of powdered jalap in four
pounds of alcohol for four days, pouring off the liquor,
and boiling the refiduum for 15 minutes in five pounds
of ditlilled water, filtering the dccotRion while boiling
hot through linen. This decoftion is to be repeated
with the fame quantity of water, and both decoftions,
when filtered, are to be boiled to the confiftency of
honey. In the mean time the ipirit is to be drawn off
from the tinfture by diftillation, til! this alfo becomes
thick, when it is to be mixed with the watery extra#,
and both evaporated in a bath of boiling water faturat-
ed with muriate of foda, till there is formed a mats of
a proper confidence for making pills.
This extra# is a powerful purgative j it may be given
in a dofe of from 3 to 15 grains.
38S
c. Tinctura Convolvuli Jalap®, E. TINCTU- TinAureof
RA JALAPII, L. TINCTURA JALAPS, DJ^P-
Tin#ure of jalap.
This tin#ure is made by^digefiing three ounces (ac¬
cording to the Edinburgh college) or eight ounces ac¬
cording to the colleges of London and Dublin, of
powdered jalap, in 13 ounces (or two pints L ndon, or
two pounds Dublin), of diluted alcohol, for feven or
eight days, and {training the liquor through paper.
The dole of the Edinburgh tin#ure may be from
three to fix drams; that of the others from two to four
drams,
64. Datura stramonium, E. STRAMONIUM, Thorn ap-
Thorn apple. See Botany, p. 137. pie.
loo
65. HyoSCYAMUS NIGER, E. HYOSCYAMUS, Black hen.
D, Black henbane. bane.
This plant grows commonly on dunghills and uncul¬
tivated places in feveral parts of Britain. It produces
large, dark-coloured, woolly, jagged leaves, of a very
ftrong and peculiar fmell, fparkling when burnt, as if
impregnated with nitre. Thefe leaves are the princi¬
pal part employed in medicine, afting as a narcotic.
The feeds are alfo employed, and when fmoked like
tobacco, are (aid to be an excellent remedy in toothach.
Wherever an anodyne is wanted, and opium dif-
agrees, this herb, and the preparations from it, may be
prefcrjbed. It is efpecially fuited to fpafmodic and
colic affe#ions, and to cafes of chronic rheumatifm and
arthritis.
Part IV.
MATERIA
Hiftory of arthritis, Inftances are alfo recorded of its beneficial
^Officinal ’n .raania and melancholy j but in the laft-men-
JVItdi^ine . t‘oned difordtrs, it has at leall as often failed as it has
lucceeded, and is, on the whole, a doubtful remedy in
dife afes belonging to the order of vefaniae. It does not
occafion coftivenefs like opium, and forms one of the
belt fubtlitutes for this expenfive narcotic. Given in
large dofes, it produces great debility, delirium, re¬
markable dilatation of the pupils of the eyes, convulfions,
and death. It is ufiially given in the form of extract,
but the leaves are fometimes applied frefh by way of
cataplalm to Ichirrous tumors and cancerous ulcers.
Officinal Preparations.
39t
Infpiffited a- Succus spissatus Hyoscyami nigri, E. In-
jmee of fpilfated juice ot henbane,
henbane. rr.i • • .
i his is made by bruifing the frefh leaves, and putting
them into a hempen bag, in which they are ftrongly
comprefled tiil the juice is extracted. This is evapo-.
rated in flat veffels heated with boiling water, faturated
with muriate*of foda, till it becomes of the confiftence
of thick honey ; and after the mafs has become cold, it
is put into glazed earthen veffels fprinkled with alcohol,
and clofely covered.
Dofe from two grains to 15 or 20, on extraordinary
occafions ; but if thefe large dofes occafion unpleafant
effedls, as headach, vertigo, vomiting, or purging, the
medicine mufi: be difeontinued.
391
Tiiuffureof b. Tinctura Hyoscyami nigri, E. Tindlure of
henbane. henbane.
M .de by digefling one ounce of the dried leaves of
henbane in eight ounces of diluted alcohol for feven
days, and If raining. Dofe from half a dram to a dram.
66. Nicotiana tabacum, E. NICOTIANA,
L. D. Tobacco leaves. See Botany, p. 137.
Befides its ordinary narcotic virtues, the fmoke of
tobacco thrown up the bowels by way of clylter, has
proved an tffedfual remedy in obfiinate colic.
393
Tobacco
leaves.
394
Tobacc#
395
Officinal Preparations.
a. Vinum Nicotians tabaci, E. Tobacco wine.
Made by macerating one ounce of the dried leaves
of tobacco in one pound'of Spanifli white wine for (even
days, and draining the liquor.
This has been fometimes employed as a diuretic.
Dofe from 30 to 60 drops.
Leffer cen- 67. ChIRONIA CENTAURIUM, E. CENTAURIUM
taury. MINUS, L. D. Lefi’er centaury.
A itrong bitter, fometimes employed as a tonic in
the form of an infufion of the tops.
396
Nuxvomi- 68. Strychnos Nux VOMICA. Nux vomica. The
ca- kernel.
The tafte of this kernel is extremely bitter ; it has
little or no fmell, and is fo hard, that it cannot be re¬
duced into powder by beating.
This nut is a very powerful narcotic, inducing even
death by its fedative power, a*, on diffedtion, no marks
of inflammation, or local affe£tion, are to be difeovered
in the ftomaeh.
MEDICA, &c. 751
As a narcodc, it has fcarcely been ufed, though it Hiflor> of
has been recommended in mania, epilepfy, hyfteria, ^
It has been given in dyfenUry and intermittent fever, viemcmes.
in a dole of five grain- twice a day •, but it dors not  y/ j
poffefs any fupetlor medicinal powers *. * Murray’s
„  Elements,
69 Capsicum annuum, E. PIPER INDICUM, VOi. 1.
L. D. Caplicum. Indian or Cayenne pepper. bee 397
Botany, p. 138. Cayenne
pepper.
It has been given with manifeft advantage in cafes
of gouty dyfpepiia, in fume hydropic affedtions joined
with paralytic fymptoms, and in the advanced and
finking itage of typhus and the malignant endemic
fever of the Welt indies-, alfo in the malignant fore
throat, in which it has a good effedt, both when taken
into the itomach, and when ufed as a gargle. Bergius
relates, that he preferibed the feeds with fuccefs in
obftinate agues. Of the dried and pulverized capfules,
the dofe, internally, is from one to three grains. In
the advanced flage of the yellow fever, double the laft
mentioned quantity has been given at a time. The
gargle is prepared by macerating the powder firft in
warm vinegar, and afterwards adding a proper quantity
of hot w ater, and continuing the maceration for a iuffi-
cient length of time. The proportions, two drams of * PraEli-
the capficum to half a pound of each menftruum *. c°l Sy/op-
fis, \>'l. ii.
70. SoLANUM DULCAMARA. DULCAMARA, D. rtitte3^8
Bitter fweet. See Botany, p. 138. tweet.
71. AtropA BELLADONNA, E. BELLADONNA, D Ty
D. Deadly mghtfhade. See Botany, p. 138. rughtfliade.
The whole plant is poifonous, and the berrits, from
their beautiful appearance, have fometimes proved fatal
to children. The fymptoms excited are, a drynels of
the mouth, a trembling of the tongue, a very diltrefling
thirfl, a difficulty of fwalioxving, truitlefs efforts to vo¬
mit, and great anxiety about the prsecordia. Deli¬
rium then comes on, with gnafliing of the teeth, and
convulfions. The pupil remains dilated, and is not fen-
fible even to the ftimulus of light '1 he face becomes
tumid, and of a dark red colour. '1 he jaws are fre¬
quently locked. Inflammation attacks the oefophagus,
ftomaeh, and inteilines, fometimes extending to the
mefentery, lungs, and l.ver, accompanied with violent
pains in the abdomen. The ftomach is very infenfible
■to flimulus, and the periltaltic motion of the inteftines
is deftroyea. General relaxation, palfv, efpecially of
the lower extremities, convulfions, vertigo, blindnefs,
coma, and death fucceed. The body loon putrifies,
fwells, and becomes marked with livid fpots; blood
flows from the nofe, mouth, and tars, and the flench is
infufferable. On diffedlion the blood is found to be fluid,
the inteflines are inflated and inflamed, or eroded and
gangrenous. The beft method of cure is to excite vo¬
miting as foon as poffible, by emetics, and tickling the
fauces } to evacuate the bowels by purgatives and cly-
fters, and to give largely, vinegar, honey, miik and oil.
In fome children who recovered by this treatment,
the delirium was fucceeded by a profound fopor, ac¬
companied with fubfultus tendinum •, the face and
hands became pale and cold, and the pulfe fmall,.
hard, and quick. Their recovery was flow, and the
blindnefs continued a confiderable time, but at laft went f Imran's
off f. Difpenfa*.
Atory'
752
Hi (lory of A medicine capable of producing fuch powerful ef-
6 a1]1^ ^e<^s) demands the utmoft caution on the part of the
Medicines, preicriber. He Ihould begin with the fmallelt dofes,
w—y-MW increafing them very gradually to a double, triple, or
quadruple quantity (in which cafes the intervals between
the repetitions of the dofes Ihould be proportionably
lengthened) and defifting as foon as drynefs or llric-
ture of the throat, or much diarrhoea, or great languor,
with licknefs and vomiting, or vertigo, and dimnefs of
fight, come on.
It is beft employed in fubfiance, beginning with a
grain for adults, and an eighth or a fourth of a grain
for children.
It has been employed in a great variety of cafes, as,
l. In feveral febrile difeafes *, in obllinate intermittents ;
and in the plague. 2. In inflammations j the gout. 3.
In comatofe difeafes j in palfy, and lofs of fpeech from
apoplexy. 4. In fpafmodic difeafes *, in chorea, epi-
lepfy, chincough, hydrophobia, melancholy, and mania.
5. In cache&ic affe£lions 5 in dropfies, and obflinate
jaundice. 6. In local difeafes j in amaurofis, ophthal¬
mia, in fchirrhus, and cancer.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. Part IV.
cinchona bark in about two or two pounds and a half Hiftory of
of diluted alcohol for feven or eight days, and {train-6 a,l<*
mg the liquor through paper. _ Medicines.
This is feldom given by itfelf, being generally add-  -v-~-w
ed to the deco£tion or infufion. Dofe three or four drams
to an ounce.
400
rnfpiffated
juice of
deadly
nightiliade.
401
Cinchona
bark.
Officinal Vreparations.
a. Succus spissatus ATROPiE Belladonna, E.
InfpiiTated juice of deadly nightftiade.
This is made in the fame way as the infpiffated juice
of henbane. See N° 391. Dofe from one to five
grains.
72. Cinchona officinalis, E. CINCHONA,
L. CORTEX PERUVIANUS. Cinchona bark.
Peruvian bark. Jefuits bark.
The account of this valuable remedy already given
under Botany, p. 133. and the article Cinchona, has
been fo ample, that we {hall add nothing to it in this
place, but {hall immediately proceed to notice the offi¬
cinal preparations, referring our readers for further in¬
formation on the fimple, to Percival’s Effays, the Synop-
fis Materiae Medicas, the Thefaurus Medicaminum, and
Dr Duncan’s Difpenfatory.
4c 2
-linfuiion of
cinchona
bark.
Officinal Preparations.
Infufion
. 403
Aindture of
cinchona
bark.
d. Tinctura Cinchona composita, L. D. Com¬
pound tindlure of cinchona bark. Huxham^s tinElure
of bark.
This is a very aromatic tindlure of bark, made by di-
gefting two ounces of powdered cinchona, from half an
ounce to an ounce and a half of dried Seville orange
peel, three drams bruifed Virginian fnake root, a dram
of faffron, and two fcruples of powdered cochineal, in
20 ounces or two pounds of proof fpiritfor 14 days, and
{training.
Dofe two or three drams.
e. Tinctura Cinchona ammoniata, L.
niated tindture ef cinchona.
cinchona
bark.
a. Infusum Cinchona officinalis, E.
of cinchona bark.
This is made by infufing an ounce of powdered cin¬
chona bark in a pound of water for 24 hours, and fil¬
tering.
Dofe from two to four ounces.
b. Decoctum Cinchona officinalis, E., DE-
COCTUM CORTICIS PERUVIANI, L. D. De-
codtion of cinchona bark.
Prepared by boiling an ounce of powdered cinchona
bark in about a pound and a half of water for 10 mi¬
nutes, and {training the liquor while hot.
This is fcarcely fo good a preparation as the infufion.
The ordinary dofe is three or four ounces.
c. Tinctura Cinchona officinalis, E. TINC¬
TURA CORTICIS PERUVIANI, L.D. Tinfture
of cinchona bark.
Made by digelting four or fix ounces of powdered
a 4°4.
Ammo- Ammoni-
ated tinc¬
ture of cm-
Made by digefting four ounces of powdered cinchona chona*
in two pints of compound fpirit of ammonia for 10 days
in a clofe veffel.
As a preparation of cinchona bark, this isufelefs, and
as'a ftimulus it is not preferable to the compound fpirit
of ammonia by itfelf.
4°5
f Extractum Cinchona officinalis, E. Ex- Extra# of
tradl of cinchona bark.
This is made in the fame manner as extradl of jalap,
fee N° 387. .
g. Extractum Cinchona, L. Extradt ef bark.
The following is the procefs of the London college
for making this extradt.
Take of Peruvian bark, in coarfe powder, one pound j
diftilled water, 12 pints. Boil for an hour or two, and
pour off the liquor, which, while hot, will be red and
pellucid, but, as it grows cold, will become yellow and
turbid. The fame quantity of water being again pour¬
ed on, boil the bark as before, and repeat the boiling
until the liquor, on becoming cold, remains clear.
Then reduce all thefe liquors, mixed together and
{trained, to a proper thicknefs by evaporation. This
extradt muff be prepared under two forms 5 one foft,
and fit for making pills, and the other hard and pul-
verizable.
The Dublin college gives feparate proceffes for mak¬
ing their hard and foft extradt of cinchona j but they
do not materially differ from the above.
All thefe extradts may be given in the form of pills,
in a dofe of from 10 to 20 grains, or by way of clylter
in the quantity of a dram or two.
E. Cinchona of the ^,ncll0na
the Carib¬
bean iflands*
73. Cinchona Caribbaa,
Caribbean ifles.
406
This is a fpecies of cinchona introduced here by Dr
Wright, In medical properties it refembles the former,
and may be fubftituted for it.
74. Lobelia syphilitica, E. Bluecardinalflower.Eluecardi-
See Botany, P. 133. ' nalfl°wer’
407
Part IV.
Hiftory of
MATERIA MED1CA, &c.
Simiile and 75. Cephaelis IPECACUANHA,’ E.
Officinal ANHA, L. D. Ipecacuan root.
IPECx^CU-
Medicines.
408
Ipecacuan
root.
A pretty full account of ipecacuan has been already
given in the article Botany, under Pfycotria Emetic a,
P- l3S-
It appears that this drug, or fomething very {imilar
to the common ipecacuan, is the produce of feveral ve¬
getables, which are enumerated by Dr Duncan in his
Difpenfatory.
Ipecacuan is given as an emetic, in full dofes of a
fcruple or 25 grains ; as an expectorant, in dofes of one
grain, repeated every three or four hours 5 as a diapho¬
retic, given in-combination with opium ; and as an an-
tifpafmodic, given from three to fix grains.
When properly adminiftered, it proves ferviceable in
the following diieafes, viz*, in intermittent fevers, a pa-
roxyfm of which has often been arrefted by giving it as
an emetic about an hour before the paroxyfm was ex-
pefted to come on 5 in continued fevers, given at the
commencement as an emetic, and followed by a dia¬
phoretic regimen ; in feveral inflammatory difeafes, as
rheumatifm, given as a diaphoretic ; in pneumonia, ex¬
hibited to excite and keep up naufea without vomiting ;
in dyfentery, in which it was formerly deemed a fpeci-
fic ; in exanthematous difeafes, efpecially where the
eruption is difpofed to recede •, in hemorrhages, given
in naufeating dofes ; in feveral fpafmodic aft'edtions, as
epilepfy, afthma, dyfpnoea, chineough, chronic diar¬
rhoea, hyfleria ; in mental alienation, as melancholia
and mania, given in large dofes j in fume kinds of
dropfy ; in jaundice j in amaurofis.
Ipecacuan is bell exhibited in fubftance ; but it is
often given in the form of a vinous infufion.
Officinal Preparations.
409
Ipecacuan a. VlNUM IPECACUANHAS. Wine of ipecacuan.
This is made bydigefling two ounces of bruifed ipe¬
cacuan root in about two pounds of Spanilh white wine,
for about a week, and draining.
This preparation being more palatable than the ipe¬
cacuan in fubdance, is well fuited to delicate and
fqueamidi patients. It may be given from an ounce to
two ounces.
410
Powiered b. PuLVIS IPECACUANHA ET OpII, E. PULVIS
ipecacuan IPECACUANH/E COMPOSITUS, L. D. PUL-
and opium, yjg DOVERI. Powder of ipecacuan and opium.
Compound powder of 'ipecacuan. Dover's powder.
This powder is prepared by triturating eight parts of
crydallized fulphate of potafh, with one part of hard
dry opium, and one part of powdered ipecacuan, till
they are reduced to a very fine powder.
The crydallized fait in this procefs ferves the purpofe
of reducing the opium and ipecacuan to a date of very
minute dividon, and thus renders them more effeddual.
This is a valuable diaphoretic, and may be given from
10 to 20 grains; but where a long continued fweat is
defired to be kept up, it is better to give ro or 15
grains at fird, and 10 or 5 grains more a few hours
after.
Buckthorn. 7^- Rhamnus catharticus, E. SPINA CER-
VINA L Buckthorn. See Botany, p. 139.
Vol. XII. Part II.
413
Wine.
/:>.*
Hiftory of
Officinal Preparation. S officinald
a. Syrupus Rhamni cathartici, E. SYRUPUS Mc(iicines»
SPIN/E CERVIN/E, L. Syrup of buckthorn.
The Edinburgh college directs this to be made with Syrup of
two parts of the depurated juice of ripe buckthorn ber- buckthorn,
ries, and one part of double refined fugar, boiled t»
the confidence of a fyrup. The London procefs is
more complex. It diredls a gallon of the fredi juice of
ripe buckthorn berries, an ounce of bruifed ginger, an
ounce and a half of powdered pimento, and fc-ven
pounds of double refined fugar. The juice is to be fet
afide for three days, and then drained from the faeces.
The ginger and pimento are to be macerated for four
hours in a pint of the drained liquor. In the mean
time the red of the juice is to be boiled down to three
pints ; then the fugar and the pint of juice in which the
fpices had been macerated, are to be added, and the
whole boiled to the confidence of a fyrup.
This fyrup is a good cathartic, but is feldom given
alone, except to children. Dole from fix drams to an
ounce and a half.
77. Vms VINIFERA. E. The vine.1
I he remedies drawn from the vine are wine, graphs,
and fupertartrate of potalh.
The properties of wine as a dimulant and cordial,
have been already mentioned. See N° 100. The wines
ufually employed in medicine are,
Vinum album hifpanum, white Spanifl wine*
Vinum album rhenanum, Rhenijfh wine.
Vinum rubrurn lufitanum, red Port wine.
The lad, befides the dimulating power common to
all wines, p-deffes much adringency, and is therefore
better fuited to cafes of debility.
78. XJVJE PASS7E. Raifins.
Thefe are chiefly employed as emollients and demul¬
cents.
415
79. SUPERTARTRAS PoTASSA, SUPERT ARTRIS Supeitar-
POTASS/E. TARTARI CRYSTALLI, L. D.tra'eof
CREMOR TAR PARI. Supertartrate of potafl).*501*^1*
Cryjlals of tartar. Cream of tartar.
For the chemical nature of this fait, fee Chemistry.
This fait is employed in medicine chiefly as a gentle
laxative and refrigerant. zAs a laxative, it may be
given in the dofe of from two drams to half an ounce,
mixed with fyrup or honey, or diffolved in a large
quantity of barley .water. In the latter way it has
been found a good diuretic in dropfies. As a refriger¬
ant, it is given in a diluted folution, fweetened with
fugar, or fome pleafant fyrup.
4T4
Raifins.
Officinal Preparations.
416
a. T ARTRAS Pot ASSA, TARTRIS POTASS/E, E. Tartrate
KALI TARTARISATUM, L. ALKALI VE-p^h.
GETABILE TARTARISATUM, D. Tartrate of
potafli. Par tar fed kali. Tartanfed vegetable alkali.
Soluble lai tar.
This fait is prepared by adding to a dilution of fu-
perlartrate of poiadi, a fuffuient quantity of fubcarbo-
5 C nate
of
754
Simp
Offi
Medicines.
Hiftory of nate of potafii, to neutralize tlie exeefs of tartaric acid,
'official^'°r PurP°^e ^ ufually requires about one part of
the alkaline carbonate to three parts of fupertartrate of
pofafh. After neutralization, the liquor is filtered,
and fet by to cryftallize.
This fait forms an excellent cooling, purgative, and
may be given in dofes of from half an ounce to an
ounce. It forms a good’addition to rhubarb.
417
Tartrate of
potafh awd
foda.
418
Pureft iub-
carbonate
of potafli.
4*9.
Sweet vio¬
let.
420
Syrup of
violets.
421
Red cur¬
rants.
422
Black cur¬
rants.
42.3
Infpifi'ated
juice of
black cur¬
rants.
424
Syrup of
black cur¬
rants.
b. Tartras Potassas et Sodte. TARTRIS PO-
TASSAE. ET SO. AE. E. NATRON TARTA-
RISATUM, L. SAL RUPELLENSIS, D. Tar¬
trate of potaih and foda. Tar tanked natron. Rochelle
fait.
Prepared by adding to a folutinn of fupertartrate of
potafli, a fufficient quantity of carbonate of foda, to
neutralize the excefs of tartaric acid, filtering the li¬
quor, and cryifallizing.
This triple fait is a more agreeable laxative than the
former, but is not fo ftrong. Ufual dofe from one to
two ounces.
r. SUBCARBONAS POTASS^ PURISSIMUS. CARBC-
N VS POTASS/E PURISSLMUS, E. SAL TAR-
TARI. Pureft fubcarbonate of potafh. Salt of tar¬
tar.
Prepared by burning all the tartaric acid from tar¬
tar, fulution in water, filtration and cryftallization.—
Similar in its ufes with N° 313. which fee.
80. Viola odorata, E. VIOLA, L. D. Sweet
violet. See Botany, p. 141.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Syrupus Violte odoratje, E. SYRUPUS
VIOLAE, L. D. Syrup of violets.
Made by macerating one pound or two pounds
(L. D.) of the frtfh petals of violets, in four pounds or
five pints (L ) or fix pounds (D.) of boiling water for
24 hours, ft raining the liquor without expreftion, and
boiling it with a fufficient quantity of double refined
fugar, to make a fyrup.
A gentle laxative for young children.
81. Rises rubrum. Red currants.
The fruit of red currants is ufed as a refrigerant in
febrile affections.
82. Ribes nigrum. Black currants.
Alfo employed as a refrigerant; and the following
preparations form a good domeftic palliative in inflam¬
matory affedtions of the throat, and in tickling coughs.
Offi in a l Preparations.
a. Sucgus spissatus Ribis ntgri. Infpiffated juice
of black currants.
This is made by expreffing and clarifying the juice
of rip'- black currants, and then evaporating it in a
bath of water with muriate of foda, to a proper confift-
ence.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. Part IV.
Prepared by boiling the depurated juice of black Hiftory of
currants with a fufficient quantity of fugar to make a simPle an<i
fyrup. . Offi«nal
J 1 • Medicines.
Order 2. DlGYNIA. ^ ^^
425
83. Gentiana lutea, E. GENTIANA, L. D. Gentian.
Gentian root.
The root of gentian is moderately long, flender,
branched, brownifh on the outfide, of a reddilh yellow
or gold colour within. It is perennial, a native of the
mountainous parts of Germany, &c. whence the ftiops
are generally fupplied with the dried roots.
Among the gentian brought to London, fome years
ago, a root of a different kind was mixed, the ufe of
which occafioned violent diforders, and in fome inftan-
ces, as is laid, proved fatal; T1 is root is externally of
a paler colour than gentian, and its longitudinal wrinkles
finer and clofer ; on cutting the two roots, the difference
is more remarkable, the poifonous root being white
without any degree of the yellow tinge which is deep
in gentian, nor is its tafte bitter, like that of gentian,
but mucilaginous.
Gentian root is a ftrong flavourlefs bitter j in tafte
lefs exceptionable than moftof the other common ftrong
bitters, and hence among us molt generally made ufe
of. The flavour and aromatic warmth wanting to ren¬
der it grateful, and acceptable to the ftomach, are fup¬
plied by additions.
The root of this plant is a valuable fubftance, very
fuccefsfully and very generally employed as a ftomachic
and ftrengtheuing medicine. It is particularly ufeful
in various chronic affections connected with debility.
Rich as dyfpepfia, diarrhoea, hyfteria, chlorofis, dropfy.
It has alfo been given with good effeCt in intermittent
fevers, joined with the Peruvian bark ; and in conva-
lefcencies from all fevers. In thefe and other cafes it
is‘ combined with aromatics and chalybeatesj fometimes
with acids; at other times with alkaline falls, efpecially
in dyfpeptic and chlorotic affeCtions, as alfo in pertain
diforders of the bowels j with abforbents and aromatics
in cafes of gout.
1 he ufe of this bitter, like that of many others,
muft not, however, be carried too far, as by weaken¬
ing the energy of the nervous fyftem, it predifpofes to
palfy and apoplexy.
Officinal Preparations.
r n 426
Compound
of infulicm of
b. Syrupus Ribis nigri.
rants.
Syrup of black cur-
a. Infusum Gentiante compositum, E
INFUSUM AM ARUM. Compound infufion
gentian. Bitter infuffon. gentian.
The Edinburgh infufion is made by fteeping half
an ounce of fliced gentian root, one dram dried
peel of Seville oranges, half a dram of coriander feeds
bruiled, firft in four ounces of diluted alcohol for
three hours, and then adding one pound of water j
macerating without heat for twelve hours, and then
ftraining.
This infufion, according to the London Pharmaco¬
poeia, is made by macerating for an hour in boiling
water, twelve ounces by meafure, one dram of fliced
gentian root, one dram and a half dried orange peel,
half an ounce of freffi outer rind of lemons. The Dub¬
lin formula direfts two drams of bruifed gentian root,
half an ounce frefh outer rind of lemons, one dram and
. a
PartIV. MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Hi Rory of a half of dry orange peel, four ounces of diluted alco-
^Offi^nal anc^ twelve ounces of boiling water j and the in-
Medicines. is to be made firft by alcohol and afterwards
with the addition of water, nearly as in the Edinburgh
procefs.
Thefe infufions form a good tonic remedy in debility
of the alimentary canal. A glafs of them may be given
twice or thrice a-day, either alone, or with the addi¬
tion of fome aromatic tonic tindlure.
755
Made by boiling four ounces of the frefli inner bark Kiftory of
of elm bruifed, in four pints of water to two, and drain- ^'^‘e al^
ing. Dole about four ounces, repeated feveral times jviecUcfnes.
a-day; . . , . —  
This medicine probably does not deferve the reputa¬
tion it has acquired.
432
85. ErYNGIUM MARtTIMUM. ERYNGIUM, L. Eryngo
D. Eryngo root. See Botany, p. 14^. rooi.
Compound b. Tinctura Gentianve composita, E. L. TINC-
tindture Of TURA AMARA. ELIXIR STOMACHICUM.
gentian. Compound tin&ure of gentian. Bitter tinBure. Sto¬
machic elixir.
86. Daucus carota, E. DAUCU3 SYLVES-carrot!
1 RIS, L. D. Wild carrot feed.
The feeds are fometimes employed as a carminative,
and have been recommended as a diuretic. They are
feldom ufed.
The Edinburgh tinflure is prepared by macerating
two ounces of iliced and bruifed gentian root, an
ounce of dried and bruifed Seville orange peel, half an
ounce of bruifed canella alba, and half a dram of
powdered cochineal, in two pounds and a half of dilut¬
ed alcohol for feven days. The tin&ure of the Lon¬
don college is made with two ounces of diced and
bruifed gentian, one ounce of dried orange peel, half
an ounce lefler cardamom feedq hulked and bruifed,
digefted for eight days in two pints of proof fpirit.
Thefe tinftures are feldom given alone, but may be
adminiftered in a dofe of two or three drams in a glafs
of water*
428
Compound r- VlNUM GENTIANS COMPOSITUM, E. VINUM
wine of AMARUM. Compound wine of gentian. Bitter
gentian. wine.
Prepared of half an ounce of gentian root, One
ounce of cinchona bark, two drams of Seville dried
orange peel, one dram of canella alha, four ounces di¬
luted alcohol, two pounds and a half of Spanifh white
wine. The diluted alcohol is firft poured on the root
and bark fliced and bruifed, and after 24 hours add¬
ing the wine, then macerating for feven days and
ftraining. Dofe from two drams to half an ounce.
429
Extra&of a. ExTRACTUM Gf.NTIANTE LUTE2E, E. EX-
gentian. TR ACTUM GENTIANtE, L. D. Extraft of gen¬
tian.
This is made by evaporating the faturated and drain¬
ed decoflion of the root to a confidence fit for being
made into pills, under which form it is frequently pre-
fcribed in all thofe cafes in which the infufion and tinc¬
ture are employed. Dofe of this extrafl from ten
grains to half a dram. It is feldom given alone, but
generally in combination with aromatic and aloetic
powders, with myrrh, fulphurate of iron, &c.
Elm3bark. 84- Ulmus campestris, E. ULMUS, L. D.
Elm bark.
The inner bark of the elm is frequently employed
in cutaneous eruptions, as an alterative, or gentle dia¬
phoretic, in the form of decoftion.
Officinal Preparation.
Decodtion
of elm a. Decoctum Ulmi, L. Deco&ion of elm bark,
bark.
The grated roots of cultivated carrot are frequently
applied as a poultice to cancerous and ill-conditioned
ulcers.
87. CONIUM JVIACULATUM, E. ClCUTA, L. D. Hemlock!
Hemlock. See Botany, p. 145.
Hemlock has been employed chiefly in fcrophulous
and cancerous diforders, both internally and external¬
ly, and in many of thefe cafes, with confiderable be¬
nefit 5 in other indances, without any fenfible relief,
even after being continued for a great length of time.
Like mod propofers of new remedies, Stoerck has been
too profufe in his encomiums on hemlock. It has been
found ufeful in chronic rheumatifm, and fome cafes of
gout, where opium dilagreed, and in that acutely pain¬
ful complaint termed tic doloureux; as alfo in caries
of the bones and bad venereal ulcerations. Dr Butter
prefcribed it with marked fuccefs in the hooping-cough $
and being lefs dimulant than opium, and lei's liable to
check expectoration, it generally anfwers better than
the infpilfated juice of the poppy, in cafes of phthifis
pulmonalis. The dried leaves may be given alone in
dofes of five to 15 grains. With the infpiffated juice
and powder are joined, according to the nature of the
diforder in which they are given, calomel, guaiacum,
ammoniacum, &c. In the adminidration of this, as
of all other narcotic medicines, it is proper to begin
with the fmalled dofes, afterwards gradually increafing
them to as much as the patients can well bear. In this
manner many indances are recorded where adonifhing
quantities of hemlock have been taken, in cancerous
and other painful diforders, without dillurbing the con-
ditution. It is a fign that the medicine has been pufh-
ed to its utmod length, when it diforders the head, do-
mach, or bowels* For external ule, fomentations,
cataplafms, and pladers, are prepared from this vege¬
table *. / * Pra£lical
Synopfis,'
Officinal Preparation.
a. Succus SPISSATUS CONII MACULATI, E. SUC- TnfrMTated
CUS SPISSATUS CICU1YE, D. Infpiffated juicej^e of
of hemlock. hemlock*
This is made by expreding hemlock which is gather¬
ed when the dowers are beginning to appear, and al¬
lowing the juice to dand dx hours until the feces fub-
fide, then reducing the decanted juice to drynefs in a
water bath.
5 C a This
\ .
756 . , .
Hiitory of This extras^ may be given in a dofe of two grains.
tT* increa^T1S ^ gradually as long as feems prudent.
Mc-dicmes. gg. SlUM NODIFLORUM. SIUM, L. Creeping
Ikirret.
Formerly employed as an emmenagogue and lithon-
triptic, but now ftjldom ufed.
89. Cumiuum Cyminum. CUMINUM, L. Cum-
min feed. See Botany, p. 146.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
436
Creeping
fkinet.
437
Cummin
feeds.
438 .
Cataplafm
of cummin. niin feecl.
Officinal Preparations,
a. Cataplasma Cumini, L. Cataplafm of cum-
439
Cummin
plafte-.
44®
Aialcetida.
This is made of cummin feed one pounds of bay ber¬
ries, dried leaves of water germander, Virginian fnake-
root, each three ounces ; cloves one ounce j rubbed to¬
gether into a powder, and formed into a cataplafm with
three times their weight of honey.
1. Emplastrum Gumini, L. Cummin plaller.
This is compofed of cummin feeds, carraway feeds,
bay berries, each three ounces j Burgundy pitch three
pounds, and yellow wax three ounces. The pitch and
wax are firft melted together, and the other ingredients
in fine powder mixed with them.
Both thefe preparations are intended for external ap¬
plication to the belly, in fome diforders of the ftomach
and bowels, which require fuch a ftimulus.
90. Ferula Asafoetida, E. ASAFOETIDA,
L. D. Afafoetida. See Botany, p. 145. and Che¬
mistry, N° 2490.
44 r
Putilied
afafoetida.
442
Emulfion of
afafoetida.
Officinal Preparations,
a, Asafoetida purificata. Purified afafeetida.
Afafoetida is purified in the fame manner as gum am¬
moniac.
b. Lac Asafoetidte, L. Emulfion of afafoetida.
This is made in the fame manner as the emulfion of
gum ammoniac (See N° 336.), and is given in fimilar
dofes.
e. Emplastrum Asafoetidje, E.
foetida.
Part IV.
Plafter of afa- Hiftory of
Simple and
- . Officinal
Made by melting together plafter of femivitrified Medicines,
oxide of lead, afafoetida, of each two parts, and galba- J
num and yellow wax, of each one part. Flatter of
Applied to the belly in hyfteria. afafeeuda.
- 446
91. Bubon galbanum, E. GALBANUM, L. D.Galbamua.
Galbanum. See Chemistry, N° 2494.
Galbanum is employed in fimilar cafes as afafoetida,,
It is feldom given alone.
Officinal Preparations,
a. Galbanum purificatum.
447
Strained galbanum. Purified
Galbanum is purified by melting it, inclofed in a blad-^'
der, by the heat of boiling water, and ftraining it
through linen.
b. Tinctura Galbanij L. Tinffure of galbanum. Timture of
This is made by digefting two ounces of galbanum,
cut ifito fmall pieces, in two pints of proof fpirit, for
eight days, with a gentle heat, and ftraining. Dofe from
one to two drams.
449
C, PlLULiE GalBANI COMPOSITE, L. Compound Compound
galbanum pills. galbanum
Prepared of opoponax, myrrh, fagapenum, of each
an ounce, afafifitida half an ounce.
Similar to the afafeetida pills, and given in fimilar
dofes.
92. Angelica Arch angelica, E.
CA, L. D. Angelica.
45°
ANGELI- Angelica.
An elegant aromatic, but feldom employed.
93. CORIANDRUM SATIVUM, E. CORIANDRUM.Coriander
Coriander feeds. See Botany, p. 147. feeds.
94. CARUM CARUI, E. CARUON, L. CARUI,Cartawaj
D. Carraway feeds. See Botany, p. 147. feeds.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Oleum volatile Cari carui, E.
RUI, L. D. Volatile oil of carraway.
OL. CA-oil4of3Car-
raway.
Tindture of C- TlNCTURA FeRUL3£ AsAFOETIDAE, E. TINC-
afafoetida. TURA ASAFOETIDAE, L. D. TimRure of afafee¬
tida.
Rhis tinflure is prepared by digefting four ounces of
afafoetida in two pounds and a half (E.), or two pounds
(D.), or two pints (L„), of redified fpirit of wine, for
about a week.
_ This is a good preparation of afafoetida, and may be
given in dofes of from 20 to 60 drops.
444 , _
Compound d. PlLUIvE AsAFOETIDdE COMPOSITE:, E. Com-
pilis of ala- pound afafoetida pills,
feenda. _
PRade by beating together afafoetida, galbanum, and
myrrh, of each eight parts, and one part of redlified oil
of amber, into a mafs with fimple fyrup. Dofe 15
grains, or a fcruple, three or four times a-day. Chiefly
in hy fieri a.
Prepared by diftillation in the fame manner as-the oil
of rofemary. A very warm ftimulant., Dofe two or
three drops.
b. SfiritusCari carui, E. SPIRITUS CARUI,Spimcf
L. D. Spirit of carraway. carraway.
Prepared by macerating half a pound of bruifed car¬
raway feeds in eight or nine pounds of proof fpirit
for a day or two, and then with the addition of a fuf-
ficient quantity of water to prevent burning, diftilling
off the fpirit.
A good dram, where drams are required, as in flatu¬
lent colic. Dofe half an ounce to ail ounce.
95. PASTINACA OPOPONAX. OPOPONAX, L.Oplponaa.
Opoponax.
One of the gum-refins, brought from the Eaft Indies
and the Levant. It poffefles properties fimilar to thofe
of
Part IV.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
757'
Hiftory of 0f galbanum and afafoetida, and is ufually employed in
Simple and with them.
pfiicinal
Medicines.
I v J 90. AnETHUM GRAVE0LENS, L. Dill-feed.
456
Dill feed. This feed is of a nearly oval (hape, convex on one
fide and flat on the other, of a yetlowifh colour, of a
warm pungent tafte, and aromatic fmell. Employed
fometimes as a carminative.
457 ,
Water or
dill.
453
Sweet fen¬
nel feed.
459
Water of
fweet fen¬
nel.
460
Oil of fen¬
nel.
461
Parfley.
4(52
Anifeed.
463 .
Oil of ani¬
feed.
464
Compound
fpirit of
anifeed.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Aqua bistillata Anethi, L. Dill water.
A gallon of water diftilled from a pound of bruifed
dill feeds.
97. Anethumfoeniculum, E. FOENICULUM,
L. D. Sweet fennel feeds. See Botany, p. 147.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Aqua distillata foeniculi dulcis, L. D.
Sweet fennel water.
Prepared as dill water.
b. Oleum volatile Foeniculi dulcis, D. Oil
of fweet fennel, feeds. Prepared as the oil of rofemary,
&c.,
98. Apium PETP.OSELINUM, E. PETROSELIN-
UM, L. Parfley.
The feeds of parfley are carminative, and the root is
gently diuretic.
99. Pimpinella Anisum, E. ANISUM, L. D.
An i feeds.
This plant is cultivated in Afia, and in the fouth of
Europe. The feeds have a peculiar grateful fmell, and
a fweet aromatic tafte.
They are gently ftimulant, carminative and expec¬
torant.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Oleum volatile Pimpinellje anisi, E. OLE¬
UM VOLATILE ANISI, L. D. Volatile oil of
anifeed.
Prepared as the other volatile oils.
This oil freezes at no very low temperature. It is
a powerful and grateful ftimulant. Dofe, a drop or
two.
Spiritus Anisi comfositus, L. Compound
fpirit of anifeed.
From anifeed and angelica feed, of each half a
pound, proof fpirit a gallon, and enough water to pre¬
vent burning, a gallon of fpirit is diftilled.
A very agreeable cordial in cafes of flatulence.
Hiftory of
Officinal Preparations. ^officinal'*
a. Succus SPISSATUS BACCiE Sambuct, L. D. In- Mecllcme,J*
fpiflated juice of elder leaves. ^55
Prepared in the fame way as the juice of black cur-j”^^6^
rants.. See N° 422. elder.
b. Unguentum Sambuci, L. UNG. SAMBUC^-EI(^e467lnt-
NUM, D. Elder ointment. ment.
Prepared by boiling four pounds of elder flowers in
three pounds of mutton fuet and a pint of olive-oil till
they are crifp, and then ftraining,
101. Rhus Toxicodendron, E. Poifon oak. Poifonoak.
The leaves of this fhrub, which is a native of North
America, are very acrid, and have lately been intro¬
duced into praftice by Dr Alderfon of Hull as a re¬
medy for palfy. Dole half a grain or a grain. In
Edinburgh it has been lefs fuccefsful than with Dr Al¬
derfon. See Alderfon’s “ Eflay on the Rhus Toxico¬
dendron,” and Duncan’s Difpenfatory. ^
102. Linum usitatissimum, E. LINUM, L. D.Limfeed.
Common flax. Lintfeed. See Botany, p. 149.
\ .
Officinal Preparations.
. 47°
a. Oleum Lini usitatissimi, E. Lintfeed oil. Lintfeed
oil.
Exprefled from the feeds by inclofing them in a
hempen bag after beating them in a Hone mortar. It
ihould be exprefled without heat.
Emollient. Has, been given with fuccefs in fome
cafes of luzmoptysis, nephritis, colic, and fome internal
inflammations. Dofe an ounce or two, made into an
emulfion.
471
103. Linum catharticum, D. Purging flax. See Purging
Botany, p. 149. flax. .
Class VI. HEXANDRIA. Order j. Mjno-
GYNIA. " '
47*
104. BerBERIS vulgaris. BERBERIS, D. Bar-Barberry-
berry.
The fruit is employed as a refrigerant. See Bota*
NY, p. 159.
473
105. Allium sativum, E. L. D. Garlic. See Garlic.,
Botany, p. 156, where a long account is given of its
nature and ufes.
Officinal Preparations.
474
a. Syrupus Allii, D. Syrup of garlic. syrup of
garlic.
Prepared by macerating a pound of fliced garlic in
two pounds of boiling water in a clofe veflel for 12
hours, and then adding to the ftrained liquor four
pounds of double refined fugar.
475
106. Allium cepa. CEPA, D. Onion. Onion.
Order 3. Trigynia.
100. Sambucus nigra, E. SAMBUCUS, L.
D. Elder leaves, bark, and berries. See Botany,
p. 148.
A gentle diuretic when raw, but chiefly ufed roafted
by way of a cataplafm.
107. Aloe perfoliata, E, ALOE SOCOTO-Aloes’
RINA, L. D. Aloes. ,
So
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Hiftory of So Full an account of the feveral varieties of aloes
and tlieir ufes in medicine has been given under Bo-
Meditines. takyj P* that it is neceffary for us here only to
477
Powder of
aloes with
canella.
478
Aloetic
powder
with guaia^
cum.
479
•Aloetic
powder
with iron.
480
Aloetic
yhlis.
481
Pills of
aloes and
-afafoetida.
482
Pills of
aloes and
eolocynth.
TANY,
notice its
Officinal Preparations.
a. Pulvis Aloes cum Canella, L. HIERA PI-
CRA. Powder of aloes with canella.
Prepared of a pound of focotorine aloes, and three
pounds of white canella, powdered feparately and then
mixed together.
A warm ffimulant cathartic. Dofe 10 grains to 20.
Belt given in the form of pill.
b. Pulvis Aloeticus cum Guaiaco, L. Aloetic
powder with guaiacum.
Prepared by mixing together an ounce and a half of
powdered focotorine aloes, an ounce of powdered refin
of guaiacum, and half an ounce of aromatic powder.
Dofe as of the preceding.
c. Pulvis Aloeticus cum Ferro, L. Aloetic
powder with iron.
Prepared of focotorine aloes, an ounce and a half,
myrrh two ounces, dry extraft of gentian and vitriola-
ted iron, each an ounce, powdered feparately, and mix¬
ed together.
This is confidered as a good emmenagogue in a dofe
of !5 grains.
d. Pilule algetic^, E. D. PILULiE ALOES
COMPOSITAc,, L. Aloetic pills. Compound pills of
aloes.
The Edinburgh aloetic pills are prepared by beating
together into a mafs equal parts of powdered aloes and
foap. Thofe of the London college are made of an
ounce of powdered focotorine aloes, half an ounce of
extract of gentian, two fcruples of oil of carraway feeds,
and enough fyrup of ginger to form a mafs. The Dub¬
lin pills are made of an ounce of Barbadoes aloes, with
half an ounce of extradt of gentian, and two drams
of powdered ginger, formed into a mafs with foap
jelly.
Any of thefe compofitions forms a good cathartic for
fedentary people. Dofe 10 to 20 grains.
e. PiLULAi Aloes et Asafoetida:, E. Pills of
aloes and afafeetida.
Prepared with equal parts of powdered aloes, afafoe¬
tida and foap, made into a mafs with mucilage of gum
arabic.
A good remedy in dyfpepfia, efpecially in females.
Dofe about 10 grains, twice a-day.
f. Pilule Aloes cum Colocynthide, E. Pills
of aloes with colocynth.
Thefe are formed of focotorine aloes, fcammony,
each eight parts, colocynth four parts, oil of cloves
and fulphate of potafh with fulphur, each one part.
The aloes, fcammony, and fait, are together reduced to
powder, and mixed with the colocynth previoufly beat
to a fine powder •, then the oil is added, and the mafs
formed with mucilage of gum arabic.
Part IV,
A powerful purgative, well foiled to melancholia and Hiftory 0f
fimilar difeafes. Dofe 10 to 20 grains. Simple and
Officinal
g. Pilula: Aloes et Myrrhs, E. L. PILU- ,MedlCili^
LAi RUFI. Pills of aloes and myrrh. Rufus's pills.
Prepared of four parts of focotorine aloes, two parts Piils4ot
of myrrh, and two parts of faffron (one part L.), made aloes and
into a mafs with fyrup of faffron. myrrh.
A good laxative and ftomachic. Dofe .15 or 20
grains.
* 484
//. Extractum Aloes, C. Extraft of aloes. Extract of
n 1 r aloes.
Prepared as extraEl of gentian.
485
i. Tinctura Aloes socotorime, E. TINCTU-Tincture of
RA ALOES, L. D. Tinfture of aloes. al°eS*
Made by digefting half an ounce of powdered foco¬
torine aloes and an ounce and a half of extradt of liquo¬
rice, in four ounces of alcohol and a pound of diftiiled
water (E.), or in eight ounces of proof fpirit with the
fame quantity of diftilled water (L.), for a few days,
with a gentle heat and frequent agitation. Dofe about
an ounce.
486
i. Tinctura Aloes et Myrrile, E. TINCTU-Tincture of
RA ALOES COMPOS IT A, L. Tindlure of aloes aloes anh
and myrrh. Compound tinBure of aloes. \ myrrh.
This tin&ure, according to the Edinburgh procefs,
is prepared by fir ft digefting two ounces of powdered
myrrh in a pound and a half of alcohol mixed with
half a pound of water, for four days j then adding an
ounce and a half of powdered focotorine aloes, and an
ounce of faffron ; digeiting for three days longer, and
pouring off the tindlure. The London tin&ure is
made by digefting three ounces of focotorine aloes and
the fame quantity of faffron, in two pints of tincture of
myrrh, for eight days, and draining it.
Thefe tinctures differ in ftrength ; the Edinburgh
tincture may be given in a dofe of half an ounce or fix
drams; the London one in half that quantity.
487
Etherial tine- Etherial
tinCture of
aloes.
/. Tinctura Aloes jetherea, E.
ture of aloes.
This tin£ture is prepared by digefting focotorine
aloes, and myrrh powdered, of each an ounce and a
half, with an ounce of fliced faffron, in a pound of ful-
phuric ether with alcohol; firft digefting the myrrh
alone for four days, then adding the reft, digefting for
four days longer, and ftraining.
More ftimulating than the other tinctures. Dofe
two or three drams.
4 S S
tn. Vinum Aloes socotorinte, E. VINUM A-winecf
LOETICUM, D. VINUM ALOES, L. Winealoes.
of focotorine aloes. Aloetic winp. Sacred elixir.
The Edinbulgh wine is prepared by digefting an
ounce of powdered focotorine aloes, and leffer carda¬
mon'feed, and ginger bruifod, of each a dram, in two
pounds of Spaniih white wine, for feven days, with oc-
cafional agitation and ftraining. The Dublin college
directs four ounces of powdered focotorine aloes, arfd
two ounces of powdered canella alba, in four pounds
of Spaniih white wine for fourteen days, with frequent
agitation and then filtrating. In the London procefsj
the proportions are, eight ounces of powdered aloesj
* two
Part IV.
MATERIA
Officinal
Medicines.
Hiftory of two ounces of powdered canella, fix pints of Spanith
S'offiHivd 1 v'^'te w‘ne? and two pints of proof fpirit.
This appears from long experience to be a medicine
of excellent fervice. The dofe as a purgative is from
one to two ounces. It may be introduced into the ha¬
bit, fo as to be produflive of excellent effects, as an al¬
terant, by giving it in fmall dofes, at proper intervals :
thus managed, it does not for a confiderable time ope¬
rate remarkably by ftool ■, but at length proves purga¬
tive, and occafions a lax habit of much longer conti¬
nuance than that produced by other common cathar¬
tics.
4*9
Squill.
490
TDried
fquill.
491
Vinegar of
fquill.
492
Syrup of
fquill.
I08. SCILLA MARITIMA, E. SCILLA, L. D.
Squill. See Botany Index.
When the root of fquill is taken in large dofes, It
produces a violent vomiting and purging, and fome-
times ftrangury, bloody urine, and inflammation and
erofion of the ftomach or bowels; in moderate dofes it
proves emetic, without any further eonfequence, and
in fmall dofes, it is a good expe&orant and diuretic.
It is chiefly employed as an expectorant in afthma and
peripneumony, and as a diuretic in dropfy.
Officinal Preparations.
a. SciLLA MARITIMA EXSICCATA, E. SCILLA
EXSICCATA, L. SCILL^i PREPARAIVE,
D. Dried fquill.
Squill is dried by firft removing its outer coat, then
cutting it tranfverfely into thin flices, and drying thefe
with a gentle heat.
The fign of its being properly dried is that it be ren¬
dered friable without loflng its bitternefs and acrimony.
This is an excellent mode of preparing fquill, where it
is to be given in fubftanee. The dofe of dried fquill,
when reduced to powder and given as an expectorant
or diuretic, is from one grain to three.
b. Acetum Scillal maritime, E. ACETUM
SCILLvT:, l. acetum scilliticum, d.
Vinegar of fquill.
This is made by macerating dried fquill in vinegar
or dirtilled vinegar, with a proportion of proof fpirit.
The proportions of the different colleges vary. The
Edinburgh college directs two ounces of fquill to two
pounds and a half of diltilled acetous acid, and three.
ounces of alcohol ; that of London a pound of fquill,
fix pints of vinegar, and half a pint of proof fpirit ;
while the Dublin proportions are half a pound of
fquill, three pounds of. vinegar, and four ounces of
proof fpirit. The fquill is firlt macerated with the
vinegar for fome days with a gentle heat, then the
liquor is expreffed, and the fpirit added to it. Dofe
from two drams to half an ounce, chiefly in compofi-
tion.
c. Syrupus Scilue maritimje, E. Syrup of
fquill.
This fyrup is made with two pounds of vinegar of
fquill, and three pounds and a half of double refined
fugar, diffolved in a gentle heat.
A good expeClorant. Dofe from half an ounce to
an ounce.
3
MEDIC A, See. . 759
d. OXYMEL SciLLiE, L. Oxymel of fquill. Sffinp°e and
Prepared by boiling three pounds of clarified honey,
with two pints of vinegar of fquill in a glafs veffel, with — - ■
a gentle heat, to the confidence of a fyrup. 493
This is not fo good a preparation as the fyrup of ^xyi’"‘e^ ot
fquill, and is very apt to produce ficknefs. Dofe three’
or four drams.
494
Conferve of
fquiil.
495
e. Conserva Scilue, L. Conferve of fquill.
This is made by beating together in a mortar, an
ounce of frelh fquill and five ounces of double refined
fugar.
A very injudicious and naufeous preparation.
ff. Tinctura Scill^e, L. D. Tincture of fquill. TinfhueoF
This tinCture is prepared by digefting four ounces of
frelh dried fquill, in two pints, or two pounds, of proof
fpirit, for feven or eight days, and pouring off the clear
liquor.
This is a good preparation of fquill, -efpecially when
it is intended as a diuretic. Dofe twenty or thirty
drops.
495
g. Mel Scillal, L. MEL SCTLLITICUM, D. Honey of
Honey of fquill. . fquiil.
Prepared by boiling together in a glafs veffel, three
pounds of clarified honey and two pints of the tinc¬
ture of fquill, to the confiftence of a fyrup. Dofe, a
dram or two.
497
b. Pilula: Scilla:, L. PILULaE, SCILLITI-Squill pills.
C. /E, E. D. Squill pills.
Thefe, according to the London and Dublin col¬
leges, are to be prepared by beating together a dram
of frelh dried fquill reduced to powder, three drams of
powdered ginger, three drams of foap, and two drains
of gum ammoniac, with a fufficient quantity of fyrup
of ginger, or jelly of foap, to form a mafs fit for mak¬
ing pills. In the Edinburgh procefs a fcruple of dried
fquill, in fine powder, a dram of gum ammoniac, a
dram of powdered leffer cardamom feeds, and a dram
of extracted liquorice, are beaten into a mafs, with
Ample fyrup.
This is a good form of fquill, when intended as an
expeCtorant. Dofe from 10 to 15 grains.
109. Lilium candidum. LILIUM ALBUM.Whfte^ily.
D. White lily root. See Botany, p. 156.
499
no. Acorus Calamus, E. CALAMUS ARO-Calamus
MATICUS, L. Sweet flag. See Botany, p. 1 ^.aromaticus.
Order III. Trigynia.
in. Colchicum Autumnale, E. COLCHI-Cokhkum.
CUM, L. D. Colchicum, or meadow faffron. See
Botany, p. 161.
Officinal Preparations.
5°r
a. Syrupus Colchigi autumnalis, E. Syrup ofsyruP of
colchicum. cokhicum.
Prepared by firlt macerating an ounce of frelh col¬
chicum root, cut into thin flices, in 16 ounces of vine-
gar»
/
j6o
Hiftovy of
sSimple and
Officinal
Medicines.
MATERIA MEDICA, Bee.
gar, for two days, with eccafional agitation, and then
boiling the .expreffed liquor with 26 ounces of double
refined fu^ar into a fyrup.
Employed as a diuretic, in a dofe of from a dram to
an ounce or more.
Part IV.
Much recommended as a diaphoretic and ftimulant, Hiftory of
in rheumatic affedlions and in cutaneous eruptions. ')iniP^e
Dofe from four to eight ounces twice a-day. Meciicme
S02
Oxymel of
eolchicum.
S03
Sorrel,
b. Oxymel Colchici, L. Oxymel of colchicum.
This is made in the fame manner as the fyrup, only
that two pounds of clarified honey are ufed inftead of
fngar to the pint of vinegar of colchicum. It is given
in fimilar doles with the former.
112. Rumex acetosa, E. ACETOSA PRA-
TENSIS, L. ACETOSA, D. Sorrel. See Bo¬
tany, p. 162.
117.
L. D.
p. 168.
Polygonum Bistorta, E.
Great biltort or fnakeweed.
BISTORTA,
See Botany, Great bi-
ftort.
510
Class IX. ENNEANDRIA.
GYNIA.
Order 1. Mono-
CINN A MO- Cimiamoa,
118. Laurus Cinnamomum, E.
MUM, L. D. Cinnamon. The bark and its ejjential
oil. See .Botany, p. 170. and 174. See alfo the ar¬
ticle Ceylon.
Class VII. HEPTANDRIA. Order 1. Mono-
GYNIA.
504
Horfe-chef- 11^. 2ESCULUS II1PPOCASTANUM, E. HIPPOCA-
nut. STANUM. Horfe-chefnut bark and fruit.
The bark of horfe-chefnut is a powerful aftringent,
and has lately been recommended as a fubfatute for
cinchona. It is certainly a good tonic, and may be
given in powder from half a dram to a dram*, or a dram
of the extraft of it may be mixed with an ounce of cin¬
namon water, and given in the dofe of a tea fpomful
three or four times a day. A ftrong infufion of it,
fnuffed up the nofe, has long been employed as an
errhine.
Class VIII. OCTANDRIA. Order 1. Mono-
gynia.
5®S
Elemi. 114. Amyris elemtfera. ELEMI, L. Refin
of elemi. See Botany, p. 166.; and Chemistry,
N° 2471.
Officinal Preparations.
506
Elt-mi oint a. Unguentum Elemi, D. UNG. ELEMI
ment. COMPOS IT UM, L. Elemi ointment.
Prepared by fir ft melting a pound of elemi with two
pounds of mutton fuet, and on removing them from
the fire, immediately adding 10 ounces of turpentine,
and two ounces of olive oil, and draining the mixture.
A ftimulating ointment, in much reputation with
fome furgeons for cleanfing ulcers.
5G7
Balm of 115- Amyris Gileadensis, E. BALSAMUM
Gilead. GILEADENSE. Balfam or balm of Gilead, See
Botany, p. 166.
Mezereon. * 16. DAPHNE MezeREUM, E. MEZEREUM,
L. MEZEREON, D. Mezereon or Jpurge laurel.
See Botany, p/168.
Officinal Preparations.
Deeodt'on a TJECOCTUM DAPHNES MeZEREI, E. Decoftion
of meze- of mezert on.
Prepared by boiling with a gentle heat two drams
of the baik of mezereon root, and half an ounce nf
bruifed liquorice root, in three pounds of water to two
pounds.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Aqua Lauri Cinnamomi, E.
NAMOMI, L. D. Cinnamon water.
man.
5*2
AQUA CIN-Clnn:imo®
Barley cinna- w ater"
A gallon of water diftilled from a pound of bruifed
cinnamon.
An excellent cordial in a dofe of two ounces.
5*3
b. Spiritus Lauri Cinnamomi, E. SPIRITUS Spirit of
CINNAMOMI, L. D. Spirit of cinnamon. cinnamoa*
A gallon of .proof fpirit -d-iftilled from a pound of
bruifed cinnamon.
Preferable to the former only where ardent fpirits
are required.
5r4
c. Tinctura Lauri CInnamomi, E. TINCTU- rffitfure of
RA CINNAMOMI, L. D. Tindture of cinnamon.c*nniiinon*
Made by digefting three ounces, or three ounces and
a half of bruifed cinnamon, in -about two pounds of
proof Ipirit, for about a week.
A better tonic than the fpirit, as it contains the
aftringent as well as aromatic principle of cinnamon.
Dofe two or three drams.
d. Tinctura Cinnamomi compcsita, E. L. Com5pr5una
TINCTURA AROMATICA, D. Compound tine- tir.aure of
ture of cinnamon. Aromatic tinBure. emsamon.
Made by digefting an ounce (or fix drams, L. D.)
of bruifed cinnamon, an ounce (or two drams, D. or
•three drams, L.) of bruifed cardamom feeds, two drams
of powdered long pepper, (and two drams of powdered
ginger, L. D.) in two pounds and a half (or two
pounds, D. or two pints, L.) of proof fpirit, for feven
days.
A very hot tinfture, ufeful in sfthenic atony of the
ftomach. Dofe two or three drams.
. 5*<*
e, Pulvis aromaticus, E. L. D. Aromatic pow- Aromatic
der. powder.
I he Edinburgh aromatic powder is prepared of equal
parts of cinnamon, leffer cardamom feeds, and ginger,
■beaten together to a very fine powder. The propor¬
tions ol the other colleges are cinnamon two ounces,
lefier cardamom feeds, ginger and long pepper, of each
an ounce. Dofe 10 grains to a fcruple.
f ElECTUARIUM AROMATICUM, E. D. CON- Aromatic
FECilQ AROMA l iCA, L. Aromatic eteftuaryeiedtuaiy.
or confcBion. Cordial confeBrnn.
The
Part IV.
MATERIA
51&
Caffia bark
Hiltory of The Edinburgh ele&uary is made by mixing one
5 Officinal Part aroraat‘c Powder with two parts of fyrup of
Medicines. orange peel. That ot the Dublin college is prepared
u—v—. by mixing three ounces of conferveot orange peel with
half an ounce of powdered cinnamon, half an ounce of
powdered nutmeg, two drams of powdered ginger, and
two drams of faffron, with an ounce of double refined
fugar, and beating them together with a lufficient quan¬
tity of fyrup of orange peel into an electuary. The
London confection is made by firft macerating half a
pound of zedoary in coarfe powder, and half a pound
of laffron, in three pints of water for 24 hours, prefling
out the liquor, and evaporating it to a pint and a half,
and adding 16 ounces of compound powder of crabs
claws, of cinnamon and nutmeg each two ounces,
•loves an ounce, lefler cardamom feeds half an ounce,
all in fine powder, and two pounds of double refined
fugar, fo as to form an eleCtuary.
Of thefe compoutions, the firft is the beft. Dofe a
fcruple to half a dram.
119. Laurus cassia, E. CASSIA LIGNEA, D.
Caflia bark. See Botany, p. 173.
This is commonly employed inftead of cinnamon,
and though not fo delicate, is as efficacious as that ex-
penfive drug. The buds of caffia are, we believe,
itronger than the bark.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Aqua Lauri cassia, E. Caffia water.
Diftilled like cinnamon water, for which it is com¬
monly fubftituted.
520
Camphor. 120. Laurus camphor a, E. The camphor tree.
CAMPHOKA, L. D. Camphor or See
Botany, page 170. and 174; and Chemistry, N*
2441. See alfe the article Camphora.
Internally camphor is adminiftered as a diaphoretic
in typhoid fevers, in rheumatifm, in low eruptive fe¬
vers, in a dofe of from five to 20 grains; and as an an-
tifpafmodic in hiccup, hyfteria, epilepi'y, and in mania
and melancholia, efpecially in that maniacal affection
that fometimes takes place in lying in women. It is
applied externally in cafes of gangrene, to difeufs in¬
dolent tumors, and to difperfe collections of milk in
the breads of women who are weaning their infants.
J19
Caffia wa¬
ter
MEDICA, 8tc.
Scarcely fo aCtive as the foregoing, Dofe much the H tb ry of
fame. Simple and
Officinal
c. Tinctura Camphors, E. SPIRITUSCAM Medlc,nes-
PH OR A I’US, L. D. TinCture of camphor. Cam- *"T',
phorated fpirit. findure of
A folution of camphor in rectified fpirit. The pe_Cdml)i‘or‘
veral colleges direCt very different proportions, viz. the
Edinburgh an ounce, or two or three ounces, of cam¬
phor, to a pound of alcohol; the L- »don lour ounces to
two pmts; and the Dublin college half an ounce to eight
ounces.
d. Oleum camphoratum, E. Camphorated oil. c mpherat-
A folution of camphor in oil olive, in the proportioned 0l1,
of half an ounce of the former to two ounces of the
latter, made by triturating them together in a glafs or
marble mortar.
e. Linimentum Camphors compositum, L.Carnphorat-
LINIMENTUM CAMPHORAE,, D. CompoundpdIiniment*
liniment of camphor.
Made by firft mixing fix ounces of water of pure
ammonia (L.), or 10 ounces of water of carbonated
ammonia (D.), w'ith 16 ounces (or two pounds, D.) of
fpirit of lavender, and diliilling off the Ipint from a
glafs retort; then diffolving in the diftilled fpirit two
ounces (L.) or three ounces (D.) of camphor.
Thefe three laft are intended for external applica¬
tion in the cafes above mentioned, and the laft is the
mofi: ftimulating.
121. Laurus nobilis, E. LAURUS, L. Bay. Bay.
See Botany, p. 171, and 172.
The leaves, berries, and expreffed oil of the berries,
are employed in medicine.
122. Laurus Sassafras, E. SASSAFRAS, L.SaffaXs.
D. Saflafras wood, root, and bark. See Botany,
p-
Employed chiefly a= a gentle diaphoretic or alter¬
ative in cutaneous eruptions, by way of decodtion or in-
fufion.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Oleum volatile Lauri Sassafr s, E. OLE-,, , n-
UM SASSAFRAS, L. Oft of faffafras. 0,1 offaira"
Officinal Preparations.
G 5 hm-at a' •^MULSI° CAMPHORATA, E. Camphorated emul-
Gamp or t- g
ed emul-
*on- Prepared by firft beating together two drams of
blanched fweet almonds, and a dra n of double refined
fugar, then rubbing with thefe a fcruple of camphor,
and gradually adding fix ounces of water to make an
emulfion. Dofe two or three ounces.
5a, b. Mistura CAMPHORATA, L. Camphorated mix-
Camphorat ture.
ed mixture. ]Y[a3e by rubbing a dram of camphor, firft with a
little redlified fpirit of wine, and then with half an
ounce of double refined fugar, and adding gradually a
pint of boiling diftilled water, and ftraining off the clear
liquor.
VOL. XII. Part II.
fras.
Diftilled as the other volatile oils.
Order 2. Trigynia.
123. Rheum palmatum, E. RHABARBARUM,Rhubarb.
L. D. Rhubarb. See Botany, p. lyj.
Officinal Pnpa ■■ aliens.
a. Infusum Rhei palmati, E. Infufion of rhu- infiffi n of
barb. rhubarb.
Made by macerating half an ounce of bruifed rhu¬
barb in eight ounces of boiling water for 12 hours;
then adding an ounce of fpirit of cinnamon, and ftrain¬
ing. Dofe half an ounce to an ounce and a half.
b. Vinum Rhei palmati, E. VINUM RHA-r,,^
BARBARI, L. Rhubarb
"ine. wme.
3 I> The
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Medicines.
762
Hiftory of The Edinburgh wine is prepared by infufing two
Simple and ounces 0f diced rhubarb and a dram of bruifed canella
Officinal jn ounces of Spanifh white wine, and two
ounces of diluted alcohol, for feven days, and draining
through paper. The London formula direfts two
ounces and a half of diced rhubarb, half an ounce of
bruifed leffer cardamom feeds, and two drams of faffron,
to be digefted in two pints of Spaniih white wine, and
half a pint of proof fpirit, for 10 days.
The Edinburgh wine is the ftronger, and may be
given in the dole of an ounce. Dofe of the London,
about an ounce and a half, or a fmall wine glafs
full.
53*
Tindture of
jhubaib.
533 ,
Compound
Tinctura Rhei palmati, E. TINCTURA
RHARARBARI, L. D. Tin&ure of rhubarb.
Prepared by digefting three ounces (E.) or two
ounces (L. D.) of diced rhubarb, half an ounce (E.)
or two drams (L. D.) of bruifed cardamom feeds, (and
two drams of faftron L. D.) in two pounds and a half
(E.) or two pounds (D.) or two pints (L.) of proof
fpirit, for about a week, and draining.
As a purgative, this may be given in the dofe of an
ounce ; as a domachic from two to four drams.
d. Tinctura Rhabarbari composita, L. Com-
tindture of p0und timdure of rhubarb,
rhubarb. r
Prepared of twro ounces of diced rhubarb, half an
ounce of bruifed liquorice root, two drams of powdered
ginger, and two drams of faffron, digeded for 14 days
in 12 ounces of proof fpirit mixed w ith a pint of didd¬
led water.
UTes and dofes as of the preceding.
534
Tindture of
rhubarb
and aloes.
535
Tindture of
rhubarb
and gen¬
tian.
e. Tinctura Rhei et Aloes, E. Tin&ure of rhu¬
barb and aloes.
Made by digeding 10 drams of diced rhubarb, fix
drams of powdered focotorine aloes, and half an ounce
of bruifed cardamom feeds, in two pounds and a half of
diluted alcohol, for feven days.
Dofe half an ounce to an ounce.
f. Tinctura Rhei et Gentians, E, Tin&ure
of rhubarb and gentian.
Made by digeding two ounces of diced rhubarb, and
half an ounce of diced gentian root, in tw'o pounds and
a half of diluted alcohol, for feven days, and drain¬
ing.
A good domachic. Dofe two or three drams.
Class X. DECANDRIA.
NIA.
Order 1. Monogy-
536
!!aliam of
Peru.
124. Myroxylon Peruiferum, E. BALSA-
MUM PERUVIANUM, L. D. Balfam of Peru.
See Botany, p. 182, and Chemistry, N° 2484.
Part IV.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Tin<Rure Medicines.
Officinal Preparation.
oUTinctura Balsami Peruviani, L.
of balfam of Peru. v
537
Made by digeding four ounces of balfam of Peru in rindtureof
a pint of rectified fpirit of wine till the balfam is dif-balfam of
folved. ' Peru.
Dofe half a dram to a dram and a half as a dimu-
lant.
53s
125. TolUIFERA BalSAMUM, E. BALSAMUM Balfam of
TOLUTANUM, L. D. Balfam of Tolu. See Bo-
tany, p. 182, and Chemistry, N° 2483.
539
TINC - Tindture of
Tine- balfam ot
Tolu.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Tinctura toluifer^e Balsami, E.
TURA BALSAMI TOLUTANI, L. D.
ture of balfam of Tolu.
Made by digeding an ounce, or an ounce and a half
(D.), of balfam of Tolu, in a pound, or a pint (L.), of
alcohol, till the balfam is diffolved.
This is the bed form of employing this balfam, and
it may be given mixed with honey, or, as in the follow¬
ing preparation, with fyrup. Dofe, half a dram to two
drams as an expectorant or dimulant.
54*
b. Syrupustoluifer^e Balsami, L. SYRUPUS Syrup of
TOLUTANUS, L. Syrup of balfam of Tolu, or Tolu.
ba/famic fyrup.
The Edinburgh college direCt this fyrup to be pre¬
pared by mixing an ounce of the above tinCture with
two pounds of common fyrup. The London procefs is
to boil eight ounces of balfam of Tolu with three pints
of didilled water for two hours, drain the liquor, and
boil it with a fufficient quantity of double refined fugar
to make a fyrup. The Edinburgh formula produces
both a cheaper and a dronger fyrup.
54*
126. Cassia Fistula, E. CASSIA FISTULA-Caffia
RIS, L. D. Cadia fruit. See Botany, p. 181. tuJa*
Officinal Preparations.
543
a. Electuarium Cassle Fistula, E, ELEC-EledWy
TUARIUM CASSIA, L. D. Eleduary of cadia. of caffia»
This is prepared of four parts (E.), or half a pound
(L.), of the pulp of cadia ; one part (E.), or an ounce
(L.), of the pulp of tamarinds j one part (E.), or two
ounces (L.), of manna ; and four parts or half a pound
of fyrup of damalk rofes. The manna is fird diffolved
in the iyrup by a gentle heat, the pulps are then added,
and the whole evaporated to the confidence of an elec¬
tuary.
A gentle laxative'. Dofe two or three drams.
127. Cassia Senna, E. SENNA, L. D. Sen-Senna
na leaves. See Woodville, Lewis, and Duncan (c).
Officinal
543
(c) This volume is now drawing very near a clofe, and it is indifpenfable that the prefent article Ihould not
extend beyond it. It is therefore neceffary that in the remaining part of the materia medica, we diould be ex¬
tremely concife, and diould omit all the natural hidory, and much of the medical hidory, of the fimple articles.
Fortunately, in many cafes, thefe circumdances have been anticipated under botany ; and where this has not been
ths
Part IV.
H ftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
544
Simple in-
tufion of
fenna.
545
Tartarized
infufion of
fenna.
a. Infusum
of fenna.
Officinal Preparations.
Sennje simplex, L. Simple infufion
Prepared by macerating an ounce and a half of fen¬
na, and a dram of powdered ginger, in a pint of boiling
water, for an hour, in a covered veffel. Dofe about two
or three ounces.
b. Infusum Sf.nnte
ized infufion of fenna.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. 7'53
Made like other extra&s that have been mentioned. Hillofy ot
Dofe 10 to 30 grains. Not much ufed.
g. Pulvis Sennas compositus, L. Compound Medicines.
powder of fenna. ^ G
Compofed of fenna, cryftals of tartar, each two ^vvder'of
ounces, fcammony half an ounce, and ginger two drams.
Dofe two or three fcruples.
55i
128. H.EMATOXYLON Campechianum, E. PliE-Logwood.
MATOXYLON, L. D. LIGNUM CAMPE-
CHENSE. Logwood. See Botany, p. 183.
tartarisatum, L. Tartar-
Inflead of ginger, half an ounce of bruifed coriander
feeds and two drams of cryftals of tartar are here added.
Dofe as of the above.
546
Infufion of
tamarinds
with 1'enna.
c. Infusum Tamarindi cum Senna, E. Infufion
of tamarinds with fenna.
Prepared by macerating an ounce of preferved ta¬
marinds, a dram (or two, three, &c. drams) of fenna,
half a dram of bruifed coriander feeds, and half an
ounce of brown fugar, in eight ounces of boiling water,
for four hours, in a glafs veffel.
An excellent laxative. Dofe from two to four ounces,
according to the quantity of fenna.
Compound ^ Tinctura Sennie composita, E. TINC-
tindiure of TURA SENNAL, L. D. Compound tin&ure of
fenna. fenna.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Extractum ILematoxyli, L.
wood.
Made by boiling logwood in fucceflive portions of
water, and evaporating the mixed liquors to a proper
confiftence. Dofe a fcruple to two fcruples.
552
Extraft of log- Extradl of
logwood.
129.
bark.
Swietenia Mahagoni, E.
130. Swietenia Febrifuga, E.
etenia bark.
n/r ! 553
Mahogany tree Mahogany
bark.
Febrifuge Swi- Febrifuge
fwietenia.
Thefe barks are good tonics, and may be ufed inftead
of the cinchona.
548
Electuary
of fenna.
The Edinburgh tin&ure is made by digefting two
ounces of fenna, an ounce of bruifed jalap root, and
half an ounce of bruifed coriander feeds, in three pounds
and a half of diluted alcohol, for feven days, ftraining for 1806. p. 89.
the tinfture, and adding four ounces of double-refined
fugar. The London and Dublin tinftures are made by
digefting a pound of fenna, an ounce and a half of
bruifed carraway feeds, half an ounce of bruifed carda¬
mom feeds, and 16 ounces of ftoned raifins, in a gallon
or nine pounds (D.) of proof fpirit, for 14 days. Dofe
half an ounce to an ounce and a half.
555
131. GuaiACUM OFFICINALE, E. GUAIACUM, Guaiacum,
' Guaiacum wood, bark and refin. See Bo-
L. D.
TANY, p. 181. j and for an excellent account of the na¬
ture and chemical properties of the relin, lee Phil. Tranf.
Officinal Preparations.
Com-
55*5
549
Extract of
fenna.
e. Electuarium Cassiae Senna;, E. ELECTU-
AR1UM SENNiE, L. D. Electuary of fenna. Le¬
nitive ele&uarij.
The Edinburgh and London eleftuaries are com¬
pofed of eight ounces of pounded fenna, four ounces of
powdered coriander feeds, three ounces of liquorice
root, half a pound or a pound of figs, half a pound of
pulp of tamarinds, half a pound of pulp of prunes (and
half a pound of pulp of caffia (L.), and two pounds and
a half of double refined fugar. That of Dublin is made
of four ounces of powdered fenna, a pound of pulp of
French prunes, two ounces of pulp of tamarinds, a
pound and a half of molaffes, and two drams of effential
oil of carraway. Dofe about half an ounce.
f. Extractum Cassia; Senna;, E. EXTRAC¬
TUM SENNJE, L. D. Extract of fenna.
a. DeCOCTUM GuAIACI COMPOSITUM, E. v^um- Compound
pound dtcoftion of guaiacum, DecoEiion of the wooLs. deco&ion
Made by boiling three ounces of guaiacum rafpings, CUIn.
and two ounces of ftoned refins, in ten pounds of water
to five pounds *, adding towards the end, of diced faffa-
fras and bruifed liquorice root, each an ounce.
Given as a diet drink in cutaneous eruptions and
rheumatifm, to the extent of a pint in the day.
557
b. Tinctura Guaiaci officinalis, E. Tin&ureTindture of
of guaiacum. guaiacuiri.
Made by digefting a pound of powdered refin of
guaiacum in two pounds and a half of alcohol for ten
days, and filtering.
A good diaphoretic. Dofe, two or three drams mix¬
ed with honey or fyrup.
558
c. Tinctura Guaiaci ammoniata, E. TING-Amoifniat-
TURA GUAIACI VOLATILIS, D. TING- ed tindture
TURA GUAIACI, L. Ammoniated tintture ofofSuaia~
. ’ cum.
guaiacum.
5 D 2 This
the cafe, we here make a general reference to Woodville’s “ Medical Botany,” Lewis’s “ Experimental Hi-
ftory,” Duncan’s “ New Difpenfatory,” the “ Pradlical Synopfis,” and “ Thefaurus Medicaminutny
7^4  
Hiftoryor Phis is made by digefling four ounces of powdered
^Ofiidnal' re^in gua*acurn in about one pound and a half of
Medicines. amra°niated alcohol for feyen days (three days L.),
«—-y—w and filtering.
More ftimulant than the laft. Dofe one or two
drams.
132. Ruta graveolens, E. RUT A, L.D. Rue.
See Botany, p. 182.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Oleum volatile Rut^e, D. Volatile oil of
MATERIA MED1CA, &c.
Part IV.
Rue.
559
560
Volatile oil
of rue.
56r
ExtraA of
56a
Simarouba.
563
Quaffia.
564
Yellow-
flowered
rhododen¬
dron.
565
Whortle¬
berry.
566
Storax.
567
Purified
ftorax.
568
Benzoin.
S69
Compound
Difh’lled as other volatile oils. Ufed chiefly as an
anthelmintic. Dofe from three to fix drops.
b. Extractum Rut.® graveolentis, E. EX-
PRAC1 UM RUT^E, L. D. Extract of rue.
Made like other watery extra&s. Dofe about one
fcruple.
133. Quassia Simaruba, E. SIMAROUBA,
L. D. Simarouba, or mountain damfon bark.
Ufed as a tonic in dyfentery, obftinate diarrhoea, in-
digeftion, and intermittent fevers. Dofe about a dram
in jubilance, or two drams in the form of decodlion,
which is the better mode of exhibition.
134. Quassia excelsa, E. QUASSIA, L.
Quaflia wood, bark, and root.
A ftrong bitter, and good tonic, generally given by
way of infufion, in the proportion of one to two drams
to a pint of water.
I35- Rhododendron Chrysanthum, E. Yel-
low-flowertd rhododendron. See Botany, p. 184. and
Duncan’s Difpenfatory.
136. Arbutus Uva Ursi, E. UVA URSI, L.
D. Whortleberry. See Botany, p. 184.
137. Styrax officinale, E. STYRAX, L.
STYRAX CALAMITA, D. Storax. See Bo¬
tany, p. 184. and Chemistry, N° 2481.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Styrax purificata, L. D. Purified ftorax.
Storax is purified by diflblving it in reftined fpirit,
ftraining the folution, and reducing it to a proper thick-
nefs by a gentle heat.
Employed chiefly as an ingredient in a tin&ure to be
mentioned immediately'.
138. Styrax Benzoin, E. BENZQE, L. BEN-
ZOINUM, D. Benzoin or benjamin. See Botany
p. 184. and Chemistry, N° 2480.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Tinctura Benzoes composita, E. L. BAL-
0f S£AuMU“ TRAUMATICUM. Compound tir.aure
' • ol benzoin, traumatic vulnerary, ox friars balfam.
Prepared by digefting three ounces of powdered ben-
5
zoin (two ounces of ftrained ftorax, L.) an ounce of Hiftoryof
balfam of Tolu, and half an ounce of powdered focoto-an^
rine aloes, in two pounds of alcohol, for feven days (or A,*cmal
three dayb, JL.), and iiraimng. t ^ f
This tin&ure forms a good expedtorant, made into
an emulfion with honey; and it has been long, though
perhaps undefervedly, celebrated, as an external appli¬
cation to wounds.
b. AciDUM BeNZOICUM, E. SAL BENZOINI, Benzoic
D. FLORES BENZOES, L. Benzoic acid. Saltaci(l.
of ben%oin. Flowers of benjamin.
The Edinburgh procefs for obtaining this acid is, to
triturate 24 ounces of benzoin with eight ounces of car¬
bonate of foda j to boil this mixture in 16 pounds of
water, conllantly ftirring, ftraining the decodtion ; re¬
peat the boiling with fix pounds of more water, (train¬
ing, mixing the two decodtions, and evaporating till
only two pounds remain, filtering again, and dropping
into the fluid diluted fulphuric acid as long as there is
any precipitation ; then diflblving the precipitated acid
in boiling water, ftraining the folution through linen,
and fetting it afide to cryftallize j and, laftly, walhing
the cryflals with cold water, and drying them.
For other methods of procuring this acid, and foran
account of its chemical properties, fee Chemistry,
N° 714 et feq.
Benzoic acid is employed as an expedlorant, in a
dofe of a grain or twro.
_ 571
139. COPAIFERA OFFICINALIS, E. BALSAMUM Balfam of
COPAIVA, L. BALSAMUM COPAIBA, D. copaiva.
Balfam of Copaiva. See Botany, p. 185.
Order 2. Digynia.
140. Dianthus Caryophyllus, E. CARYO-Clove7july-
PHYLLUM RUBRUM, L. D. Clove julyflow'er.flow61*
See Botany, p. 196.
Officinal Preparations.
573
a. SYRUPUS DlANTH.® CaRYOPHYLL®, E. SY-Syrup of
RUPUS CARYOPHYLLI RUBRI, L. Syrup of^ve july-
clove July flower. flower.
Made by macerating a pound or two of the petals of
clove julyflowers frelh gathered, and freed from the
heels, in four pounds or fix pints of boiling v'ater for
12 hours in a glafs veflfel, ftraining the infufion, and
adding of double refined fugar, feven pounds, or as
much as is fufficient to form a fyrup.
Order 4. Pentagynia.
141. Oxalis Acetosella. LUJULA, L.
CETOSELLA, D. Wood forrel. See Botany,rel.
p. 187.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Conserva Acetosell®, D.
forrel.
a 574
A- Wood for.
575
Conferve of wood Conierve of
wood for-
. rel.
Made by beating the leaves of wood forrel in a mar¬
ble mortar with a wooden peftle, firft by themfelves,
and then with three times their weight of double refined
fugar, till they are thoroughly combined.
Class XL
Fart IV.
MATERIA MEPICA, Sec.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
57 5
Afarabac-
ca.
Class XI. DODECANDRIA. Order i.Mono-
GYNIA.
577 J
Compound
142. Asarum Europium, E. AS ARUM, L.
D. Afarabacca. See Botany, p. 190.
Officinal Preparations.
, E. L. D. Com-
aiarabac
ca.
a. Pulvis Asari compositus
powder of pound powder of afarabacca.
a far abac-
Prepared according to the London and Dublin pro-
cefs, of equal parts of afarabacca, fweet marjoram,
Syrian herb maftich, and lavender, dried and reduced
together to a fine powder. In the Edinburgh formu¬
la there are ufed three parts of afarabacca, one of mar¬
joram, and one of lavender.
Ufed as an errhine.
578
White ca¬
ne 11a.
I43-
190.
Canella alba, E. L. D. See Botany,
Class XII. ICOSANDRIA.
GYNIA.
Order 1. Mono-
579
Cloves.
144. Eugenia Caryophyllata. CARYO-
PHYLLUS AROMATICUS, E. CARYOPHYL-
LA AROMATICA, D. Clove tree, and its effen-
tial oil. See Woodville’s Botany, and Duncan’s Dif-
penfatory.
145. Myrtus Pimenta, E. PIMENTO, L. D.
Pimento, Jamaica pepper, or allfpice. See Botany,
p. 194.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Aqua Myrtle Pimento, E. AQUA PI¬
MENTO, L. Pimento water.
A gallon of water diftilled from half a pound of pi¬
mento. Dofe, a fmall wine glafs full.
Volatile oil OlEUM VOLATILE MyRTI PlMENTJE, E. Vola-
•f pimento, tile oil of pimento.
58°
Pimento.
5Si
Pimento
water.
765
148. AmyGDALUS COMMUNIS, E. AMYGDA- Hiftory of
LJE DULCES, L.D. AMYGDALAE AMARyE,8^.^™
L. Sweet and bitter almonds. See Botany, p. 195. Medicines.
Officinal Preparations. 587
Sweet and
a. Oleum Amygdali communis, E. OLEUM bitter al-
AMYGDALARUM, L. D. Oil of almonds. monds.
Expreffed in the ufual manner. Given as an emol- oil 8f al_
lient, ad libitum. monds.
b. Emulsio Amygdala communis, E. LAC A. 5S^i
AMYGDALAE vel AMYGDALARUM, L. D. emuUum.
Almond emulfion.
Made by beating an ounce of blanched fweet al¬
monds, or an ounce and a half, either by themfelves, or
with half an ounce of double refined fugar, and gradual¬
ly pouring on them two pounds and a half or two pints
of diltilled water, to form an emulfion.
A grateful demulcent, that may be drunk in any
quantity.
59®
149. Prunus domestica, E. L. D. Prunes. Pmnes.
Ufed as a gentle laxative, chiefly in compofition.
591
150. Prunus spinosa. PRUNUS SYLVESTRIS, Sloes.
L. Sloes.
Employed as an aftringent.
Officinal Preparation.
593
a. Conserva Pruni sylvestris, L. Conferve ofConferveof
floes. floes.
Made by mixing any quantity of the pulp of floes,
obtained by boiling them in water till they are foft,
and fubfequent expreflion, with three times its weight
of double refined fuuar.
Order 4. Pentagynia.
593
151. PYRUS CYDONIA. CYDONIA MALUS, L. Quince
Quince feeds. See Botany, p. 197. feeds.
Diftilled as other volatile oils. Given as a ftimulus
in a dofe of two or three drops.
Spirit of c. Spiritus MyrTi Pimento, E. SPIRITUS
pimento. PIMENTO, L. D. Spirit of pimento.
A gallon of proof fpirit diftilled from half a pound
of bruifed pimento. Dofe about an ounce.
584
Pomegra- 146. PuNICA GRANATUM, E. GRANATUM,
nate. L. D. Pomegranate. See Botany, p. 195.
Kino. 3 T47* Eucalyptus resinifera. KINO, E. L. D.
Kino. See Duncan’s Difpenfatory.
586
Tincture of
kino.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Tinctura Kino, E. D. Tin&ure of kino.
Prepared by digefting two ounces of powdered kino
in a pound and a half of diluted alcohol, for feven days,
and filtering. Dofe from one dram to three, as an af-
tringent.
Officinal Preparation.
a. MUCILAGO SeMINUM CyDONII MALI, L. Mu- Mucilage
cilage of quince feed. of quince
feeds.
Made by boiling one dram of quince feeds in eight
ounces of diftilled water, with a flow fire for 10
minutes, and then fqueezing the mucilage through
linen.
Order 5. Polygynia.
152. Rosa Gallica, E. ROSA RUBRA, L.D.RcnUoffi.
Red rofe buds. See Botany, p. 198.
Officinal Preparations.
$96
a. Infusum Ros/e gallic.®, E. INFUSUM infufion of
ROSiE, L. INFUSUM ROSARUM, D. Infu-rofes.
fion of r'd r ifes.
Prepared b) infufing one ounce of the dried petals of
red
756
Hiftory of red rofes, in about two pounds and a half of boiling
1 water, in a glafs or unglazed earthen veffel, till cold,
Medicines. ^en a<iding about half a dram of fulphuric acid, and
v..—r-v--.... about two ounces of double refined fugar.
A pleafant refrigerant and gentle aftringent, given
internally in hemorrhages, and much employed as a
gargle.
b. Syrupus Rosje Gallic.®, E. Syrup of red rofes.
Made by macerating feven ounces of the dried petals
of red rofes in five pounds of boiling water for 12 hours,
llraining the liquor, and adding fix pounds of double
refined fugar to make a fyrup.
c. Mel ros®, L. D. Honey of rofes.
Made by macerating four ounces of dried petals of
red rofe buds in three pints of boiling diftilled water,
for fix hours, then draining the liquor, and boiling it
with five pounds of clarified honey to the confidence of
a fyrup.
d. Conserva Ros® rubr®, L. CONSERVA
ROSiE, D. Conferve of rofes.
Made by beating the frefh petals of red roles with
three times their weight of double refined fugar till
they are thoroughly mixed.
153. Rosa Damascena, L, D. ROSA CEN-
TIFOLIA, E. The damalk rofe. See Botany,
P. 198.
MATERIA MEDICO, &c.
597
Syrup of
red rofes.
598
Honey of
rofes.
599
Conferve of
rofes.
600
Damafk
rofe.
601
Rofe wa¬
ter.
6© 2
Syrup of
damafk
rofes.
Hips.
603
Officinal "Preparations,
a. Aqua Ros® centifoli®, E. AQUA ROSiE,
L. D. Rofe water.
A gallon of water didilled from fix pounds of the
fredi petals of damalk rofes.
Chiefly employed as a perfume.
b. Syrupus Ros® centifoli®, E. SYRUPUS
ROSiE, L. Syrup of damalk rofes.
Made by macerating one pound (E.) or feven
ounces (L.) of the frelh petals of damalk rofes, in four
pounds or four pints of boiling didilled water, and
adding to the drained liquor three pounds (E.) or fix
pounds (L.) of double refined fugar, to make a fy¬
rup.
154. Rosa canina, E. CYNOSBATUS, L.
Hips. See Botany, p. 198.
604
Conferve of
hips.
605
Rafpber-
ries.
606
Syrup of
Officinal Preparation.
a. Conserva Ros® canin®, E. CONSERVA
CYNOSBATI, L. Conferve of hips.
Made by beating any quantity of the pulp of ripe
hips with three times its weight of double refined
fugar.
155. Rubus id®us, L. D. Rafpberry. See Bo¬
tany, p. 198.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Syrupus fructus Rubi id®i, L. Syrup of rafp-
Tart IV.
. Made by boiling the juice of rafpberry with a fuffi- Hiftory 0f
cient quantity of double refined fugar to make a fyrup. Simple and
, rr, f Officinal
156. TORMENTILLA ERECTA, E. TORMEN- Medicines.
TILL A, L. D. Tormentil root. See Botany, '’““v—
’ 607
Tormentil
POTENTILLA REPTANS. PENTAPHYL- ro°t.
L. Common cinquefoil. See R^pavt^ 6o3
p. 199.
I57*
LUM,
p. 199.
Botany,^ 603
7 Common
cinqueioiL
158. Geum urbanum. Avens or herb bennet.
Botany, p. 199. and the “ Praaical Synopfis.”
This is confidered as a good fubditute for cinchona.
See, 6°9
A vens.
Class XIII. POLYANDRIA, Order 1. Mono-
gynia.
159. Papaver Rhoeas. PAPAVER.ERR ATI-Common
CUM, L. Common red poppy. See Botany, p. red poppy.
204.
Officinal Preparation.
L.
611
Syrup of Syrup of
red poppy.
a. Syrupus Papaveris erratici,
red poppy.
Four pounds of the frelh flowers of red poppy are
gradually mixed with four pints and a half of boiling
diflilled water in a water bath, conflantly dirring
them ; they are then fuffered to macerate for 12 hours,
the juice is prefled out and boiled with double refined
fugar into a fyrup.
Generally added to narcotic draughts, juleps, See.
160. Papaver somniferum, E. PAPAVER white*
ALBUM, L. D. White poppy. Opium. See Bo-poppy*
TANY, p. 204.
To dilate on any article, however important, is now
out of our power ; we mud therefore, befides the above
reference, refer our readers for the bed accounts of
opium, to Dr Crumpe’s “ Inquiry,” Dr Duncan’s Dif-
penfatory, the “ Pra&ical Synopfis,” and Thefaurus
Medicaminum.
*'3
Puri tied
rafpberries. berry juice
Officinal Preparations.
a. Opium purificatum, L. D. Purified opium.
A pound of opium, cut into fmall pieces, is digeded °P'urn’
with 12 pints of proof fpirit, w ith a gentle heat, till as
much as polfible of the opium is diflfolved. The tinc¬
ture is then filtered and didilled to a confidence proper
for making into pills or beating to powder.
Purified opium is commonly confidered as rather
weaker than crude opium 5 two grains of the fofter
mafs, and one grain and a half of the harder, being an
ordinary dofe.
614
b. Pulvis opiatus, E. L. Opiate powder. Opiate
By the London procefs this is formed by mixing t0.P0W<^er'
gether a dram of hard purified opium in powder, and
nine drams of burnt and prepared hartlhorn. The
Edinburgh powder is prepared of one part of opium,
and nine parts of prepared carbonate of lime, rubbed
together to a very fine powder.
Ten grains of thefe pow'ders contain one grain of
opium } but the Ediburgh powder is rather the ftrong-
3
Part IV.
MATEPtIA MEDICA, &c.
H ftory of er. I hey are uftful wl^en it is required to adminifter
Officinal 0P‘um very dofes.
M{:dt^nes-, Pilule Opii, L. PILULiE OPIATES, E-
615 tt Opium pills. Opiate or thebaic pills.
Opiate pills. . r
The London pills are prepared of two drams of hard
purified opium in powder, and one ounce of extraft of
liquorice, beaten together till they are perfeftly united.
The Edinburgh pills are formed of one part of opium,
and feven of extradt of liquorice, foftened feparately
wit^i diluted alcohol, beaten into a pulp and mixed,
and then beaten with two parts of pounded Jamaica
pepper into an uniform mafs.
The London pills contain two grains of opium, and
the Edinburgh one grain, in 10 of the mafs.
767
616
Extradl of
•plum.
«i7
Troches ef
liquorice
a. Extractum Opii, D. Extra# of opium.
Prepared by dilTolving two ounces of purified opium
in one pound of boiling water, draining the liquor, and
adding, while warm, one pound of cold diftilled wa¬
ter, expofing to the air for two days, filtering again,
and evaporating to the proper confidence of an ex¬
tra#.
e. Trochisci GlycyrrhiZvE cum Opio, E. TRO-
CHISCI GLYCYRRHlZAi COMPOSITI, D.
wu,‘ JP‘um. Troches of liquorice with opium. Compound troches
of liquorice.
The Edinburgh troches are formed by triturating
two drams of opium, with half an ounce of tin#ure of
tolu 3 then adding by degrees five ounces of extra# of
liquorice, foftened in warm water, and eight ounces of
common fyrup ; and ladly, five ounces of powdered
guma rabic, and drying the mafs till it is of a confid¬
ence to form troches, weighing ten grains each. The
Dublin formula dire#s two drams of purified opium to
be triturated with a dram of balfam of Peru, and three
drams of tin#ure of myrrh, till they are intimately mix¬
ed 3 then to be added two drams of tin#ure of tolu,
and nine ounces of extra# of liquorice, foftened in
warm water 3 when the whole is to be well beaten to¬
gether, and, with the addition of five ounces of powder¬
ed gum arabic, formed into troches, weighing ten
grains each.
Thefe troches are intended to allay irritation in
tickling coughs. About feven and a half of the Edin¬
burgh, and fix of the Dublin troches, contain about one
grain of opium.
f. Electuarium Opiatum, E. CONFECTIO
618
Opiate elec¬
tuary. OPIATA, L. Opiate ele#uary. Opiate confeElion.
The Edinburgh ele#uary is formed by mixing toge¬
ther fix ounces of aromatic powder, three ounces of fine¬
ly powdered fnakeroot, half an ounce of opium, diffufed
in a fufficient quantity of Spanilh white wine, and one
pound of the fyrup of ginger. The London confe#ion
is prepared of fix drams of hard purified opium in pow¬
der 3 of long pepper, ginger, and carraway feeds pow¬
dered, each two ounces; and fyrup of white poppy
boiled to the confiftence of honey, three times the
weight of the other ingredients. The opium is firft
mixed with the fyrup, then the other powders added,
and the whole intimately blended.
Thefe are intended as Simulating compofi Lions of
opium. Thirty-fix grains of the London, and 43 of Hiftory of
the Edinburgh preparation, contain about one grain
of °Pium- Medicines.
g. Electuarium mimosa Catechu, E. ELEC-
TUARIUM CATECHU COMPOSITUM, D.Eleauaiy
CONFECTIO JAPONICA. Ele#uary of catechu, of catechu.
Japonic confeElion.
Thefe ele#uaries are prepared of four ounces of ex¬
tra# of catechu powdered, three ounces powdered
kino, one ounce of cinnamon, and the fame of nut¬
meg in powder, one dram and a half of opium, diffu¬
fed in Spanilh white wine, and two pounds and a quar¬
ter of fyrup of red rofes boiled to the confiftence of
honey (E.) 3 or 14 ounces of fyrup of ginger, and the
fame of the fyrup of orange peel, boiled to the confift¬
ence of honey (D,)'
Powerful aftringents, given in diarrhoeas. Ten Icru-
ples contain about one grain of opium, and the ufual
dofe is a tea fpoonful frequently repeated. 6 )Q
h. Tinctura Opii, E. L. D. TINCTURA THE-Tin<aure of
BAICA. Tin#ure of opium. Thebaic tinElure. Zf-°^um'
quid laudanum.
The Edinburgh and Dublin tin#ures are made by
digefting two ounces of opium in two pounds of diluted
alcohol, 14 days, and filtering. The London tin#ure
is made by digefting ten drams of powdered purified
opium in a pint of proof fpirit for ten days.
Thefe tin#ures are confidered as of nearly equal
ftrength. Dole as narcotics, 25 or 30 drops 3 as an-
tifpafmodics, they are, like the folid opium, given in
much larger dofes.
621
i. Tinctura Opii camphorata, L. D. ELIXIR Camphorat-
PAREGORICUM. Camphorated tin#uie of opium.ed undlure
Paregoric elixir. °Pium‘
Prepared by digefting one dram of hard purified
opium, one dram of flowers of benzoin, two fcruples of
camphor, and one dram of effential oil of anifeeds, in
two pints of proof fpirit, for ten days.
Half an ounce of this tinfture contains about one
grain of opium. Ufual dofe about one dram or two.
k. Tinctura Opii ammoniata. Olim Elixir Am^niat-
PAREGORICUM, E. Ammoniated tin#ure of opium, ed tinfture
Made by digefting three drams of benzoic acid, three ^ 0p Um'
drams of lliced faffron, two drams of opium, and half a
dram of volatile oil of anifeeds, in ten ounces of am¬
moniated alcohol, feven days, in a clofe veffel.
An excellent antifpafmodic, ftronger than the laft.
Dofe about one dram.
623'
/. Syrupus Opii, D. Syrup of opium. Syrup ft
Made by diffolvlng 48 grains of extra# of opium jnop*um‘
three pounds of boiling water, and adding a fufticient
quantity of double refined fugar to make a fyrup.
An excellent narcotic for children. According to
Dr Duncan, an ounce of it contains about two grains
and a half of opium.
624
m. Syrupus Papaveris somniferi, E. SYRU-Syrup of
PUS PAPAVERIS ALBI, L. Syrup of white pop-whlte P°P"
pies.
pies.
The Edinburgh fyrup is made by macerating two
pound;*
7 68
H itory of pounds of fliccd white poppy heads, freed from the
^'l'1 feeds, in 30 pounds of boiling diitilled water for 12
Medicines, ^ouis, boiling it to a third, and pr<-fling out the liquor,
    /— which is again boded to one halt, ttrained, and formed
into a (yrup with four pounds of double refined lugar.
The proportions in the London procefs are, three
pounds and a half of poppy heads, eight gallons of
water, and fix pounds of fugar.
A weak narcotic, not fo certain as the laft fyrup.
MATERIA MEDTCA, &c.
Part IV.
621;
Ladanum.
626
Compound
ladanum
platter.
16r. Cistus creticus, LADANUM, L.
num. See Chemistry, N° 2466.
Officinal Preparation.
Lada-
Com-
627
Stavefacre.
628
a. Emplastrum Ladani compositum, L.
pound ladanum plaiier.
Formed of three ounces of ladanum, one ounce of
frankincenle, powdered cinnamon and expreffed oil
of mace, each half an ounce, and one dram of eifential
oil of mint.
A warm ftimulating plafter.
Order 3. Trigynia.
162. Delphinium staphisagria. ST APHIS-
AGR.IA, L. D. Stavefacre.
Employed as an external application againfl; ver¬
min.
Bl»e 163. Aconitum neomontanum. Agonitum na-
monkfliood. pellus, E. ACONITUM, L D. Blue monks¬
hood, or aconite. See Duncan's Dijpenfatory.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Succus sptssatus Aconiti Napelli, E. Infpif-
fated juice of aconite.
Made from the frelh leaves of aconite in the ufual
manner. Dofe from half a grain to three grains, twice
or thrice a day.
629
Infpifla.ed
jr - e of
aconite.
630
W nter’s
bark.
631
Black hel¬
lebore.
Order 4. Tetragynia.
164. Wintera aromatica, E.
Similar to canella alba.
Order 6. PoLYGYNIA.
Winter’s bark.
t6?. Helleborus NIGER, E. L. D. MELAM-
PODIUM. Black hellebore. See Botany, p. 210.
Offinnal Preparation.
632
T’notuie of a. TlNCTURA HelLEBORI NIGRI, E. L. D. Tine-
black helie-ture of black hellebore,
bote.
Prepared by digefting four ounces of black hellebore,
and about half a dram of powdered cochineal, in two
pounds and a half (E.), or two pints (L.), or two
pounds (D ), of diluted alcohol, for about a wreek.
Much celebrated as an emrtienagogue. Dole about
a tea fpoonful.
«33
StirJdug
hellebore.
166. Helleborus foetidus. HELLEEORAS¬
TER, L. Stinking hellebore. See Botany, p. 210.
Class XIV. DLDYNAMIA.
SFERMIA.
Hi It cry of
Order I, GYMNO-S mPle -"<1
Officinal
Medicines.
167 Hyssopus officinalis, E.
D. Hyffop. See Botany, p. 216.
HYSSOPUS, 634
Hyffop.
635
168. Mentha viridis. MENTHA SATIVA,spearmint.
L. D. Spearmint. See Botany, p. 217.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Aqua Mentha sativ^e, L. D. Mint water.
A gallon of water diftilled from a pound and a half
of mint.
535
M nt wa¬
ter.
b. Oleum volatile Mentha SATiviE, L. D. Vo-OiloiLint
latile oil of mint.
■c.
mint.
Diftilled as other volatile oils.
Spiritus Mentha sativ^;.
L. Spirit of
A gallon of fpirit diftilled from a pound and a half
of mint.
638
169. Mentha Piperita, E. MENTHA PIPER. t*eppw
IS, L. D. Peppermint. See Botany, p. 217. mint.
Officinal Preparations.
6.39
a. Aqua Mentha Piperit/e, E. AQUA MEN-Pepper-
THAL PIPERITIDIS, L. Peppermint water. mint water.
b. Oleum Volatile Menthje Piperita*; vel Oil eff pep-
Piperitidis, E L. D. Oil of peppermint. perm in U
641
c. Spiritus Mentha Piperitae vel PiPERiTi-Sp.ru of
-DIS, E. L. Spirit of peppermint. peppermint,
All thefe are prepared in the fame manner as fimilar
preparations of mint, poffefs fimilar properties, but ra¬
ther ftronger. Dofe of the water, a wine glafs full j
of the oil, a drop or twoj of the fpirit, about an ounce.
642
170. Mentha Pulegium, E. PULEGIUM, L.Pemiyieyai.
D. Pennyroyal. See Botany, p. 217.
Officinal Preparations.
<43
a. Aqua Mentha Pulegii, E. AQUA PULE- Pennyroyal
GII, L. D. Pennyroyal water. water.
644
b. Oleum volatile Menthae PuleGii, E. Oil of pen-
OLEUM PULEGII, L. D. Oil of pennyroyal. nyroyal.
645
c. Spiritus Mentha Pulegii, E. SPIRITUSSpim of
PULEGII, L. Spirit of pennyroyal. pennyiojah
Diftilled in the fame manner, and poflefling fimilar
properties with the preparations of mint.
171. Lavandula spica, E. Lavendula, L. D.Lavfmter
Lavender flowers. See Botany, p. 216. flowen.
Officinal Preparations.
^ 647
a. Oleum volatile Lavandulae Spic^e, E. 0-Oi1 of ia-
LEUMvender.
Part IV, MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Hiftory of LEUM VOLATILE LAVENDULAi. Volatile
Simi)le and 0j^ 0£ ]avencler>
Ofricinal
Medicines. Diflilled as other volatile oils.
709
648
Spirit of
‘lavender.
<49
Compound
b. Spiritus Lavandulae spic^:, E. SP1R1TUS
LAVENDUL/E, L. D. Spirit of lavender.
Two pounds of frefh flowering fpik.es of lavender to
eight pounds of alcohol, and feven pounds drawn off,
(E.). A pound and a half of lavender to a gallon
(L.) or nine pounds (D ) of proof fpirit, and five pints
(L.) or five pounds (IE) drawn off.
A powerful ftimulus, feldom employed internally,
except in the following preparation.
Spiritus Lavandulae Spicae compositus, E.
tiadlure of SPIRITUS LAVENDULAL COMPOSITUS, L.
lavender. TINCTURA L AVENDULAE COMPOSITA, D.
Compound fpirit of lavender. Corhpound tintture of
lavender.
Made by digefting an ounce (or half an ounce,
L. D.) of bruifed cinnamon, half an ounce of bruifed
nutmegs, (two drams of bruifed cloves, E.) and thre.e
drams (or an ounce L.) of red fanders {havings, in
three pounds (or three pints L.) of fpirit of lavender,
and a pound (or a pint L.) of fpirit of rofemary, for
about a week.
An excellent cordial in faintnefs or naufea. Dofe
from 20 drops to a dram.
650
"Syrian herb 172. TeuCRIUM MaRUM. MARUM SYRIA-
maftich. CUM, L. D. Syrian herb maftich. See Botany,
p. 216.
Water'ger- x73- TEUCRIUM SCORDIUM. SCORDIUM, L.
mander. Water germander. See Botany, p. 216.
6 T2
White r76- Marrubium vulgare, E. L. D. White
horehound. horehound. See BOTANY, p. 218.
653
Origanum.
. 6S4 .
Oil of ori¬
ganum.
177. Origanum vulgare. ORIGANUM,
D. Origanum, or wi/d marjoram. See Botany,
218.
L.
p.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Oleum Origani, L. D. Oil of origanum.
Diftilled as other volatile oils. Much ufed in tooth-
ach.
Sweet mar- 17^*
ioram. L. 13.
655
Balm. 179.
Balm.
Origanum Majorana, E. MA.TORANA,
Sweet marjoram. See Botany, p. 219.
Melissa officinalis, E. MELISSA, L.
See Botany, p. 219.
*57
Foxglove.
658
Infufion of
tfoxlovc.
Order 2. Angiospermia.
180. Digitalis purpurea, E. DIGITALIS,
L. D. Foxglove. See Botany, p. 221. See alfo
Withering on Foxglove, Dahcan’s Difpenfatory, the
Pradlical Synopfis, and the Thefaurus Medicaminum.
Dofe of the digitalis in fubftance about one grain,
gradually increafed.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Infusum Digitalis purpurete, D. Infufion of
foxglove.
Vol. XII. Part II.
Mad.e by macerating a dram of the dried leaves of Hiftory ot
foxglove in eight ounces of boiling water, with an ounce
of fpirit of cinnamon, for four hours, and filtering. Medicines.
Ufed principally in dropfical complaints. Dole half  v—
an ounce, or one ounce, twice a-day.
*59
b. TiNctura Digitalis purpureas, E. Tinfture Tindm-e of
of foxglove. foxglove.
Prepared by digefting an ounce of the dried leaves
of foxglove in eight ounces of diluted alcohol, for feven
days, and {training through paper.
Much recommended in haemoptyfis, and the early
ftages of confumption, to diminifh the frequency of the
pulfe. Dofe from 10 to 20 drops, twice or thrice a
day, gradually and cautioully increafed.
Class XV. TETRADYNAMIA. Order 1. Sl-
LICULOSAE.
6 So
I 81. COCHLEARIA OFFICINALIS. E. COCHLE-Garden
ARIA, D. COCHLEARIA HORTENSIS, L.fcurvy'
Garden feurvygrafs. See Botany, p. 225.
1 grafs.
Officinal Preparation.
66 r
a. Succus Cochlearia: compositus, E. L. Com- Compound
pound juice of feurvygrafs. juice of
feurvy-
According to the Edinburgh procefs, this is prepa-gra/s.
red by mixing juice of feurvygrafs, juice of water
creffes, both frefti gathered, and juice of Seville oranges,
of each two pounds, with half a pound of fpirit of nut-
vneg; and after the feces have fubfided, {training the
liquor. The London preparation is compofed or two
pints of juice of feurvygrafs, one. pint of the juice of
brooklime, and the fame of that of water creffes, and 20
ounces by meafure of Seville orange juice, mixed and
{trained as before.
A celebrated remedy in the feurvy, and cutaneous
eruptions. Dafe from one to four ounces, twice or
thrice a-day.
662
182. COCHLEARIA ARMORACIA, E. RA PHAN US Horfe-ra-
RUSI ICANUS, L. D. Horfe-radifti root. See 2o.di^iroot*
tany, p. 226.
Officinal Preparation.
663
a. Spiritus Raphani compositus, L. D. Com-Compound
pound fpirit of horfe radifti. fpirit of
horfe-ra-
Two gallons or 18 pounds (D.) of proof fpirit diftil-clifll-
led from frefti horfe-radifti rout, and dried Seville orange
peel, of each two pounds ; frefti garden feurvygrafs four
pounds, and bruifed nutmegs an ounce.
Formerly much celebrated as an antifeorbutic, and
ftimulant. Dofe from half an ounce to an ounce.
Order 2. SlLlQUOSiE.
■ 664
183. CARDAMINE PRATENSIS, E. CARD AMINE, Ladies
L. Ladies fmock. See Botany, p. 226 fmock.
„ ' ’ 665
183. SlNAPIS ALBA, E. SINAPIS, D. White Whhe muf.
muftard feed. tard feed.
184. SlNAPIS NIGRA. SINAPIS, L. Common Common
muftard feed. See Botany, p. 228. muftard
5 L Officinaffi*^'
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
77°
Hi (lory of
Simple and
Officinal
Officinal Preparation.
Medicine;.
  a. Cataplasma Sinapeos, L. CAT A PLASMA
667 SINAPIUM, D. Mullard cataolafm, or linapifm.
Muftard
cataplafm. Prepared of equal parts of powdered muftard and
crumb of bread, made into a proper confidence with
vinegar.
An excellent external ftimulant application, in the
low rtage of acute difeafes, and in other cafes where
flight external inflammation is indicated.
668
Water 185 SISYMBRIUM NASTURTIUM, E. NASTUR-
cielfes. TIUM AQUATICUM, L. D. Water crefles. See
Botany, p. 226.
Part IV,
Order 3, Octandria.
190. Poeygaea Senega, E. SENEKA, L. D.
Seneka root. See Botany, p. 237.
Officinal Preparation.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
67S
Senek*
root.
a. Decoctum PoeygaljE Senega, E. Decoc-Decodtio#
tion of feneka. ol leneka.
Made by boiling one ounce of feneka root in two
pounds of water to 16 ounces, and draining.
Uled in dropfy and rheumatic or arthritic com¬
plaints, and lately recommended in croup. Dofe about
two ounces, three or four times a-day.
Class XVL MONADELPHIA. Order 1. Tri-
ANDRIA.
Tamarinds. l86. TaMARINDUS INDICA, E. TAMARINBUS,
L. D. Tamarinds. See Botany, p. 231.
Order 8. Polyandria.
Common 187. MalVASYLVESTRIS, E. MALVA, L. Corn-
mallow. mon mallow. See Botany, p. 233.
Officinal Preparation.
671
Decoaion a. Decoctum pro enemate, L. Deco&ion for
for clyfteis. clyders.
Made by boiling one ounce of the dried leaves of
mallow, and one ounce and a half of dried chamomile
flowers, with a pint of water, and draining.
672
Marlhmal- 188. ALTHAEA OFFICINALIS, E. ALTHiEA, L.
low. Marlhmallow root. See Botany, p. 233.
Officinal Preparations.
673
Decoaion
of mai fh-
mallow.
674
Syrup of
marfh-
mallew.
_ <7. Becoctum Althje/e officinalis, E. Becoc-
tion of marllimallow.
Made by boiling four ounces of dried marflimallow
root bruiied, and two ounces of doned railins of the fun,
jn feven pounds of water to five pounds, draining, and
•when the feces have fubfided, pouring off the clear
liquor.
A good emollient drink in inflammatory difeafes.
b. Syrupus Althaea: officinalis, E. SYRU-
PUS ALiHiEiE, L. Syrup of marfhmallow.
Made by boiling one pound of frefli marflimallow
root, fliced or bruifed, in ten pounds or a gallon of wa¬
ter, to one half, and adding four pounds of double re¬
fined fugar to make a fyrup.
A good emollient and demulcent in coughs, &c.
Class XVII. BIABELPHIA. Order 2. Hex-
andria.
Common ^ lS9- FuMARIA OFFICINALIS. FUMARIA, B.
fumitory. Common lumitory. See Botany, p. 237.
Order 4. Becandria.
191. Pterocarpus Santalinus, E. SANTA-Re/fan-
LUM RUBRUM, L. B. Red fanders w'ood. derswoocL
Employed chiefly to give colour to a tin&ure.
192. Pterocarpus Braco, E. SANGUIS BRA- Dragon’s
CONIS, L. Bragon’s blood. See Chemistry n0^^00^*.
2467.
Employed as an aftringent, but now feldom ufed.
193. Spartium Scoparium, E. GENISTA, L. B , Common
Common broom tops. See Botany, p. 237. broom.
Officinal Preparation,
a. Extractum Genistae, L. Extrafl of broom. Extract of
Employed as a diuretic. broom.
194. Bolichos Pruriens, E. BOLICHOS, B.CsJhage.
Cowhage, or cow-itch. See Botany, p. 239.
r Ar95-Astragalus Tragacantha, E. TRAGA-Gumrng*.
C/Ain 1 ri A, L. B. Gum tragacanth, or gum dragant. canth.
This gum is a mere mucilage, and is employed as a
demulcent.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Mucilago Astragali Tragacanth®, E.uudW
MUCILAGO TRAGACANTHyE, L. MUCl-ofguX-
LAGO GUMM1 TRAGACANTIEE, B. Muci-Sacanth*
lage of gum tragacanth.
Made by macerating one ounce of powdered gum
tragacanth in eight ounces of boiling water (E,), or
half an ounce in ten ounces (L.), or one dram in eight
ounces (D.), and diflolving by fublequent trituration.
b. Pulvis TragacantHlE comfositus, L. Com¬
pound powder of tragacamh.
Prepared of powdered gum tragacanth, gum arabic,
and flarch, of each halt an ounce, rubbed into a powder
with three ounces of double refined fugar.
A demulcent powder, ferviceable in tickling coughs,
ftrangury, ardor urinae, violent mucous diarrhoea, and
fimilar difeafes.
685
Compound
powder of
tragacanth.
196. GlYCYRRHIZA GLABRA, E. GLYCYR- L quorice
RHIZA,root.
Part VI.
MATERIA
Liquorice root and extra# of liquo-
Hiftory of RHIZA, L. D.
Simpie and :
Officinal tt/* ,
Medicines. Uled as an emollient and demulcent, in fubftance, in
V—^ decodtion, pills, eledtuaries, &c.
Officinal Preparation.
6s7
Extradl of a- EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZiE GLABRAS, E. EX-
liquonce. TRACTUM GLYCYRRHlZiE, L. D. Extradt
of liquorice.
Prepared like other watery extradls.
68 S
Cabbage- I97* Geoffraia inermis, E. GEOFFRa^A, D.
tree bark. Cabbage-tree bark.
Lately introduced into this country from the Welt
Indies as an anthelmintic, in the form of decoction.
Officinal Preparation.
Decodtion a. Decoctum Geoffr^:^: inermis, E. Decodtion
of cabbage-of cabbage-tree bark,
tree bark.
Made by boiling one ounce of powdered cabbage-
tree bark with a gentle fire in two pounds of water to
one pound, and draining. Dofe to children a table
fpoonful, to adults four *, giving caftor oil, and dilut¬
ing with acidulated drinks, if unpleafant fymptoms
ftiould arife.
690
Fenugreek 198. TRIGONELLA FOENUM GrECUM. FOENUM
&ed. GRECUM, L. Fenugreek leed. See .Botany,
p. 241.
Class XVIII. POLYADELPHIA. Order 3.
ICOSANDRIA.
Seville 199. Citrus Aurantium, E. AURANTIUM
orange. HISPALENSE, L. D. Seville orange juice, peel,
and leaves. See Botany, p. 243.
Officinal Preparations.
69 a
Syrup of a. Syrupus Citri aurantii, E. SYRUPUS
orange peel. CORTICIS AURANTII, L. D. Syrup of orange
peel.
Prepared by macerating fix ounces, or eight ounces
(L. D.) of the freih outer rind of Seville oranges, with
three pounds or five pints (L. D.) of boiling water, for
12 hours in a clofe veffel, and adding to the filtered
liquor of double refined fugar four pounds, or enough
to make a fyrup.
Ufed chiefly in compofition.
693
Orange peel b. Aqua Citri aurantii, E. Orange peel wa-
water. ter.
MEDICA, &c. 771
</.Cgnserva Citri Aurantii,E. CONSERVA sffiudeand
AURANTII HISPALENSIS, L. CONSERVA Officinal
CORTICIS AURANTII, D. Conferve of orange Medicines.
peel. v
695
Prepared by beating the frefli rind of Seville oranges Gonfa ve of
firft by itfelf, and then with three times its weight of orange peel,
double refined fugar.
696
200. Citrus MEDiCA, E. LIMON, L. D. Le-Lemon,
mon juice, peel, and elfential oil. See Botany, p.
242.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Aqua Citri medico, E. Lemon peel water. LemoJpeel
water.
A gallon of water diftilled from two pounds of freih
lemon peel.
A pleafant aromatic wrater, fimilar to orange water.
b. Syrupus Citri medico, E. SYRUPUS LI-Syrup of
MONIS SUCC1, L. D. Syrup of lemon juice. lemonjuice.
Made by diflblving five parts (E.) or five pounds
(L.) or four pounds (D.) of double refined lugar, in
three parts or two pints (L.) or two pounds (D.) of fil¬
tered lemon juice.
A pleafant refrigerant fyrup.
c. Succus Limonis spissatus, L. Infpifiated le-infpffffted
mon juice. lemonjuice.
Prepared in the fame manner as the infpiffated juice
of elder berries.
Employed chiefly as a refrigerant, efpeciaily in bili¬
ous or remittent fevers.
Order 4. Polyandria.
201. Melaleuca Leucodendron, E. CAJE-Cajeput.
PUT A. Cajeput oil.
Ufed as an external ftimulant in cafes of luxation,
fprains, and rheumatic and gouty afledlions.
701
202. Hypericum perforatum. HYPERICUM,St John’s
L. St John’s wort. See Botany, p. 243. wort.
Class XIX. SYNGENESIA. Order 1. Poly-
GAMIA 2EQUALIS.
203. Leontodon Taraxacum, E, TARAXA-Dandelion.
CUM, L. D. Dandelion root and leaves.
Reputed a diuretic, but fcarcely employed in modern
praftice.
Ten pounds of water diftilled from two pounds of
frefh orange peel, after due maceration.
A pleafant cordial water. Dofe two or three
ounces.
Tinftureof c. Tinctura Aurantii corticis, L. D. Tinfture
•rangepeel, of orange peel.
Made by digefting three ounces of freih orange peel
in two pints or two pounds of proof fpirit for three
days. Dole three or four drams to an ounce.
204. Lactuca virosa, E. Wild lettuce. See Bo-Wild
TANY, p. 248. and Duncan’s Difpenfatory. lettuce.
Officinal Preparation.
*10 A.
a. Succus spissatus Lactucje viros^e, E. In-infpiffated
fpiffated juice of wild lettuce. juice of
. > wild let-
Prepared as other infpiffated juices ; employed as atuce.
narcotic and diuretic, principally in dropfies proceed¬
ing from vifceral obltruftions. Dofe at firlt about
5 E 2 three
Hiftory of
Sl'Ii^ic iiild
Officinal
M edicines.
7°5
Burdock
root.
706
P 1 .hoKe
leaves.
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
Part IV.
707
Southern-
WOt)d-
three grains, gradually increafed to 15 or more, twice
or thrice a-day.
205. Arctium Lappa, E. BARDANA, L. D.
Burdock root.
Recommended as a diuretic, and given in the form
of deeoftion in dropfies, &c.
206. Cynar y scolymus, E. CINARA SCOLY-
MUS, E. D. Artichoke leaves.
Employed as a diuretic.
Order 2. Pot ygamia Superflua.
207. Artemisia Abrotanum. ABROTANUM,
L. ooutliernv.uud. See Botany, 251.
Officinal Preparation.
70S
Be oMion a. Decoctum pro fomento, L. Deco&ion for
for.fomen- fomentations.
ration.
Pxeparr-d by boiling for a little, of the dried leaves
of foutherrr.vood, the dried tops of fea wormwood, and
dried chamomile flowers, each an ounce, with half an
ounce of dried bay leaves, in fix pints of diltilled water,
and draining.
208. Artemisia maritima. ABSYNTHIUM
MARiriMUM, L. D. Sea wormwood. See Bo¬
tany, p. 251.
709
Sea worm¬
wood.
7x0
Conferva of
fea wortn-
wood.
711
Woim feed.
712
Common
wormwood.
713
Tanfy.
714
Leopard’s
bane.
, 7IS
Elecam¬
pane.
716
®o!den rod
OJficinal Preparation.
a. Conserva Absynthii maritimi, L. Conferve
of fea wormwood..
Prepared by beating the frefii tops of fea wormwood
with three times their weight of double refined fugar,
into a conferve.
Employed as a tonic and ftomachic in hypochon-
driaii-,, epilepfy, &c. and as an anthelmintic. Dofe
two drams to half an ounce, twice or thrice a day.
209. Artemisia Santonica, E. SANTONI-
CUM, L. D. Worm feed.
Employed as an anthelmintic. Dofe from half a
dram to a dram, twice a-day, in powder.
210. Artemisia Absinthium, E. ABSINTHI¬
UM VULGARE, L. D. Common wormwood. See
Botany, p. 251.
211. Tanacetum vulgare, E. TANACETUM,
L. D. Tanfy, leaves and flowers. See Botany, p.
251.
A good tonic and anthelmintic. Dofe half a dram
to four drams in fubftance, or a table ipoonful of the
exprefled juice.
212. Arnica Montana, E. L. D. German leo¬
pard’s bane. See Botan y, p. 253, and Duncan’s Dif-
penfatory.
213. Inula Helenium. INULA CAMPANA,
L. D. Elecampane. See Botany, p. 253.
214. Solidago Virga Aurea. VIRGA AUR-
EA, D. Golden rod. See Botany, p. 253.
215. Tussilago farfara, E. TUSSILAGO,
L. D. Coltsfoot. See Botany, p. 252.
216. Anthemis nobilis, E. CHAMiEMELUM.
L. D. Chamomile flowers. See Botany, p. 254.
An excellent tonic and anthelmintic. Dofe in fub¬
ftance about a fcruple in powder, or one dram in in-
xufion. Ufed externally as an emollient and difcutient,
in the form of clyfter or fomentation.
Officinal Preparations.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
717
Colts foot.
7x8
Chamomiie-
flowexs.
719
a. Decoctum Anthemidis nobilis, E. DECOC-Decodtica
TUM CHAMiEMELI, D. Decodtion of chamo-c^amo,‘
mile. mile*
Prepared by boiling an ounce of chamomile flowers,
and half an ounce of bruifed carraway feeds, in five
pounds of water (E.), or half an ounce of chamomile
flowers with two drams of fweet fennel feeds, in a pound
of water (D).
Ufed as a carminative clyfter, or ftimulant fomen¬
tation.
720-
b. Extractum Anthemidis nobilis, E. EX-Extrafl of
TRACTUM CHAMiEiVlELI, L. Extradl of cha-chamomiie*
momile.
Prepared as other watery extracts. Dofe from a
fcruple to a dram, as a tonic and anthelmintic.
721
217. Anthemis Pyrethrum, E. PYRETHRUM,PplUtoiy of
L. D. Pellitory of Spain. Spain.
Uled chiefly as a mafticatory in toothach.
Order 3. Polygamia Frustranea.
CARDUUS Blefied^
218. Cent aurea benedict a, E.
BENEDiCTUS, L. D. Bleffed thiftle. See Bo-ft^e
tany, p. 255.
Class XX. GYNANDRIA, Order 5. Hex*
ANDREA..
7*3
219. AriSTOLOCHIA SERPENTARIA, E. SERPEN-Virginian.
TARIA V1RGINI ANA, L. D. ^Virginian Inake-lna^e rooti
root. See Duncan’s Difpenfatory, and the Synopfis
Materke Medicae.
Employed as a ftimulant and tonic in low fevers,
gangrene, &c. Dole in fubftance 10 grains to 30.
Officinal Preparation.
724
a. TlNCTURA ArISTOLOCHIjE SERPENTARL®, E.Tindtureof
T1NCTURA SERPENTARIiE, L. D. Tindurefnake root,
of fnakeroot.
Prepared by digefting two ounces of bruifed Virgi¬
nian Inakeroot, and a dram of powdered cochineal, in
two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, for feven days
(E.), or three ounces of fnakeroot in two pints (L.)
or two pounds (D.) of proof fpirit, for feven or eight
days. Dofe from two drams to half an ounce.
^ Order 10. Polyandria.
725.
220. Arum maculatum. ARUM, L. D. Arum, Wake
or wake robin, robin.
Officinal
Part IV.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Conslrva Ari, L. Conferva of arum.
726 Made by healing a pound and a half of the frefh
Conferve of root 0£ arum bruifed, with a pound and a half of double
refined fugar, into a conferve. I>ofe about a dram.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
227. JUGLANS REGIA,
Class XXI. MONOECIA.
NIA.
Order 1. Monogy-
727
Nutmeg
tree
728
Oil of
mace.
729
Spirit of
nutmeg.
73? .
Birch juice.
221. Myristica moschata, E. MYRISTICA,
L. D. Nutmeg tree.
Nux Moschata. Nutmeg. Macis. Mace. Ole¬
um Macis. Oil of Mace. See Duncan’s Difpenfatory*
Officinal Preparations.
a. Spiritus MyristicjE Moschatte, E. SPIRI-
TUS NUCIS M0SCHAT7E, L. D. Spirit of nut¬
meg.
A gallon of fpirit diftilled from two ounces of well-
bruifed nutmegs. A good cordial. Dofe about half
an ounce.
Order 4. Tetrandria.
222. Betula alba, D. Birch juice.
73i
Mulberries,
A gentle diuretic.
223. Morus nigra.
Morus, L. Mulberries.
732
Syrup of
mulberry
juice.
733
Common
flinging
nettle.
Offcinal Preparation.
a. Syrupus Succi fructus Mori, L. Syrup of
mulberry juice.
Prepared in the fame manner as the fyrup of black
currant juice.
Employed as a refrigerant and demulcent.
224. Urtica dioica. URTICA, L. Common
Ringing nettles.
Ufed as a rubefacient to paralytic limbs, which are
whipped with nettles.
Order 8. Polyandria. •
734
Oak bark- 225. QuERCUS ROBUR, E. QUERCUS, L. D*.
Oak bark.
A powerful aftringent, employed in pafiive hemor¬
rhages, diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, and fimilar cafes. Dofe
in fubftance 15 grains to half a dram of the powdered
bark. Ufed externally by way of gargle, or lotion.
735 r
Extract of
oak bark.
736
Gall-nuts.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Extractum Quercus, D. Extraft of oak
bark.
Prepared like other watery extra&s. Dofe 10 grains
to a fcruple.
226. Quercus Cerris, E. L. D. GALLA. Gall-
nuts. See Duncan’s Difpenfatory.
This is perhaps a more powerful aftringent than oak
bark, and is employed in fimilar cafes.
3
JUGLANS, L.
walnuts.
Employed as a tonic and anthelmintic.
Order 10. Monadelphia.
228. Pinus abies. The fir tree.
Pix Burgundica, E. D. Burgundy pitch
Offcinal Preparation.
a. Emplastrum Picis BurgundicjE, D.
PLASTRUM PICIS COM POSIT UM, L.
pound Burgundy pitch platter.
Prepared of two pounds of Burgundy pitch, one
pound of ladanum (L.) or of galbanum (D.), four
ounces of yellow wax, the fame of yellow refin, and
one ounce of expreffed oil of mace.
A iti mulating plafter.
229. Thus, L. Frankincenfe.
773
Unripe Hiftoryof
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
757
Walnut.
733
Fir tree.
739
Burgundy
pitch
740
EM- Compound
Com- Burf
pitch plat¬
ter.
741
Frankin¬
cenfe.
Offcinal Preparation.
a. Emplastrum Thuris compositum, L.
pound plafter of frankincenfe.
Prepared of half a pound of frankincenfe, three cenfe.
ounces of dragon’s blood, and two pounds of litharge
plafter, adding the refins in powder to. the melted li¬
tharge plafter.
Com- Compound
piafter of
trankin-
230. Pinus balsamea. Hemlock fir.
Balsamum Canadense, E. L. D.
nada.
“43
231. Pinus Larix.
The larch.
D.
Balfam of Ca- Balfarn of
Canada.
744
Larch-
745
Venice tur-
Venice turpen-
Terebinthina Veneta, E
tine.
TEREBINTHINfE, L. D. Oil of turpentine.
The oil of turpentine is directed by the London col¬
lege to be prepared by diilillation from common tur¬
pentine.
OLEUM VOLATILE PINI, E. OLEUM
Oil of tur¬
pentine-
Offcinal Preparation.
OLEUM Purified oil
Oleum volatile Pini purissimum, E
TEREBINTHINiE RECTIFICA1UM, L.
Purified oil of turpentine. Spirit oj turpentine.
Diflilled with the addition of water in well luted
veffels till the pureft part of the oil has come over.
Stimulant and diuretic. Dofe from 10 to 30 drops.
Mixed with an equal proportion of ether, it is much
recommended in calculus. It is an excellent applica¬
tion to chilblains and recent burns.
X). of turpen¬
tine.
232. Pinus Sylvestris.
A. Pix Liquida, E. D. Tar.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Unguentum Picis, E. L. D. Tar ointment.
Prepared by melting together equal parts of tar and
mutton
748
Tar.
Tar oint¬
ment.
774
r / *     - — —
Hiftory Of mutton fuel (L. D.), or five parts of tar and two parts
oK..“r of yellow wax (E-)
Efieemed a good application in cutaneous difeafes,
efpecially tinea capitis.
B. Terebinthina vulgaris, L. D. Common tur¬
pentine.
I his, like other turpentines, is a ftimulant and diu¬
retic.
C. Resina F{jAva, L. RESINA ALBA, D.
Yellow rofin. White rojin.
Employed chiefly in making {Emulating ointments
and plaiters.
Officmai
Medicines.
7co
Common
turpentine.
751
Yellow
rofin.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
234. Croton Eleutheria, E.
LA, L. D. Cafcarilla bark.
Part IV.
CASCARIL- Hiftory of
Simple and
A n . Officinal
n excellent aromatic tonic. Cofe about half a Medicines,
dram, or two fcruples, two or three times a-day ' v—"J
1:1
Cafcanlla
Officinal Preparations. baik-
a. Tinctura Cascarillte, L. D.
cafcarilla.
Tinfture of Tindme of
Officinal Preparations.
IS*
Refinous
ointment.
UNGUENTUM
Refinous ointment.
^ 753
Cerate of
yellow
rofin.
754
Refinous
plafter.
a. Unguentum resinosum, E.
RESINA FLAVYE, L. D.
Yellow bajilicon.
Prepared by melting together eight parts of hog’s
lard, five of white rofin, and two of yellow wax (E.) 5
or by melting together, of yellow rofin and yellow wax,
each one pound, over a flow fire, adding a pint or feven
ounces of olive oil, and {training the mixture while hot
(L. D.).
b. Ceratum Resinte flavje, L. D. Cerate of
yellow rofin.
Prepared by melting together half a pound of the
preceding ointment, and one ounce of yellow wax.
Thefe are intended as {Emulating applications to
ulcers tnat do not heal or fuppurate properly.
c. Emflastrum resinosum, E. EMPI AS
TRUM LYTHARGYRI CUM RESINA L
EMPLASTRUM ADHESIVUM. RefinouspUfler.'
Litharge plajler with rofin. Aclhefive plajler.
Prepared by molting five parts (E.), or. three pounds
(L.J, ot plalter of fermvitnfied oxide of lead (litharge
p/ffiffi), and adding one part (E.) or half a pound
(L. ) of white or yellow rofin powdered.
Employed fpread on linen, to form adhefive piafters,
for keeping the edges of ulcers or recent wounds to¬
gether 5 for giving mechanical fupport to ulcerated
limbs, or keeping on other dreffings.
233. Ricinus communis, E. L. D. Palma chrifU
See Botany, p. 271.
„ 75*
Rafter oil.
755
Palma u
chrifti feeds, feeds
Officinal Preparation.
a. Oleum Ricini, L. C&flor oil.
Expreffed in the ufual manner from the hulked
ieeds.
Caftor oil is feldom prepared in this country, beino-
brought chiefly from the Weft Indies, When cold
drawn, it is milder, and lefs fubjeft to become rancid,
but it requires a larger dole than the common oil. It
is an excellent purgative, well fuited to cafes of colic
and worms, given either by the mouth, or by way of
clyfter. Dole in the former cafe about one ounce, and
in toe latter about two ounces.
Prepared by digeftjng four ounces of powdered caf¬
canlla bark in tivo pints or two pounds (D.) of proof
fpirit, for about a week, with a gentle heat. Dofe
about one ounce 5 beft in compofition with decodlion or
mfufton of cinchona.
cafcanlla.
b. ExtrACTUM Cascarillte, L. D.
cafcarilla.
759
Extract of Extract of
cafcarilla.
Prepared in the ufual way of making extracts. Dofe
from 10 to 30 grains.
Order 10. Syngenesia.
235. Momordica Elaterium, E.
AGRESIIS, L. D. Wdld cucumber.
CUCUMIS WiJ cu¬
cumber.
Officinal Preparation.
ELATFCRUmMSfDS,I?-rRi>!C? E-E-iSL
u A Y, 1.JM’ L- Infpiffated juice of wild cucum¬
ber. bJatenum.
This is prepared by flicing ripe wild cucumbers, ex-
prefling the juice very gently, and {training it through
a very fine hair fieve ; boiling it a little, and felting it
by for fome hours, till the thicker part has fubfided.
Ihe fupernatant fluid is then poured off, and feparated
by filtering from the thicker matter, which is to be
dried and kept for ufe.
A violent cathartic, employed in dropfy. Dofe half
a grain to one grain.
T'TATq* fuc™s GolocyKtHis, E. COLOCYN-CoJcvnth.
1 rllb, L. D. Colocynth or bitter 3pple. See Bo¬
tany, p. 271. rr
Officinal Preparation.
a. EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITUM, L. Compound
Compound extraft of colecynth. extradt of
Prepared by digefting fix drams of the pith of co/0iot>nth’
locynth cut Lmall, in a pint of proof fpirit, with a
gentle heat for four days, then diffolving in the ex-
prened tincture one ounce and a half of powdered foco-
torine aloes, and half an ounce of powdered fcammony 1
and Jaftly drawing off the fpirit, and adding to the in-
Ipiffated extrad, a dram of hulked cardamom feeds in
powder.
A ftrong cathartic and anthelmintic. Dofe from
5 to 3° grains.
237. Bryonia alba. BRYONIA, D
root. See Botany, p. 271. where it is defer'ibed vool
under the name of Bryonia dioica.
7^4
Bryony Bryony
Ma
Hot
Com
ieco
of fa:
tiili
knij.
iierrie
Oil d
Class
Part IV.
MATERIA
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines. 238. SaLIX FRAGILIS.
'—■'■“v-'-—' low bark.
765
Crack wil- A good tonic, employed as a fubditutg for Peruvian
low bark. bark. Dofe about one dram.
Class XXII. DICECIA. Order 2. Diandria.
SALIX, D. Crack wil-
Order c. Pextandria.
166
Chiotur. 239. Pistacia Terebinthus. TEREBINTHI-
pentine. NA CHI A, L. Chio turpentine.
Not materially different from the other turpentines.
7*7
Maihch. 240. Pistacia Lentiscus, E. MASTICHE, L.
Mailieh. See Botany, p. 276, and Chemistry, N°
2464.
768
Hop. 241. Humulus Lupulus. Hop.
A good narcotic, which has been found an excellent
fubftitute for opium. See an Inaugural dijjertation de
Humulo Lufnilo, lately printed at Edinburgh by Dr de
Roches ; and Kirby’s Tables, p. 94,
Order 6. Hexandria.
7^9
Sarfaparilla 242. SMILAX SARSAPARILLA, E.
root. RILL A, L. D. Sarfaparilla root.
A flight diaphoretic, of little efficacy.
SARSAPA-
770
Deception
Officinal Preparations.
a. Decoctum Smilacis Sarsaparilla, E. HE-
O farfapa. COCTUM SARSAPARILLA, L. D. DecoHion
rii a. o£ farfaparilla.
Prepared by digefting fix ounces of fliced farfaparilla
root in eight pints of diftilled water, for two hours, in
a heat of about 1950 ; then taking out the root and
bruifing it, repeating the maceration ; then boiling the
liquor down to four pints, preffing it out, and ftraining
the decoftion.
Compound b. DECOCTUM SARSAPARILLA COMPOSITUM, L. D.
decodhon Compound decoftion of farfaparilla.
of farfapa- r
rilla. Made by macerating fix ounces of fliced and bruifed
farfaparilla root, one ounce of the bark of faffafras
root, in ten pints of diftilled water, for fix hours j then
boiling down to five pints, adding towards the end
three drams of mezereon, and draining the decoftion.
A good diet drink, but fcarcely fuperior to the com¬
pound decodfion of guaiacum. Dofe from four to
eight ounces, three or four times a-day.
772
Jumper
Berries.
Order 12. Monadelphia.
243. Juniperus COMMUNIS, E. JUNIPERUS,
L. D. Juniper berries. See Botany, p. 278.
Officinal Preparations.
,773
Oil of juni- a. Oleum vol atile Juniperi communis, E.
P£r- OLEUM J UNI PC RI B ACC/E, L. OLEUM
BACCARUM JUNIPERI, D. Oil of juniper
berries.
774
' Compound
MEDIC A, &c. 775
Diftilled in the fame manner as other volatile oils. Hiftoty of
Stimulant and diuretic. Dofe from three to ten Simple and
grains. ‘ ^®cinal
0 Medicines*
b. Spiritus Juniperi communis composites, E. ^
SPIRITUS JUNIPERI COMPOSITES, L. D.(
Compound fpirit of juniper. fpirit of ju-
Nine pounds or a gallon of diluted alcohol diftilled nil)er*
from one pound of well bruifed juniper berries, one
ounce and a half of bruifed carraway feeds, and the
fame of fweet fennel feeds.
A good diuretic, but not fuperior to common gin.
, 775
244. Juniperus Lycia, E. OLIBANUM, L.01lbanum*
D. Olibanum. See Chemistry, N° 2487.
776
245. Juniperus Sabina, E. SABINA, L. D.Savine"
Savine.
Reputed a fpecific in uterine obftrudtions, but gra¬
dually lofing its celebrity. Dofe in fubftance from
fifteen grains to two fcruples. Applied externally
as an efcharotic, to venereal warts and fimilar excrei-
cences.
Officinal Preparations.
777
a. Oleum Volatile Juniperi Sabina, E. Q- Volatile oil
LEUM SABINiE, D. Volatile oil of favine. of favine.
b. Extractum Sabina, L. D. Extradf of favine. Extract of
Made like other extracts. Dofe from 10 to 30 fav*ne’
grains twice or thrice a day.
779
r. TINCTURA SABINiE COMPOSITA, L. Compound
Compound tinfture of favine. tin&ure of
favuie.
Prepared by digefting one ounce of extrafl of favine
in a pint of tinfture of caftor, and half a pint of tinc¬
ture of myrrh, till the extrad is diffolved.
Given as an emmenagogue, and as an antifpafmodic
in hypochondriac a fled ions. Dole from 30 drops to a
dram twice or thrice a day.
^ 246. Cissampelos Pareira. PAREIRA BRA- Pare7^
VA, L. Pareira brava root. See Duncan’s Difpen-root,
fatory.
Class XXIII. POLYGAMIA. Order 1. Mo-
NOECIA.
7S1
247. STALAGMITIS CaMBOGIOIDES. GAM BO-Gamboge
GIA, E. L. D. Gamboge. See Duncan’s Difpen-
fatory.
A violent cathartic and anthelmintic. Dofe from I
or 2 grains to 10 or 15 grains. The latter chiefly in
cafes of tenia.
248. Veratrum album, E. HELLEBORES WhnHiel-
ALBUS, L D. White hellebore root. See Bo- leb°re root*
tany, p. 281.
Officinal Preparations.
7S3
b. Decoctum Hellebori albi, L. Decodion of Decodfion
white hellebore. ot white
Made by boiling an ounce of powdered white helle¬
bore
hellebore.
5
1.
7/6
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part IV.
Hiftory ©f bore root in two pints of diftilled water to one pint, and
Simple and gjjjng the {trained liquor when cold two ounces of
M^cines. Rifled fpirit of wine.
Ufed as a lotion, diluted, if neceiiary, in the itch, and
.fimilar cutaneous aft'e6tions.
^ 3 A
Tincfnire of TlNCTURA VeraTRI ALBI, E. Tin£ture of white
white hel- hellebore.
lebore. . ,
Prepared by digefting eight ounces oi powdered
w'hite hellebore root in two pounds and a half of dilut¬
ed alcohol for feveral days, and filtering through paper.
Employed oceafionally to aflilt the operation of eme¬
tics and cathartics, in fome apoplectic and paralytic
cafes, in mania ; dofe in thefe cafes from half a dram
to two drams. Employed alfo as a general itimulant or
alterative in cutaneous difeafes, beginning with about
two drops twice or three a day, and gradually increaf-
ing the dofe.
albi, L. D. Oint-
. 785
■Ointment
of wh te
hellebore.
785
Catechu.
c. Unguentum Hellebori
ment of white hellebore.
Prepared by mixing four ounces of ointment of hogs
lard, with one ounce of powdered white hellebore, and
and one fcruple of effential oil of lemon.
Ufed in fimilar cafes with the decoction.
249. Mimosa Catechu, E. CATECHU, L. D.
Catechu, or Japan earth. See Botany, p. 282.
A powerful aftringent, employed in diarrhoeas, ute¬
rine hemorrhage ; and externally by way of lotion, or
lozenge, for exulcerations and aphthous ulcers of the
mouth. Dofe internally from 15 grains to two feru-
ples.
Officinal Preparations.
7S7
Infufion of
catechu.
788
Tindture of
■catechu.
7S9
Gum ara-
feic.
a. Infusum Mimosa: Catechu, E. INFUSUM
JAPONICUM. Infufion of catechu.
Prepared by macerating two drams and a half of
powdered extract of catechu, and half a dram of bruifed
cinnamon, in feven ounces of boiling water, for two
hours, in a covered veffel, (training the liquor, and add¬
ing one ounce of fimple fyrup. Dofe from one to two
ounces. * .
b. Tinctura Mimosa: Catechu, E. TINCTU-
RA CATECHU, L. TINCTURA JAPONICA.
Tinfture of catechu.
Prepared by digefting three ounces of extra£t of ca¬
techu, and two ounces of bruifed cinnamon, in two
pounds and a half, or two pints (L.), of diluted alco¬
hol, for feven or ten days, and ftraining through paper.
Dofe two or three drams.
c. Electuarium Mimosa: Catechu, E. ELEC-
TUARIUM CATECHU COMPOSITUM, D.
CONFECTIO JAPONICA. Eledtuary of catechu.
Japonic ConfeElion. See preparations of opium.
250. Mimosa Nilotica, E. GUMMI ARABI-
CUM, L. D. Gum arabic.
A dry mucilage, very ufeful as an emollient and de¬
mulcent.
Officinal Preparations.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
a. Mucilago Mimosa: Nilotica, E. MUCI- ^ediClnes*
LAGO ARABICI GUMMI, L. D. Mucilage of ~T^
gum arabic. Mucilage of
Prepared by diffblving one part of powdered gum- "iJ11 araljic“
arabic in about two of boiling water, and ftraining.
791
EMULSIO Arabic
tmuifion.
b. Emulsio Mimosa Nilotica, E.
ARABICA, D. Arabic emulfion.
Prepared, according to the Edinburgh procefs, in
the fame manner as almond emulfion, with the addition
of two ounces of gum arabic, added while beating the
almonds. The Dublin emulfion is compofed of two
drams of powdered gum arabic, half an ounce of large
almonds, three drams of double refined fugar, and one
pound of decoftion of barley.
Employed in the fame cafes as almond emulfion.
c. Trochisci Gummosi, E. Gum troches.
Prepared of four parts of gum arabic, one of pow¬
dered ftarch, and 12 of double refined fugar, made in¬
to a mafs for troches with water.
Similar in ufes to the lozenges of ftarch. See N° 369.
251. PARIETARIA OFFICINALIS. PARIETARIA, Pellitory of
L. Peliitory of the wall. the wall.
79*
Gum
troches.
793
Order 2. Dioecia.
252.
Manna.
Fraxinus Ornus, E. L. D.
Manna-afh. Manna.
795
Syrup of
manna.
A mild purgative, well fuited to children, but re¬
quiring fome gentle aromatic to prevent griping. Dofe
from a dram to half an ounce. Beft in compofition
with fenna.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Syrupus Manna, D. Syrup of manna.
Prepared by macerating half an ounce of fenna in
one pound of boiling water for twelve hours in a co¬
vered veffel, ftraining the liquor, and adding one pound
of manna, and one pound of double refined fugar, to
make a fyrup.
This forms an excellent purgative for children.
796
253. PANAX QUINQUEFOLIUM. GINSENG, L.Ginfeng
Ginfeng root. root.
A Chinefe root, formerly much in repute as a fti-
mulant, but now out of falhion.
Order 3. Trioecia.
254. Ficus Carica,
See Botany, p. 282.
A gentle laxative, ufed chiefly in compofition.
E. CARICA, L. D. Figs.Figs
797
Class XXIV. CRYPTOGAMIA.
LICES.
255. Polypodium Eilix Mas, E.
Order 1. Fl-
FILIX, L.Makfern
FILIXroot.
Part IV.
799
Iceland
liver-wort.
Hi dory of IILIX MAS, D. Male fern root. See Botany,
Sn*r TdP- 285.
Officinal 1 r,,, • /• i. n 1 1
Medicines. -I'm iubltance has been m great repute as an anthel-
v~—- mintic, efpecially in cafes of taenia, given in dofes of a
dram or two, followed by a ftrong cathartic.
Order 3. Alg^E.
256. Lichen Islandicus. Iceland liver-wort.
This lichen has lately become a falhionable remedy
as an emollient, in pulmonary confumption. It con¬
tains a great quantity of farinaceous and mucilaginous
matter, and is therefore highly nutritious.
See Synopfis Maleriae Medicae, and Thefaurus Medi-
caminum.
Order 4. Fungi.
800
Female 257. Boletus Igniarius, E. AGARICUS. Fe-
agaric. male agaric.
Th is fubftance has been much celebrated as a Hyp-
tic ; and before ligatures were fo much employed, was
ufed to Hop haemorrhage from the mouths of bleeding
veflels during furgical operations. It is now out of
fafliion.
Appendix. Palm.e.
801
Palm oil. 258. Cocos Butyracea. PALMA, E. Mackaw
tree. Pa/m oil. See Botany, p. 289.
A vegetable oily matter, employed as an external
emollient.
Chap. III. Mineral Substances.
Sect. I. Water.
259. Aqua. Water.
Though fimple water forms no part of the Materia
Medica in the Pharmacopoeias, it is an article of fo
much importance, both in diet and medicine, that it
ought not to be omitted here. We fliall therefore
make no apology for inferting the following neat ac¬
count of it, given by Dr Duncan in the later editions
of his Difpenfatory.
Snow or “ The chemical properties of water have been al-
rain water ready enumerated. (See Chemistry, N° 384, et/eq.)
pureft. The purell natural water is fnow or rain water col-
le&ed in the open fields •, that which falls in towns, or
is colle&ed from the roofs of the houfes, is contaminat¬
ed with foot, animal effluvia, and other impurities $
although, after it has rained for fome time, the quanti¬
ty of thefe diminiflies fo much, that Morveau fays that
it may be rendered almofl perfe&ly pure by means of
a little barytic water, and expofure to the atmofphere.
Rain water, after it falls, either remains on the furface
of the earth, or penetrates through it, until it meets
with fome impenetrable obflruftion to its progrefs,
when it burfis out at fome lower part, forming a fpring
or well. The water on the furface of the earth, either
defeends along its declivities in Hreams, which gradu¬
ally wearing channels for themfelves, combine to form
rivers, which atlafi reach the fea •, or remains Hagnant
in cavities of confiderable depth, forming lakes or ponds,
or on nearly level ground, forming marflies,
Vol. XIL Part II.
materia MEDICA, &c.
So 2
Water.
777
“ The varieties of fpring water are exceedingly nu» Hiftory of
merous j but they may be divided into foft, which areSir"P!e and
fufficiently pure to diffolve foap, and to anfwer the m dickies
purpofes of pure water in general j the hard, which *   J
contain earthy falts, and decompofe foap, and are unfit 804
for many purpofes, both in dome flic economy, and jn Vaiieties of
manufaftories ; and the faline, which are Hrongly im-water*
pregnated with foluble lalts. When fpring waters pof-
lefs any peculiar chara&er, they are called mineral wa¬
ters. River water is in general foft, as it is formed of
fpring water, which, by expofure becomes more pure ;
and running furface water, which, although turbid
from particles of clay fulpended in it, is otherwife very
pure. Lake water is fimilar to river water. The wa¬
ter of marlhes, on the contrary, is exceedingly impure,
and often highly fetid, from the great proportion of
animal and vegetable matters which is conflantly de¬
caying in them.-
“ Mineral watersderive their peculiarity of chara&er, Mineral
in general, either from containing carbonic acid or waters,
foda not neutralized, fulphurated hydrogen, purging
falts, earthy falts, or iron ; or from their temperature
exceeding in a greater or lefs degree that of other fur¬
rounding bodies. The following are the mofl celebrated.
“ a. Warm Springs.—Rath, Briflol, Buxton, Matlock, Warm
in England. Barege, Vichy, &c. in France. Aix-la-fprings.
Chapelle, Borfet, Baden, Carlsbad and Toeplitz in Ger¬
many ; and Pita, Lucca, Baia, and many others in Italy. g„
“ A Carbonated Springs.—Pyxmonl, Seltzer, Spa, Carbonated
Cheltenham, Scarborough. fpnngs
c. Carlsbad, Aix-la-Chapelle, Barepe.
Toeplitz. 0 ’Alkaline.
“ J. S^Ww.—Englmn, Lu, Aix-Ia ChaPelle>Su,pSJie.
Eelburn, Harrowgate, Moffat, and many in Italy. ous.
“ e. Purging.—Sea water, Lemington Priors, Har- 810
rowgate, Lu, Carlsbad, Moffat, Toeplitz, Epfom,PurSin&
Sedlitz, Kelburn, and all brackilh waters.
“ f ('alca,'eous.—Matlock, Buxton, and all hard wa- Calcareous,
ters.
g. Chalybeate.—Hartfell, Denmark, Cheltenham, chalybeate.
Pyrmont, Spa, Tunbridge, Bath, Scarborough, Vichy,
Carlsbad, Lemington Priors. Sl
“ Medical ufe.—Water is an effential conftituent in Medical
the organization of all living bodies ; and as it is con-ute of wa-
tinually expended during the procefs of life, thatwafleter-
mufl be alfo continually fupplied ; and this fupply is of
fuch importance, that it is not left to reafon or to
chance, but forms the objeft of an imperious appetite.
When taken into the flomach, water ads by its tem¬
perature, its bulk, and the quantity abforbed by the
la&eals. Water about 60 degrees, gives no fenfation
of heat or cold ; between 60 degrees and 43, it gives
a fenfation of cold followed by a glow and increafe of
appetite and vigour-, below 45, the fenfation of cold is
permanent and unpleafant, and it ads as an aflringent
and fedative } above 60, it excites naufea and vomiting,
probably by partially relaxing the fibres of the flomach’
for when mixed with ftimulating fubftances it has not
thefe effedls. In the ftomach and in the inteftines it
a&s alfo by its bulk, producing the effe&s arifing from
the diftenfion of thefe organs ; and as the inteftinal
gafes confift of hydrogen gas, either pure, or carbo¬
nated, or fulphurated, or phofphorated, it is probably
in part decompofed in them. It likewife dilutes the
contents of the ftomach and inteftines, thus often di-
J F minifhing
778
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
814
External
ufe of wa¬
ter.
Hot bath.
minifhing their acrimony. It is abforbed by the lac-
teals, dilutes the chyle and the blood, increafes their
fluidity, leffens their acrimony, and produces plethora
ad molem. Its effe&s in producing plethora and flui¬
dity are, however, very tranfitory, as it at the fame
time increafes the fecretion by the Ikin and kidneys.
Indeed the effects of fudorifics and diuretics depend in
a great meafure on the quantity of water taken along
with them.
“ Mineral waters have alfo a fpecific a&ion, depend¬
ing on the foreign fubftanees which they contain. It is,
however, neceffary to remark, that their effefts are in
Part IV. Pj
except where there are hot fprings, as at Baden in Hiijoryof
Switzeiland, Simpleand
“ The Ruffians and fome other nations ufe the hot ^)filclnal
bath as an article or luxury. , ^ . n _r
“ The effedts of the affulion of hot water have not
been afcertained, and it is probable, that when the heat
is not fo great as to deftroy the organization of the Ikin,
the very tranfient application of the water would be
more than counteracted by the fubfequent evaporation.
“ With regard to the adtion ariling from their tem¬
perature, all baths below 970 differ only in degree, as
they all ultimately abftradt caloric from the furface, but
general much greater than might be expedted from the with a force inverfely as their temperature. S16
ffrength of their impregnations, owing probably to the " “ The w-arm bath excites the fenfation of warmth, Warm
very cucumflance of their great dilution, by which partly becaufe our fenfations are merely relative, and l)ath*
every particle is prefented in a ftate of adlivity, while
the ladieals admit them more readily than they would
in a lefs diluted ftate.
“ Carbonic acid gas gives to the waters which are
ftrongly impregnated with it, a fparkling appearance,
and an agreeable degree of pungency. In its effedts
on the body it is decidedly ftimuiant, and even capable
of producing a certain degree of intoxication. It is of
great fervice in bilious complaints, atony of the fto-
mach, naufea, and vomiting, and in all fevers of the
typhoid type.
“ Alkaline waters produce alfo a tonic effedl on the
ftomach, but they are lefs grateful. They are particu¬
larly ferviceable in morbid acidity of the ftomach, and
in difeafes of the urinary organs.
“ Sulphureous waters are chiefly ufed in cutaneous
and glandular difeafes. Their effedts are ftimuiant and
heating, and they operate by the Ikin or bowels.
“ Purging waters derive their effedts from the neutral
falts they contain, efpecially the muriates of foda, lime,
and magnefia, and the fulphates of foda and magnefia.
'I hey are much more frequently ufed for a length of
time to keep the bowels open by exciting the natural
adlion, than to produce full purging. Ufed in this wray,
inftead of debilitating the patient, they increafe his
appetite, health, and ftrength.
“ Chalybeate waters are ufed as tonics. They ftimu-
late confiderably, and increaie the circulation ; but as
they alfo generally contain neutral falts, they adt as
gentle laxatives. 1 hey are ufed in all cafes of debility,
cachexia, chiorofis, fluor albus, amenorrhoea 5 and, in
general, in what are called nervous difeafes.
“ i he external ufe of water depends almoft entirely
on its temperature, which may be
“ !• Greater than that of the body, or above 07°
Fahr. The hot bath.
“ 2. Below the temperature of the body.
a. From 97 to 85, the warm bath.
A From 85 to 65, the tepid bath.
c. From 65 to 32, the cold bath.
I he hot bath is decidedly ftimuiant in its adlion.
It renders the pulfe frequent, the veins turgid, the face
fiufhed, the refpiration quick ; increafes animal heat,
and produces fweat. If the temperature be very high,
the lace becomes bathed in fweat, the arteries at the
neck and temples beat with violence, anxiety and a
fenfe of fuffocation are induced } and if perlifted in,
vertigo, throbbing in the heart, and apoplexy, are the
eonfequences. It is very rarely employed in medicine,
partly becaufe its temperature, though lefs than that of
the internal parts of the body, is adtually greater than
that of the extremities, which are the chief organs of
touch. But as water is a much better condudlor of
caloric than air, and efpecially than confined air, as
much caloric is abftradled from the body by water,
which is a few degrees lower than the external tempe¬
rature of the body, as by air of a much lower tempera¬
ture. The warm bath diminilhes the frequency of the
pulfe, efpecially when it has been previoufly greater
than natural 5 and this effedl is always in proportion to
the time of immerfion. It alfo renders the refpiration
flower, and leffens the temperature of the body, relaxes
the mufcular fibre, increafes the bulk of the fluids by
abforption, removes impurities from the furface, pro¬
motes the delquamation and renewal of the cuticle,
and foftens the nails and indurations of the Ikin.
“ The ftimuiant power of the warm bath is therefore
very inconfiderable, and its employment in difeafe will
be chiefly indicated by preternatural heat of the fur¬
face, and frequency of the pulfe, rigidity of the muf¬
cular fibre, and morbid affeftions of the Ikin. It has
accordingly been found ferviceable in many cafes of
pyrexia, both febrile and exanthematous, in many fpaf-
modic difeafes, and in moft of the impetigines. It is
contraindicated by difficulty of breathing and internal
organic affeftions, and ftiould not be ufed when the
ftomach is full. *17
“ The affufion of xvarm water very generally produces Affufion of
a confiderable diminution of heat, a diminilhed fre_ warmwa-
quency of pulfe and refpiration, and a tendency to re-tel’
pofe and fleep j but its eft'e£ls are not very permanent,
and its ftimulus is weak. It is recommended in febrile
difeafes, depending on the ftimulus of preternatural heat,
and in thole attended wdth laborious refpiration, and in
the paroxyfms of heftic fever.
“ As the tepid bath and affufion produce effects in¬
termediate between thofe and cold water, it is unne-
ceffary to enumerate them. Si8
“ The cold bath produces the fenfation of cold, which Cold bath
gradually ceafes, and is fucceeded by numbnefs. It
excites tremor in the Ikin, and fhivering. The Ikin
becomes pale, contracted, and acquires the appearance
termed ci/tis anferina. The fluids are diminilhed in
volume, the folids are contracted, the caliber of the
veffels is leffened, and therefore numbnefs and palenefs
are induced, and the vifible cutaneous veins become
fmaller. There is a fenfe of drowfinefs and inactivity,
the joints become rigid and inflexible, and the limbs
are
Cold
Part IV.
Hi [lory of are affe&ed xvith patns and .r  
^Offi ^na^ ^‘18 re^P‘rat^on rendered quick and irregular, the
Medicines. Pulfe flovv> firm* regular, and fmall •, the internal heat
is at firit diminiilied, but gradually and irregularly re¬
turns nearly to its natural llandard ; the extremities,
however, continue cold and numb, or fwollen and li¬
vid 5 the perforation is fuppreffed, and the difcharge
of urine is rendered more frequent and copious. If the
cold be exceffive on its application, long-continued vio¬
lent Ihiverings are induced, the pulfe ceafe-s at the
wrifl, the motion of the heart becomes feeble and lan¬
guid, there is a fenfation of coldnefs and faintnefs at
the ftomach, ?nd a rapid diminution of animal heat j
and, at lad, delirium, torpor, and death, are the con-
fequences. If the application of the cold bath be not
carried to an exceflive length, on emerging from the
water the whole body is pervaded by an agreeable fen¬
fation of warmth, and the patient feels refrelhed and
invigorated.
“ The primary aflion of the cold bath is ftimulant,
and the degree of this a£tion is in proportion to the
lownefs of its temperature. This opinion is indeed di-
re&ly oppofite to a theory of cold which has been ad¬
vanced with the confidence of demonftration. “ Heat
is a ftimulus, cold is the abftra&ion of heat ; therefore
cold is the abftraftion of ftimulus, or is a fedative.”
To this we might oppofe another theory, equally fyllo-
giftic, and nearer th6 truth. Free caloric is a ftimulus,
cold is the fenfation excited by the paffage of free ca¬
loric out of the body ; therefore cold is a ftimulus.
But, in fa<ft, the a£tion of cold is by no means fo
fimple. It is complicated, and varies according to its
intenfity, duration, and the ftate of the fyftem to which
it is applied. It a61s at firft as a ftimulant, in exciting
fenfation ; then as a tonic, in condtnftng the living
fibre ; and, laftly, however paradoxical it may appear,
as a fedative, by preventing that diftribution of blood
in the minute and ultimate veffels, which is neceffary
for the exiftence of fenfibility and irritability, and by
the abftraftion of the ftimulus of heat.
“ The cold bath may be fo managed as to procure
any of thefe effeffs, by regulating the length of time for
which it is applied,
“ Cold affufion, or the pouring of cold water over the
body, is a very convenient way of applying the cold
bath in many cafes. In this way cold is very fuddenly
applied to the furface, its operation is inftantaneous and
momentary ; but may be continued by repeated affu-
fions for any length of time, and fo as to produce its
extreme effefls. Where the effects of cold affufion
may be thought too fevere, fprinkling the body with
cold water, pr water and vinegar, may be fubftituted.
“ The application of cold may be employed in fevers
and febrile paroxyfms, when the heat is fteadily above
the natural ftandard, and in many difeafes arifing from
relaxation and debility. It is contraindicated when the
heat of the body is below' 970, when there is any nota¬
ble perfpiration from the furface ; and when there is
general plethora. Debilitated habits fhould be defend¬
ed from the violence of its a£tion, by covering the body
with flannel.
“ In yellow fever, efpecially in thofe cafes in which
the heat of the Ikin is exceflive, it is particularly ufeful,
and ought to be long continued. In phrenitis and
S19
Cold add.
fion.
MATERIA MEDICA, Sec. 779
fpafmodic contraclions. other local inflammations, it promifes to be of advan- Hiftory of
tage. In gouts its effefts are doubtful, being in fome Sl™fg!^n^
inflances lalutary, in others deftru£live. A criterion Medicines.
to enable us to determine when it ought or ought not ——y *
to be reforted to, is much wanted. In inflammatory
rheumatifm and rheumatic gout it is decidedly ufeful.
It is ot advantage in all the hemorrhagies and exanthe¬
mata ; in tetanus, colic, cholera, hyfteria, mania, if-
churia, and in burns ; and, in general, in all thofe lo¬
cal difeales in which folutions of acetate of lead, of mu¬
riate of ammonia, &c. are ufually employed ; for the
good effedls of thefe depend entirely on the diminifhed
temperature * Duncan's
hor more refpecling the utility of the cold affuflon,
fee Currie’s “ Medical Reports and for an excellent^drup. 16-.
account of the effefts and ufes of baths, fee Marcard J
de la Nature et de I'UJage des Bains, and a Treatife on
Cold and Warm Bathing, lately publiftied at Edin¬
burgh.
Officinal Preparation.
AQUA DISTILLA-DiftMed
water.
a. Aqua destillata, E.
TA, L. D. Diftilled water.
From 10 gallons of fpring water, the London col¬
lege directs four gallons to be drawn oflF, throwing
away the firft four pints that come over. The Dublin
college directs 10 pounds to be diftilled from 20
pounds, throwing away the firft pound 5 while the col¬
lege of Edinburgh direfls water to be diftilled in very
clean veflels till two-thirds have come over.
Sect. II. Inflammable Subjlances.
Sir
D. FLORES SuW'i»ed
Flowers of ful- t"u'l)^ur*
260. Sulphur sublimatum, E. L
SULPHURIS. Sublimed fulphur.
phur.
For an account of the chemical nature and properties
of fulphur, fee Chemistry, Chap. ix.
As a medicine, fulphur is employed both internally
and externally. Internally it is given as a laxative, in
the dofe of a dram or two, and as a diaphoretic in
fmaller dofes. Externally it is one of the moft certain
remedies for the itch, and forae other cutaneous affec¬
tions.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Sulphur sublimauum lotum, E. D. FLO-Wafted
RES SQLPHURIS LOTI, L. Wafhed fublimedtublime<l
fulphur. Wajhedflowers of fulphur. fulphur.
Sublimed fulphur is freed from the fulphurous acid,
which it has imbibed in the preparation, by boiling it
for a little in four times its weight of water, and after
pouring off the water in which it was boiled, wafhing
it by repeated affufions of cold water, till it no longer
imparts acidity to the water.
Sublimed fulphur fliould ahvays be waftied before be¬
ing ufed internally, otherwife it is very apt to diforder
the flomach and bowels.
b. Oleum sulphuratum, E. L. Sulphurated oil. Sulphum-
_ Prepared by boiling one part of fublimed fulphur ined oiK
eight of olive oil (E.), or one part to four parts (L.), in a
large iron pot, till they are thoroughly united. Formerly
5 ^ 2 much
'Bo
&24
Sulphurat¬
ed petro¬
leum.
8*5
Oin. merit
of fulphur.
Hiftory of much ufed as an expeftorant in coughs, in a dofe of
^ Officinal^ ^r01Tl ten to 4° ^roP3> ^ut; now f^ldom ufed, except as
Mealanes. an external application to foul ulcers.
c. Petroleum sulphuratum, L. Sulphurated pe¬
troleum.
Prepared in the fame manner as the laft, with oil of
petroleum, and ufed for the fame purpofe.
d. Unguentum Sulphuris, E. L. D. Ointment of
fulphur.
Prepared by mixing half a pound (L.) or five ounces
(D.) of ointment of hogs-lard, with four ounces (L.)
or three ounces (D.) of fiowers of fulphur ; or four parts
of bogs-lard, with one of fublimed fulphur, adding to
each pound of the ointment, half a dram of volatile oil
of lemons, or volatile oil of lavender (E.).
An excellent application in the itch. Ordinary quan¬
tity for an adult about four ounces, which Ihould be
rubbed in at once.
e. Sulphuretum Potass.®, E. KALI SULPHU-
RA1UM, L. ALKALI VEGETABILE SUL¬
PHURATUM, D. HEPAR SULPHURIS. Sui-
phuret of potalh. Sulphurated kali. Sulphurated ve¬
getable alkali. Liver of fulphur.
For the preparation and chemical properties of this
fubftance, fee Chemistry, N° 918.
Sulphuret of potaih is feldom employed in medicine,
except as a remedy in violent mercurial falivation, in
* j which it is faid to be very effedlual *. It has lately
^ ’ been much recommended, diffolved in lime water, as an
effectual external application in tinea capitis.
Precipha- f Sulphur PRvECiPlTATUM, L. D. Precipitated
ted fulphur fulphujv
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. Part ly,
by boiling half a pound of it in a pint of diftilled water, Hiftory of
and fetting afide the folution to cryftallize. Simple and
826
Sulphuret
of potaih.
Succinic acid is now fcarcely employed in medicine, jyjedxftfes
OLEUM—^7^
Purified oil purifie3d oil
d. Oleum Succini purissimum, E.
SUCCINI RECTIFICATUM, L. D.
of amber.
The Edinburgh college diredls oil of amber to be
purified by diftilling it in a glafs retort with fix times
its quantity of water, till two-thirds of the water have
paffed into the receiver ; when the pure volatile oil
comes over, it is to be feparated from the water, and
preferved in veflels clofely flopped. The procefies of
the other colleges do not materially differ from this.
Oil of amber is a powerful ftimulant and antifpafmo-
dic, ufeful in hyflerical and fimilar difordtrs. Dofe
10 or 12 drops. Ufed alfo externally in paralyfis and
rheumatifms.
of amber.
833
262. Bitumen petroleum, E. PETROLEUM, PetroWumj,
L. PETROLEUM BARBADENSE, D. Petro¬
leum or rock oil. Barbadoes tar.
834 '
Gil ot pe¬
troleum.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Oleum Petrolei, L. Oil of petroleum.
Prepared by diftilling petroleum in a fand bath.
Employed as a ftimulant and antifpafmodic. Dofe
from 10 to 30 drops. Alfo ufed as an external ftimu¬
lant in ftrains and rheumatifms.
Sect. III. 4cids.
835
263. AciDUM SULPHURICUM, E. ACIDUM VI-Sulphuric
TRIOLICUM, L. D. Sulphuric acid. Vitriolic acid.a(ad*
Oil of vitriol.
Prepared by diflblving fix ounces (L.) or four ounces
(D.) of fulphuret of potaih, in one pound and a half
of diftilled water, and adding diluted fulphuric acid
(L.), or diluted nitrous acid (D.), as long as there is
an> precipitation. The precipitate is then to be fe¬
parated by the filter, and walhed till it has loft all aci¬
dity, and then dried.
Similar in its nature to waftied fublimed fulphur,
but confidered as rather milder.
828
Amber. 261. Succinum, E. L. D. Amber. See Chemi¬
stry, N° 2476.
Amber in its natural ftate is not employed in medi¬
cine, except to make the following
Officinal Preparations.
829
Si emu a. Aeidum Succini, E. SAL SUCCINI, D. L.
a,c^. Succinic acid. Salt of amber.
830
Oil 01 am- b. Oleum Succini, E L. D. Oil of amber.
ber.
For the preparation and chemical properties of thefe
fubftances, fee Chemistry, N° 724, et feq.
831
Puriheufait c' SAL bucciNi purificatus, L. Purified fait of
amber, amber.
The London college dire&s this acid to be purified
a
For the preparation and chemical properties of ful¬
phuric acid, fee Chemistry, Chap. x. SecL 1.
Undiluted fulphuric acid is feldom employed in me¬
dicine, except as an external ftimulant and rubefacient,
in combination with fatty fubftances.
Officinal Preparations.
a. AciDUM SULPHURICUM DILUTUM, E. ACIDUM Diluted ful-
VITRIOLICUM DILUTUM, L. D. Diluted iul-Phunc acld*
phunc acid. Diluted vitriolic acid. Spirit of vitriol.
One part of fulphuric acid mixed with feven of wa¬
ter (E.), or one ounce with eight ounces of water (L.),
or two ounces, with 14 ounces of w'ater, (D.).
Diluted fulphuric acid is employed as a refrigerant
in fevers, aftringent in hemorrhages, and tonic in dyf-
pepfia. Dofe from 20 drops to a dram.
^37
b. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM AROMATICUM, E. Aro-Aromatic
matic fulphuric acid. Elixir of vitriol. fulphuric
and.
Prepared by firft mixing two pounds of alcohol
with fix pounds of fulphuric acid, by gradually drop¬
ping the acid into the alcohol ; digefting this mixture
with a very gentle heat in a clofe veffel, for three days j
and adding one ounce and a half of bruifed cinnamon,
and one ounce of bruifed ginger j digefting again in a
clofe
Part IV.
Hifiory of clofe veffel, for fix day?, and filtering the tindhire
^l*'1 trough paper in a glafs funnel.
Medicines excellent ftimulant and tonic, well fuited to dyf-
■ , peptic complaints. Dofe from 15 to 40 drops.
Sulphate of c‘ Sulphas Potass^:, E. KALI VITRIOLA-
potafh. TUM, L. ALKALI VEGETABILE VIJ RIO-
LATUM, D. Sulphate of potafli. Vitriolatedkali. Vi-
triolated vegetable alkali. Vitriolated tartar.
For the nature and properties of this fait, fee Chemi¬
stry, N° 925, et feq.
The Edinburgh college diredls this fait to be pre¬
pared by an immediate combination of fulphuric acid,
diluted with fix times its weight of water, with as much
pure carbonate of potalh, diflblved alfo in fix times its
weight of water, as is fufficient to neutralize the acid.
The fait is procured from the folution by evaporation
and cryttallization. The other colleges obtain this fait
by diflolving the faline mafs that remains after the
diftillation of nitrous acid, filtering and cryftallizing
as before.
Sulphate of potafli is a mild purgative, and may be
given in a dofe of four or five drams, but it requires
a large quantity of water for its folution. It is em¬
ployed chiefly to aflift in the pulverization of opium,
fcammony, &c.
Sulphate of d. SULPHAS PoTASSiE CUM SuLPHURE, E. SAL
potafli with POLYCHKESTUS. Sulphate of potafli with ful-
phur. Sal polychrejl.
Prepared by mixing together equal parts of pou'dered
nitrate of potalh and fublimed fulphur ; injecting the
mixture gradually into a red hot crucible ; and, when
the deflagration ceafes, allowing the fait to cool, and
putting it into a veflel that is to be clofely flopped.
Similar in its effects with the laft, but more eafily
prepared.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
mlphur.
840
Impure
carbonate
of foda.
841
Carbonate
of foda.
Water of
fupercaroo-
nate of Io¬
nia.
Sect. IV. Alkalies and Alkaline Salts.
264. Carbonas Sodje impurus, E. BARYL-
LA, L. D. Impure carbonate of foda. Barilla. Fix¬
ed mineral alkali.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Carbonas SodtE, E. N VTRON PREPARA-
TUM, L. ALKALI FOSSILE MITE, D. Car¬
bonate of foda. Vitriolated natron. Mild fo/Jil al¬
kali'.
Prepared by boiling impure carbonate of foda, bruif-
ed or powdered barilla, till all the fait is diflblved,
then filtering the liquor, and fetting it by to cryftal-
lize.
For an account of the nature and properties of this
fait, fee Chemistry, N° 1085.
Employed in medicine chiefly as an antacid and li-
thontriptic. Dofe from 10 to 30 grains.
b. Aqua supercarbonatis Sod^e, E. Water of
fupercarbonate of foda.
Prepared by pafling a ftream of carbonic acid gas
through a folution of carbonate of foda, as was di-
refted for preparing the water of carbonate of potalh.
See N° 315.
78E
This preparation is fuppofed to be a powerful lithon- Hiflory of
triptic, and the occafional ufe of it certainly appears ai|^
to prevent the formation of uric acid. It may be drunk Medicines,
in the quantity of half a pint or a pint during the day. ■
c. Phosphas Sodas, E. Phofphate of foda. Phofphate
For the preparation and nature of this fait, fee CHE-0^°^a*
MISTRY, N° 1075, et feq.
An excellent laxative, preferable to moft other faline
cathartics, from its tafle being but little unpleafant.
Dofe from one to twm ounces, which is beft taken dif-
folved in foup, beef tea, or gruel.
265. Nitras Potassas, E. NITRUM, L. D. 0f
Nitrate of potafli. Nitre. Saltpetre. See Chemistry, potafli.
N° 942, et feq.
Nitrate of potafli is ufed in medicine as a diaphore¬
tic, diuretic, and refrigerant. Dofe from five to 20
grains.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Nitrum purificatum, L. Purified nitre. purged
Purified by folution in boiling water, filtration, andnitre-
cryftallization.
846
b. Acidum nitrosum, E. L. D. Nitrous acid. Nitrous
Fumingfpirit of'nitre. acid.
Prepared by decompofing nitrate of potafli by ful¬
phuric acid, in the manner mentioned under Chemi¬
stry, Chap. x. SeiR. 3.
It is in this ftate that the acid obtained from nitrate
of potafli is generally employed in medicine, though
for certain purpofes the nitric acid is to be preferred.
'Ihefe acids are employed as refrigerants and diuretics,
largely diluted, and in fmall dofes, viz. from five to 20 *
drops, and alfo as tonics and general ftimulants, as
mentioned belowr. Externally they a£l as ftimulants or
efcharotics, according to their ftrength.
c. Acidum nitrosum dilutum, E. L. D. Dilut-Diluted ni-
ed nitrous acid. Aquafortis. trous acid.
Prepared by mixing equal weights of nitrous acid
and water, taking care to avoid the noxious fumes.
Ufes the fame as of the laft ; but the diluted acid is
better calculated for internal exhibition. Doles about
double thofe of nitrous acid.
d. Acidum nitricum, E. Nitric acid.
Prepared by rediftilling nitrous acid in a retort with
an adopted receiver, with a very gentle heat, till the
red portion has pafled over, and the remaining acid has
acquired the ftate of nitric acid. See Chemistry as
above.
1 his is the acid which has been fo much recommend¬
ed of lace as a cure f r fyphilis, in which it is admini-
ftered, diluted with water in the proportion of a dram
to a pint, which is to be taken at intervals through the
day, lucking it through a quill or glafs tube, to avoid
injuring the teeth, and gradually augmenting the
quantity as far as the ftomach will bear. Though the
advantages of nitric acid in fyphilitic complaints appear
to have been overrated, it is no doubt a valuable lucce-
da- eum to mercury, and has, w'e believe, been offer-
vice in cafes where mercurial preparations were inad-
miflible, or unfuceefsful. Nitric acid, in its na cent
ftate. .
848
Nitric acid.
782 MATERIA
Hiftory of ftate, as procured by an extemporaneous decompofition
^'officinal^ n’tre Sulphuric acid, has been found of advantage
Medicines. as a fumigation in corredting putrid effluvia.
. 849
Ointment
of nitrous
acid.
850
Spirit of
nitrous
ether.
S51
e. Unguentum Acidi nitrosi, E. Ointment of
nitrous acid. Oxygenated ointment.
Prepared by gradually mixing fix drams of nitrous
acid with one pound of melted hog’s lard, and conti¬
nually agitating the mixture as it cools.
A good remedy in herpes, lepra, and fome other
cutaneous affedlions, and faid to have fucceeded as a
fubftitute for mercurial ointment.
<
f. Spiritus iExHERis ;nitrosi, E. L. LIQUOR
iETHEREUS NITROSUS, D. Spirit of nitrous
ether. Ethereal nitrous liquor. Sweet fpirit of nitre.
About three parts of alcohol and one of nitrous acid,
gradually mixed together, diflilling over the fpirit from
a water bath.
Diuretic, ftimulant, and tonic. Dofe 20 drops to a
dram.
MEDIC A, £kc. Part IV,
267. Subboras Sod®. BORAS SOD/E;, E. BO- Hiftory ©f
RAX, L. D. Subborate of foda. Borax. See Che-Simple. and
MISERY, N° 1067. Officma-1
’ ' Medicines.
Sometimes given internally as a diuretic •, but gene- ~ b. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * v,~ 1
rally employed as a detergent to aphthous crufts and Subborate
ulcerations in the mouth and fauces, either by way ofoftbda.
lotion, or made into a lindtus with fyrup or honey.
Muriate of 266. Murias Sod®, E. SAL MURIATICUS,
foda- L. SAL COMMUNIS, D. SAL MARINUS.
Muriate of foda. Sea fait. Common fait. See Che¬
mistry, N° 1046.
Muriate of foda is employed as a laxative and an¬
thelmintic. In the former way it is ufually adminifter-
ed in clyfters •, in the latter it is given by the mouth,
in the dofe of half a dram to an ounce or more. Ex¬
ternally, when dried by heat, it is ufed as a ftimulant
and rubefacient.
S52
Dried mu-
SS3
Muriatic
acid.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Murias Sod® exsiccatus, E. SAL COM-
riate of fo- MUNIS EXSICCATUS, D. Dried muriate of foda.
da.
Muriate of foda is dried by roafting it over the fire
in a wide iron veffel, with occafional agitation, till it
ceafes to decrepitate.
b. Acidum Muriaticum, E. L. D. Muriatic acid.
Marine acid. Spirit of fea-falt.
Prepared by decompofing muriate of foda by fulphu-
ric acid, in the manner deferibed under Chemistry,
Chap. x. Se<ft. 5.
Muriatic acid is ufed in medicine as a refrigerant,
diuretic, and ftimulant. Dofe from 10 drops to 40 or
50. It is a good medicine in low fevers, largely dilu¬
ted and fweetened with fugar. Ib its nafeent ftate, as
obtained by the extemporaneous decompofition of mu¬
riate of foda by fulphuric acid, it is an excellent fumi¬
gation, and in this refpedt is perhaps to be preferred to
the nitric acid.
s54
Sulphate of c. Sulphas Sod®, E. NATRON VITRIOLA-
foda. TUM, L. ALKALI FOSSILE VITRIOLA-
TUM, D. SAL GLAUBERI. Sulphate of foda.
Vitnolated natron. Vitriolated mineral alkali. Glau¬
ber’s fait,
Ufually prepared by diffolving and neutralizing the
acidulous fait remaining after the preparation of muri¬
atic acid, filtering the liquor, evaporating, and fetting
it afide to cryftallize. See Chemistry, N° 1030.
A good purgative, but not fuited to all ftomachs.
Dofe from one to two ounces.
Sect. V. Soaps.
sS5.
268. Sapo Hispanus. SAPO, E. Spanilh or Caftite foap.
Caftile foap.
The Edinburgh and London colleges particularize
the foap that Ihould be ufed in medicine, as prepared
of olive oil and foda.
On the nature and properties of foap, fee Chemistry.
Soap is employed both internally and externally.
Internally it ads as a gentle laxative, and is fuppofed
to poffefs lithontriptic powers. In this latter way it has
been given in the quantity of from half an ounce to an
ounce in the day. Excepting with this intention, it is
feldom given alone. Externally it is ufed as a ftimu¬
lant and detergent, under the various forms mentioned
below.
857
Officinal Preparations.
a. TlNCTURA SapoNIS, E. LINIMENTUM SA- T:n&ureof
PON1S COMPOSITUM, L. LINIMENTUM foap.
SAPONACEUM, D. Tindure of foap. Compound
liniment of foap. Saponaceous liniment. Opodeldoc.
The Edinburgh tindure is prepared by digefting
four ounces of foap fhavings in two pounds of alcohol
for three days j then adding to the filtered liquor two
ounces of camphor, and half an ounce of volatile oil of
roftmary, agitating them diligently. The London li¬
niment is compofed of three ounces of foap, one ounce
of camphor, and one pint of fpirit of rofemary 5 that of
the Dublin college of two ounces of Caftile foap, one
ounce of camphor, eight ounces of alcohol, and the fame
of w'ater, and two fcruples of effential oil of rofemary.
858
b. TlNCTURA SapoNIS ET OpII, E. LINIMEN-Timftureof
TUM ANODYNUM. Tindure of foap and opium. W and
Anodyne liniment. opium.
Prepared in the fame manner as the laft, with the ad¬
dition, from the beginning, of one ounce of opium.
Thefe tindures or liniments are excellent ftimulant
applications in cafes of fprains, rheumatic pains, and
fimilar affedions ; and the latter of them has been found
ufeful when applied to the tumid belly of children that
are threatened with rickets.
859
c. CeraTUM SapoNIS, L. D. Soap cerate. Soap cerate.
Prepared by boiling one pound of powdered litharge
with a gallon or eight pounds (D.) of vinegar, over a
flow fire, with conftant agitation, till the mixture com¬
bines and thickens ; then adding eight ounces of foap,
10 ounces of yellow wax, and a pint or 14 ounces (D.)
of olive oil, and continuing the heat and agitation till
they are united to form a cerate. ^
d. Emplastrum Saponis, L. EMPLAS1 RUM Soap pla£»
SAPONACEUM, E. D.. Soap plafter.
Prepared by mixing one part of foap with fix of
- melted
ter.
Part IV.
Hiftory of melted litharge plafter (L. D.), or one part of fliced
Officinal f°ap’ with ft)Ur of Plafter of femivitrified oxide of lead,
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
A ufeful application to recent fcalds and burns.
umcmai j r L _ _   
Medicines, and two parts ot gum plafter melted together, (E.),
*—y—j Thefe are intended as difcutient applications.
Sect. VI. Earths and Earthn Saits.
Mi
Sulphate of 269. Sulphas Baryt^e, E. TERRA PONDE-
harjta. ROSA VITRIOLATA. BARYTES. Sulphate of
Baryta. Vitriolated ponderous earth. Barytes. See
Chemistry, N° 1256, etfeq.
Employed in medicine only for preparing the muri¬
ate of baryta.
270. Carbonas Baryta, E. TERRA PON-
DEROS A. Carbonate of baryta. Heavy fpar. See
Chemistry, as above.
862
Carbonate
of baryta.
863
Muriate
baryta.
8 64
Solution
muriate
baryta.
Officinal Preparations.
of a. Murias Baryt/e, E. Muriate of baryta.
Prepared by diffolving carbonate of baryta broken
into fmall pieces in a mixture of one part of muriatic
acid and three of water, filtering the liquor, evapora¬
ting and cryftailizing. Where the carbonate of baryta
cannot be procured, this fait is obtained from the ful-
phate, by a very complex procefs, for which fee Dun¬
can’s Difpenfatory, and Chemistry as above.
of h. Solutio Muriatis Barytas, E.
of muriate of baryta.
Solution of
865
Lime.
Prepared by dilfolving one part of cryftallized mu¬
riate of baryta in three of water.
This has been recommended as a powerful ftimulant
and tonic, in a variety of difeafes. We believe it has
been of fervice in fome cafes of fcrophula. Dofe from
five to ten drops, twice or thrice a-day.
271. Calx, L. CALX VIVA, E. CALX RE-
CENS USTA, D. Lime. Quicklime. See Che¬
mistry, Chap. xiii. Se6L 1.
Lime in fubftance is fearcely employed in medicine,
except by way of cauftic, mixed with foft foap or pot-
afh.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Aqua Calcis, E. L. D. Lime-water.
This is a faturated folution of frefh burnt quicklime
in water. After being made, it fhould be kept in vef-
fels that are not too large, and carefully flopped, that
it may not imbibe carbonic acid from the air.
Lime-water is employed as an antacid and aflrin-
gent, a Ionic, and an anthelmintic. Dofe internally
from two to four ounces. As an anthelmintic it is
ufed in the way of clyffer, to deftroy afcarides. It is
alfo employed externally as a flimulant and detergent.
Linirnei-t ^ Linimentum Aquas Calcis. OLEUM LINI
ct lime-wa- CUM CALCE, E. Liniment of lime, or Lintfeed
ter. oil with lime.
Prepared by mixing equal parts of lintfeed oil and
lime-water.
S55
Lime-wa¬
ter.
272. Carbonas Calcis, E. Carbonate of lime.
Carbonas Calcis mollior, E. GRETA, L. D.
Chalk. Carbonas Calcis durior, E. MARMOR.
Marble. See Chemistry, N° 1230, et feq.
Carbonate of lime in its foft (late is much employed
m medicine as an antacid, and when powdered or pre¬
pared, it is applied externally to fcalds and burns, and
to cancerous fores.
Officinal Preparations.
7S3
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
S68
Carbonate
of lime.
869
Chalk.
Marble,
871
a. Carbonas Calcis prapparatus, E. CRETA PrePared
PRiEPARATA, L. D. Prepared carbonate of lime.^b°npatc
Prepared chalk. ofllEne'
This is chalk reduced to a very fine powder by tri¬
turation, levigation, dift'ufion in water, filtration, and
drying. Ordinary dofe, as an antacid, from 1 c grains
to a dram. 6
872
b. Potio carbonatis Calcis, E. MISTURA^^l50*
CRETACEA, L. D. Chalk potion. tion‘
Prepared, according to the Edinburgh college, by
triturating an ounce of prepared carbonate of lime with
two ounces of mucilage of gum arable, and half an
ounce of double-refined fugar j then adding gradually
two pounds and a half of water, and two ounces of fpirit
of cinnamon.
I. he London and Dublin mixture is prepared by mix¬
ing one ounce of prepared chalk, fix drams of double-
refined fugar, one ounce of powdered gum arabic, with
two pints or 30 ounces (D.), of diftilled water.
Employed as an antacid, efpecially in diarrhoea, ac¬
companied by acidity in the inteflinal canal. It may
be taken ad libitum.
873
c. I rochisci carbonatis Calcis, E. TROCHIS-Troches of
Cl CRETiE, L. Troches of carbonate of lime. car^onate
^Troches of chalk. ot f‘me-
Prepared of four ounces of carbonate of lime, one
ounce of gum arabic, one dram of nutmeg, and fix
ounces of double-refined fugar, powdered together, and
formed into a mafs with water, (E.) 5 or, of four ounces
of prepared chalk, two ounces of prepared crabs claws,
half an ounce of cinnamon, and three ounces of double-
refined fugar, powdered and made into a mafs with
mucilage of gum arabic (L.). Ufed as the preceding.
d. Pulvis carbonatis Calcis compositus, E. Compound
PULVIS CRETvT; COMPOSITUS, L. Compound Powder of
powder of carbonate of lime. Compound powder of
chalk. 1 ^ofhme.
Prepared of four ounces of prepared carbonate of
lime? half a dram of nutmeg, and half a dram of cin¬
namon powdered together (E.) j or, of half a pound of
prepared chalk, four ounces of cinnamon, three ounces
of tormentil, and the fame of gum arabic, and half an
ounce of long pepper powdered feparately, and mixed
together (L.).
Ufed as antacids and tonics, in debility of the intef-
tinal canal. Dofe from 15 to 30 grains. S75
f. Aqua Aeris fixi, D. Water impregnated with ^egnateT
fixed air. w fh flxed
Prepared a'r'
784
Hiftory of
Simple and
Offit inal
Medicines,
S76
Solution of
muriate of
lime.
MATERIA MED1CA, &c.
Prepared by pafflng a ftream of carbonic acid gas PHAS ALUMIN.rE;
arifing from the decompofition of three ounces of
powdered white marble, and one half pound of diluted
vitriolic acid, mixed with an equal quantity of water,
through fix pounds of pure fpring water, in a Nooth’s
apparatus, with occafional agitation.
An excellent tonic, refrigerant, and anti-emetic.
f. Solutio Muriatis Calcis, E. Solution of
muriate of lime.
Part IV.
ACUMEN, L. D. Su-
pt t ulphate of alumina and potaih. dl^m. See CHE¬
MISTRY, N° 1418, et.Jeq.
li.itu.y of
>1 m pit ,.nd
oiticmal
Medicine*.
Alum is employed both externally and internally as
an ailringent and tonic. Internally it is given chiefly
in haemorrhages •, dole from ten grains to a fcruple.
877
Sulphate of
magnefia.
87S
Carbonate
of magne-
lia.
879
Magnelia.
8S0
Troches of
magndia.
Prepared by diflolving nine ounces of white marble
broken to pieces, in fixteen ounces of muriatic acid,
mixed with eight ounces of water . digefling for half
an hour, pouring off the liquor, evaporating to drynefs,
diffolving the refiduum in times its w eight of water,
and filtering the iolution.
An excellent tonic, ufeful in cafes of fcrophula and
fchirrus. Dole from 30 to 60 drops, twice or thrice a-
day.
273. Sulphas Magnesije, E. MAGNESIA VI¬
TRIOL ALA, L. D. SAL CATHARTICUS A-
MARUS. Sulphate of magneiia. Vitriolated rnognejia.
Epfomfait. See Chemistry, Chap. xiii. Stiff. 4.
Ufed as a purgative, in a dofe of an ounce to an
ounce and a half; as a tonic and gentle ftimulant, in
the dofe of a dram or two diluted confiderably, twice
a-day.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Carbonas Magnesia, E. MAGNESIA AL¬
BA, L. ju». Carbonate of magnefia. White magnejia.
Prepared by decompofing fulphate of magnefia by
an equal weight of carbonate of potafh, each previoufly
diffoived in twice its weight of warm water, ftrained,
and then mixed, inftantly adding eight times their
weight of warm water; then boiling the liquor for a
little with agitation, and when the heat is a little di-
miniftied, draining the liquor through linen, and well
wafhing the powder that remains on the filter with
warm water, and drying.
An excellent antacid, and in cafes of acidity, a laxa¬
tive •, alfo a good anti-emetic, where the ficknefs is
accompanied with acidity. Dofe from half a dram to
a dram.
h. Magnesia, E. MAGNESIA USTA, L. D.
Magnefia. Burnt or calcined magnejia.
This is pure magnefia, freed from carbonic acid, by
keeping it in a red heat for two hours, and putting it
up in clnfely flopped bottles.
Preferable to the former as an antacid, wherever
the extrication of carbonic acid may be unpleafant, by
producing flatulency, efpecially for children.
c. Trochisci
nefia.
Officinal P- tparations.
a. Alumen PURIFICATUM, L. Purified alum.
Magnesite, L. Troches of mag-
8Sj
Purified
alum.
883
Prepared by boiling one pound of alum with one
dram of chalk, in a pint of diitilled water, flraining and
cryllallizing.
b. Sulphas Aluminje exsiccatus, E. ALUMEN Qried fuL
USTUM, L. Dried iulphate of alumina.
alum. alunilna*
Alum is freed from its water of cryftallization by
melting it over the fire in an earthen or iron vtffel,
and keeping it there till it ceafes to boil.
Employed as an efcharotic, to deftroy fungous ex-
crefcences.
c. Aqua
alum water.
Aluminis composita. L.
Compound Compound
. alum wa¬
ter.
Prepared by diffolving half a dram of alum, and the
fame of vitriolated zinc, in four ounces of diftilled
water.
Employed externally as a ftimulant or aftringent,
efpecially in ophthalmia, and as an injedlion in leu-
corrhoea.
S85
d. PULVIS SuLPHATIS AlUMINTE COMPOSITUS, E..Compound
PULVIS STYPTICUS. Compound powder of fift. powder of
phate of alumina. Styptic powder. jCumina °*
Compofed of four parts of fulphate of alumina, and
one part of kino, rubbed together to a fine powder.
Aftringent. Dofe from 15 to 30 grains.
e. Cataplasma Aluminis, L. COAGULUM Mum curd.
ALUMINOSUM, D. Alum cataplafm. Alum
curd.
Prepared by (baking any quantity of the white of
egg with a piece of alum till a curd is formed.
A ufeful application to fore and watery eyes, fpread
on linen, and applied at bed-time.
887
French
bole.
8S1.
Sult-i • te of
a!u.;.'ue
ana potaih.
Prepared by triturating together four ounces of
burnt magnefia, two ounces of double refined fugar, and
a fcruple of powdered ginger, and forming a mafs for
troches, with mucilage of gum arabic.
274. Supersulphas Aluminas et Potass,®:. SUL- For the
275. Bolus gallicus, L. French bole.
A clayey earth, formerly employed as an antacid
or abforbent.
Sect. VII. Metals and Metallic Preparations.
888
275. Acidum arseniosum. OXIDUM ARSE-Arfenjou9
NliE, E. Arfenious acid. Oxide of arfenic. acid.
arfenic. See Chemistry, N° 1536, etfeq.
For an excellent account of the effedls of arfenic on
the living body, the modes of obviating or counter-
aeffing them, and of its medical ufe, fee Duncan’s Dif-
penfatory.
This fubftance is employed as a tonic in intermit¬
tent fever, but we confider it as a dangerous remedy.
mode of preparing and exhibiting it, fee
Duncan’s
Part IV.
Hiftory of Duncan’s Difpenfatory as above, and Thefaurus Medi-
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
S89
Sulphuret
.of antimo-
caminum.
■276. SULPHURF/TUM AntIMONII, E. ANTIMO-
NIUM, L. STIBIUM, D. Sulphuret of antimony.
For the natural hiftory and chemical nature of this
fubilance, fee Mineralogy Index, and Chemistry,
Chap. xiv. feft. 1 2.
In its natural ftate, fulphuret of antimony is not
employed in human medicine, except to form the fol¬
lowing
Officinal Preparations.
890
Frepared a. SULPHURETUM AnTIMONII PRJEPARATUM, E.
fuiphuret of ANTIMONIUM PR ALP ARATUM, L. STIBI-
'antimony. UM PR^PARATUM, D. Prepared antimony.
Reduced to a very fine powder in the fame manner
as chalk, &cc.
MATERIA ME DIO A, &c. 7»S
STIBIATUM RUFUM, D. Precipitated fulphu- Hiftory of
ret of antimony. officinal
Prepared by diffolving two pounds of prepared ful- Medicmes,.
phuret of antimony in four pounds of water of potafli,
mixed with three pounds of water, adding more, if ne-
ceffary, in a covered iron pot, over a flow fire for three
hours, frequently ftirring with an iron (patula, {training
the liquor while hot, and precipitating the fulphuret by
diluted fulphuric acid *, then walhing and drying the
precipitate. See Chemistry, N° 1688.
Employed like the laft as a diaphoretic. Dofe two
or three grains.
891
Oxide of
antimony
with ful-
phur.
6. OXIDUM ANTIMONII CUM SULPHURY. PER N1TRA-
TEM Potasste, E. CROCUS ANTIMONII, L.
STIBIUM NITRO CALCINATUM. D. Oxide
of antimony with ful phur. Crocus of antimony.
Prepared by injefling into a red hot crucible equal
weights of fulphuret of antimony and nilrate of potafli,
powdered feparately, and well mixed ; feparating the
reddiflr matter that remains after the deflagration is over,
from the whitifli cruft above it, and reducing the former
to powder, which is to be well wafhed with hot water
till it is taftelefs. Scarcely employed in medicine, ex¬
cept as the bafis of other preparations.
c. Oxidum ANTIMONII cum sulphure vitrifica-
oxide ofan-TUM, E. ANTIMONIUM VITRJFICATUM,
wmony with L vitrified oxide of antimony with fulphur. Vitrified
antimony. Glafs of antimony.
Prepared by gradually heating powdered fulphuret
of antimony till it ceafes to emit fulphurous fumes, and
then melting it by an intenfe heat into a glafs, which
is to be poured out on a heated brafs plate.
Employed by the London college as the bafis of their
antimonial wine.
89a
■Vitrified
fftlphur.
*93
Vitrified
oxide of an E.
timony with
wax.
894
Brown an¬
timonial
fulphur.
895
Precipita¬
ted fulphu¬
ret of anti¬
mony.
d. Oxidum Antimonii vitrificatum cum cera,
Vitrified oxide of antimony with wax.
Made by adding to one part of melted yellow wax,
eight parts of vitrified oxide of antimony with fulphur,
and roafting the mixture over a gentle fire with con¬
tinual agitation for about a quarter of an hour, then
pouring out the mixture, and, when cold, grinding it
to powder.
This is fimilar to a medicine that was much efteemed
by Sir John Pringle, as a remedy in dyfentery. Dofe
from two or three to 20 grains, according to the age
and ftrength of the patient.
e. Sulphur stibiatum fuscum, D. KERMES
MINER ALIS. Brown antimonial fulphur. Kermes
mineral.
For the preparations and nature of this fubftance, fee
Chemistry, N° 1688.
f. Sulphuretum Antimonii prtecipitatum, E.
SULPHUR ANT. PR^CIP. L. SULPHUR
■ Vol. XII. Part II.
896
g. Murias Antimonii, E. ANTIMONIUM Muriate of
MUR I ATUM, L. STIBIUM MURIATUMantim0Iiy-
CAUSTICUM, D. Muriate of antimony. Mumat-
ed antimony. Butter of antimony. See Chemistry,
p. 638.
Employed fometimes as a cauftic, and for preparing
the following fubftance. ' ^ ^
h. Calx Stibii prtecipitata, D. Precipitated Precipita-
calx of antimony. Powder of aharoth. ted calx m
Prepared by adding eight ounces of muriated anti¬
mony to a filtered folution of eight ounces of mild ve¬
getable alkali, in 40 pounds of water, wafhing and
drying the precipitated powder. ^ ^
f. Oxidum Antimonii cum phosphate Calcis, Oxide of
E. PULVIS ANTIMONIALIS, L. PULVISantimo"y
STIBIATUS, D. Oxide of antimony with phofphate^eP0f
of lime. Antimonial.powder. iime.
For the preparation and nature of this fubftance, fee
Chemistry, N° 1686. It is confidered as nearly the
fame with James'1 s powder.
An excellent diaphoretic. Dofe from five to ten
graIns* 899
k. Tartras Antimonii et Potassae. TARTRISTartrate ot
ANTIMONII, E. ANTIMONIUM T ARTARI-an;imoI7
SATUM, L. TART ARUM STIBIATUM, D.ariaPotan’
Tartrate of antimony and potafti. Tartan%ed anti¬
mony. Stibiated tartar. Emetic tartar or tartar
emetic. See Chemistry, N° 1687, and Duncan’s
Difpenfatory.
The Edinburgh and London colleges direft this t*
be prepared by boiling together three parts of oxide of
antimony with fulphur, (fee N° 891.) and four parts
of fuper-tartrate of potafh, for a quarter of an hour, in a
glafs veffel, {training the liquor, and fetting it by te
cryftallize.
Emetic •, dofe two or three grains at once, or better
half a grain or a grain at fliort intervals. Expectorant j
dofe half a grain, repeated at long intervals of two or
three hours. Diaphoretic, in fimilar dofes, combined
with opium, &c. Alterative, in ftill fmaller dofes.
Externally ftimulant and rubefacient.
90s
/. VlNUM TARTRITIS ANTIMONTI, E. VINUMWineof
ANTIMONII TARTARISATI, L. viNUMtartnte of
TARTARI STIBIATI, D. Wine of tartrite of an-anUmony-
timony. IVine of tartari%ed antimony.
Prepared by diflblving tartrate of antimony and pot¬
afli i-irher immediately in Spanifh white wine, or firft:
in boiling water, and then adding the wine. The pro-
5 G portions
7 86
Hiftory if
Simple and
Offiji. a!
Medicines
501
Antimonial
■wine.
MATERIA
portions of the colleges vary j thofe of Edinburgh be¬
ing 24 grains of the fait to a pound of wine j of Lon¬
don and Dublin, 40 grains of fait to two ounces of
boiling water, and eight ounces of wine j fo that the
former contains two grains in every ounce by weight,
the latter four grains in every ounce by meafure.
Dofesof the Edinburgh wine as an emetic, an ounce,
or an ounce and a half, or at intervals half an ounce j
as an expectorant or diaphoretic, a dram or two. The
London and Dublin wine may be taken in about half
the above dofes.
m. Vinum Antimonii, L. Antimonial wine.
Prepared by digefting an ounce of vitrified antimony
in powder, in a pint and a half of Spanilh white wine,
for 12 days, with frequent agitation and {training
through paper.
This preparation might be omitted, as it is neither
fo eafily prepared nor fo certain as the laft.
902
Calcined n. AnTIMONIUM CALCINATUM, L. Calcined an-
antimony. timony. Diaphoretic antimony. See CHEMISTRY, N°
1690.
Formerly much employed as a diaphoretic in a dofe
of from five to 30 grains; but fince the introduction of
James’s powder and the analogous preparations, nearly
diluted.
J>°3
Compound 0. Pilule Stibii composite, D. PILULJE
anumomai PLUMMER!. Compound antimonial pills. Flum-
men's pills.
Prepared by triturating together three ounces of
precipitated fulphur of antimony, and the fame of mild
muriate of mercury ; then adding a dram of extract of
gentian, and the fame of hard Spanilh foap, and form¬
ing a mafs with foap jelly.
^ Formerly in great repute as an alterative.
Mercury. 277. HYDRARGYRUM, D. HYDRARGYRUS, E.
L. ARGENTUM VIVUM. Mercury. ^Uichjiiver.
For an account of the chemical nature and proper¬
ties of mercury, and the modes of afcertaining its puri¬
ty, fee Chemistry, p. 642.
We (hall firlt notice the feveral officinal preparations
of mercury, and then fubjoin a {ketch of its ufes and
the cafes to which it is belt adapted.
Officinal Preparations.
ME DIG A &c. Pan IV.
DRARGYRUS MURIATUS, L. Muriate of aier- H tt of
cury. Corrqfive muriatcd mercury. Corrofrce Jubli- simP!e wd
rnate. See Chemistry, N° 1726/ ^ otfuma
' Medicines,
Prepared by boiling two pounds of purified quickfd- v~~~
ver in two pounds and a half of fulphuric acid, in a glafs
veflel, over a land bath, todrynels, triturating the dried
mats when cold with four pounds or dried muriate of
foda, then fubliraing in a glafs cucurbit with a heat
gradually iricrealed, and feparatin'g the fublhneu mat¬
ter from the fcorise.
Uied as a fialagogue j dofe one eighth to one-fourth
of a gram 5 as an external flimulus or eicharotic to ve- ■
nereal ulcers, chancres, and herpetic eruptions, in the
proportion of about a grain or more to the ounce of li-
<1Uid- 90S
d. SuBMURIAS KyDRARGYRI, E. HYDRARGY-Subn.uriate
RUM MURI ATUM MITE SUBLIMATUM, d. of-mercury.
CALOMELAS, L. Submuriate of mercury. Sub¬
limed inild muriate of mercury. Calomel. See Chemis¬
try, N° 1742, where the procefs is much the fame
as that of the Edinburgh college.
Given in moll cafes where mercury is indicated.
Dofe, as a diaphoretic or alterative, about a grain \ as
a cathartic or anthelmintic, three to 10 grains j as a
fialagogue, one or two grains twice a-day.
e. SUBMURIAS HyDRARGYRI PR2ECIPITATUS, E. Precinfta
HYDRARGYRUM MURIATUM MIT E PR7E- ted fubmu-
CIPITATUM, D. HYDRARGYRUS MURI-riateofmer-
ATUS MITE, L. Precipitated fubmuriate of mer-culy*
cury. Precipitated mild muriate of mercury.
Procured by adding to a folution of half a pound of
purified quicksilver in the lame weight of diluted ni¬
trous acid, a lolutio'n of four pounds and a half of mu¬
riate of foda in eight pounds of boiling water; waffiing
and drying the precipitate.
Much the fame in its effe£ts and dofes as the fore¬
going.
9x0
f. Calx Hydrargyri alba, L. White calx of White calx
mercury. White precipitate. ©f mercury.
Prepared by diffiolving firft half a pound of fal am¬
moniac, and then half a pound of muriated mercury, in
diililled water, adding to the mixed folution half a
pound of water of prepared kali, filtering and waffiing
and drying the precipitate. See Duncan’s Difpenfa-
tory.
Purified a. Hydrargyrum purificatum, D. HYDRAR-
mercury. GYRUS PURTFICA 1 US, E. L.
The Edinburgh procefs is to rub together four parts
of quickfilver, and one part of iron filings, and ditlil
from an iron veffel.
906
Acetate of b. Acetas Hydrargyri. ACETIS HYDRAR-
mercury. GYRI, E. HYDRARGYRUM ACETATUM
D. HYDRARGYRUS ACETATUS, L. Ace¬
tate of mercury. Acetated mercury. See Chemistry
N° 1749.
„ Scarcely employed at prefent, except as an external
ftimulant or difcutient.
907
Muriate of C. MuRIAS HYDRARGYRI, E. HYDRARGY-
xnercury. RUM MURIATUM CORROSIVUM, D, HY-
g. Unguentum Calcis Hydrargyri albee, L. Olrnmentof
Ointment of white calx of rr.ercuiy. white calx
ot mercury.
Prepared by mixing a dram of the foregoing with
an ounce and a half of ointment of hog’s lard.
Ufed to deftroy vermin, and in fome cutaneous erup¬
tions.
h. Oxidum Hydrargyri cinereum, E. PUL-cinereous
VIS HYDRARGYRI CINEREUS, D. Cinere-oxide of
ous oxide of mercury. mercury.
Prepared by diffolving four parts of purified quick¬
filver in five parts of diluted nitrous acid ; then gradu¬
ally adding 15 parts of diltilled water, and pouring in
a fufficient quantity of water of carbonate of ammonia
to precipitate the whole of the oxide, which is to be
waffied and dried.
A
Part IV.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
787
HtHory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
913
O ntment
of cinereous
oxide ot
mercury.
914
Quickfilver
with chalk.
0^5
Calcined
mercury.
916
Red oxide
•f mercury.
917
Ointment
ef red oxide
•f mercury.
918
Tel ow fub-
fulphate of
sseri. ury.
9T9
Bla -k. lul-
phuret of
mere ury.
$20
Red tulphu ■
ret o! nler-
scury.
A mild fialagogue and alterative. Dole from one to
five grains. Uled alfo as a fumigation in fyphilitic
eruptions, Sec.
i. Unguentum Oxim Hydrargyri cinerei, E.
Ointment of cinereous oxide of mercury.
Compofed of one part of the foregoing, and three
parts of hog’s lard. Ufed for mercurial inunftion.
k Hydrargyrus cum Creta, L. Quickfilver
with chalk.
Prepared by triturating together three parts of puri¬
fied quickfilver and five parts of prepared chalk, till
the globules difappear.
A mild alterative. D >fe from 10 to 30 grains.
/. Hydrargyrum calcinatum, D. HYDRAPi-
GYRUS CALC1N/VTUS, L. Calcined mercury.
See Chemistry, N° 1709.
A violent fialagogue. Dofe half a grain to a
grain.
m. Oxidum-Hydrargyri ruerum per Acidum
nitricum, E. HYDRARGYRUS NITRATUS
RUBER, L. HYDRARGYRUM SUBNITRA-
TUM, D. Red oxide, of mercury by nitric acid. Red
nitrated mercury. Red precipitate. See Chemistry,
N° 1709.
Ufed as a flimulant or an efeharotic in fungous ul¬
cers, &c.
n. Unguentum Oxidi .Hydrargyri rubri, E.
Ointment of red oxide of mercury.
Compofed of one part of the foregoing reduced to
fine powder, and eight parts of hog’s lard.
0. Subsulphas Hydrargyri flavus, E. HY¬
DRARGYRUM SUBVI i'RIOLATUM, D. HY¬
DRARGYRUS VITRIOLATUS, L. Yellow fub-
fulphate of mercury. Subvitrio/ated mercury. Turpeth
mineral. See Chemistry, N° 1720.
Employed chiefly as an errhine, mixed with liquor¬
ice powder or cephalic fnuff.
p. SuEphuretum Hydrargyri nigrum, E. HY¬
DRARGYRUM SU LPHUR AT UM NIGRUM,
D. HYDR ARGYRUS CUM SULPHURE, L.
.B ick fulphuret of mercury. Mercury with fulphur.
Etk’opr mineral.
Prepared by triturating together in a glnfs mortar
with a glafs pefile, equal weights of purified quickfil¬
ver, and fublimed fulphur, till the globules of the for¬
mer difappear. See CHEMISTRY, N0 1712.
Employed chiefly as an alterative in cutaneous dif-
eafes and glandular afleflions. Dole from five or 10
grains to a dram or more.
q. Hydrargyrum Sulphuratum rubrum, D.
HYUDRARGYRUS SULPHURATES RUBER,
L. Red fulphuret of mercury. Factious cinnabar.
Vermilion. See CHEMISTRY, N° 1713.
Ufed principally as a fumigation for venereal ulcers
in the m/e, mouth, and throat, and as an ingredient in
an ointment for the itch.
r. Pilul
pills.
Hydrargyri, E. L. D.
Hiflory of
Mercury Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
Prepared by triturating an ounce of purified quick-  v 
filver with the fame weight of conferve of red rofes in a 921
glafs mortar, till the globules completely difappear, ad- Mercury
ding occafionally a little mucilage of gum arable, then 1 * *
adding two ounces of ftarch, and beating the whole
with a little water into a mafs, to be immediately di¬
vided into 480 equal pills (E ). The London pills are
compofed of two drams of purified quickfilver, three
drams of conferve of rofes, and one dram of powdered
liquorice *, and the Dublin pills of three drams of
quickfilver, the fame of extract of liquorice, and a dram
and a half of purified liquorice root.
Four grains of the Edinburgh mafs, three of the
London, and two and a half of the Dublin, contain
about one grain of mercury, fo that the lafl are nearly
twice as flrong as the firft. Dofe of the Edinburgh
pills as a fialagogue, from three to fix, once or twice
a day.
922
s. Unguentum Hydrargyri, E. Mercurial oint-^Prcunal
ment. Blue ointment. ointment.
Prepared by triturating together one part of quickfil¬
ver with a little hog’s lard, t ill the globules di la ppear; then
adding one part of mutton fuet, and as much hog’s lard
as, with the firlt quantity, is equal to three parts. Alfo
formed with double or treble the quantity of mercury.
Uted for mercurial inunction. Quantity to be uled
at once about four fcruples or drams every other night,
or every night.
t. Unguentum Hydrargyri fortius,
Stronger mercurial ointment.
9a3
L. D. Vrcn-wr
mercurial
ointment.
Compofed of two pounds of purified quickfilver, 23
ounces of prepared hog’s lard, and an ounce of prepa¬
red mutton fuet. b
Quantity uftd at once, about two fcruples or a
dram.
924
Ointment.
u. Unguentum Hydrargyri mitius, L. D. Mild- Milder
er mercurial ointment. Trooper"1 s ointment. mercurial
Formed of one part of the foregoing, and two of
prepared hog’s lard. Ufed chiefly to deltroy vermin,
or for foirm cutaneous affections.
925.
v. Emplastrum Hydrargyri, E. Mercurial M7LcuriaI
, n p> alter,
plafter.
Formed by melting one part of olive oil, and the
fame of white rofin together ; and when the mixture is
cold, rubbing with it three parts of quickfilver till the
globules difappear, afterwards adding by degrees fix
parts of melted plafter of femivitrified oxide of lead,
and mixing the whole carefully togethi r.
926
w. Emplastrum Ammoniaci cum HYDRARGYRO,p,sila'
L. Plafter of gum ammoniac with mercury.
Prepared by triturating together three ounces of pu-11^101117,
rifled quickfilver, with about a dram of lulphurated
oil, till the globules difappear, and then adding gra¬
dually one pound of ftiarned gum ammoniac melted.
5 G 2 a-;
\
788
Hiftory of
Simple and r
Officinal
Medicines.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
x. Emplastrum Lithargyri cum Hydrargyro,
Litharge plafter with mercury.
Compofed of three ounces of purified quickfilver,
^ about a dram of fulphurated oil, and a pound of melt-
Lithari>e ed litharge plafter.
plafter with Thefe three laft are employed as refolvents and dif-
cutients, in cafes of venereal nodes and beginning in¬
durations.
mercury.
928
Ointment
of nitrate
929
Milderoint-
mem of
nitrate of
mercury.
55. Unguentum nitratis Hydrargyri mitius,
E. Milder ointment of nitrate of mercury.
Prepared in the fame way as the laft, except ufing
three times the quantity of oil and lard.
Mercury, or lome of its preparations, is exhibited,
3. As an errhine, the fubfulphate of mercury ; 2. As
a fialagogue, mercury in almoft any form j 3. As a ca¬
thartic, the fubmuriate of mercury ; 4. As a diuretic,
the oxides, the muriate, and the fubmuriate, combined
with other diuretics ; 5. As a fudorific, calomel con¬
joined with a fudorific regimen ; 6. As an emmena-
gogue 5 7. As an aftringent, muriate of mercury j
8. As a ftimulant, muriate of mercury j 9. As an an-
tifpafmodrc ; 10. As an anthelmintic.
With fome of thefe views, mercury is frequently ex¬
hibited, 1. In febrile difeafes 5 in obftinate agues. 2. In
inflammatory difeafes, in indolent and chronic inflam¬
mations, efpecially of the glandular vifcera, as the li¬
ver, fpleen, &e. 3. In exanthematous difeafes, vario¬
la. 4. In profluvia *, in dyfentery. 5. In fpafmodic
difeafes j tetanus, trifmus, hydrophobia, &c. 6. In ca¬
chetic difeafes j anafarca, afcites, hydrothorax, hydro¬
cephalus, &c. 7. In impetigines, fcrofula, fyphilis,
lepra, iterus, &c. 8. In local difeafes j in caligo cor-
neae, amaurofis, gonorrhoea, obftipatio, amenorrhoea
fuppreflionis, tumours of various kinds, herpes, tinea,
^ puncan's pfora, &c. *
WP
tory.
nfa-
93°
Zinc.
.931
Oxide of
»inc.
For a more particular account of the medical effe ts
and ufes of mercury, we refer our readers to Cullen’s
Materia Medica, vol, ii. The Practical Synopfis, vol. i.
The Ihefaurus Medicaminum, and Murray’s Elements,
vol. i.
278. Zincum, E. L.
p. 649.
D. Zinc. See Chemistry,
Officinal Preparations.
a. Oxidum Zinci, E. ZINCUM CALCINA"
TUM, L. CALX ZINCI, E, FLORES ZINCI.
O'iide of zinc. Flowers of %inc. See CHEMISTRY, N°
1756.
J
Part IV.
Employed as a tonic and antifpafmodic, chiefly in Hiftory 0f
epilepfy. Dole from three to 10 grains, three or four S!mP a*'d
times a day. Officinal
Medicines.
b. Unguentum
oxide of zinc.
oxidi Zinci, E. Ointment of
y. Unguentum nitratis Hydrargyri, E. UN-
GUENXUM HYDRARGYRI Nil RATI, L. D.
mercury. UNGUENTUM CITR1NUM. Ointment of nitrate
of mercury. Citrine ointment.
Prepared by firft diffolving one part of quickfilver in
two of nitrous acid, and beating up the folution in a
glafs mortar, with nine parts of olive oil, and three of
hog’S lard, previoufly melted together (or with 12
parts of hog’s lard, L. D.) till the whole is formed in¬
to an ointment.
A powerful ftimulant and detergent ointment, ufeful
in inflammation and ulceration of the eyelids, and in
cutaneous affections.
Compofed of one part of the foregoing, and fix parts
of fimple liniment.
Applied to the eye as an aftringent, in cafes of oph¬
thalmia, attended with debility and relaxation of the
veffels.
93 2
Ointment
of oxide of
zinc.
c. Sulphas Zinci, E. ZINCUM VITRIOL A- Sulphate of
TDM, L. D. Sulphate ot zinc. Variolated %inc.zinc.
White vitriol. See Chemistry, N° 1764.
Employed internally as an emetic, in the dofe of
from 10 to 30 grains, and as an aftringent and tonic
in a dofe of from two to five grains, feveral times a
day. Externally as a ftimulant and aftringent, in the
form of lotion, collyrium, or injedfion.
d. Solutio sulfhatis Zinci, E. Solution of ful-
phate of zinc.
Prepared by diffolving 16 grains of fulphate of zinc
in eight ounces of watery then adding 16 drops of di¬
luted fulphuric acid, and filtering through paper.
Uled in moft cafes where the fulphate of zinc is em¬
ployed externally.
e. Aqua Zinci vitriolati cum Camphora, L. Waf^/of
Water of vitnolated zinc with camphor. vitnoiated
Compofed of half an ounce of vitriolated zinc, halfcampnor!
an ounce by mealure of camphorated fpirit, and two
pints of boiling water, mixed together, and filtered
through paper.
Ufed for an aftringent lotion and collyrium.
„ 934
solution of
(ulphate of
zinc.
f. Solutio acetitis Zinci, E.
tite of zinc.
Solution of ace- Soluffifn of
acetite of
zinc.
Prepared by mixing together a folution of one dram
of fulphate of zinc, in 10 ounces of diftilled water, and
a lolution of four fcruples of acetate of lead in 10
ounces of diftilled water, allowing them to ftand for
fome time at reft, and filtering.
An excellent aftringent collyrium. .
279. Oxidum Zinci impurum, E. TUTIA, L. r 9ure ox-
D. Impure oxide of zinc. Tutty. See Mineralogy kieof zinei
Index.
937
Officinal Preparations.
a. Oxidum Zinci impurum pr;eparatum,
TUTIA PRAlPARATA, L. D. Prepared impure impure ox-
Prepared
oxide of zinc. Prepared tutty. ide of zine.
Prepared in the fame way as chalk, and other hard
fubftances.
b. Unguentum oxidi Zinci impuri, E. UN-ointment ef
GUENJ UM I UTI/E, L. D. Ointment of impure impure ox-
oxide of zinc. Tutty ointment. ide of zinc.
Compofed of one part of the foregoing, and five
parts of fimple liniment (E-), or of any quantity of the
foregoing, and as much ointment of Ipermaceti, or of
hog’s
Part IV.
MATERIA
Hiftory of hog’s lard as is fumcient to form a foft ointment
Simple ard J) ^
Offii.mat Uied in fimilar cafes with N° 0^2.
Medicines.
u—v——’ 280. Carb'onas Zinci impurus, E. LAPIS CA-
94° LAMINAR1S, L. D. Impure carbonate of zinc.
Calamine. See Mineralogy Index.
bonate of
zinc.
941
Prepared
impure car¬
bonate of
94*
Cerate of
impure car
bonate of
943
Tm.
944
Powder of
tin.
945
Lead.
946
White ox¬
ide of lead.
947 ,
Compound
powder of
cerufe.
948 ‘
Ointment
«>f white ox¬
ide of lead.
949
Superace¬
tate of lead,
Officinal Preparations.
a. Carbonas Zinci impurus pr^eparatus, E.
LAPIS CAL AMIN ARIS PRiEPARATUS, L.
I). Prepared carbonate of zinc. Prepared calamine.
Prepared as chalk, &c.
b. Ceratum carbonatis Zinci impuri, E. CE-
RATUM LAPiDIS CALAMINARIS, L. D.
CERATUM EPULOITCUM. Cerate of impure
carbonate of zinc. Calamine cerate. Epulotic cerate.
Brown cerate. Turner's cerate.
Competed of one part of the foregoing, and five
parts of fimple cerate (E.), or of half a pound (L.),
or one part (L.) of the foregoing, the fame of yellow
wax, and a pint (L.) or two parts (D.) of olive oil.
Employed chiefly as a drelfiog to fores and ulcers.
281. Stannum, E. L. D. Tin. See Chemistry,
P- 653-
Officinal Preparations.
a. Stanni pulvis, L. B. Powder of tin.
Prepared by granulating melted tin by agitation in
a covered wooden box rubbed with chalk j or by ftirring
while melted over the fire till it be reduced to a pow¬
der.
Employed as a mechanical anthelmintic, efpecially
in cafes of taenia and lumbricus. Dofe from two drams
to half an ounce.
282. Plumbum, E. L. D. Lead. See Chemistry,
P- 657*
Oxidum Plumbi albi, E. CERUSSA, L. D.
White oxide of lead. Cerufe. White lead. See Che¬
mistry, N° 1856.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Pulvis Ceruss^e comfositus, L. Compound
powder of cerufe.
Compofed of five ounces of cerufe, half an ounce of
farcocol, and half an ounce of gum tragacanth, pow¬
dered together.
Intended as an external difeutient, but inferior for
that purpofe to the folutions of the falls of lead.
b. Unguentum oxidi Plumbi albi, E. UNGUEN-
l^JM ALBUM. Ointment of white oxide of lead.
White ointment.
Compofed of five parts of fimple ointment, and one
of white oxide of lead.
A cooling deficcative ointment, forming a ufeful
application in cafes of excoriation.
c. Superacetas Plumbi. ACETIS PLUMBI, E.
CERUSSA AC EX AT A, L. D. SACCHARUM
Hiflory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines-
. 95®
Ointment of
acetite of
lead.
ME DIG A, Ac. 789
SATURNI. Superacetate of lead. Aceiated cerufe.
Sugar oj lead. See Chemistry, N° 1858.
Chiefly employed in folution as an external refriger¬
ant or aftringent, by way of lotion, collyrium, or injec¬
tion. Its external ufe being highly dangerous, ought
to be entirely abandoned.
d. Unguentum acetitis Plumbi, E. UNGU-EN-
TUM CERUSSyE ACETAT/E, L. D. UN¬
GUENTUM SATURNINUM. Ointment of ace¬
tite of lead. Ointment of acetated cerufe. Saturnine
ointment,
Cempofed of one part of the foregoing, and 20 parts
of fimple ointment (E.) or two drams of the foregoing,
two ounces of white wax, and half a pint or half a pound
of olive oil (L. D.).
A ufeful refrigerant ointment. ^
283. Oxidum Plumbi rubrum, E. MINIUM, L.Red ox!de
Red oxide of lead. Red lead. See Chemistry, N° of ea‘*
1832.
This is now fcarcely employed in medicine.
95*
284. Oxidum Plumbi semivitreum, E. LI-Semivitrifi-
TH ARGYRUS, L. D. Sennvitrified oxide of lead. fd ®x*dc
Litharge. See CHEMISTRY, N° 1834.
lead.
Officinal Preparations.
T. , SS3
Prepared Prepared
litharge.
a. Lithargyrus prteparatus, E. D.
litharge.
Reduced to an impalpable powder by levigation, &c.
in the ufual manner.
954
b. Aqua Lithargyri acetati, L, LIQUOR Water of
LITHARGYR1 ACETATI, D. EXTRACTUM ^rated
SATURNI. Water of acetated litharge. ExtraBof11 ar£C*
lead.
Prepared by mixing two pounds four ounces of li¬
tharge with a gallon of diftilled vinegar, boiling to fix
pints with conflant agitation, then fetting it afide till
the feces have fubfided, and then ftraining.
c. Liquor Lithargyri acetati compositus, D.
AQUA LiTHARGYRi ACETATI COMPOSI-
TA, L. Compound water of acetated lithargei
Prepared by mixing a dram of the foregoing with a
dram ot proof fpirit, and adding 14 ounces or a pint of
diftilled water.
This is intended as a refrigerant application, and is
attended with effefts fimilar to thole of the fuperacetate
of lead, from which it however differs in its chemical
nature.
d. Ceratum Lithargyri acetati compositum,
L. CERATUM LITHARGYRI ACETATI, D.
Compound cerate of acetated litharge.
Prepared by rubbing half a dram of camphor with a
little olive oil, and in the mean time adding gradually
two ounces and a half of acetated litharge to a melted
mixture of four ounces of yellow wax, and nine ounces
of olive oil, flirring it till cold ; and laftly adding the
camphorated oil. Formerly much employed as a re¬
frigerant application, but differing in little, except in
confiftence,
955
Compound
water of
acetated
litharge.
95<S
Compound
cerate of
acetated
litharge.
790
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
957 „
Plafter of
femivitrifi-
ed oxide of
lead.
958
Iron.
959
Purified
filings of
iron.
p6o
Purified
black oxide
of iron.
Carbonate
of iron.
Water of
B'er .ted
963
Wine of
iron.
MATERIA
conMence, from the other combinations of lead with
fatty matters,
e. Emplastrum oxidi Plumbi semivitrei. E.
EMPLASTRUM LITHARGYRI, L. D. EM-
PL ASTRUM COMMUNE. Plalfer of femivitrified
oxide of lead. Litharge f>!after. Common plafter. Dia-
culum plafter.
Prepared by boiling together over a flow fire, one
part of femivitrified oxide of lead in powder, and about
two parts of olive oil, adding a little hot water from
time to time, and conftantly agitating till the litharge
and oil are uniformly mixed
This plafter has been long employed to cover exco¬
riated furfaces, and to form plafters for fupporting the
teguments in the neighbourhood of Hires and ulcers.
For the ill effefts of lead as a poifon, fee Fothergill’s
“ Cautions concerning Poifons of Lead and Copper.”
285. FERRUM, E. L. D. Iron. See Chemi¬
stry, p. 664.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Ferri LimaturjE purificatje, E. Purified
filings of iron.
Filings of iron are purified by placing a fieve over
them, and attracting the purer partieles through the
fieve by means of a good magnet.
Sometime* employed internally as a tonic and anthel¬
mintic, but their ufe is attended with an unpleafant ex¬
trication of hydrogenous gas.
h. Ferri oxidum nigrum puriftcatum, EL
FERRI SQUAMLE PURIFICAR7E. Purified
black oxide of iron. Purified fca/es of iron.
This is a preparation of the feales of iron that col¬
led about a fmith’s anvil, by the magnet.
A better medicine than the former, as it is not at¬
tended with the extrication of hydrogen gas. Dofe
from five grains to a fcruple.
c. Carbonas Ferri, E. FERRI RUBIGO, L.
D. Carbonate of iron. Puft of iron. See Chemistry,
N° 1886, and 1929.
A good tonic, ufeful in general debility, and in ute¬
rine obftrudions dependent on debility. Dofe about a
fcruple, feveral times a day.
d. Aqua Ferri aerati, D. Water of aerated
iron.
This is an artificial chalybeate water, prepared in the
fame manner as N° 875. with the addition of a coil
of fine iron wire fufpended in the water.
An excellent tonic, forming a good fubflitute for the
natural chalybeate waters. Dofe a glafs or two, twice
or thrice a day.
e. Vinum Ferri, L. VINUM FERRATUM,
D. Wine of iron. Chah/heate wine.
Prepared by difirefling four ounces of iron filings in
four pints of Spanifh white wine, for a month, with fre¬
quent agitation, and then {training the liquor.
A tonic formerly much ufed in chlorotic cafes, Dofe
from a dram to half an ounce.
MEDICA, &c. Part IV.
f. Sulphas Ferri, E. FERRUM VITRIOL A- Hiftoryof
TUlM, L. D. SAL MARIIS. Sulphate of ironA'ml-'le antl
Vitnolated iron. Salt of fleel. See Chemistry, N°
1903. Medicines.
A good tonic, but apt to difagree with the flomaeh onIA’4t -
and bowels. Dofe from half a grain to one grain feve-no,!. 60
ral times a day.
g. TlNCTURA MURIATIS FeR&I, E. TINCTURA rmdfure «f
FERRI MURIATI, L. D. Tindlure of muriate ofrnunate «f
iron. - iron*
The Edinburgh tindlure is prepared by digefling
three ounces of purified black oxide of iron in powder,
and ten ounces of muriatic acid, with a gentle heat j
then adding, after the powder i* diffolved, as much al¬
cohol as will make the whole liquor amount to two
pounds and a half. The preparations of the other col¬
leges do not materially diiier from this. Dofe from 10
to 20 drops, twice or thrice a day.
h. Ferrum TARTARISATUM, L. Tartarized iron. Turfarizei
Prepared by mixing one pound of iron filings, andiron'
two pounds of powdered cryffals of tartar, into a thick
mafs with diftilled water, expofing them to tire air for
eight days in a wide glafs vefiel, and then drying the
matter in a land bath, and grinding to a very fine
powder. See Chemistry, p. 671. Dofe from 10 to
30 grains.
286. Sulphas Ferri natives. Native fulphate of Native fif.
iron. Green vitriol. Green copperas.
phate of
iron.
Officinal Preparations.
968
a. Sulphas Ferri exsiccatus, E. Dried fulphate Dried ful-
of iron. phate of
Prepared by expofing any quantity of fulphate ofir°n’
iron to the action of a moderate heat, in an un¬
glazed earthen veffel, till it becomes white and perfeci-
ly dry.
969
h. Oxidum Ferri rubrum, E. Red oxide of iron.Red oxide
Colcothar of vitriol. of iron.
Prepared by expofing the foregoing preparation to
an intenfe heat till it is converted into a very red
matter.
970
c. Emplastrum oxidi Ferri rubri, E. EM-Plafter of
PLASTRUM ROBORANS. Plailer of red oxide r^d oxic^e
of iron. Strengthening plafter. 0*1I0n*
Prepared by grinding eight parts of red oxide of
iron with three of olive oil; and then adding them
to a melted mixture of 24 parts of plafter of femivitri¬
fied oxide of lead, fix parts of white rofin, and three of
yellow wax.
Ufed as an extern>il application, fpread on linen or
leather, in w'eakneffes of the back and loins.
971
d. Murias Ammonite et Ferri, E. FERRUM Muriate ef
AMMONIAC ALE, L. Muriate of ammonia and iron.amri)0nia
. .... . . and iron.
Prepared by mixing equal weights of red oxide of
iron, wathed and dried, and muriate of ammonia, and
fubliming, E. Dofe from three to ten grains.
97*
e. Tinctura Ferri ammoniacalis, L. Tin&ure rinAure of
of ammoniacal iron. ammomacal
Preparedirt>n*
Part IV. MATERIA
Hi'lory of Prepared by digefUng four ounces of die preceding,
e-;!riiCi a pint of proof fpirit, and ft raining.
Medicines oied m iimuar cafes with the tincture of muriate of
u—v—^ iron, which is, however, to be preferred to it.
973
Tmcdure of f Tinctura Ferri ACETATI, D. Tinffure of
acetated iron.
acetated
iron.
974
Copper.
975
Subacetate
•f copper.
976
Prepared
Verdigris.
Prepared by rubbing together in a glafs mortar, ace¬
tated vegetable alkali, and vitriolated iron, of each
an ounce, till the rival's deliquefces, and then adding
during the trituration two pounds of alcohol, and drain¬
ing the fo,ution.
A powerful aftringent and tonic. Dofe 20 or 30
drops.
ihe preparations of iron, given in a moderate dofe,
gradually raile the pulfe, improve the colour of the
face, and increale the alvine, urinary, and cuticular
excretions. Their taking proper eftccf is denoted by
fetid eructations and black llools.
Thefe tonics are indicated chiefly in cafes of pre¬
ternatural difeharges, or fuppreffion of natural Accre¬
tions or excretions, proceeding from a languor and
fluggifhnefs of the fluids, and general weaknefs of the fo-
lids. they are therefore uVeful in paflfive haemorrhages,
in dyfpepfia, kyfteria, and chlorolis ; in molt of the
cachexite, and in cancerous affections, and in the general
debility that often remains after acute difeafes orexcef-
five haemorrhages.
The preparations of iron, when given too largely,
or improperly, produce headaeh, anxiety, heat of fkin,
and not unfrequently haemorrhages or vomiting, pains
in the ftomach, and fpafms and pains in the bowels.
They are improper wherever the circulation is already
too quick, the folids too tenfe and rigid ; and where
there is any ftrifture and fpafmodic contractions of the
veffels.
287. Cuprum, E. L. D. Copper. See Chemistry,
p. 674.
Subacetas Cupri. SUBACE1TS CUPRI,»E.
,/ERUGO. Subacetate of copper. Verdigris. See
Chemistry, N° 1995.
Employed chiefly as an efeharotic, to deftroy cal¬
lous edges or fungous flelh, or as a ftimulant to foul
ulcers.
Officinal 'Preparations.
a. aErugo frjeparata, L.* D. Prepared verdi-
gns.
„ 977
Oxymel of
Verdigris.
ter.
Prepared like other fubftances not foluble in wa-
b. Oxymel TEruginis, L. Oxymel of verdigris.
Prepared by diffblving one ounce of prepared verdi¬
gris in feven ounces of vinegar, draining through linen,
and boiling with 14 ounces of clarified honey to a
proper confiftence.
Sometimes ufed as a detergent gargle to venereal ul¬
cerations of the mouth and tonfils, but with much pre¬
caution. More generally employed, mixed with fome
ftimulant ointment, as an external ftimulant and efeha¬
rotic.
791
Hi (lory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
978
Ointment
of fubace-
tite of cop¬
per.
979
Water of
ammonia-
ted copper.
980
Sulphate of
copper.
MEDICA, &c.
c. Unguentum subacetitis Cotri^E. Ointment
of fubacetiie of copper.
Prepared by mixing 15 parts of refinous ointment,
and one part of fubacetite of copper.
d. Liquor Cupri ammoniati, D. AQUA CU-
PUI AMMONIATI, L. AOUA S APPHARINA.
Water of ammoniated copper. Sapphire water.
Prepared by the Dublin college, by mixing four
grains of prepared verdigris, and two fcruples of fal
ammoniac, with eight ounces of frtlh made lime wa-
ter, digeftiirg lor 24 hours, and pouring off the clear
liquor.
Ufed as a ftimulant and detergent lotion.
288. Sulphas Cupri, E. CUPRUM VITRIO-
LAi UM, D. VI I RIORUM CCERULEUM. Sul¬
phate of copper. V it no la ted copper. Blue or Roman
vitriol. BiueJone. See Chemistry, N° 1972.
Sometimes given internally as an emetic, in the dofe
or from two to five grains, and as a tonic, a grain or
two, feveral times a-day ; but its internal ufe is danger¬
ous. More frequently employed as an efeharotic.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Solutio Sulphates Cupri composita, E. A-Confpound
QUA STYPTIC A. Compound i'olution of fu]phatefolution of
oi copper. Styptic water. iulphate of
copper.
Prepared by boiling three ounces of fulphate of cop¬
per, and the fame of tulphate of alumina, in two pounds
ol water, till they are diffolved ; than adding one ounce
and a half of diluted fulphuric acid to the liquor previ-
oufly filtered.
Employed chiefly as a ftyptiefor flopping fuperficial
haemorrhages, or bleedings at the nofe.
. 982
b. Ammoniaretum Cupri, E. CUPRUM AM-Ammoffia-
MONIAI UM, D. Ammomaret of copper. Ammo- ret C0P"
mated copper. lJer*
Prepared by the Edinburgh college, by rubbing two
parts of the pureft fulphate of copper with three parts of
carbonate of ammonia carefully together, in a glafs mor¬
tar, till the effervefccnce has entirely ctaled, and they
unite into a violet-coloured mais, which is to be wrapt
up in blotting pape r, and dried, firft upon a chalk ftone,
and afterwards by a gentle heat, and put into a phial
that is to be clofely Hopped.
* Employed as a tonic and antifpafmodic, chiefly in
cahs oi epilepfy. Dole about half a grain or a grain,
gradually increafed to four or five grains, three or four
times a-day.
c. Pilulje ammoniareti Cupri, E. Pills of am-Piiis (>f 3M_.
moniaret of copper. moniaretof;
Compofed of 16 grains of ammoniaret ef copper in ^
fine powder, and four fcruples of crumb of bread, beat¬
en into a mafswith a iufficient quantity of water or car¬
bonate of ammonia, and immediately divided into 32.
equal pills.
One or two of thefe pills is a moderate dofe.
For an account of the ill effefts ariling from copper
as.
792
Hiftory of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
984
Silver.
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
Part TV.
as a poifon, and the means of detecting and obviating
them, fee Fothergill’s Cautions concerning the Poifons
of Lead and Copper, and Duncan’s Difpenfatory.
289. Argentum, E. L. D. Silver. See Che¬
mistry, p. 681.
985
Nitrate of
filver.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Nitras Argenti, E. ARGENTUM NI-
TRATUM, L. D. CAUSTICUM LUNARE.
Nitrate of lilver. NitratedJifacr. Lunar caujlic.
Prepared by diflblving in a phial, with a gentle heat,
four ounces of the pureft iilver flattened into plates, and
cut into pieces, in eight ounces of diluted nitrous acid,
mixed with four ounces of diftilled water, and evapo¬
rating to a dry mafs, which is to be put into a large
crucible, and placed on a gentle fire, increafed gradu¬
ally till the mafs flows like oil ; then pouring it into
iron pipes previoufly heated and anointed with tallow,
and when cool, putting it into a glafs veffel to be well
flopped.
Employed chiefly as an efcharotic, to deftroy the
callous edges of ulcers, warts, and other excrefcences ;
but lately much recommended, and employed with
fome fuccefs, as a tonic in cafes of epilepfy. It fhould
be begun in very fmall dofes, about one-eighth or one-
fourth of a grain, diffolved in diftilled water, or made
into a pill with crumbs of bread, gradually increafing
.the dofe to a grain or more, twice or three times a-day.
way of philofophical experiment,
fearches on Nitrous Oxide.
292. Gas Hydrogeneum.
mable air. See Chemistry,
See Davy’s Re- Hiftoiyof
Simple ami
Officinal
Hydrogen gas. Injlam- Medicines.
N° 373> etfe(l' psT^
Hydrogen gas diluted with about ten times its quan-H-v'irogen
tity of atmofpheric air, has been recommended in afth- ^aS’
matic complaints ; but its fuccefs has not equalled the
expeftations of phyficians.
989
293. Gas PlYDROGENEUM CARBONATUM. Carbo-Carbonaterf
nated hydrogen gas. See Chemistry, N°4i2. hydrogen
gas.
This gas, which is fo deleterious when refpired in
its pure ftate, has been ftrongly recommended when
diluted with about 20 parts of atmofpheric air, as a re¬
medy in phthifis, in fome cafes of which it has evi¬
dently been of fervice, relieving the fymptoms, and at
leaf! arrefting the progrefs of the difeafe. It fhould,
however, be employed with great caution, and at firft
largely diluted.
990
294. Gas acidum carbonicum. Carbonic acid Carbonic
gas. Fixed air. See Chemistry, N° 595. acid Sa3’
Befides the folution of this gas in water (fee N°
875.), ufed internally as a tonic and refrigerant, the
gas itfelf, as evolved from fermenting fubftances, is a
good ftimulant or antifeptic application to foul ulcers
and cancerous fores. The modification of this fub-
flance, which is contained in yeaft or barm, has been
much employed of late in typhus, but we believe with
no material benefit.
Chap. IV. Gafeous Sub/lances.
986
©xygenous 290. Gas Oxygenum. Oxygenous gas. Vital
gas. air.
On the nature and properties of this gas, fee Chemi¬
stry, N° 341.
When air, with an increafed proportion of oxygen,
Is refpired, it afts as a powerful ftimulus, increafing
the circulation and animal heat, raifing the fpirits, and
producing a temporary increafe of vigour and activity,
followed, however, in a fhort time, by correfponding
languor and wearinefs. From its ftimulant effefls, the
refpiration of fuperoxygenated air has been much re¬
commended in various cafes of debility, as chlorofis,
epilepfy, afthmatic and dropfical affeftions j but it
feems now falling into difufe, from a conviftion that
practitioners were too fanguine in their expectations.
See Alyon Effiai fur les Proprietes Medicinales de
POxijgene, 8vo. Ward DiJJ'ert. Inaug. de Medicina Pneu-
matica, Edin. 1800. Hodges’s Diffirt. Inaug. de Oxy-
genio, Edin. 1801 $ and the Practical Synoplis.
Gaieous 291. Gas Azoti oxidum. OXIDUM NITRO-
®xide of SUM. Gafeous oxide of azote. Nitrous oxide. See
azote. Chemistry, p. 493, 494. where the nature and effeCts
of this gas are detailed at fufticient length.
As the refpiration of this gas is not followed by the
depreflion and debility confequent on the application of
moft other ftimuli, it promifes fair to become a ufeful
remedy in fome cafes of debility and atony of the vital
powers j but it is not yet much employed except by
295. Caloricum. Caloric. Heat. See Chemi-Caloric.
STRY, Chap. iii.
It would be in vain for us here to attempt any ac¬
count of the effeCts of heat on the human body, and
thefe have been amply detailed, both by chemical and
phyfiological writers. It aCIs as a powerful ftimulus,
and as fuch is often employed, efpecially in the form of
warm and vapour baths, in various cafes of debility and
atony of the fyftem. The effeCl and ufes of the warm
and vapour baths have been already mentioned under
Water, as have the effeCts and ufes of the cold bath.
99*
290. Lumen. Light. See Chemistry, Chap. ii. Light.
Befides its effeCt on the eye, in producing vifion, light
evidently ads as a general and powerful ftimulus, raif¬
ing the fpirits, and increafing the vigour and aCHvity
of the body. See Ruth’s LeCtures on Animal Life.
297. Eeectrtcitas. EleClricity. Electricity
Common eleClricity aCts as a powerful ftimulus on
the fyftem, in proportion to the degree of concentra¬
tion in which it is applied. When applied under the
form of a ftream, or continued difeharge of electric
fluid, its effects are the moft gentle 5 but in gene¬
ral, when applied in the form of fparks, it is more
aftive, but its effefts are more confined j and when ap¬
plied by way of a {hock, it a£ts very powerfully, pro¬
ducing an agitation of the mufcles of the part through
W'hich the (hock is difeharged 5 and if the (hock is
violent, the whole body partakes of the agitation. E-
leftricity
Part IV. MATERIA MEDICA, See.
Hiftory of leftricity has been found of fervice, chiefly in cafes of
SOffinna"d Para^y^s» an^ °f uterine obftruftion dependent on debi-
Medicines. .
w—v—- For the mode or applying electricity to the body,
under its various dates, we muft refer to Cavallo’s Me¬
dical Ele&ricity, and Cuthbertfon’s Praflical Ele6tri-
city and Galvanifm.
ADDENDUM.
The following was omitted among the preparations of
iron.
793
Hi°ory of
SiiTive avid
Officinal
Medicines.
994
'Galvanifui.
298. Galvanismus. Galvanifm.
This modification of eleftricity is found to have pro¬
duced {till greater effe&s on the human body, when ap¬
plied under particular circumftances, into which we
have not now room to enter. Much has of late been
written on the efficacy of this powerful agent in the
cure of various difeafes, but like moft other new reme¬
dies, its powers have been greatly overrated. It ap¬
pears to have been moft fuccefsful in cafes of local
paralyfis, or nervous atony. In particular, it has
in feveral inftances relieved deafnefs, efpecially that
fpecies which feems to arife from torpor of the auditory
nerve.
For the effefts of galvanifm on the body, and its ap¬
plication in medicine, fee Wilkinfon’s Elements of
Galvanifm, vol. ii. p. 441.; Cuthbertfon’s Electricity
and Galvanifm j the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical
Journal, Sec.
g. Carbonas Ferri
tated carbonate of iron.
PR7ECIP1TATUS, £.
. . 995
Precipi- Precipitat¬
ed carbo¬
nate of
Prepared by decompofing a folution of fulphate of iron-
iron by a folution of carbonate of foda j waftiing and
drying the precipitate.
Similar in its virtues to 961. Dofe five to 30 grain?.
The fpace allotted to this article was fo fmall, and
the time for preparing it lb ffiort, that it is, of necef-
fity, much lefs full and complete than it might other-
wife have been. As it was impoffible, under fuch cir¬
cumftances, to produce any thing like an original and
complete treatife, the compiler has endeavoured to
render as ufeful as poffible the feleftion that he found
it neceflary to make, and to fupply the unavoidable de¬
ficiencies by a reference to the moft refpesftable work^
on the fubjedt.
INDEX.
Acetate of potafli, N®3ii
of mercury, 906
Acidy acetous, impure, ' 3°5
diftilled, 306
ftrong, 307
camphorated, 309
acetic, 307
benzoic, 570
fuccinic, 829
fulphuric, 835
aromatic, 837
vitriolic, 83 5
nitrous, j — 847
nitric, 848
muriatic,| 853
marine, ib.
arfenious, 888
Aconitum neomontanum, 628
JEfculus hippocaftanum, 504
AJfufion of warm water, 817
cold water, 819
Alcohol, common, 294
pure, . 295
ammoniated, 237
aromatic, 243
fetid, 246
Alkali, volatile, mild, 238
vegetable, fixed, 312
mineral, fixed, 840
Allium fativum, 473
cepa, .475
Vox.. XII. Part II.
Aloes,
Althcea officinalis,
Alum,
Amber,
Ammonia prepared,
Ammoniacum,
Ammoniaret ef copper,
Amomum, zingiber,
cardamomum,
repens,
zedoaria,
Amygdalus communis,
Amyris elemifera,
gileadenfis,
Anethum graveolens,
fceniculum,
Angelica archangelica,
Angujlura,
Antacids,
Anthelmintics, '
Anthemis nobilig,
pyrethrum,
Antimony,
vitrified,
tartarized,
calcined,
diaphoretic,
Antifpafmodics,
Apium petroielinum,
Apple, bitter,
Apples, efculent, lift of,
N®476 Aquafortis,
672 Arbutus uva urfi,
881 Ariflolochia ferpentaria,
828 Arnica montana,
238 Arfenic, white,
324 Artemifia abrotanum,
982 * maritima,
336 fantonica,
340 vulgaris,
ib. Artichoke,
339 Arum maculatum,
587 Afarabacca,
505 Afarum europaeum,
506 Afafcetida,
456 Afds milk, charafter of,
458 AJlragalus tragacantha,
430 AJlnngents,
331 Atropa belladonna,
191 Avens,
185 E.
718 Balm,
721 of Gilead,
889 Balfam of Peru,
892 of Tolu,
899 of Copaiva,
902 of Canada,
ib. Barberry,
179 Barilla,
461 Bark, Peruvian or Jefuit’s,
762 Barytes,
90 Bath, hot,
5 H
N
0 847
565
723
7H
888
707
709
710
712
708
725
57<>
ib.
440
58
683
170
399
609
656
307
536
538
57i
743
472
840
401
861
815
Bath,
794-
liath, warm, N® 816
cold, ib.
Bay, 526
319
Benzoin or benjamin, 568
Berberis vulgaris, 472
Berries, efeulent, lift of, 88
great, 510
Bitterfweety 398
Borax, 855
Broom, 680
Bryonia alba, 764
Bubon galbanum, 446
Buckthorn, 411
Butter-vajXk, nature of, 81
C.
Cabbage tree bark, 688
Calamine, 940
Calamus aromaticus, 499
Calomel, 908
Caloric, 991
6W/« of mercury, white, 910
Camphor, 520
Canella alba, 578
Canfharides, 267
Capficum annuum, 397
Carbonate of ammonia, 238
of potafti, 313
of foda, 841
impure, 840
of baryta, 862
of lime, 868
prepared, 871
of magnefia, 878
of zinc, impure, 940
. prepared, 941
of iron, 961
precipitated, 993
Cardamine pratenfis, 664
Cardamom feeds, leffer, 340
Cardinal flower, blue, 407
Carum carui, 432
Ca fear ilia, 7 ^7
CaJJia bark, 318
fiftula, 341
fenna, 344
Caflor, 247
'Cataplafm, 231
of cummin, 438
muftard, 667
aluro^ 886
1 Catechu, 786
Centaurea benedi&a,
Centaury^ leffer,
CephaeHs ipecacuanha,
Cerate of fpermaceti,
white or fimple,
of cantharides,
refinous,
foap.
722
395
408
263
ib.
269
7 ?3
859
of impure carbonate of zinc, 942
of calamine, ib.
epulotic b. ' wn, or Turner’s, ih.
compound of acetated litharge, 956
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
CeruJJe, N° 946
Chalk, 869
Chamomile Rowers, 718
Charcoal, 292
Chemical remedies, 188
Chefnut, horfe, 304
Chironea centaureum, 393
Cinchona officinalis, 401
caribaea, 406
Cinnamon, 311
Ciflus creticus, 623
Citrus aurantium, 691
medica, 696
Clove July flower, 572
Cloves, 379
Cochineal, 273
Coch/earia officinalis, 660
armoracia, 662
Cotchicum autumnale, 300
Co/orynth, 762
Colts foot, 717
Colombo root, 332
Condiments, nature of, 103
ConfeBion, aromatic, 517
opiate, 618
japonic, 619
Confe&ions, general remarks on, 224
Conium maculatum, 434
Conferves, general remarks on, 223
Conferve of fquill, 494
wood forrel, 373
of floes,_ 392
of rofes, 399
of hips, 604
of orange peel, 693
of fea w’ormwood, 71.0
of arum, 726
Contrayerva, 373
Convolvulus fcammonia, 380
jalapa, 383
Cookery, general remarks on, no
Cvpaifera officinalis, 371
Copoer, vitriolated, 980
Conundrum fativum, 451
Coivhage, or cowitch, 682
Crefjes, water, 668
C’Qcus fativus, 3^7
of antimony, 891
Croton eleutheria, 7157
Cubebs, 332
Cucumber, wild, 760
Cucumis colocynthis, 762
Cullen's materia medica.
5
142
437
335
886
706
arrangement,
Cuminum cyminum,
Curcuma lunga,
Curd, alum,
Cynara fcolymus,
D.
Daphne mezereum, 308
Da-win's arrangement of remedies, 133
T)n>urn ftramonium, 389
DtcoBion of barley, 371
compound, 372
of cinchona, 402
DecoBion of elm bark, fto 4^
of mezereon,
compound, of guaiacum, rrfi
for clyfters, 6^
of marfhmallow,
of feneka, 677
of cabbage-tree bark, 689
for fomentations,
of chamomile,
of larfaparilla,
compound, 771
of white hellebore, 783
Dianthus caryophyllvis,
Diaphoretics, j
Diet, w riters on jg
of the fick, remarks on, 121
657
D’gilalis purpurea.
211
J52
682
375
679
12
Dijlillation,
Diuretics,
Dohchos pruriens,
Dorfienia contrajerva,
Dragon's blood,
Duncan's New Difpenfatory,
E.
Barth, japan,
E/atenum, yfa
Elder, 463
EleBricity,
EleBuaries, general remarks onj, 223
EleBuary of fcammony, 384
aromatic, 31^
of caffia, 342
of fenna, ^48
opiate, , 618
of catechu^ 619
Elemi, r0r
Elm bark, 430
Elutriation, ^00
Emetics, 143
Emollients, 164
Emuljion of gum ammoniac, 326
of affafoetida, 442
camphorated, 321
almond, 389
arable, 791
Errhines, x58
Eryngtum mantimum, 432
Ef< harotics, 193
Ether, fulphuric, 298
with alcohol, 299
aromatic, 383
vitriolic, 298
Evaporation, in pharmacy, 209
Eucalyptus refmifora, 385
Eugenia caryophyllata, 379
ExpeBorants, J46
ExtraB of valerian, relinous, 356
of jalap, 387
of cinchona, 405
of gentian, 429
of aloes, 484
of fenna, 549
of logw ood, 352
of rue, 361
ExtraB
Index.
ExtraB of epiuros N® 616
of broom, 681
of l:qooriceT 687
of chamomile, 720
of oak bark, 735
of cafcarilia, 759
compound, of colocynth, 763
of favine, 778
ExtraBs and relins, general remarks on, 226
F.
Tennely fweet, 458
Fern root, 798
Filings of iron, purified, 959
Filtration, 20 2
Fifh confidered in general, 76
Flax, purging, 471
Flowers, efculent, lift of, 87
of benzoin, 370
of fulphur, 821
of zinc, 931
Food, confidered in general, 17
proper quantity of, 21
ihould be fufficient to nourifti the
body, 22
manner of taking, 23
derived from quadrupeds, 24
birds, 61
reptiles, 68
ferpents, 69
fifties, 70
in feds, 77
worms, 78
vegetable, confidered generally, 82
Foxglove, 657
Frankmcenfe, 741
Fraxinus ornus, 794
Fungufes, efculent, lift of, 94
G.
Golbanum, 446
Gall nuts, 736
Galvamfm, 994
Gamboge, 781
Garlic, 473
Gas, oxygenous, 986
hydrogen, 988
carbonated, 989
carbonic acid, 990
Gentiana lutea, 425
Geofft cea inermis, 688
Geum urbanum, 609
Ginger, 336
Glycyrrhixa glabra, 686
Gmelin's continuation of Murray, 8
Gorgonia nobilis, ., 288
Grains and feeds, efculent, lift of, 92
Granulation, 199
Granola officinalis, 343
Guaiacum ofaCmdile, ccc
\jum ammoniac, 324
tragacanth, 683
arabic, 789
H.
Flaemotwylon campeachianum, 331
MATERIA MEDICA,
Jiartjhorn,
Hehebore, white,
Helleborus niger,
Helieborus foe da US,
Hem took,
He- bane.
253
782
631
633
434
39°
Hirudo medicinalis, 283
Honey, 276
acetated, 278
of fquill, 496
of roles, 398
Hop, 768
Horehound, white, 652
Ho'fer ailijh, 662
Hamulus lupulus, 768
Hydrofulphuret of ammonia, 241
Hyofcyamus niger, 390
HyJJbp, 634
hedge> j 345
Jalap, 383
Incitantia, catalogue of, J37
Infujion of cinchona, 402
compound, of gentian, 426
of rhubarb, 330
of fenna, limple, 344
tartarized, 343
of tamarinds with fenna, 546
of rofes, 396
of foxglove, 6<;8
of catechu, 787
Invertentia, catalogue of, 140
Ipecacuan, 408
Iris florentina, 360
pfeudacorus, 361
Iron, vitriolated, 964
tartarized, 966
Juglans regia, 737
infpiflated, of henbane, 391
of deadly nightffiade, 400
of hemlock, 433
of aconite, 629
lemon, 699
of wild lettuce, 704
of wild cucumber, 761
Juniperus communis, 772
lycia, 773
fabina, 776
K.
Kcempferia, rotunda, 334
Kermes mineral, 894
Kmo, 383
Kirby's tables, 13
LaEluca virofa, 703
Ladanum, 623
Laudanum, liquid, 620
Zoarw-r, cinnamomum, 311
caffia, 318
camphora, 320
nobilis, 326
faflafras, 3 27
Lfeches, 283
Leguminous plants, lift of, • 91
Lemon, 696
Loop alyl's bane.
Lettuce, wild,
Levitation,
Lewis's materia medica,
Ley, mild,
cauftic,
Lichen iflandicus,
Light,
Lime,
with pure kali,
Liniments, ointments, and cerates,
Liniment of ammonia,
volatile,
fitnple,
camphorated,
foap,
anodyne,
of lime water,
Linum ufitatiffimum,
catharticum,
795
N° 714
703
198
6
3*4
316
799
992
863
318
232
242
242, 244
320
525
857
838
867
469
471
Liquor of mild volatile alkali, 239
acetated volatile alkali, 240
volatile, of hartlhorn, 234
vitriolic, ethereal, 296
oily, ethereal, 302
Hoffman’s anodyne, ib.
ethereal nitrous, 850
Liquorice, 686
Li/harge, .932
Luhontriptics, 192
Liverwort, Iceland, 799
Lobelia fyphilitica, 407
Logwood, 33:1
Lytta veficatoria, 267
M.
Madder, 3 74
Magnejia, 879
vitriolated, 877
calcined, 879
white, 878
Mahogany bark, 333
Malt liquors, charadler of, 99
Manna, 794
Marjhmal/ow, 672
Marrubium vulgare, 632
Majlich, ' ' 767
Materia medica, definition of, 1
writers on, 4
late foreign writers
on, 14
Meafures and weights, 206
leucodendron, 700
Melijfa officinalis, 636
Mentha viridis, 633
piperita, 638
pulegium, 642
Mercury, 904
purified, 905
acetated, 906
muriated, corrofive, 907
mild, 909
calcined, 913
nitrated, red, 916
fub vitriolated, 918
with fulphur, 919
5 H 2 Mexereum
796
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Mt%ereum or rr.ezereon, Nc'5o8
Mimofa catechu, 786
nilctica, 789
Mixture, inufK, 252
camphorated,. 522
chalk, 872
Mixtures and emulfions, 228
Momo<dica elaterium, 760
Monro's medical chemiftry, 9
Mojchus mofchiferus, 250
Mucilage of (larch, 368
of quince feeds, 594
of gum tragacanth, 684
of gum arable, 790
Mucilages, gewexzX remarks on, 227
Muriate of ammonia, 235
andiron, 971
of baryta, 863
of antimony, 896
of mercury, 907
mild, fublimed, 908
precipitated, 909
Murray's (Dr) apparatus medicaminum, 7
(Mr) elements of materia
medica, II
obfer vat ions on the action
of medicines, ls2
arrangement, 13
Mufky 250
Mujlard, white, 665
common, 666
Myrijlica mofehata, 727
Myroxylon peruiferum, 536
Myrrh, 327
Myrtus pimento,. 580
N.
Nicotiana tabacum,
Night/hade, deadly,.
Nitrate of potafh,
of (ilver,
Nitre,
Nuts, efculent, lift of,
Nntnentia, catalogue of.
Nutmeg,
Nux vomica,
G.
Oak bark,
Oil, ufe of, as a condiment,
ammoniated,
of hartlhorn,
animal, or Dippel’s,.
of wine,
olive,
lintfeed,
camphorated,
of almonds,
of mace,
caftor,
fulphurated,
of amber,
of peiroleum,
of vitriol,
volatile, of rofemary.
393
399
844
985
844
93
126
727
396
734
ic8
242
257
258
300
344
470
524
588
728
756
822
83°
834
835
347
Oil, volatile, of carraway,
of fennel,
of anifeed,
of faffafras,
of rue,
of pimento,
of mint,
of peppermint,
of pennyroyal,
of lavender,
of origanum,,
of cajeput,
of turpentine,
purified,
of juniper,
of favine,
Ointment of fpermaceti,
cantharides,
powder,
N(
453
460
4^3
528
560
582
637
640
643
647
654
700
746
747
773
777
262
272
274
273
321
222
467
506
749
752
785
82 c
849
ib.
infulion,
fimple,
wax,
elder,
of elemi,
tar,
refinous,
of white hellebore,
of fulphur,
of nitrous acid,
oxygenated,
of white calx of mercury, 911
of cinereous oxide of mer¬
cury, _ 913
of red oxide of mercury, 91 ^
mercurial, 922
of nitrated mercury, 928
milder, 929
of oxide of zinc, 932
of impure oxide of zinc, 939
tutty, ib.
of white oxide of lead, 948
white, ib.
of acetite of lead, 950
of fubacetite of copper, 978
Olibanum, 775
Opium, 612
Opodeldoc, 857
Opoponax, 455
Orange, Seville, 691
Origanum v dears, 653
majorana, 655
Orris root, florentine, 360
Oxr'lis acetofella, 574
Ox’dation, 217
Oxide of arfenic, 888
of antimony with fulphur, 891
vitrified, 892
with wax, 893
with phofphate of
lime, 898
of mercury, cinereous, 912
red, 916
of zinc, 931
impure, 937
Oxide of lead, white,
red,
femivitrified,
of iron, black, purified,
red,
of azote, gafeous,
Oxymel, fimple,
of (quill,
of colchicum,
of verdigris,
P.
Papaver rhoeas,
fomniferum,
Parjley,
Pajlinaca opoponax,
Pearl ajhes,
Pencca farcocolla.
Pepper, black,
long,
Cayenne,
Jamaica,
PercivaPs propofitions on the
of medicines,
Petroleum,
fulphurated,
Pharmacy, definition of,
Phofphate of lime,.
of foda,
Phofphorus,
Physeter maerocephalus,
Pills, general remarks on,
compound, of afiafoetida,
of galbanum,
aloetic,
of aloes and aflafeetida,
colocynth,
myrrh,
Rufus’s,
fquill,
opiate,
compound antimonial,
Plummer’s,
mercurial,
of ammoniaret of copper,
Pimento,
Pimpinella anifum,
Pink, Carolina,
Paws abies,
balfaraea,
larix,
fyiveftris,
Piper nigrum,
cubeba,
long urn,
Pf acia tertbinthus,
lentifcus,
Plafer of cantharides,
com
fimple,
gum, .
cummin,
of aflafoetida,
compound ladanum,
ipound.
Index.
N° 946
951
952
960
969
987
278
493
502
977
6ro-
612
461
455
312
373
35i
353
397
580-
a£Hon
123—125
833
824
2
253
843
234
261
221
444
449
450
481
482
483
ib.
497
61 c
9°3
ib.
921
983
580
462
378
738
743
744
748
351
352
353
766
767
270
271
323
226
439
445
626
Plafer)
Index,
P/after-, compound, of Burgundy
pitch, _ N° 740
of franluncenfe, 742
refinous,
foap,
mercurial,
of gum ammoniac with mer¬
cury,
litharge with mercury,
7S4
860
925
926
927
of femivitrified oxide of lead, 957
common or diaculum,
of red oxide of iron,
ftrengthening,
PI afters,
Poifon oak,
Po/ij^ala fenega, •
Polygonum biftorta,
Polilpodiurn filix mas,
Pomegranate,
Poppy, red,
white,
Potajh,
with lime^
Potion, chalk,
Pot-herbs, lilt of,
Powder, compound,
of crabs claws,
of myrrh,
of contrayerva,
of fcammony,
compound, of fcammony with
ib.
920
ib.
234
468
676
5IQ
798
584
610
612
31?
3i8
872
86
284
329
376
381
aloes, 382
of fcammony with calomel, 383
compound, of jalap, 386
of ipecacuan and opium, 409
Dover’s, ib.
of aloes with canella, 477
aloetic with guaiacum,. 478
iron, 479
aromatic,
compound, of fenna, 550
compound, of afarabacca, 577
opiate, 614
compound, of gum traga-
canth, 685
of carbonate of
lime, 874
of chalk, ib.
of fulphate of a-
lumina, 885
ftyptic, ib.
of algaroth, 897
antimonial, or James’s, 898
of tin, 944
compound, of cerufe, 947
Powders, general remarks on, 220
Precipitate, white, 910
red, 9^
Prunus domeftica, 59°
fpinofa, 591
Pterocarpus fantalinus, 678
dr >co, 679
Punica eranatum, 584
Pyrus cydonia, 593
a ^ £•
563
MATERIA MEDICA, &c,
^uajfta fimaruba, Isj0 362
^jiC'ctis cerris, 736
^utcifji/ver, 904
with chalk, 914
Quince feeds, 593
R.
Rafpberry, 650
Refrigerants^ 167
Remedies, action of, confidered, 12'2—126
Revertentia, catalogue of,
Rhamnus catharticus,.
Rhubarb,
Rhododendron chryfanthum,
Rhus toxicodendron,
Rwinus communis,
Roots, efculent, catalogue of,
Rofa gallica,
centifolia,
canina,
Rofmarinus officinalis,
Raft of iron,
Ruta graveolens,
I4I
411
529
564
468
755
83
595
600
603
346
961
559
S.
Saffron,
Sagapenum,
Sage,
Sa/ ammoniac,
polychreft,
Sahx fragilis,
Salt, common,
of hartfhorn,
Rochelle,
of tartar,
of benzoin,
of amber,
purified,
petre,
fea or common,
Glauber’s,
Epfom,
of fleel,
Sambucus nigra,
Sarfapari/la,
Snrcocol,
Saffafras,
Savine,
Scammony,
Scilla maritima,
Scurvy-grafts, garden,
Secernentia, catalogue of,
Seneka root,
Senna,
Shoots and {talks, efculent, lift of,
Sialagogues,
S’her, nitrated,
Stmarouba,
Simples, collection and prefervation
of,
Sin a p’s alba,
nigra,
S’fymbriiim nafturtium,
Su/m nodiflornm,
SkT’-et, creeping,
Sloes,
357
33°
349
233
839
765
104
2 c6
417
418
57°
829
831
844
851
854
877
964
465
769
373
527
776
380
489
66d
238
676
543
84
161
9*5
562
194
665
656
667
436
ib.
sr-
797
Smil^x farfaparilla, N° 769
Snake oot, Virginian, 723
Soap, Call dt-, 856
Solarium dulcamara, 398
Solution oi volatile alkali, cauftic, 236
of mildett vegetaole alkali, 239
of muriate of baryta, 315
of lime, 876
of fulphate of zinc, 934
of at elite of zinc, 936
compound, of iulphate of cop¬
per, 981
Sorbentia, catalogue of, 139
Southernwood, 7°7
Spartium fcoparium, 680
Spermaceti, 261
Spices, ufes of, 107
Spigeha marilandica, 378
Spirit, ardent, ufes of, 102
1 of fal ammoniac, ftrong, 236
of volatile alkali, 237
of ammonia, ib.
fuccinated, 245
Mindererus’s, 240
of ammonia, compound, 243
of hartfhorn, 254
of wine, redtified, 294
of vitriolic ether, 297
compound, 301
proof, 304
of rofemary, 348
of carraway, 454
compound of anifeed, 464
of cinnamon, 513
camphorated, 523
of pimento, 583
of mint, 637, c.
of peppermint, 641
of pennyroyal, 645
of lavender, 648
compound, 649
compound, of horfe radxfh, 663
of nutmeg, 729
of juniper, 774
of vitriol, 836'
of nitre, fuming, 846
fweet, 85°
of nitrous ether, ib.
of fea fait, 853
Sponge, 290
Squill, 489
St John's wort, 701
Sta/agmitis cambogioides, 781
Stcv/ftacre, 6 2 7
Stimulants, 177
Stone-fruit, efculent, lift of, 89
St ora x, 366
Strychnos nux vomica, 396
Sty rax officinale, 366
benzoin,. 5^8
Subacetate of copper, 975
Subborute of foda, 85 5
Subcarbonate of potafh, 313^
impure, 31 2
pureft, 418
Submunats
793
Submuriate of mercury, N° 908
precipitated, 909
Subfulphate of mercury, yellow, 918
Sugar, ufes of, Ic6, 362
of lead, 949
Sulphate of potafti, 838
with fulphur, 839
■ of foda, 8 54
of baryta, 861
of magnefia, 877
of alumina, dried, 883
of zinc, 933
of iron, 964
dried, 968
of copper, 980
Sulphur, fublimed, 821
precipitated, 827
antimonial brown, 894
Sulphuret of potafti, 826
of antimony, 889
precipitated, 895
of mercury, black, 9x9
red, 920
Superacetate of lead, 949
Superfulphate of alumina and potafh, 881
Supertartrate of potafh, 415
Swietenia mahagoni, ^33
febrifuga, _ 554
Syrmpjis of materia medica, 10
of materia medica, arrange¬
ment of, 133
of acetous acid, 310
£inger» S38
faffrnn, 338
buckthorn, 412
violets, 420
black currants, 424
.garlic, 474
fquill, 492
colchicum, 301
Tolu,. 340
clove July flower, 373
red rofes, 397
damafk rofes, 602
rafpberry, 606
red poppy, 611
opium, 623
white poppy, 624
marflimallow, 664
orange peel, 692
lemon juice, 698
mulberries, 732
manna, 793
Syrups, general remarks on, 229
, T.
Tamnrirvius indica, 669
Tnnacetum vu\ga.iie, 713
Tar, 74S
Tartar, cryflals or cream of, 413
foluble, 416
emetic, 889
Thr/r/sr/e of potafh, 416
and fbda, 41 7
of antimony and potafh, 889
2
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Thefaurus medicaminum, N0 10
TV^/e, blefled, 722
Thorn apple, 389
Tin, 943
Tinclure of caftor, 248
compound, 249
ofmufk, 231
cantharides, 2b8
myrrh, 3 28
columbo, 32a
ginSer> 337
cardamom feeds, 341
compound, 342
valerian, 333
ammoniated, 336
faffron, a co
jalap, 388
henbane, 332
cinchona, 403
compound, 403, d.
ammoniated, 404
of bark, Huxham’s, 403, d.
compound, of gentian, 427
bitter, ib.
of aflafoetida, 443
galbanum, 448
aloes, 483
and myrrh, 486
compound, ib.
etherial, 487
of fquill, 493
cinnamon, 314
compound, 313
aromatic, ib.
camphor, 323
rhubarb, 332
compound, 333
and aloes, 334
and gentian, 533
of balfam of Peru, 337
of Tolu, 339
compound, of fenna, 347
of guaiacum, 337
ammoniated, 3 <f8
compound of benzoin, 369
of kino, 386
opium, 620
camphorated, 621
ammoniated, 622
thebaic, 620
of black hellebore, 632
lavender, compound, 649
foxglove, 639
orange peel, 694
fnakeroot, 724
cafcarilla, 738
compound of favine, 779
of white hellebore, 784
catechu, 788
foap, . 837
and opium, 8^8
of muriate of iron, 963
ammoniacal iron,- 972
act fated iron, 973
Tinflures, general remarks on, 230
Tobacco,
Tolu fera balfamum,
’iO’ ics,
1 o< mentilla ere£f a,
Tot pent ta, catalogue of,
Trituration,
Troches, gem-ral remarks on,
of ftjich,
of liquorice with opium,
gum,
of carbonate of lime,
chalk,
magnefia.
Turmeric root,
J u’pen tine, Venice,
common,
Chio,
Tuity,
Index.
393
538
174
607
142
197
222
369
617
792
873
ib.
880
335
74*
759
766
937
U.
Valeriana officinalis,
Veratrum album,
Verdigris,
Vinegar,
radical,
aromatic,
of fquill,
Viola odorata,
Vitis vinifera,
Vitriol, white,
green,
blue,
U/mus campeftris,
Urtica dioca,
354
782
975
IOC
S°7
308
491
419
4r3
933
967
980
430
733
W.
Wakerobin,
Walnut,
Water,
of ammonia,
pure amm@nia,
carbonate of ammonia,
acetate of ammonia,
prepared kali,
carbonate of potafh,
potafh,
pure kali,
Hungary,
barley,
dill,
fweet fennel,
cinnamon,
caffia,
pimento,
rofe,
mint,
peppermint,
pennyroyal,
orange peel,
lemon peel,
fnow or rain pureft,
varieties of,
medical ufe of,
external ufe of,
diftilled,
725
737
802
236
ib.
239
240
3H
3I5
3x6
ib.
348
37i
457
459
5*2
601
636
639
643
693
697
803
804
8*3
814
820
Water
Index.
Water of fupercarbonate of {bda, N° 842
lime, 866
impregnated with fixed air, 875
compound alum, 884
of vitrielated zinc with cam-
phor, 935
of acetated litharge, 954
compound, 955
of aerated iron, 962
of ammoniated copper. 979
fapphire, ib.
Waters) mineral, 805
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Whortle berry, N° 565
Willow bark, 765
Wine^ ufes of, 100, 413
tobacco, 394
ipecacuan, 409
compound of gentian,’ 428
bitter, ib.
of aloes, 488
rhubarb, 331
of tartrate of antimony, 900
antimonial, 901
of iron, 963
Wintera aromatics,
Wormfed,
Wormwood^ fea,
common,
Z.
Zedoary, round,
long,
ZitiCy
calcined,
vitriolated.
799
N° 630
711
7°9
712
334
339
930
931
933
\
END OF THE TWELFTH VOLUMm
f
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. XII.
Part I.
Plate CCXCVI. to face
CCXCV1I.
CCXCVIII.
CCXCVIII. 2d
CCXCIX.
CCG.
Part II.
page 60
62
264
39^
CCCI—CCCXIV. ~ - 536
CCCXVo - - - 68e